C Programming Book

http://www.cprogram99.blogspot.
com
C
Programming
Notes
By: Prof. Prakash Sonar
prakashsonar7@yahoo.co.in
4/9/2015
http://www.cprogram99.blogspot.com
Prof. Prakash Soanr (IMSCDR, Ahmednagar)
Email: prakashsonar7@yahoo.co.in
Mobile:+91-88-578-69283/ +91-9890476237
Pune University C Programming Theory Question Answer 2007-08 to 2011-14 Date : 10 October 2011
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Prof. Prakash Soanr (IMSCDR, Ahmednagar) Email: prakashsonar7@yahoo.co.in
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Page 2
1. Explain various Data Types in C
Language?
A C language programmer has to tell the
system the type of numbers or characters he
is using in his program. These are data
types. There are many data types in C
language. Data types are used to store
various types of data.
C has a concept of 'Data types' which are
used to define a variable before its use. C
supports various data types such
as character, integer and floating-point types.
All the data types are made up of units of
memory called bytes.
In order of size, starting with the smallest,
the integer types are char, short, int,
longetc. The smaller types take less memory,
the larger types takes more space in
memory,.
C has different data types for different types
of data and they are classified as:
I) Primary Data Type
Data Types
II) Secondary
I) Primary Data Type

_____________________________1.
Integer Data Type:
Integers are whole numbers with a range of
values,generally an integer occupies 2 bytes
memory space and its value range limited to 32768 to +32768. To control the range of
numbers and
storage space, C has three classes of
integer storage namely short int, intand
long int. All three data types
have signed and unsigned forms. Integer
Data Types are denoted by int.
Syntax For Integer Data Typeint<variable
name>;
For Example :
inta;
short intb;
long intnum;
Memory Occupied By Integer :short int (1
Byte),int (2 Bytes),long int (4 Bytes)
____________________________________
Primary Data Types:
a) Long integer: long integer is a data

type that can represent a whole
number whose range is greater than or
equal to that of a standard integer.
The range of long integer is 2147483648 to 2147483647.
Declaration of long int:longintcolor;
OR longcolor;
_______________________________
b) Short Integer:The range of short int
is -32768 to -32767.'shortint' should
assign less than or the same amount
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Page 3
of storage as an 'int' and the 'int'
should be less or the same bytes than
a 'long int'. shortint must be at least
16 bits long.
Declaration of short int
:shortintyellow;
_______________________________
c) Unsigned Integer:unsignedint has a
range of 0 - 65535. "int" can be
negative, but "unsigned int" cannot
be negative. %u Prints an unsigned
integer. The size can range from 2 to
8, or (again) whatever the
implementation provides.
Declaration of unsigned integer
:unsignedintx;ORunsignedchargrey;
___________________________
d) Signed Integer:%d Prints a signed
integer. Range of signed int is -32768
to 32767.
Declaration of signed integer
:signed inty; signed charwhite;
________________________________
2. Floating Point Types:
The float data type is used to store fractional
numbers (real numbers).
Floating point numbers are denoted by the
keywordfloat. The double is same as float
but it takes double space (8 bytes) than
float.
Syntax For Floating Point Types: float
<variable name>;
For Example:
float num1;
double num2;
long double num3;
Memory Occupied by Float:float (4
bytes),double (8 bytes),long double (10bytes)
____________________________________
3. CharacterTypes:
Character type variable can hold a single
character. As there are singed and
unsigned int (either short or long), in the
same way there are signed and unsigned

chars; both occupy
1 byte each, but having different ranges.
Unsigned characters have values between 0
and 255; signed characters have values from
128 to 127. Character is declared by char
Syntax For Character Types:
char<variable name>;
For Example :
char ch='m';
char name='P';
Types built out of primitive data types - linked
list, queue, stack, etc.
____________________________________
What Is Signed and Unsigned Char in C
C allows the character type char to be signed
or unsigned, depending on the platform and
compiler.With an unsigned char, the variable
c takes the value 255, but with a signed char
it becomes -1. If the signed or unsigned
version of char is explicitly required at certain
points in a program, it can be specified using
the declarations signed char or unsigned char.
Declaration of signed and unsigned char:
unsignedchargrey;signedcharwhite;
___________________________________
II) Secondary Data Types
1. Arrays:An array in C language is a

collection ofsimilar data-type, means an
array can hold value of a particular data type
for which it has been declared. Arrays can be
created from any of the C data-types int,
float, and char. So an integer array can only
hold integer values and cannot hold values
other than integer.
Types of Arrays:
One DimensionalArray
Two Dimensional Array
Multi Dimensional Array
Declaration OfArrays :
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Page 4
Syntax : type var_name[size];
____________________________________
2.Structures:We used variable in our C
program to store value but one variable can
store only single piece information (an integer
can hold only one integer value) and to store
similar type of values we had to declare many
variables.
We used array which can hold numbers of
similar data type. But array too have some
limitations, like in our real world application
we deal with set of dissimilar data types and
single array cannot store dissimilar data.
For example: Think about storing book

information or product information, a product
can have different information to store like
Product code (an integer), product name
(a char array), product price (a float) etc.
And to store 20 products information we can
declare integer array for product code, 2D
character array for storing product name and
float array to store product price. This
approach definitely achieves your goals, but
try to consider these things too. What if you
wanted to add more products than 20, what if
you want to add more information on
products like stock, discount, tax etc? It will
become difficult to differentiate these
variables with other variables declared for
calculation etc.
To solve this problem C language has a
unique data type called Structure. C
structure is nothing but collection of
different related data types. If we are
using C structure then we are combining
different related data types in one group so
that we can use and manage those variables
easily. Here related data type means, a
structure holding information about book will
contains variable and array related to book.
Syntax for Structures:

For Example:
structproducts
{
char name[20];
intstock;
float price;
}; _________________________________
Pointers :In C a pointer is a variable that
points to or references a memory location in
which data is stored. By usimg the pointer we
change the content of the memory location.
Pointer Declaration :A pointer is a variable
that contains the memory location of another
variable. The asterisk tells the compiler that
you are creating a pointer variable. Finally we
have to give the name of the variable.
Syntax For Pointers :
Syntax : type * variable name;
For Example :
int*ptr; float *string
________________________________
2. Explain Storage Classes in C?
Define storage classes in c?
Every variable not only has a data type but
also have a storage class. If don't specify any
storage class of a variable in its declaration,
the compiler will assume a storage class
depending on the context in which the
variable is used. Thus, variables have certain
default storage classes. A variable name
identifies some physical location within the
computer where the string of bits
representing the variable value is stored.
There are basically two kinds of locations in a
computer where such a value may be kept
memory and CPU registers. It is the variable's
storage class, which determines in which of
these two locations the value is stored.
A variable storage class tells us
1) Where the variable would be stored.
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2) What will be the initial value of the
variable, if the initial value is not
specifically assigned (i.e, the default
initial value).
3) What is the scope of the variable, i.e.,
in which functions the value of the
variable would be available.
4) What is the life of the variables; i.e.,
how long would the variable exist.
There are four storage classes in C.
a) Automatic storage class
b) Register storage class
c) Static storage class
d) External storage class
a) Automatic storage class:- These

variables comes into existence whenever and
wherever the variable is declared. These
variables are also called as local variables,
because these are available local to a
function. The storage is in the memory and it
has a default value, which is a garbage value.
It is local to the block in which it has been
declared and it life is till the control remains
within the block in which the variable is
defined. The key word used is 'auto'.
b) Register storage class:-The storage of
this type of variables is in the CPU registers.
It has a garbage value initially. The scope of
the variable is it is local to the block in which
the variable is defined. Its life is till the
control remains in the block in which it is
defined. A value stored in a CPU register cal
always be accessed faster than the one which
is stored in memory. Therefore, if a variable
is used at many places in a program it is
better to declare its storage class as register.
A good example of frequently used variables
is loop counters. The key word used is
'register'.
the memory and default initial value is zero.

It is local to the block in which it has been
defined. The value of the variable persists
between different function calls. The value will
not disappear once the function in which it
has been declared becomes inactive. It is
unavailable only when you come out the
program. The key word used is 'static'.
main(){ value(); value (); value();
getch(); }
value()
{
static int a=5;
a=a+2;
printf("\n%d",a);
}
The output of the program is not 7,7,7 but it
is, 7,9,11.
a) Extern storage class:-The variable
has a storage in the memory. Default
initial value is zero. The scope of the
variable is global. It is present as long
as the program execution comes to an
end. The keyword used is 'extern'.
class
1.variable
stored
2.Default
value
3.scope of
the
variable
4.life of the
variables
5.Keyword
c) Static storage class:-The storage is in
Automati
c
memory
garbage
It is local
to the
block in
which it
has been
declared
life is till
the
control
remains
within the
block in
which the
variable is
defined
'auto'.
Register
Static
External
CPU
registers.
garbage
memory
memory
Zero
Zero
is it is
local to
the block
in which
the
variable
is
defined.
Its life is
till the
control
remains
in the
block in
which it
is
defined.
'register
'.
It is
local to
the
block in
which it
has
been
defined
value of
variable
persists
between
different
function
calls
scope of
the variable
is global
static
extern
It is
present as
long as the
program
execution
comes to
an end
3. Explain Operators in C?
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Different types of operators
Present in C are
1. Arithmetic operator
2. Relational Operators
3.Logical Operators
4.Assignment Operators
5.Increments and Decrement
Operators
6.Conditional Operators
7.Bitwise Operators
8. Special Operators
Arithmetic Operators:
Arithmetic operators means do the all
arithmetic operations like as addition,
subtraction, multiplication , division,
modules etc.
All the operators have almost the
same meaning as in other languages.
Both unary and binary operations are
available in C language. Unary
operations operate on a singe
operand, therefore the number 5 when
operated by unary will have the
value 5.
Arithmetic Operators:
Operator
Meaning
+
Addition or Unary Plus
Subtraction or Unary Minus

*
Multiplication
/
Division
%
Modulus Operator
scanf (%d %d, &num1, &num2);

//inputs the operands
sum = num1+num2;
storing in sum.
//addition and
printf(\n Thu sum is = %d, sum);

//display the output
sub = num1-num2;
//subtraction and storing in sub.
printf(\n Thu difference is = %d, sub);
mul = num1*num2;
//multiplication storing in mul.
printf(\n Thu product is = %d, mul);
div = num1/num2;
div.
//division storing in
printf(\n Thu division is = %d, div);

mod = num1%num2;
//modulus and storing in mod.
printf(\n Thu modulus is = %d, mod);
}
Integer Arithmetic
Example:
#include<stdio.h>//include header file
stdio.h
void main() // the start of the program
{
int numb1, num2, sum, sub, mul, div,
mod;
//declaration of variables
When an arithmetic operation is performed on

two whole numbers or integers than such an
operation is called as integer arithmetic.
It always gives an integer as the result.
Let x = 20 and y = 5 be 2 integer numbers.
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Then the integer operation leads to the
following results.
If anyone operand is of real type then the

result will always be real thus 15/10.0 = 1.5
x+y=27
xy=15
2. Relational Operators
x*y=100
x%y=0
x/y=4
In integer division the fractional part is
truncated
Often it is required to compare the

relationship between operands and bring out
a decision and program accordingly. This is
when
The relational operator comes into picture.
Floating point arithmetic
C supports the following relational operators.
When an arithmetic operation is preformed on

two real numbers or fraction numbers such an
operation is called floating point
<
arithmetic.
The floating point results can be truncated
according to the properties requirement.
The remainder operator is not applicable for
floating point arithmeticoperands.
Let x=14.0 and y=4.0
then
x+y=18.0
xy=10.0
x*y=56.0
x/y=3.50
Mixed mode arithmetic
When one of the operand is real and other is

an integer and if the arithmetic operation is
carried out on these 2 operands then it is
called as mixed mode arithmetic.
Operator
Meaning
is less than
<=
isless than or equal to
>
is greater than
>=
is greater than or equal to
==
is equal to
!=
is not equal to
It is required to compare the marks of 2

students, salary of 2 persons, we can
compare them using relational operators.
A simple relational expression contains only
one relational operator and takes the
following form.
Where exp1 and exp2 are expressions, which

may be simple constants, variables or
combination of them. Given below is a list of
Examples of relational expressions and
evaluated values.
6.5 <= 25 TRUE
-65 > 0 FALSE
10 < 7 + 5 TRUE
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Relational expressions are used in decision
making statements of C language such as if,
while and for statements to decide
the course of action of a running program.
3. Logical Operators
C has the following logical operators, they
compare or evaluate logical and relational
expressions.
Operator
&&
||
!
Meanings
Logical AND
Logical OR
Logical NOT
Logical AND (&&) :

This operator is used to evaluate 2 conditions
or expressions with relational operators
simultaneously. If both the expressions to the
left and to the right of the logical operator is
true then the whole compound expression is
true.
Example:
a>b && x==10
The expression to the left is a > b and that on
the right is x == 10 the whole expression is
true only if both expressions are true i.e., if a
is greater than b and x is equal to 10.
Logical OR (||) :
The logical OR is used to combine 2
expressions or the condition evaluates to true
if any one of the 2 expressions is true.
Example :
a<m || a<n
The expression evaluates to true if any one of
them is true or if both of them are true. It
evaluates to true if a is less than either m or

n and when a is less than both m and n.
Logical NOT (!) :
The logical not operator takes single
expression and evaluates to true if the
expression is false and evaluates to false if
the expression is true. In other words it just
reverses the value of the expression.
For example:
! (x >= y) the NOT expression evaluates to
true only if the value of x is neither greater
than or equal to y
4. Assignment Operators
The Assignment Operator evaluates an
expression on the right of the expression and
substitutes it to the value or variable on the
left of the expression.
Example : x = a + b
Here the value of a + b is evaluated and
substituted to the variable x.
In addition, C has a set of shorthand
assignment operators of the form.
Varoper = exp;
Here var is a variable, exp is an expression
and oper is a C binary arithmetic operator.
The operator oper = is known as shorthand
assignment operator
Example :
x + = 1 is same as x = x + 1
The commonly used shorthand assignment
operators are as follows
Shorthand assignment operators
Statement with simple Statement with
assignment operator shorthand operator
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a
a
a
a
a
=
=
=
=
=
a
a
a
a
a
+1
1
* (n+1)
/ (n+1)
%b
a += 1
a -= 1
a *= (n+1)
a /= (n+1)
a %= b
Example for using shorthand assignment

operator
#define N 100
//creates a
variable N with constant value 100
#define A 2
//creates a
variable A with constant value 2
main()
program
//start of the
_______________________________
4. Explain Various File Related
Function
Or
Any Two Input Output Functions
For files
Different File Related Functions as Follows
fputc( ) , fgetc() , getc() , putc() , fputs(
),fgets()
fputc(): this function writes a character to a
specified file at the current file position and
then increment the file position pointer .The
putc() macro acts essentially identically to
fputc(), but is a macro that expands in-line.
It may evaluate stream more than once, so
arguments given to putc() should not be
expressions with potential side effects.
{
int a;
declaration
a = A;
to a
while (a < N)
of a is less than N
{
following
printf(%d \n,a);
current value of a
a *= a;
of a = a * a
//variable a
//assigns value 2
//while value
//evaluate or do the
//print the
//shorthand form
//end of the loop
}
program
//end of the
Output :
2
4
16
Syntax:
intfputc(int c, FILE *fp);
Return: The fputc function returns an

integer representing the character written. If
a write error occurs the error indicator is set
and fputc returns EOF. .
/* program to understand the use of fputc( )
function */
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
FILE *p;
char ch;
if((p==fopen("myfile.txt","w"))==NULL)
{
printf("this file does not exist\n");
exit()
}
else
{
printf("enter the text")
while((ch==getchar())!=EOF)
fputc(ch,p);
}
fclose(p);
}
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fgetc() Function : fgetc() is a character
oriented function.this function reads the
single character from a given file and
increment the file pointer position. On success
it return the character after converting it. it to
an int without sign extension. on error it
return EOF .
Syntax: intfgetc(FILE *stream );
Return: If successful, it return the next
requested object from the stream. Character
values are returned as
anunsigned char converted to an int. If the

stream is at end-of-file or a read error occurs,
then it returnEOF.
variable c to the file associated with the

pointer fp1.
Syntax: intputc (intch, FILE *file)
ex ..
Syntax:
putc(c,fp1);
intgetc (FILE *file) .
The getc() function takes the file pointer as

its argument, reads in the next character
from the file and returns that character as a
integer or EOF when it reaches the end of the
file. The integer returned can easily type cast
into a character variable for your use.Thegetc
function acts essentially identically to fgetc,
but is a macro that expands in-line.
/* program to understand the use of fgetc( )

function */.
/ Program to Read/Write using getc( ) and

putc( ) */
#include <stdio.h>
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
file *fp1;
char c;
fp1=fopen("myfile.txt","w")
while((c=getchar())!=EOF)
{
putc(c,fp1);
}
fclose(fp1);
fp1=fopen("myfile.txt","r")
while((c=getc(fp1))!=EOF)
{
printf("%c",c)
}
fclose(fp1);
}
void main()
{
int c; /* Character read from the file.
*/
FILE *ptr;/* Pointer to the file. FILE is a
structure defined in <stdio.h>*/
ptr = fopen("Ritu.txt","r");
/* Read one character at a time, checking
for the End of File. EOF is defined in
<stdio.h> as -1 */
while ((c = fgetc(ptr)) != EOF)
{
printf("%c",c);
/* O/P the character to the
screen */
}
fclose(ptr); /* Close the file.
}
getc( ) function and putc( ) function :
The getc( ) and putc( ) are exactly similar to
that of fgetc( ) and fputc( ).The putc function
writes the character contained in character
fputs( ) function :
*/
Declaration:
char * fputs(const char
*str , FILE *stream);
The fputs( ) function writes the content of the
string pointed to by str to the specified
stream. The null terminator is not written.
The fputs( ) function returns the last
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Page 11
character written on success and EOF on
failure.
/* program to understand the use of fputs( )
*/
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
FILE *fp1;
charstr[100];
fp1=fopen("rajesh.txt","w");
printf("enter the text\n")
if((gets(str)!=NULL))
fputs(str,fp1);
fclose(fp1);}
Declarations of fgets() Function: char
*fgets(char *str, int n, FILE *fptr);
Here str is the base address where the string
is to be stored, n is the number of characters
to be stored and fptr is a file pointer of type
FILE structure which specifies the name of the
file to which the input has to be read .The
fgets() function reads characters from the
current file pointer position upto and including
the first new line character \n, upto the end
of the stream, or until the number of
characters read is equal to (n-1), whichever
comes first. Now look at the second argument
of fgets() function more carefully. This second
argument is used to prevent fgets() from
reading a too long string and overflowing the
array.
fgets( ) function: This function is used to

read character from a file and these
characters are store in the string pointed to
by str . Characters are read until either a
newline or an EOF is received or until the
specified limit is reached. After the character
has been read, a null is stored in the array
immediately after the last character is read. A
newline character will be retained and will be
a part of the array pointed to by str.
/* program to understand the use of fgets( )
*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
FILE *FP1;
char name[100];
fp1=fopen("rohit.txt","r");
printf("enter the data")
while(fgets(name,80,fp1)!=NULL)
puts(name);
fclose(fp1);
}
OUTPUT:master ofcomputer application
____________________________________
5. Dynamic Memory Allocation
Or
Explain malloc(),calloc(),reallc(),
And free() function in C
In dynamic memory management
memory will be allocate at runtime. This is
also known as heap memory. Some language
at the run time have ability to calculate and
assign the memory space at run time for an
array but c can't have this feature. But in C
there is some function which provide the
facility to allocate and deallocate the memory.
In ,Local Memory, when these function will
call memory will allocate automatically and
when function will exit memory will
deallocated automatically . In dynamic
memory allocation ,allocation of memory is
explicitly requested for a particular size of
block .For deallocation of memory explicitly
requested.
the function through which the dynamic
memory allocation and deallocation will
performed are :
1.
2.
3.
4.
malloc()
calloc()
free()
realloc()
malloc():malloc()function allocate a block of

byte of memory in byte. In this when the
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memory block needed explicitly requested.
The malloc() function is same as a function is
request for RAM in the system memory. If
the request is grant then a void pointerreturn
and the pointer point start of that block. If
the request fail then a NULL pointer return.
calloc() function. If calloc() function is

executed succesfully then its allocated
memory is set as zero and a pointer
returned and if the function failed then a
NULL pointer return.
Example:
Example:
void *calloc(size_tnumber,size_t size);
malloc( number of element * size of each
element);
int * ptr;
ptr = malloc(10*sizeof(int));
Where size represents the memory required
in bytes .The memory which is provided is
contiguous memory. But malloc function
return void pointer so it needed type casting
of that pointer.
Examlpe:
(type cast)malloc( number of element *
size of each element);
int * ptr;
ptr =(int*) malloc(10*sizeof(int));
similarly for allocation of memory to a
structure variable :
Examlpe:
(struct name)malloc( sizeof(struct
name));
struct employee
{
intemp_id;
charemp_name[20];
floatemp_contact_no;
size_t used for unsigned on most

compilers.The number is the number of
objects which is allocate, and size is the size
(in bytes) of each object.
int main ()
{
intnumber,i;
printf("Enter the number ");
scanf("%d",&number);
printf("Number which is here
are",number);
int *ptr = (int *) calloc
(number,sizeof(int));
for (i=0; i<number;i++)
{
ptr[i] = i +i;
}
for (i=0; i<number;i++)
{
printf("Result is %d %d\n",i,ptr[i]);
}
}
3. free ():
For deallocation of the memory which is
allocated through the malloc() function and
calloc() function used free() function.
Example:
};
struct employee *ptr
ptr=(struct employee*)malloc(sizeof(struct
employee));
2.calloc():In malloc requested memory is
provided a block of contiguous memory
.calloc() function is similar to the malloc
rather then calloc() function
allocated the memory block for an array of
elements. Memory for a group of objects used
free(ptr);
int main () {
intnumber,i;
printf("Enter the number ");
scanf("%d",&number);
printf("Number which is here
are",number);
for (i=0; i<number;i++) {
ptr[i] = i +i;
}
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for (i=0; i<number;i++) {
printf("Result is
strcat(msg, buffer);
}
%d %d\n",i,ptr[i]);
free(ptr);}
4.realloc()
realloc() function is used for resize the size
of memory block which is allocated by the
malloc() and calloc () function.
Two situation where use realloc() function.
When allocated block is insufficient

need more memory then use realloc().
When allocated memory is much more
then the required application then use
realloc(). Example:
realloc(ptr, new size);

/* Through realloc() resize the memory . */
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <string.h>
{ char buffer[80], *msg;
/* Input a string. */
puts("Enter the text line");
gets(buffer);
/* The string copied in to initial allocated
block */
msg = realloc(NULL, strlen(buffur)+1);
strcpy(msg, buffer);
/* Display the message which copied. */
puts(message);
/* Get another string from the user.
*/
puts("Enter another text line."); ;
gets(buffer);
/* Resize the memory and also
concatenate the string to it. */
msg = realloc(msg,(strlen(msg) +
strlen(buffer)+1));
6. Explain Various Loop Control

structures in c
Or
Explain Do while, for, while
Loop present in c
Different loops
1.while loop
2. do while loop
3. for loop
a) all loops use same logical(true /false)
b) stop
1.While loop: while(something is true)
{
(body of program)
}
If the loop condition is not true then at the
beginning loop never executed
2.do while loop: do while loop is always
executed once.do while loop statement allows
you to execute code block in loop body at
least one.
syntax:
do { // statements } while (expression);
do {loop body}
While loop(loop condition);
Void main {
do{
printf(hello world);
}
while (4<1); }
for example using do while loop
statement
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{ int x = 5;
int i = 0;
// using do while loop statement
do{ i++;
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printf("%d\n",i);
}while(i < x);
}
The program output
1
2
3
4
3. For loop:Thefor loop is used to implement
any type of loopcondition. It is based on
numeric variables.There are three parts which
is separated by semi-colons in control block of
the forloop.initialization_expression is
executed before execution of the loop starts.
The execution of the loop continues until the
loop_condition is false
Theincrement_expression, is usually used to
increment the loop counter. This is executed
at the end of each loop iteration.
for example of using for loop statement
to print an integer five times
intp,n,count;
float r, si;
for (count =3;count <=3;count=count ++ )
{
printf (enter the value of p,n,r);
scanf(%d%d%f,&p,&n,&r);
si =(p*n*r)/100;
printf(simple interest =%f,si);
}
getch();
}
nesting for loop: void main()
{
int r ,c,sum;
for(r =1;r<=3;r++)
{
for (c=1;c=2;c++)
{
sum =r+c;
printf(r=%d,c=%d,sum=%d\n,r,c,sum);
}
}
}
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
// using for loop statement
int max = 5;
int i = 0;
for(i = 0; i <max;i++){
printf("%d\n",i);
}
}
And the output is
1
2
3
4
5
For Loop Example Using C

For example:
Void main()
{
7. Explain Continue and Break

Statement in c
Continue Statement
continue statement is used to break current
iteration. After continue statement the control
returns to the top of the loop test conditions.
Void main ()
{
int r ,c;
for(r=1;r<=10;r++)
{
if (r==5)
Continue;
else
printf(r=%d,\n,r);
}
getch();
}
Break statement:
break statement is used to break any type of
loop such as while, do while an for loop.
break statement terminates the loop body
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immediately.
Void main()
{
int a;
for (a=1;a<=10;a++)
{
if (j==5)
Break;
else
printf(%d\n,a);
}
Printf(hello) // control pas here
getch();
}
8.Explain Bitwise Operators in C

Bitwise Operators ( &, |, ^, ~, <<, >> )
Bitwise operators modify variables or shifting

the bit left or right patterns that represent the
values they store.
operator
asm
equivalent
description
&
AND
Bitwise AND
OR
Bitwise Inclusive OR
XOR
Bitwise Exclusive OR
NOT
Unary complement
(bit inversion)
<<
SHL
Shift Left
>>
SHR
Shift Right
sizeof()
This operator will accept one parameter,
which can be a variable itself and returns the
size of it in bytes of that type or object.
by sizeof is a constant, so it is always

determined before program execution.
9.ExpalinRECURSION
A function is called recursive if a statement
within the body of a function calls the same
function. Sometimes called circular
definition, recursion is thus the process of
defining something in terms of itself.
example of recursion-/*factorial of a number*/
main( )
{
int a, fact ;
printf ( "\nEnter any number " ) ;
scanf ( "%d", &a ) ;
fact = rec ( a ) ;
printf ( "Factorial value = %d", fact ) ;
}
rec ( int x )
{
int f ;
if ( x == 1 )
return ( 1 ) ;
else
f = x * rec ( x - 1 ) ;
return ( f ) ;
}
And here is the output for four runs of the
program
Enter any number 1
Factorial value = 1
Enter any number 2
Factorial value = 2
Enter any number 3
Factorial value = 6
Enter any number 5
Factorial value = 120
a = sizeof (char);
explanation of the program-
This will assign the value 1 to a becausechar

is a one-byte long type. The value returned
In the first run when the number

enteredthrough scanf( ) is 1, let us see what
action does rec( ) take. The value of a (i.e. 1)
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is copied into x. Since x turns out to be 1 the
condition if ( x == 1 ) is satisfied and hence
1 (which indeed is the value of 1 factorial) is
returned through the return statement.
When the number entered through scanf( ) is
2, the ( x == 1 ) test
fails, so we reach the statement,
f = x * rec ( x - 1 ) ;
And here is where we meet recursion. How do
we handle the expression x * rec ( x - 1 )?
We multiply x by rec ( x - 1 ). Since the
current value of x is 2, it is same as saying
that we must calculate the value (2 * rec ( 1
)). We know that the value returned by rec (
1 ) is 1, so the expression reduces to (2 * 1),
or simply 2. Thus the statement,
x * rec ( x - 1 ) ;
evaluates to 2, which is stored in the variable
f, and is returned to main( ), where it is duly
printed as
Factorial value = 2
(c) Conditional Compilation
10. Explain C PRE-PROCESSOR
When we compile the program, before the

source code passes to the compiler it is
examined by the C preprocessor for any
macro definitions. When it sees the #define
directive, it goes through the entire program
in search of the macro templates; wherever it
finds one, it replaces the macro template with
the appropriate macro expansion.
It is a program that processes our source

program before it is passed to the compiler.
FEATURES OF PRE-PROCESSORThe pre-processor offers several features
called pre-processor directives. Each of
these pre-processor directives begin with a #
symbol. The directives can be placed
anywhere in a program but are most often
placed at the beginning of a program, before
the first function definition.
We would learn the following pre-processor
directives here:
(a) Macro expansion
(d) Miscellaneous directives

MACRO EXPANSION
Have a look at the following program.
#define UPPER 25
main( )
{
int i ;
for ( i = 1 ; i <= UPPER ; i++ )
printf ( "\n%d", i ) ;
}
In this program instead of writing 25 in the
for loop we are writing it in the form of
UPPER, which has already been defined
before main( ) through the statement,#define
UPPER 25 This statement is called macro
definition or more commonly, just a macro.
What purpose does it serve? During
preprocessing, the preprocessor replaces
every occurrence of UPPER in the program
with 25.
In C programming it is customary to use

capital letters for macro template. This makes
it easy for programmers to pick out all the
macro templates when reading through the
program.
Note that a macro template and its macro
expansion are separated by blanks or tabs. A
space between # and define is optional.
Remember that a macro definition is never to
be terminated by a semicolon.
(b) File inclusion

MACROS WITH ARGUMENT-
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The macros that we have used so far are
called simple macros. Macros can have
arguments, just as functions can. Here is an
example that illustrates this fact.
#define Area) ( 3.14 * x * x )

main( )
{
float r1 = 6.25, r2 = 2.5, a ;
a = AREA ( r1 ) ;
printf ( "\area of circle = %f", a ) ;
a = AREA ( r2 ) ;
printf ( "\area of circle = %f", a ) ;
}
Heres the output of the program...
Area of circle = 122.656250
Area of circle = 19.625000
In this program wherever the pre-processor
finds the phrase Area) it expands it into the
statement( 3.14 * x * x ). However, thats
not all that it does. The x in the macro
template Area) is an argument that matches
the x in the macro expansion ( 3.14 * x * x ).
The statement AREA(r1) in the program
causes the variable r1 to be substituted for x.
Thus the statement AREA(r1) is equivalent to:
( 3.14 * r1 * r1 )
After the above source code has passed
through the pre-processor, what the compiler
gets to work on will be this:
main( )
{
float r1 = 6.25, r2 = 2.5, a ;
a = 3.14 * r1 *r1 ;
printf ( "Area of circle = %f\n", a ) ;
a = 3.14 *r2 * r2 ;
printf ( "Area of circle = %f", a ) ;
}
Here is another example of macros with
arguments:
#define ISDIGIT(y) ( y>= 48 && y <= 57 )
main( )
{
charch ;
printf ( "Enter any digit " ) ;
scanf ( "%c", &ch ) ;
if ( ISDIGIT ( ch ) )
printf ( "\nYou entered a digit" ) ;
else
printf ( "\nIllegal input" ) ;
}
11. Explain Array in c

Array by definition is a variable that hold
multiple elements which has the same data
type.Array is variables that hold multiple
elements which has same data type.
An array is a multi element box, uses an
indexing system
Declaring the array: We can declare an
array by specify its data type, name and the
number of elements the array holds between
square brackets immediately following the
array name. Name;
Type of array
Number of element "data type array
name[size];"
There are some rules on array
declaration. The data type can be any valid
C data types including structure and union.
The array name has to follow the rule of
variable and the size of array has to be a
positive constant integer.We can access array
elements via indexes array_name[index].
Indexes of array starts from 0 not 1 so the
highest elements of an array is
array_name[size-1].
Initializing the array: It is like a variable,
an array can be initialized. To initialize an
array, you provide initializing values which
are enclosed within curly braces in the
declaration and placed following an equals
sign after the array name.
int list[5]={2,3,4,5,6} OR int list[5] =
{2,1,3,7,8};
Character arrays: char string1[]=first;,
"Here ,we using char string and its array size
is six."
char string[]={f,g,t,y,u,I,\0}; // \0
null character terminating the string.
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Passing the array To pass an array
argument in a function specifies the name of
array to pass without any bracket.
intmyarray[24];
myfunction(my array,24).
array usually pass to the function
array using call by refrence
function knows where the array stored
Passing array element:
using call by value
pass subscripted name (ex: myarray[5]) to
function.
Function prototype: void modify array
(intb[],int array size);
Parameter name may be optional.
int b[] may be int[]
int array size may be int
Multidimensional Array: An array with
more than one index value is called a
multidimensional array. All the array above is
called single-dimensional array. To declare a
multidimensional array you can do follow
syntax
data_typearray_name[][][];
The number of square brackets specifies the
dimension of the array. For example to
declare two dimensions integer array we can
do as follows:
1. intmatrix[3][3];
Initializing Multidimensional Arrays
you can initialize an array as a singledimension array. Here is an example of
initialize an two dimensions integer array:
1. int matrix[3][3] = { {11,12,13},
{21,22,23},
{32,31,33},
};
Two dimensional arrays
Multidimensional array have two or more than
indexs values which specify the element in
the array. i.e., multi[i][j].
Where [i] specify row and [j] specify column
Declaration and calculation:
int a[10][10];
int b[2][2]; // int b [2][2]={{0,1},{2,3}}

Sum = a[10][10]+b[2][2]
Array and Pointer
Each array element occupies consecutive
memory locations and array name is a pointer
that points to the first element. Beside
accessing array via index we can use pointer
to manipulate array. This program helps you
visualize the memory address each array
elements and how to access array element
using pointer.
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
constint size = 5;
int list[size] = {2,1,3,7,8};
int* plist = list;
// print memory address of array elements
for(int i = 0; i <size;i++)
{
printf("list[%d] is in %d\n",i,&list[i]);
}
// accessing array elements using pointer
for(i = 0; i <size;i++)
{
printf("list[%d] = %d\n",i,*plist);
/* increase memory address of pointer so it
go to the next
element of the array */
plist++;
. }}
Here is the output
list[0] is in 1310568
list[1] is in 1310572
list[2] is in 1310576
list[3] is in 1310580
list[4] is in 1310584
list[0] = 2
list[1] = 1
list[2] = 3
list[3] = 7
list[4] = 8
You can store pointers in an array and in this
case we have an array of
pointers. " int *ap[10];"
________________________________
12. Explain Random Access to file in C
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Random access means we can move to any
part of a file and read or write data from it
without having to read through the entirefile.
we can access the data stored in the file in
two ways.
1. sequentially 2.Randomly
if we want to access the forty fourth record
then first forty three record read sequentially
to reach forty four record .In random access
data can be accessed and processed directly
.There is no need to read each record
sequentially .if we want to access a
particular record random access takes less
time than the sequential access.
C supports these function for random access
file.
1.fseek( ) Function
2.ftell ( ) Function
How to use fseek() function in C:
This function is used for setting the file
position pointer at the specified bytes .fseek
is a function belonging to the ANCI C
standard Library and included in the file
stdio.h. Its purpose is to change the file
position indicator for the specified stream.
Syntax :intfseek(FILE*stream_pointer,
longoffset, intorigin);
Argument meaning:
stream_pointer is a pointer to the

stream FILEstructure of which the
position indicator should be changed;
offset is a long integer which specifies
the number of bytes from origin where
the position indicator should be
placed;
origin is an integer which specifies the
origin position. It can be:
o SEEK_SET: origin is the start of
the stream
o SEEK_CUR: origin is the current
position
SEEK_END: origin is the end of

the stream
/* Program to understand the use of

fseekfunction : */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
structemprecord
{
char name[30];
int age;
floatsal;
}emp;
void main()
{
int n;
FILE *fp;
fp=fopen("employee.dat","rb");
if (fp==NULL)
{
printf("/n error in opening file");
exit(1);
}
printf("enter the record no to be read");
scanf("%d",&n);
fseek(fp,(n-1)*sizeof(emp),0);
freed(&emp,sizeof(emp),1,fp);
printf("%s\t,emp.name);
printf("%d\t",emp.age);
printf("%f\n",emp.sal);
fclose(fp);
getch();
}
How to use ftell() Function in C:
This function return the current position of
the file position pointer. The value is counted
from the beginning of the file.
Syntax : long ftell (file * fptr);
/*program to understand the use of ftell ( )/*
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
structemprecord
{
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char name[30];
int age;
floatsal;
}emp;
void main()
{
FILE *fp;
fp=fopen("employee.dat","rb");
if (fp==NULL)
{
printf("/n error in opening file");
exit(1);
}
printf("position pointer in the beginning ->
%1d ",ftell(fp));
while("fread(position pointer ->
1%d\n",ftell(fp));
printf("position pointer -> %1d\n",ftell(fp));
printf("%s\t",emp.name);
printf("%d\t",emp.age);
printf("%f",emp.sal);
}
printf("size of the file in bytes is
%1d\n",ftell(fp));
fclose(fp);
getch();
}
13.Explain CLA or Command Line

Argument in c
In C it is possible to accept command line
arguments. Command-line arguments are given
after the name of a program in command-line
operating systems like DOS or Linux, and are
passed in to the program from the operating
system. To use command line arguments in your
program, you must first understand the full
declaration of the main function, which previously
has accepted no arguments. In fact, main can
actually accept two arguments: one argument is
number of command line arguments, and the other
argument is a full list of all of the command line
arguments.
The full declaration of main looks like this:
void main ( intargc, char *argv[] )
The integer, argc is the argument count. It is
the number of arguments passed into the program
from the command line, including the name of the

program.
The array of character pointers is the listing of all
the arguments. argv[0] is the name of the
program, or an empty string if the name is not
available. After that, every element number less
than argc is a command line argument. You can
use each argv element just like a string, or use
argv as a two dimensional array. argv[argc] is a
null pointer.
How could this be used? Almost any program that
wants its parameters to be set when it is executed
would use this. One common use is to write a
function that takes the name of a file and outputs
the entire text of it onto the screen.
#include <stdio.h>
void main ( intargc, char *argv[] )
{
char x;
if ( argc != 2 )
/*argc should be 2 for correct execution */
{
/* We print argv[0] assuming it is the
program name */
printf( "usage: %s filename", argv[0] );
}
else
{
// We assume argv[1] is a filename to open
FILE *file = fopen(argv[1], "r" );
/* fopen returns 0, the NULL pointer, on
failure */
if ( file == NULL )
{
printf( "Could not open file\n" );
}
else
{ /* read one character at a time from
file, stopping at EOF, whichindicates the
end of the file. Note that the idiom of
"assignto a variable, check the value" used
below works becausethe assignment statement
evaluates to the value assigned. */
while ( ( x = fgetc( file ) ) != EOF )
{
printf( "%c", x );
}
fclose( file );
}
}
}
This program is fairly short, but it incorporates the
full version of main and even performs a useful
function. It first checks to ensure the user added
the second argument, theoretically a file name.
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The program then checks to see if the file is valid
by trying to open it. This is a standard operation,
and if it results in the file being opened, then the
return value of fopen will be a valid FILE*;
otherwise, it will be 0, the NULL pointer. After that,
we just execute a loop to print out one character at
a time from the file. The code is self-explanatory,
but is littered with comments; you should have no
trouble understanding its operation this far into the
tutorial.
14. Explain Union in c

union is used to group a number of
different variables together.
In structure number of different variables of
different data type stored in different memory
places but in union different variable of
different data type are store in same place.
Example:
struct student
{
introllno;
char name[50];
float salary;
};
union student
{
introllno;
char name[50];
float salary;
};
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I) Primary Data Type

Primary Data Types:

a) Long integer: long integer is a data

same way there are signed and unsigned

1. Arrays:An array in C language is a

For example: Think about storing book

Syntax for Structures:

a) Automatic storage class:- These

the memory and default initial value is zero.

c) Static storage class:-The storage is in

Subtraction or Unary Minus

scanf (%d %d, &num1, &num2);

printf(\n Thu sum is = %d, sum);

printf(\n Thu division is = %d, div);

When an arithmetic operation is performed on

If anyone operand is of real type then the

Often it is required to compare the

Floating point arithmetic

C supports the following relational operators.

When an arithmetic operation is preformed on

Mixed mode arithmetic

When one of the operand is real and other is

It is required to compare the marks of 2

Where exp1 and exp2 are expressions, which

Logical AND (&&) :

evaluates to true if a is less than either m or

Example for using shorthand assignment

//end of the loop

intfputc(int c, FILE *fp);

Return: The fputc function returns an

anunsigned char converted to an int. If the

variable c to the file associated with the

The getc() function takes the file pointer as

/* program to understand the use of fgetc( )

/ Program to Read/Write using getc( ) and

fgets( ) function: This function is used to

malloc():malloc()function allocate a block of

calloc() function. If calloc() function is

size_t used for unsigned on most

When allocated block is insufficient

realloc(ptr, new size);

6. Explain Various Loop Control

For Loop Example Using C

7. Explain Continue and Break

8.Explain Bitwise Operators in C

Bitwise operators modify variables or shifting

by sizeof is a constant, so it is always

explanation of the program-

This will assign the value 1 to a becausechar

In the first run when the number

(c) Conditional Compilation

10. Explain C PRE-PROCESSOR

When we compile the program, before the

It is a program that processes our source

(d) Miscellaneous directives

In C programming it is customary to use

(b) File inclusion

#define Area) ( 3.14 * x * x )

11. Explain Array in c

int b[2][2]; // int b [2][2]={{0,1},{2,3}}

stream_pointer is a pointer to the