DEPARTMENTOFSOCIOLOGY

ANINTRODUCTIONTOQUALITATIVERESEARCH
PREPAREDBY
CHRISTINAHUGHES
UNIVERSITYOFWARWICK

WHATISQUALITATIVERESEARCH?
ANINTRODUCTION

Qualitativeresearchisempiricalresearchwherethedataare
notintheformofnumbers.(Punch,1998:4)
Qualitativeresearchismultimethodinfocus,involvingan
interpretive,naturalisticapproachtoitssubjectmatter.This
meansthatqualitativeresearchersstudythingsintheirnatural
settings,attemptingtomakesenseof,orinterpret,phenomena
intermsofthemeaningspeoplebringtothem.Qualitative
researchinvolvesthestudieduseandcollectionofavarietyof
empiricalmaterialscasestudy,personalexperience,
introspective,lifestory,interview,observational,historical,
interactional,andvisualtextsthatdescriberoutineand
problematicmomentsandmeaningsinindividuals'lives.
Accordingly,qualitativeresearchersdeployawiderangeof
interconnectedmethods,hopingalwaystogetabetterfixonthe
subjectmatterathand.(DenzinandLincoln,1994:2)
Qualitativeresearchis...groundedinaphilosophicalposition
whichisbroadly`interpretivist'inthesensethatitisconcerned
withhowthesocialworldisinterpreted,understood,

experiencedorproduced...basedonmethodsofdata
generationwhichareflexibleandsensitivetothesocialcontext
inwhichdataareproduced(ratherthanrigidlystandardizedor
structured,orremovedfrom`reallife'or`natural'social
context,asinsomeformsofexperimentalmethod)...basedon
methodsofanalysisandexplanationbuildingwhichinvolve
understandingsofcomplexity,detailandcontext.Qualitative
researchaimstoproduceroundedunderstandingsonthebasis
ofrich,contextualanddetaileddata.Thereismoreemphasison
`holistic'formsofanalysisandexplanationinthissense,than
onchartingsurfacepatterns,trendsandcorrelations.
Qualitativeresearchusuallydoesusesomeformof
quantification,butstatisticalformsofanalysisarenotseenas
central.(Mason,1996:4)
Thesequotationsconveysomethingofthenatureofqualitative
research.Theyindicatethatqualitativeresearchisconcerned
withthestudyofpeopleintheirnaturalsettings.Qualitative
researchersuseavarietyoftoolsandtechniquesinorderto
developdeepunderstandingsofhowpeopleperceivetheirsocial
realitiesandinconsequence,howtheyactwithinthesocial
world.Theyseektomakeconnectionsbetweenevents,
perceptionsandactionssothattheiranalysesareholisticand
contextual.Beyondthesebroadassumptions,qualitative
researchersareverycarefultostressthemultiplicityandvariety
ofqualitativeapproaches.Forexample,Mason(1996)
commentsthatshedoesnotfeelcomfortablewithgoingbeyond
theabovegeneralfeatures.Thisisbecausetherearemany
differentanswerstokeyquestionsofqualitativemethodology.
Similarly,DenzinandLincoln(1994)highlightthemultiple
natureofqualitativeapproaches.Theyalsoillustratehowthese
havechangedovertime.DenzinandLincoln(1994:1)indicate
that`qualitativeresearchoperatesinacomplexhistoricalfield
thatcrosscutsfivehistoricalmoments...Thesefivemoments
simultaneouslyoperateinthepresent'.DenzinandLincoln
describethesefivemomentsas:


Thetraditional(1900195):associatedwiththepositivist
paradigmwherequalitativeresearchaimstoreflectthe
principlesof(natural)scientificenquiry;
Themodernistorgoldenage(19501970):whereweseethe
appearanceofpostpositivistarguments.Thisisalsopartof:
Theblurredgenres(19701986):whereavarietyofnew
interpretive,qualitativeperspectivescomeintotheforeground:
hermeneutics,structuralism,semiotics,phenomenology,cultural
studiesandfeminism.Thehumanitiesalsobecameacentral
resourceforcriticalandinterpretivetheory.Theblurredgenres
phasegaveriseto:
Thecrisisofrepresentation(19861990):whereresearchers
struggledwithhowtolocatethemselvesandtheirsubjectsin
reflexivetexts;
Thepostmodernorpresent(1990):anewsensibilitythat
doubtsallpreviousparadigms.
ThekeypointsIwouldmakeinrespectofthisare:
AsElyetal(1991)pointoutthefieldofqualitativeresearchis
shotthroughwithahostoflabelsandahostofproponentsof
thoselabels.Differenttermsareusedinroughlysynonymous
ways(naturalisticinquiry,ethnographicmethodologies,
qualitativeresearch,interpretiveresearch).Thiscauses
confusionandforthenew(andalsonotsonew!)studentit
reinforcesasensethatitistheywhoisatfaultastheyhave
failedtogettogripswithwhatexactlyqualitativeresearchis.
Takeheart:ElyetalnotethatTesch(1990)compiledalistof46
termsthatsocialscientistshaveusedtonametheirversionsof
qualitativeresearch.Nowonderweareallconfused!
AsDenzinandLincoln(1994)pointoutthenatureofthefield

ofqualitativeresearchchangesovertime.Differentperspectives
andconcernsariseatdifferentpoints.
AsDenzinandLincoln(1994)alsopointoutoldconcernsdo
notgoaway.The`fivemoments'areconsecutivebutalso
simultaneous.
Theoriesofontology(whatistheformandnatureofsocial
realityand,thus,whatcanbeknown)andepistemology(whatis
thenatureoftherelationshipbetweentheknowerandwouldbe
knowerandwhatcanbeknown)arecentraltounderstandingthe
formsofknowledgethatareproducedthroughqualitative
approaches.
Iwouldaddthefollowingimperatives,drawnfromMason
(1996)
Qualitativeresearchshouldbeconductedsystematicallyand
rigorously.Thismeansthat,likeallsocialresearchers,
qualitativeresearchershavetousekeyprinciplesofresearch
designsuchaslinkingtheresearchquestionstothe
methodologicalapproaches,consideringissuesofanalysisand
datacollectionasintegratedandbeingclearaboutthepurposes
oftheresearch.
Qualitativeresearchshouldbeconductedinaflexibleand
contextualway.Thismeansthatqualitativeresearchersmake
decisionsonthebasisoftheirresearchdesignandintermsof
thechangingcontextsandsituationsinwhichtheresearchtakes
place.Oneofthestrengthsofqualitativeapproachesisthatthis
flexibilitycanenhancetheresearchleadedtounanticipated,but
significant,issues.
Qualitativeresearchshouldbeconductedthroughcritical,self
reflexiveenquiry.Thismeansthattheresearchershouldbe
constantlyaskingquestionsaboutherorhisroleintheresearch
process.

Qualitativeresearchshouldproducesocialexplanationsto
intellectualpuzzles.Thismeansbeingexplicitaboutthelogics
thathaveproducedtheseexplanations(eg.sampling,selection
ofeventsforanalysis,researcher'sroleandsoon).
Qualitativeresearchisnotaunifiedbodyofphilosophyand
practice.Forexample,qualitativeresearchshouldnotbeviewed
ascompletelydistinctivefrom,oruncomplementaryto,
quantitativeapproaches.The`divide'betweenquantitativeand
qualitativeresearchistosomeextentfalse.Qualitativeresearch
doesquantify(lookforphrasessuchasmorethan,lessthan).
Quantitativeresearchcancollectmorequalitativedatathrough
openendedquestions.Allresearchersshouldthinkcarefully
abouthowthechoicesofmethodandthepotentialcombinations
ofapproachthatareappropriateandpossible.
Qualitativeresearchshouldbeconductedasethicalpractice.
Whilstthefieldofqualitativeresearchiscomplexandriven
withinternaldebates,nonethelessitisimportanttohavea
generalsenseofthekeyfeaturesofqualitativeresearch.Tothis
endIconcludewiththefollowingproducedbyElyetal(1991:
4):
QUALITATIVERESEARCH
KEYCHARACTERISTICS
Eventscanbeunderstoodadequatelyonlyiftheyareseenin
context.Therefore,aqualitativeresearcherimmerses
her/himselfinthesetting.
Thecontextsofinquiryarenotcontrived;theyarenatural.
Nothingispredefinedortakenforgranted.
Qualitativeresearcherswantthosewhoarestudiedtospeak
forthemselves,toprovidetheirperspectivesinwordsandother

actions.Therefore,qualitativeresearchisaninteractive
processinwhichthepersonsstudiedteachtheresearcherabout
theirlives.
Qualitativeresearchersattendtotheexperienceasawhole,
notasseparatevariables.Theaimofqualitativeresearchisto
understandexperienceasunified.
Qualitativemethodsareappropriatetotheabovestatements.
Thereisnoonegeneralmethod.
Formanyqualitativeresearchers,theprocessentails
appraisalaboutwhatwasstudied.
ElyetaladdthefollowingfromShermanandWebb(1988)to
theirdefinition:
Qualitativeimpliesadirectconcernwithexperienceasitis
`lived'or`felt'or`undergone'...Qualitativeresearch,then,has
theaimofunderstandingexperienceasnearlyaspossibleasits
participantsfeelitorliveit.
FurtherWork
Forthoseofyouinterestedinfollowingupdebatesandissues
withinqualitativeresearchinmoredetailtheclassictextsare
DenzinandLincoln,1994andDenzinandLincoln,1998(a
shorterpaperbackversionofthe1994edition).Youmightalso
consulttheInternationalJournalofQualitativeResearchin
Educationbothforexamplesofthisformofresearchandfor
methodologicaldiscussions.
ISQUALITATIVERESEARCHACREDIBLE
METHODOLOGY?
WHICHBESTDESCRIBESQUALITATIVEAND
QUANTITATIVERESEARCH?

SOFTHARD
SUBJECTIVEOBJECTIVE
SMALLSCALELARGESCALE
IDIOGRAPHICGENERALIZABLE
JOURNALISMSCIENCE
OPINIONTRUTH
Ideasthatqualitativeresearchisa`second'bestapproachrestin
largepartbecauseofthepredominanceofthe`science'modelof
socialresearch.Thecentralvaluesofsuchanapproachare
objectivityandgeneralizability.Withinquantitativeapproaches,
objectivityismaintainedinvarioustechnicalways.For
example,throughthedistancebetweentheresearcherandthe
researchedthatiscreatedthroughtheadministrationofaformal
questionnaire;throughthepossibilitiesofreplicationofthe
research;andthroughtheuseofexternalchecksonthemethods
used.Thegeneralizabilityofquantitativeresearchisagainseen
tobepossiblethroughtechnicalsolutions.Thedevelopmentof
sophisticatedstatisticalandsamplingtechniquesarekeytothis.
Incontrast,qualitativeapproachesemphasisetheimportanceof
gettingclosetotheresearched.Thisisbecauseoneofthe
purposesofqualitativeapproachesistotrytodepictthe
participant'sviewofsocialreality.Thus,techniquessuchas
participantobservationandunstructuredorinformalinterviews
arecommonlyused.Becauseofthetimeandcostsinvolvedin
suchwork,qualitativedesignsdonotgenerallydrawsamples
fromlargescaledatasets.Inaddition,becauseofthecentral
roleplayedbytheresearcherinthegenerationofdata,itisnot
possibletoreplicatequalitativestudies.
Ideasof`second'bestalsorestonthestereotypesthatarisewhen

quantitativeandqualitativeapproachesarecomparedinthis
way.Inpractice,researchersuseavarietyofmethodsor
techniquesofdatacollectionundertheumbrellatermsof
`qualitative'and`quantitative'toenhancethegeneralizabilityof
theaccount(Bryman,1988).Inaddition,asHammersley(1989)
indicatesthereismuchgreatervarietyoftheoriesofsocial
realitywithinandbetweenthelabels`quantitative'and
`qualitative'thanwemightatfirstimagine.
Insomewaystheconcernsthatariseabouta
qualitative/quantitativedividecanberesolvedbygivinggreater
attentiontohowtheseapproachescanbecombined.ForBryman
(1998:126)thiswouldproduce`morecompleteaccountsof
socialreality'.However,itisperhapsimportanttoremember
thatthevaluesconveyedbydescriptionssuchassoft/hard,
idiosyncratic/generalizable,art/science,smallscale/largescale
havepoliticalimport.Thereisapoliticsinthechoiceanduseof
methods,particularlyifyouhopethatyourresearchwillimpact
onpolicyorcreatechangeinsomeway.Jayaratne(1993)
encouragesfeministstousebothmethodsbecauseshebelieves
thisismorelikelytoachievefeministgoals.Thus:`My
approachtothisissue[ofchoiceofmethod]ispolitical:thatis,I
believetheappropriateuseofbothquantitativeandqualitative
methodsinthesocialsciencescanhelpthefeministcommunity
inachievingitsgoalsmoreeffectivelythantheuseofeither
qualitativeorquantitativemethodsalone'(p109,emphasisin
original).
Inasimilarvein,Stanley's(1990)accountofaSocialServices'
referralindicatesthepoliticsembeddedinthepowerof
`objectivity'intheproductionofsocialresearchknowledge.
Stanleydeliveredapaperthatgaveanaccountofanelderly
couple'sexperiencesofSocialServices'intervention.This
accountdeliberatelyomittedthefactthatthecouplewereher
parents.Asshestates`Ifeltthatpresenting`thecasestudy'as
myownstillrecentexperienceofcaringwoulddisqualifyboth

meanditfrom`research'and`papers'intheeyesofthose
present'(p121).
ThekeypointsIwouldwishtoemphasiseare:
Therearemanystereotypesaboutqualitativeandquantitative
approaches.
Qualitativeandquantitativeapproachesarenotasdistinctiveas
theideaofa`divide'suggests.
Thesestereotypesleadtocomparisonsthatarepoliticalin
import.
Inaddition,itisimportanttobeawareofthevariousstrengths
andlimitationsofanymethodologicalapproach.Isetoutbelow
asummarythatIhaveadapted,andaddedto,fromBurns(2000
1314)inrespectofqualitativeresearch:
LimitationsofQualitativeApproaches
Theproblemofadequatevalidityorreliabilityisamajor
criticism.Becauseofthesubjectivenatureofqualitativedata
anditsorigininsinglecontexts,itisdifficulttoapply
conventionalstandardsofreliabilityandvalidity.
Contexts,situations,events,conditionsandinteractionscannot
bereplicatedtoanyextentnorcangeneralisationsbemadetoa
widercontextthantheonestudiedwithanyconfidence.
Thetimerequiredfordatacollection,analysisand
interpretationislengthy.
Theresearcher'spresencehasaprofoundeffectonthesubjects
ofstudy.
Issuesofanonymityandconfidentialitypresentproblemswhen

selectingfindings.
Theviewpointsofbothresearcherandparticipantshavetobe
identifiedandelucidatedbecauseofissuesofbias.
Strengths
Becauseofcloseresearcherinvolvement,theresearchergains
aninsider'sviewofthefield.Thisallowstheresearchertofind
issuesthatareoftenmissed(suchassubtletiesandcomplexities)
bythescientific,morepositivisticenquiries.
Qualitativedescriptionscanplaytheimportantroleof
suggestingpossiblerelationships,causes,effectsanddynamic
processes.
Becausestatisticsarenotused,butratherqualitativeresearch
usesamoredescriptive,narrativestyle,thisresearchmightbeof
particularbenefittothepractitionerassheorhecouldturnto
qualitativereportsinordertoexamineformsofknowledgethat
mightotherwisebeunavailable,therebygainingnewinsight.
Qualitativeresearchaddsfleshandbloodtosocialanalysis.
HOWDOYOUDOQUALITATIVERESEARCH?
THREEPOINTSTONOTE

Theresearcherhasseveralmethodsforcollectingempirical
materials,rangingfromtheinterviewtodirectobservation,to
theanalysisofartifacts,documents,andculturalrecords,tothe
useofvisualmaterialsorpersonalexperience.Theresearcher
mayalsouseavarietyofdifferentmethodsofreadingand
analyzinginterviewsorculturaltexts,includingcontent,
narrative,andsemioticstrategies.Facedwithlargeamountsof
qualitativematerials,theinvestigatorseekswaysofmanaging

andinterpretingthesedocuments,andheredatamanagement
methodsandcomputerassistedmodelsofanalysismaybeof
use.(DenzinandLincoln,1994:14).
...unstructuredinterviewingandfocusgrouptechniquesare
qualitativemethodsofdatacollection(Bowling,1997:311)
Qualitativeresearchersstudyspokenandwritten
representationsandrecordsofhumanexperience,using
multiplemethodsandmultiplesourcesofdata.Severaltypesof
datacollectionmightwellbeusedintheonequalitativeproject.
...themainwaysofcollectingqualitativedata[are]the
interview,observation,participantobservationanddocuments.
Whateverthedesignandwhatevertheperspective,thedatain
mostqualitativeresearchcomedowntothesemaintypes.
(Punch,1988:174)
Qualitativeresearchmainlyworkswithtwosortsofdata.
Verbaldataarecollectedinsemistructuredinterviewsoras
narratives....Visualdataresultfromapplyingthevarious
observationalmethods,rangingfromparticipantandnon
participantobservationtoethnographyandanalysingphotos
andfilms...verbalandvisualdataaretransformedintotextsby
documentingthemandbytranscription.(Flick,1998:1112)
Asthesequotationsillustrate,therearemanywaysto`do'
qualitativeresearch.Youmightundertakeaninterviewstudy,an
observationorcollectandanalysedocuments.Youmightspend
monthsinthefieldlivingwiththosewhomyouresearch.You
mightundertakeaseriesofunstructured,interviewswithalarge
groupofpeople.Youmightfocusonasingleperson.The
researchmaybespreadovermanyyearsoritmaybeepisodic.
Youmightberesearchinganunfamiliarcultureoryoumightbe
researchingyourownorganisation.Youmightcombine
methods,usingstatisticstoconveygeneralizabilityaboutthe
caseyouhaveselected.Youmightuseacomputerforanalysis

oryoumightuseyourlivingroomfloortospreadthetranscripts
outreadyforcutandpasting.Youmightworkaloneorina
team.
Iwouldliketoemphasisethatthe`doing'ofqualitativeresearch
comprisesofthreekeyaspects.Thefirsttworelatetothe
distinctionsthataremadebetweenthetermsmethodand
methodology.Thetermmethodisusedwhenwearereferringto
thetoolsortechniquesofdatacollectionsuchasquestionnaires,
interviewsandobservations.Thetermmethodologyhasamore
philosophicalmeaningandusuallyreferstotheapproachor
paradigmthatunderpinstheresearch.Punch(1998)suggests
thatmethodincludesresearchdesign,datacollectionanddata
analysis.Henotesthatthenounmethodologyismore
problematic.Hestatesthat`Technically,it[methodology]refers
tothestudyofmethod(s),theoverallanalysisofhowresearch
proceeds...Itisoftenusedmoreloosely,asinthephrase`the
researchmethodologyofthisstudy'.Insuchacase,`research
method(s)wouldbeamoreaccurateterm'(p29).
Thekeypointaboutmakingadistinctionbetweenmethodand
methodologyistoemphasisethatthetoolsthatareusedto
collectdatacannotbeseparatedfromtheframeworksof
analysis,andtheirunderpinningtheories,thatareusedtomake
senseofthisdata.Wecan'do'qualitativeresearchina
positivistic,aninterpretive(themostcommon),apostmodern
andacriticalway(alsoverycommon).
Giventhathowweinterpretthedatacannotbeseparatedfrom
howitiscollected,qualitativeresearchersalsostressathird
featuresofthisapproach.Thisisthattobeaqualitative
researcherrequiresonetobehighlyreflexive.Alvessonand
Skoldberg(2000:5)describethisintermsofdrawing:

...attentiontothecomplexrelationshipbetweenprocessesof

knowledgeproductionandthevariouscontextsofsuch
processesaswellastheinvolvementoftheknowledgeproducer.
Thisinvolvesoperatingonatleasttwolevelsinresearchwork
andpayingmuchattentiontohowonethinksaboutthinking...
[thismeans]thatseriousattentionispaidtothewaydifferent
kindsoflinquistic,social,politicalandtheoreticalelementsare
woventogetherintheprocessofknowledgedevelopment,
duringwhichempiricalmaterialisconstructed,interpretedand
written.Empiricalresearchinareflectivemodestartsfroma
scepticalapproachtowhatappearatasuperficialglanceas
unproblematicreplicasofthewayrealityfunctions,whileatthe
sametimemaintainingthebeliefthatthestudyofsuitable(well
thoughtout)excerptsfromthisrealitycanprovideanimportant
basisforagenerationofknowledgethatopensupratherthan
closes,andfurnishesopportunitiesforunderstandingrather
thanestablishes`truths'.
Thekeypointhereisthatthereflexivesocialresearcherhasto
recognisetheirownplaceandroleingeneratingtheknowledge
thatisintheresearchreport.Forexample,Scheurich(1997)
suggeststhattheresearcherisanimperialistwhocanmarshall
thedataaccordingtoherwill.Whatdoesthismean,then,forthe
validityoftheresearch?
WHICHHINTSANDTIPSWORK?
Hint:Thinkofchoosingyourresearchtopicintermsofthe
Goldilocksstrategy.Youwanttoselectatopicwhichisnottoo
big,andnottoosmall,butjustright(andonewhichwillnot
break).(p25)
Hint:Ifyoufindveryconflictingargumentsinyourreading
around,youmaywellhaveidentifiedanissueordebatewhich
wouldbeworthexploringinyourresearchproject(p95)
Hint:Beingcriticaldoesnotmeanrubbishingorrejecting

someoneelse'swork.Asaresearcherandthinkeryoushouldbe
ablesimultaneouslytoentertaintwoormorecontradictory
ideasatonetime.(p105)
Hint:Ifyoucarryoutasearchoftheliteratureusinga
computerdatabase,andthisresultsinhundredsofreferences,
donotdownloadthemall.Narrowyoursearchfurther,perhaps
bylimitingittoworkspublishedafteracertaindate,orby
addingtoorchangingyourkeywords.(p113)
Hint:Ifyoufeeltraumatizedorterrorizedbytheprocessof
analysingthedatayouhavecollected,youmightliketothinkof
itasanalogoustocooking.Whatandhowyoucookdependson
yourtaste,skillsandtheresourcesyouhaveavailable.Youmay
likeyourfoodsimpleandfreshlyprepared,orcarefullyblended
overalongperiod,orfastandprocessed.Youmaymixthe
ingredientstogetherusingarecipe,orbasedonprevious
experience,oryoumaybuyapacketalreadyprepared.Youmay
usearangeoftoolsinyourcooking,fromasimpleknifeor
spoontoanexpensivefoodprocessor.Youmaybepreparing
foodjustforyourselforforabanquet.Seeifyoucanfind
furtherparallelsasyoucookyourdata!(p174)
Hint:Someofthetasksinvolvedinanalysingdataarevery
basicandrepetitive.Savetheseforwhenyouareunabletodo,
ordonotfeellikedoing,anythingmoredemanding.(p183)
Hint:Tryexplainingittoanonspecialistagain.(p198)
(Allfrom:Blaxter,HughesandTight,1996)
Whenteachingaclassrecently,onestudentadmittedthather
focusgroupinterviewwentbadlywrong.Shehadbeen
researching`Girls'NightsOut'andhadinvitedtwogroupsof
friendstoherhouse.Theydidnotgetonandsateitherendof
theroomthroughouttheentireevening.Oneofthemembersof

theclass(verygently)toldherthat,becausethiswasacommon
problem,itwasnormalpracticeinfocusgroupresearchto
ensurethatthepeopleinviteddidnotknoweachother
beforehand.Ifitwasthoughtdesirabletobringpeopletogether
whodidknoweachotherthenitwasimportanttoensurethat
theywereoneratherthantwoormoregroups.
This`tip',ofcourse,wouldhavebeenmuchmoreuseful
beforehandbutthisstoryisnotsomuchconcernedaboutwhen,
andhow,weacquiresuchadvice.Itismoreconcernedto
emphasisethatitistooeasytodismisstheusefulnessofsuch
knowledge!
Thehintssetoutabovehavearisenfrommyownresearchand
teachingexperiences.Theyareaimedatstudentswhoare
undertakingresearchforthefirsttime.Ihopethatthefollowing
exercisewillgeneratesomemorehintsandtipsthatareusefulin
yourresearch.
1.Whatwouldyouadvise?
Youareresearchingreasonsfornonparticipationinadult
learningclasses.Someofpeopleyouareinterviewingarevery
uncomfortableabouttalkingtoaresearcher.Whattoolsor
techniqueswouldyouusetofacilitatetheinterview?
Youwanttoundertakeaparticipantobservationstudyina
localcommunity.How/wheredoyoubegin?
Thepersonyouareinterviewingexpressessomeextremeracist
views.Whatdoyousayinresponse?
Youarefacilitatingafocusgroupdiscussion.Howdoyoudeal
withthefollowing:
(a)twomembersofthegroupbeginanargument;(b)one
memberofthegroupdominatestheconversation;(c)several

membersofthegroupgetuptohelpthemselvestorefreshments
andbeginaconversationinthecorneroftheroom;(d)thegroup
runsoutofsteamafterfifteenminutesandseemstohave
exhaustedtheirthoughtsonthetopic;(e)onememberofthe
groupneverspeaks.
HowdoImanageallthisdata?
Thisisthefirsttimeyouhaveundertakenfieldresearchand
youareverynervousandanxious.Whatwillhelp?
Youhavebeenundertakingsomelongtermparticipant
observationinalocalcommunitycentre.Youhavebecomevery
passionateabouttheissuesthattheyarefacing.Doesthis
matter?
2.Whatproblemshaveyouencounteredinyourresearchthat
youwouldwelcomesomeadviceabout?
3.Whatisyourworstexperienceofresearchgoingwrong?
THERESEARCHDIARY
ObservationalNotes
Theserecordeventsexperiencedprincipallythroughwatching
andlistening.Theycontainaslittleinterpretationaspossible
andareasreliableastheobservercanconstructthem.
MethodologicalNotes
Theserecordaspectsofreflectiononthemethodology.For
exampletheymightincludeacritiqueofone'sowntactics.They
willnotethetime,placeandtechniqueused.
TheoreticalNotes

Theseareyourattemptstoderivemeaningfromyourdata.
AnalyticalNotes
Thesearewhereyouattempttobringtogetherseveralaspectsof
youranalysiswithinabroader,moreabstract
statement.
UNDERTAKINGANOBSERVATION
Arethetimesatwhichyoucarryoutyourobservations
relevant?
Doyouneedtodeviseanobservationalscheduleordetermine
precodedcategories?
Howareyougoingtoorganizeyourdatarecording?
Isitimportanttoyoutotryandrecord`everything'orwillyou
bemuchmoreselective?
Areyourage,sex,ethnicity,dressorothercharacteristics
likelytoaffectyourobservations?
Howartificialisthesetting?Howvisibleareyouasthe
observer?Doesthismatter?
Isobservationenoughorwillyouneedtoparticipate,and/or
useothermeansofdatacollection?
Arethereanysituationstowhichyoucannotgetaccessbut
whereobservationmaybeimportant?Howcanyouget
`backstage'?
Ifyouaregoingtoparticipatemoredirectlyintheeventsyou
willbeobserving,howareyougoingtobalancethedemandsof

participationandobservation?
CANRESEARCHBEEMPOWERING?

Theterms`power'and`empowerment'cropupagreatdealin
researchrelatedtosocialjustice.Thisisnotsurprising.
Improvementsinjusticearerelatedtopower:whohasit,howit
isexercisedandwhereitmanifestsitself.Itsoundsasif
researchersforsocialjusticewouldfindalottoagreeabout
here.Butthisisnotthecase....theverydifferencesinvite
greaterreflexivityandclarityaboutwhatresearchersthinkthey
aredoing,andwhetheritisworthwhile.(Griffiths,1998:117)
Usingcreativegenresofwriting...canhelpmobilizesocial
actionorevokeparticipatoryexperiencesthroughimagination,
performanceart,andstorytelling.(EllisandBochner,1996:30)
Readerswhoidentifywithanoppressedgroupmayachievea
uniqueoutcomethroughreadingaboutrhetoricalfigureswho
aremetaphorsforthemselves.Selfrecognitionmayresultinan
imaginativenamingofone'sconditions.(Barone,1995:69)
WerepresentstoriestoldbysubjugatedOthers,storiesthat
wouldotherwisebediscarded.Andwegetahearing.(Fine,
1998:150).
Wemightsuggestthatcallsforempowerment,givingvoiceand
dialoguearefairlycommonplacethesedays.Wefindtheideaof
empowermentinliteraturesasfarapartasthoseconcernedwith
organisationalcompetitivenessandthoseconcernedwiththe
eradicationofpoverty.Theextentofusageofsuchterms,and
theimpactofwhatsomecallthepostmodern`malaise',has
meantthatwearemorelikelytodaytofindthatthereare'calls
forseriousskepticismofandcriticalattentiontothose
contemporaryeducationnarrativesthatclaimtobe
emancipatory'(Lather,1992:129).Allliberatorytalkhas

oppressivepotentials.
Gore(1992:56)usefullydelineatestheconceptof
empowermentintothreecomponents.Thus,empowerment
suggests(1)anagentofempowerment,(2)anotionofpoweras
property,and(3)somekindofvisionordesirableendsate).
ThisFoucauldianapproachsuggeststhattoempowersomeone,
then,meansthatyouareauthorizedbyyourselforotherstogive
something.Yetwhatdoesauthoritymean.AsWeiler(1995:33)
pointsoutformanyfeministsthepracticesofauthoritycanbe
paradoxical:

...theissueofinstitutionalauthorityraisesthecontradictionsof
tryingtoachieveademocraticandcollectiveidealina
hierarchicalinstitution,butitalsoraisesthequestionofthe
meaningofauthorityforfeministteachers,whoserighttospeak
ortoholdpowerisitselfunderattackinapatriarchal,(and
racist,homophobic,classist,andsoon)society.
Attimes,feministwomenmayindeedseektoclaimtheir
authority`over'preciselybecauseitisalreadyquestioned
throughgenderedorganizationalandsocialpractices.
Empowermentalsosuggeststhatpowerissomekindofproperty
thatcanbegivenaway,handedover,borrowedorshared.
Simplifieddiscussionsofempowermentencourageperceptions
ofunidirectionalmodelsthatdonotcreditotherswithpower
norallowforthecontradictorymessinessthroughwhichthe
everydayenactmentsofpoweremerge.
Finally,whatarepeoplebeing`empowered'for?Empowerment
suggestsadesirableendstatebutwhatmightthatbe?Anddo
weallagreewithwhateverthatis?
Theseissuesarecentralforthoseworkingto`empower'andto
workforsocialjustice.AsGriffiths(opcit)notesthereisno
singleresponsetotheseissues.YetGriffiths(1998:9596and

102)offersthefollowingtenprinciplesthatunderpinworking
forsocialjusticeinqualitativeeducationalresearch.Theseare:
1.Improvement:Amainreasonfordoingtheresearchistoget
improvementinsocialjusticeinandfromeducation.Resultsof
researchincludeknowledge(butnotonlypropositional
knowledgeorinformation)andimprovements)
2.Knowledgeandlearning:Amainreasonfordoingthe
researchistogetknowledgeandtolearnfromit.Thisis
inclusiveofvariouskindsofknowledge.Itimpliesthebest
possibleofwhateverkindisaimedat.
3.Radicalchangeofanyofthebeliefsandvaluesispossible:
Improvementsinknowledgearealwaysuncertain,so
researchersmustbepreparedtochangetheirmindsradically,
andtochallengeothersduringandafterdoingtheresearch.
Researchresultsandprocessesmaysurpriseanddiscomfortany
orallofthemembersoftheresearchercommunity,andalso
othereducationalresearchers.
4.Collaborationandconsultationwiththeimmediate
researchcommunity.Researchersneedtowork
collaborativelywithpeopleaspartofthecommunitycarrying
outtheresearch.Itisdifficulttoestablishhardandfast
boundariestothisresearchcommunity.Creating,establishing
andworkingwithsuchadiverseresearchcommunityrequires
thatallsectorsrespectandworkwitheachotherinconditionsof
trustandsafety,intheinterestsofimprovingeducation.Itis
acknowledgedthattheprocessesofconsultationandchangeare
goingtoresultinconflictandpeoplefeelingexposedwhen
puttingtheirviewsontheline.Waivingtrustandsafetycanbe
morallyjustified,butonlyinextremeconditions.
5.Opennesstoawidercommunity:Researchersneedtobe
opentotheviewpointsofallconcernedwiththeresearch.This

meansnotonlythosein(4)above,butalsousersoftheresearch
andanyoneelsetowhomitisrelevant,egpupils,teachers,
supportstaff,parents,LEAadvisors,theneighbourhood,policy
makersandpressuregroups.Strategiesareneededtolistento
quiet,lesspowerful,voices.
6.Opennesstopoliticalgroupingsandperspectives:
Researchersneedtoseekoutandbeopentotheviewpointsof
sociopoliticalgroups.Therearealliancestobemadebetween
groupsofpeopleonthebasisof,forinstance,class,race,
gender,sexuality.Theycrosscutalliancesbetween,for
instance,teachers,advisors,childrenandparents.Allthese
groupsneedacknowledgement,supportandunderstanding.This
isasourceofthereflexivitymentionedin(7)and(8).
7.Reflexivityaboutownpositionandinterests.Reflexivityis
neededabouttheresearchers'ownsociopoliticalpositionsand
interests.Argument,angerandriskareallpartoftheprocess.
Someofthefeelingsofriskcomeaboutbecausesuch
consultationrequiresresearcher(s)tobeopentoreflexivity
abouttheirownpositionandinterests.
8.Reflexivityaboutownunderstandingandvalues.
Reflexivityisneededabouttheresearchers'ownunderstanding
andvalues.Itisimportantthattheresearchersacknowledge
theirallegiancetobeliefs,valuesandtraditions.Theirmost
dearlyheldknowledgeandvaluesmaybebasedinthese
principlesofresearchforsocialjustice,butthesetooare
revisable.
9.Perfectioninresearchisnottobefound:Thereisnohope
ofdoingperfectresearch.Utopiadoesnotexist.Allresearch
programmeshavetobeconstructedontherun,andagainsta
backgroundofsocialandeducationalchange.Timeconstraints
andcompromisesareinevitable.Bythetimethebestpossible
design,methodsandformsofdisseminationarefound,the

situationwillmostprobablyhavechanged.Itfollowsthatall
researchmustbesubjecttocritique.Goodresearchstillneedsto
improve.Thismaymeanthatthereareareasinwhicharesearch
programmeisexcellent,butsomeotherthingsmaybeoutofits
controlaltogether.
10.Takingresponsibilityaspartofthewidereducational
researchcommunity.Researchersmustrecognizetheir
responsibilitiesrelatedtobeingpartofthecommunityof
educationalresearchers.Goodresearchalsorequires
researcherstobeopentothecommunityofeducationaland
otherresearchers,inaprocessofreflexivityrelatedtodangerous
knowledgeandpower.Advancesalwayscomeasapatchwork
orragbag.Therecanneverbeatidyoverarchingrationaleor
masterplanforimprovingfairness.Dangerhastobe
acknowledged.Vigilanceisneeded.Ontheotherhand,
advancesneedtoberecognisedandcelebrated.
Griffithswarnsthatitisimportanttonotethatthisisnota`pick
andmix'list.Allprinciplesareinterlocking.
Doesyourworkembracetheseprinciplesordoyouthinkthey
arevalidenoughtoadopt?
FurtherWork
Cautiondoesneedexercisingwiththeuseofconceptssuchas
empowermentandpower.Mostcommonassumptionsarebased
ontopdown,UsandThem,modelswherepowerissomething
thataneliteorabosshas.Thisisnottodenythatsome
groups/individualsdohavemorepowerthanothersbutthe
tendencyistofocusinthisonedirection.Foucauldiananalyses
ofpowerhighlighthowpowerisnotsimplyrepressivebut
productive,thatpoweriseverywhereandthatalongsidepower
wewillfindresistance.TheGriffiths(opcit)textgivesafuller
explorationofthisandprovidesassociatedexamplesfrom

researchineducation.
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UsefulInternetSites

CAQDASNetworkingProject:setupinconjunctionwith
ESRCtodisseminateanunderstandingofthepracticalskills
neededtousesoftwaretofacilitatequalitativedataanalysisand
toencouragedebateaboutmethodologicalandepistemological
issuesraisedbytheuseofsuchsoftware.
http://caqdas.soc.surrey.ac.uk/
EconomicandSocialResearchCouncil:tokeepuptodate
withdevelopmentsandpotentialwebsitesforbothqualitative
andquantitativemethods.http://www.esrc.ac.uk/
SociologicalResearchOnline:anonlinejournal.
http://www.socresonline.org.uk/