Prof. J.N.Kawale
Prof. J.N.Kawale
Prof. J.N.Kawale
Prof. J.N.Kawale
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Prof. J.N.Kawale
Switching system
Manual Switching
Automatic switching
Electromechanical switching
Strowger or
step by step
switching
Crossbar
switching
Electronic switching
Space division
switching
Digital
switching
Space switching
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method
Time switching
method
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Time division
switching
Analog
switching
Combinational
switching method
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Q.7.Defi e Tele o
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Traffic Measurement
The traffic is defined as a average number of calls in progress.
Traffic is a dimensionless quantity but a name given to unit of
traffic is Erlang (abbreviation E) named after A.K.Erlang, a
Danish pioneer of traffic theory.
Traffic is sometimes expressed in terms of hundreds of calls
seconds per hour (CCS).
1 erlang= 36 CCS
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Gradings
If the traffic offered to the two groups of
incoming trunks is Random, efficiency can
therefore be improved through mixing the
traffic by interconnecting the multiples of the
groups so that some of the outgoing trunks
are available to both groups of the switches.
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Gradings
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etri al g
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Associated with the space stage is a control store that contains the information
needed to specify the space stage configuration for each individual time slot of a
frame. This control information is accessed cyclically in the same manner as the
control information in the analog time division switch. For example, during each
outgoing time slot 3, control information is accessed that specifies inter stage link
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number
1 is connected to output link Prof.
N. J.N.Kawale
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Sequence of operations
1. Idle state: calling su s ri er s handset is in
on-hook condition i.e. line is idle. Exchange is
monitoring state of line.
2. Call request signal(seize signal):lifting handset
by calling subscriber causes current to flow in
line.
3. CLI: exchange detects the calling condition
and identifies the line.
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Signal exchanges
Fig. 7.1 & 7.2( next slides)
Signals can be categorized into two
types.
1. Forward signals: the signals sent from
caller to called subscriber.
2.Backward signals: the signals sent
towards the caller.
Channel associated and common channel
signaling
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In channel
DC
Low
frequ
ency
Common channel
Voice
frequency
Inband
PCM
Associated
Outband
Non
associated
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Frequency Reuse
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S = KN
The N cells which collectively use the complete set of
available
frequencies is called a cluster.
If it is replicated M times within the system, total no.of duplex
channels:
C = MKN
= MS
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N = Cluster size and typically
equal to 4,7,12.
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Q.27.Handoff strategies
When a mobile moves into a different cell while
a conversation is in progress, the MSC
automatically transfers the call to a new channel
belonging to the new base station.
This handoff operation not only involves
identifying a new base station, but also requires
that the voice and control signals be allocated to
channels associated with the new base station.
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Soft handoff:
Soft handoff: a mobile station is temporarily
connected to more than one base station
simultaneously. A mobile unit may start out assigned
to a single cell. If the unit enters a region in which the
transmissions from two base stations are comparable
(within some threshold of each other), the mobile unit
enters the soft handoff state in which it is connected
to the two base stations. The mobile unit remains in
this state until one base station clearly predominates,
at which time it is assigned exclusively to that cell.
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FDMA
In FDMA, each user is allocated a unique
frequency band or channel. During the period
of the call, no other user can share the same
frequency band.
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FDMA
All channels in a cell are available to all the mobiles. Channel
assignment is carried out on a first-come first- served basis.
The number of channels, given a frequency spectrum BT ,
depends on the modulation technique (hence Bw or Bc ) and
the guard bands between the channels 2Bguard . These guard
bands allow for imperfect filters and oscillators and can be
used to minimize adjacent channel interference.
FDMA is usually implemented in narrowband systems.
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Main features
Continuous transmission : the channels, once assigned, are
used on a non-time-sharing basis. This means that both
subscriber and BS can use their corresponding allotted
channels continuously and simultaneously.
Narrow bandwidth : Analog cellular systems use 25-30 kHz.
Digital FDMA systems can make use of low bit rate speech
coding techniques to reduce the channel band even more.
If FDMA channels are not in use, then they sit idle and cannot
be used by other users to increase capacity.
Low ISI : Symbol time is large compared to delay spread. No
equalizer is required (Delay spread is generally less than a few
s flat fading).
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TDMA
TDMA systems divide the channel time into
frames. Each frame is further partitioned into
time slots. In each slot only one user is
allowed to either transmit or receive.
Unlike FDMA, only digital data and digital
modulation must be used.
Each user occupies a cyclically repeating time
slot, so a channel may be thought of as a
particular time slot of every frame, where N
time slots comprise a frame.
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TDMA
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TDMA Features
Multiple channels per carrier or RF channels.
Burst transmission since channels are used on
a timesharing basis. Transmitter can be turned
off during idle periods.
Narrow or wide bandwidth depends on
factors such as modulation scheme, number
of voice channels per carrier channel.
High ISI Higher transmission symbol rate,
hence resulting in high ISI. Adaptive equalizer
required.
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TDMA Frame
One TDMA Frame
Preamble
Guard
Bits
Information
Trail Bits
Slot 1
Slot 2
Slot 3
Sync
Bits
Control
Bits
Information
Slot N
CRC
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CDMA Advantages
Low power spectral density.
Signal is spread over a larger frequency band
Other systems suffer less from the transmitter
Interference limited operation
All frequency spectrum is used
Privacy
The codeword is known only between the
sender and receiver. Hence other users can not
decode the messages that are in transit
Reduction of multipath affects by using a larger
spectrum
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CDMA Principle
Represent bit 1 with +1
Represent bit 0 with -1
One bit period (symbol period)
Data
0
1
1 1
Coded
Signal
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CDMA Example
R
Data=1011
Data=0010
B
Transmitter
Codeword=101010
Transmitter (a mobile)
Codeword=010011
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FDMA
TDMA
CDMA
Allocated Bandwidth
12.5 MHz
12.5 MHz
12.5 MHz
0.03 MHz
0.03 MHz
1.25 MHz
12.5/0.03=416
12.5/0.03=416
12.5/1.25=10
416/7=59
416/7=59
12.5/1.25=10
Control channels/cell
Usable channels/cell
57
57
4*
40**
57x1=57
57x4=228
8x40=320
57/3=19
228/3=76
320
16.8
Frequency reuse
Required channel BW
No. of RF channels
Channels/cell
Voice channels/cell
Sectors/cell
Voice calls/sector
Capacity vs FDMA
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