Computers in Industry 57 (2006) 141152

www.elsevier.com/locate/compind

Making CNC machine tools more open, interoperable and

intelligenta review of the technologies
X.W. Xu a,*, S.T. Newman b
a

Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering, The University of Auckland,

Private Bag 92019, Auckland, New Zealand
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Bath, Bath, BA2 7AY, UK
Received 30 August 2004; accepted 7 June 2005
Available online 10 October 2005

Abstract
The aim of the next generation of computer numerically controlled (CNC) machines is to be portable, interoperable and adaptable. Over the
years, G-codes (ISO 6983) have been extensively used by the CNC machine tools for part programming and are now considered as a bottleneck for
developing next generation of CNC machines. A new standard known as STEP-NC is being developed as the data model for a new breed of CNC
machine tools. The data model represents a common standard specifically aimed at the intelligent CNC manufacturing workstation, making the
goal of a standardised CNC controller and NC code generation facility a reality. It is believed that CNC machines implementing STEP-NC will be
the basis for a more open and adaptable architecture. This paper outlines a futuristic view of STEP-NC to support distributed interoperable
intelligent manufacturing through global networking with autonomous manufacturing workstations with STEP compliant data interpretation,
intelligent part program generation, diagnostics and maintenance, monitoring and job production scheduling.
# 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: CNC; Interoperability; STEP; STEP-NC

1. Introduction
From the start of craft production in the 1800s to the
pioneering mass production of the early 1900s there have been a
number of revolutionary changes to manufacturing systems
configurations. The most recognised traditional configuration of
manufacturing systems was the dedicated transfer (machine)
line, which enabled mass production at high efficiency and low
cost. With the need of the 1970s and 1980s to produce a wider
range of parts, flexible manufacturing was developed to meet
these needs for the production of smaller batches of different
parts. These systems used groups of computer numerically
controlled (CNC) machines that could be reprogrammed to make
different parts combined with automated transport systems and
storage. These CNC machines became the central elements in the
systems such as flexible transfer lines, flexible manufacturing
systems (FMS) and flexible manufacturing cells (FMC).

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +64 9 373 7599x84527; fax: +64 9 373 7479.
E-mail address: x.xu@auckland.ac.nz (X.W. Xu).
0166-3615/$ see front matter # 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.compind.2005.06.002

However, the amount of flexibility existing in these

systems was still believed to be limited. In order to prepare
manufacturing companies to face increasingly frequent and
unpredictable market changes with confidence, interoperable
and more open manufacturing systems are needed. In the
process of designing and operating interoperable and open
manufacturing systems there is a need to distinguish from
among system-level issues, component-level (i.e. machine
and control) issues, and ramp-up time reduction issues [1,2].
Most of the research effort has been spared on the issues at the
system level, some at the component level and little on the
ramp-up time reduction issues. At the component level,
research work has primarily centred around the control issues
concerning machine tools, with the aim to provide enabling
CNC technologies for modular and open-architecture control
[3,4].
CNC machine tools are the main components in any
manufacturing system. There are demands and new opportunities to empower the current CNC machines with the muchneeded features such as interoperability, adaptability, agility
and reconfigurability. To this end, there are two major issues
that need to be addressed namely product data compatibility/

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X.W. Xu, S.T. Newman / Computers in Industry 57 (2006) 141152

interoperability and adaptable CNC machines. Up till now little

research has been carried out in this field, but due to the
developments of the new CNC data model known as STEP-NC,
there has been a surge of research activities in trying to address
the above-mentioned issues. This paper reports on these
research activities and tries to address the issues of interoperability and adaptability for CNC machine tools.
2. Impediments of current CNC technologies
Todays CNC machine designs are well developed with
capabilities such as multi-axis control, error compensation and
multi-process manufacture (e.g. combined mill/turn/laser and
grinding machines). In the mean time, these capabilities have
made the programming task increasingly more difficult and
machine tools themselves less adaptable. Some effort has been
made to alleviate this problem, in particularly the trend towards
open architecture control, based on OSACA [5] and open
modular architecture controller (OMAC) [6], where third party
software can be used at the controller working within a standard
windows operating system. One further recognisable industrial
development is the application of software controllers, where
PLC logic is captured in software rather than in hardware.
Although these developments have improved software tools
and the architecture of CNC systems, vendors and users are still
seeking a common language for CAD, CAPP, CAM, and CNC,
which integrates and translates the knowledge of each stage
with no information loss. Though there are many CAM tools
supporting NC manufacture, the problem of adaptability and
interoperability from system to system was and is still seen as
one of the key issues in limiting the wider use of these tools.
2.1. Product data compatibility and interoperability
CNC machine tools complete the product design and
manufacturing lifecycle, and more often than not they have to
communicate with upstream sub-systems, such as CAD, CAPP
and CAM. In the case when neutral data exchange protocols,
such as SET, VDA, and initial graphics exchange specification
(IGES) are used, information exchange can happen between
heterogeneous CAD and/or CAM systems. This is however
only partially successful since these protocols are mainly
designed to exchange geometrical information and not totally
suitable to all the needs of the CAD/CAPP/CAM industry.
Thus, the international community developed the ISO10303 [7]
set of standards, well known as STEP.
By implementing STEP AP-203 [8] and STEP AP-214 [9]
within CAD systems, the data exchange barrier is removed. Yet,
data exchange problems between CAD/CAM and CNC systems
remain unsolved. CAD systems are designed to describe the
geometry of a part precisely, whereas CAM systems focus on
using computer systems to generate plans and control the
manufacturing operations according to the geometrical
information present in a CAD model and the existing resources
on the shop-floor. The final result from a CAM system is a set of
CNC programs that can be executed on a CNC machine. STEP
AP-203 and STEP AP-214 only unify the input data for a CAM

system. On the output side of a CAM system, a 50-year-old

international standard ISO 6983 (known as G-Code or
RS274D) [10] still dominates the control systems of most
CNC machines. Outdated yet still widely used, ISO 6983 only
supports one-way information flow from design to manufacturing. The CAD data are not utilised at a machine tool. Instead,
they are processed by a post-processor only to obtain a set of
low-level, incomplete data that makes modification, verifications and simulation difficult. The changes made at the shopfloor cannot be directly fed back to the designer. Hence,
invaluable experiences on the shop-floor cannot be preserved
and re-utilised.
2.2. Inflexible CNC control regime
The ISO 6983 standard focuses on programming the path of
the cutter centre location (CL) with respect to the machine axes,
rather than the machining tasks with respect to the part. Thus,
ISO 6983 defines the syntax of program statements, but in most
cases leaves the semantics ambiguous, together with low-level
limited control over program execution. These programs, when
processed in a CAM system by a machine-specific postprocessor, become machine-dependent. In order to enhance the
capability of a CNC machine, CNC controller vendors have
also developed their own tailored control command sets to add
more features to their CNC controllers to extend ISO 6983.
These command sets once again vary from vendor to vendor
resulting in further incompatible data among the machine tools.
The current inflexible CNC control regime means that the
output from a CAM system has no adaptability, which in turn
denies the CNC machine tools of having any interoperability.
The main reason is that a G-code based part program only
contains low-level information that can be described as howto-do information. The CNC machine tools, no matter how
capable they are, can do nothing but faithfully follow the Gcode program. It is impossible to perform intelligent control nor
machining optimization.
3. The STEP-NC standard
Today a new standard namely ISO 14649 [1116]
recognised informally as STEP-NC is being developed by
vendors, users and academic institutes world wide to provide a
data model for a new breed of intelligent CNCs. The data model
represents a common standard specifically aimed at NC
programming, making the goal of a standardised CNC
controller and NC code generation facility a reality. Currently
two versions of STEP-NC are being developed by ISO. The first
is the Application Reference Model (ARM) (i.e. ISO 14649)
and the other Application Interpreted Model (AIM) of ISO
14649 (i.e. ISO 10303 AP-238 [17]). For more information on
the use and differences between them readers are referred to
[18,19].
Contrary to the current NC programming standard (ISO
6983), ISO 14649 is not a method for part programming and
does not normally describe the tool movements for a CNC
machine. Instead, it provides an object oriented data model for

X.W. Xu, S.T. Newman / Computers in Industry 57 (2006) 141152

143

CNCs with a detailed and structured data interface that

 STEP-NC provides a complete and structured data model,
incorporates feature-based programming where a range of
linked with geometrical and technological information, so
information is represented such as the features to be
that no information is lost between the different stages of the
machined, tool types used, the operations to perform, and
product development process.
the sequence of operations to follow. Though it is possible to
 Its data elements are adequate enough to describe task
closely define the machine tool trajectory using STEP-NC, the
oriented NC data.
aim of the standard is to allow these decisions to be made at a
 The data model is extendable to further technologies and
latter stage by a new breed of intelligent controllerSTEPscalable (with conformance classes) to match the abilities of a
NC controller. It is the aim that STEP-NC part programs may
specific CAM, SFP or NC.
be written once and used on many different types of machine
 Machining time for small to medium sized job lots can be
PDFRecovery
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tool controller 1.0
providing
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reduced because intelligent optimisation can be built into the
http://www.OfficeRecovery.com
capabilities. In doing this, both CNC machine tools and their
STEP-NC controllers.
control programs are made adaptable and interoperable. Fig. 1
 Post-processor mechanism will be eliminated, as the interFile:
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 Machine tools are safer and more adaptable because STEPThis
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ideally should be generated at the machine by the STEP-NC
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version of PDFRecovery at:
from CAD/CAM to CNC machines can be achieved.
Geometric information is defined by machining features
 XML files can be used as an information carrier hence enable
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(similar to AP-224 [22]) with machining operations termed
Web-based distributed manufacturing.
Workingsteps performed on one or more features. These
Workingsteps provide the basis of a Workplan to manuA detailed discussion on value proposition for STEP-NC can
facture the component. Fig. 2 illustrates an actual extract of
be found in a report produced by the OMAC STEP-NC
such data for a part with a Workplan consisting of Workingsteps
Working Group [24] and other publications [20,23,25].
for slotting, drilling and pocketing. One important point to note
is that this code is the STEP-NC transfer (physical) file, which
4. STEP-NC international community
is imported/exported into and out of a STEP-NC intelligent
controller. This file would be interpreted by the controller,
In the second half of the 1990s, an effort from the
enabling CNC operators to interact at a Workingstep (i.e.
international community backed by ISO started the major
machining operation) level via an intelligent manual data
change in the concept of NC programming, through an
interface (MDI) or CAD/CAM system at the controller. Some
international intelligent manufacturing systems (IMS) proof the benefits with using STEP-NC are as follows [23].
gramme [26]. The programme was co-ordinated across four

Fig. 1. Bi-directional information flow with STEP-NC [21].

144

X.W. Xu, S.T. Newman / Computers in Industry 57 (2006) 141152

Fig. 2. Example STEP-NC physical file [20].

worldwide regions each with individual projects namely

Europe, Korea, Switzerland and the USA. The major coordinators of the programme are Siemens (EU), CADCAMation (Switzerland), STEP Tools (USA) and ERC-ACI (Korea).
STEP-NC Europe is responsible for milling, turning and
inspection of the ISO 14649 standard. It has 15 partners, led by
Siemens, with users such as Daimler Chrysler, Volvo, and the
support of research institutes such as WZL RWTH-Aachen and
ISW Stuttgart University. The Swiss are leading the development of the standard for wire-cut and die-sink EDM in
collaboration with vendors such as Agie, Starrag and CAM
manufacturer CADCAMation. The work in Korea has been
carried out by both Pohang University of Science &
Technology (PosTECH) and the Seoul National University
in the areas of milling and turning architectures for ISO 14649
compliant controllers. Other research teams working in the area
include those in the UK and New Zealand. In the United
Kingdom, an Agent-Based, STEP-compliant CAM (AB-CAM)
system has been developed in Wolfson School of Mechanical
and Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough University

[27,28]. In New Zealand, the Manufacturing Systems

Laboratory at the University of Auckland has been using the
AIM of STEP-NC [17] to develop a STEP-compliant CAPP
system for collaborative manufacturing [29,30].
The STEP-NC programme in the USA called SuperModel
led by STEP Tools Inc. and sponsored by National Institute of
Standards and Technology (NIST) has made major advances
to fully automate the CAD to CNC manufacturing process
through the use of STEP or rather AP-238. This project involved
a strong group of industrial partners including Boeing, Lockhead
Martin, General Electric and General Motors, together with
recognised CAM vendors such as Gibbs Associates and
MasterCAM.
5. STEP-NC for more open and interoperable
machine tools
There are four types of research work related to STEP-NC:
(1) conventional CNC control using STEP-NC; (2) new STEPNC enabled control; (3) STEP-NC enabled intelligent control;

X.W. Xu, S.T. Newman / Computers in Industry 57 (2006) 141152

and (4) collaborative STEP-NC enabled machining. The degree

of adaptability increases from Type 1 to Type 4. It is to be noted
that STEP-NC together with STEP is now forming a common
data model for representing complete product information. Its
far-reaching effect lies in a total integration of CAD, CAPP,
CAM and CNC with desired interoperability and adaptability
across the complete design to manufacturing chain. Due to the
limited scope of this paper, only the research work directly
related to STEP-NC enabled CAM/CNC is discussed.
5.1. Conventional CNC control using STEP-NC
This type of research marked the beginning of STEP-NC
related research endeavour. The main purpose is to answer two
questions: Does a STEP-NC file contain enough and just
enough information for CNC machining? and if it does, Can
it be used on a traditional CNC machine tool without making
changes to the system hardware?. The main research is to do
with the development of translators which can read in a
STEP AP-203 or AP-224 file and convert it into G-code format
that the targeted CNC machine tool can understand. The
translator is somewhat similar to the post-processor used in
many CAD/CAM or CAM systems. The only difference is that
the CAD/CAM, CAM and CNC systems are now made
interoperable in a sense that the STEP compliant information
can be used across the board. Also, the design information that
can be embedded in a STEP-NC file is made available to the
CNC systems. This scenario represents conventional solidbased manufacturing as enabled by STEP AP-203.
The work carried out in the first two stages of the three-stage
SuperModel Project falls into this type of work. In stage one, a
range of software tools (i.e. ST-Plan, ST-Machine, and STIX
[31]) were developed involving GibbsCAM and various pieces
of third-party software. The GibbsCAM STEP translator can
read in the demonstration part in STEP AP-203 format. The part
is then programmed using GibbsCAMs graphical interface,
and visually verified using its cut part rendering capability [32].
In the second stage, the AP-238 file was read using a
GibbsCAM STEP-NC Adaptor plug-in, developed by STEP
Tools Inc. An MDSI Open CNC controller (software-based
CNC) [33] retrofitted to a Bridgeport vertical machining centre
was used as the platform for the GibbsCAM and STEP-NC
software. Using the tooling and operation parameters specified
in the AP-238 file, the STEP-NC Adaptor created GibbsCAM
tooling, process and geometry elements and executed
GibbsCAM functions to generate toolpaths corresponding
to the AP-238 machining features. Once again, the cut part
rendering was used for visual verification prior to postprocessing the data to generate conventional G-code output.
This work has demonstrated the ability of STEP-NC to
completely automate CAM processing and toolpath generation. It has also significantly reduced the lead-time in the CAD/
CAM to CNC programming time by up to 85% [32].
More recently, at the Jet Propulsion Lab (JPL) in Pasadena,
California, in January 2003, STEP Tools Inc. demonstrated
the conversion of AP-203 design data into AP-238 (i.e. the
AIM version of STEP-NC), feature by feature, with the use of

145

ST-Plan AP-238 data. AP-238 data was then transferred to

GibbsCAM with the assistance of ST-Machine, and then to a
five-axis Fadal machining centre. In June 2003 at NIST, a
similar set-up saw MasterCAM interface with another five-axis
machine tool.
5.2. New STEP-NC enabled control
Working closely with some of the popular CNC controllers
or Open Modular Architecture Controller [6], several research
teams around the world have been able to process STEP-NC
information internally is a CNC controller. This is made
possible by developing for, and integrating a STEP-NC
Interpreter into, these controllers that can faithfully performs
the machining tasks as specified in ISO 14649.
The third stage work of the US SuperModel Project saw
GibbsCAM integrated with an OMAC machine tool. An AP238 data file provided all the manufacturing information to
allow GibbsCAM to generate the toolpath data. The toolpath
data was then sent to a horizontal machining centre in so-called
stroke-level inter-process communication rather than conventional G-codes, demonstrating a higher level of CAM/CNC
integration than is normally realised through ISO 6983.
Most of the work carried out in EU falls into this category of
research. The main focus has been on the development of the
STEP-NC enabled CNC control using Siemens 840D controller
[34]. This enables the STEP-NC physical files to be integrated
directly with the controller, with visualisation of the machining
features and associated Workingsteps in a STEP-NC compliant
version of their ShopMill CAM system. Programming
developments in parallel with this work have been undertaken
at WZL, University of Aachen, Germany, with the WZL
Shopfloor Programming System incorporating WZL Mill, a
STEP-NC compliant programming system and WZL-WOP
(workshop-oriented programming). Commercial applications
in Europe with CATIA and OpenMind systems have been
presented by Volvo and Daimler Chrysler [34,15] illustrating
the capability of incorporating the standard within the CAD/
CAM products and exporting the STEP-NC output to the
Siemens 840D controller.
In addition to STEP-NC milling developments the
technology has also been extended to CNC turning. The
prototype STEPTurn software module has been developed by
ISW Stuttgart, working with a Siemens 840 control on a
Boehringer NG200 lathe [34], STEPTurn software can import
CAD geometry and machining features, define machining
strategies and technologies and generate STEP-NC output. The
Siemens controller receives this output and converts it into the
Siemens ShopTurn system via a STEP-NC import facility.
5.3. STEP-NC enabled intelligent control
The dream of performing intelligent control on a CNC
machine has never been truly realized. The main reason is that
the information (G-code) available to a CNC machine is too
low-level information, with which only minimum amount of
optimization work can be carried out in real time or near real

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X.W. Xu, S.T. Newman / Computers in Industry 57 (2006) 141152

time. With STEP-NC, both design and process planning

information is available to a CNC machine. It is possible for the
CNC machines, or their controllers, to perform high-level,
intelligent activities, such as automatic part setup; automatic
and optimal tool path generation; accurate machining status and
result feedback; complete collision avoidance check (taking
into account of fixture and in-process geometry); optimal
Workingstep sequence; adaptive control and on-machine
inspection.
The researchers at the NRL-SNT (National Research
Laboratory for STEP-NC Technology) in PosTECH, Korea
have developed a Feature-Based STEP-NC autonomous control
system based on an Open Architectural Virtual Manufacturing
System [3537]. The information in an ISO 14649 part program
is converted through an Interpreter into the internal data format,
i.e. process sequence in form of Process Sequence Graph
(PSG). The EXPRESS compiler in the Interpreter converts the
physical file, in form of task description into a PSG, based
on the information such as geometry, technology and tool
description. PSG represents a non-linear sequence of Workingsteps described in terms of machining_feature and
machining_operation using the ANDOR relationship
(Table 1 and Fig. 3). As presented in the PSG, the part can
be machined in a number of ways, making CNC execution
flexible, optimal, intelligent and autonomous. The non-linear
process sequence schema enables a STEP-compliant CNC
autonomous system. In preparation for executing a STEP-NC
program, a Tool Path Generator (PosTPG), Tool Path Simulator
(PosTPS) and a soft-CNC called NCK/PLC have been
developed [35]. NCK/PLC can convert the STEP-NC data
model into machine tool motion, and is capable of NURBS
interpolation, look-ahead control, position/velocity interpolation and PID (Proportional, Integral, Derivative) control. It
interfaces with machine tool hardware (drivers and motors) via
an I/O board.
A STEP-compliant CNC machine tool that demonstrated a
G-code free machining scenario has been developed at the
Manufacturing Systems Laboratory, University of Auckland
[38]. This research work consists of two parts: retrofitting an
existing CNC machine and the development of a STEPcNC
(STEP-compliant NC) Converter. The CompuCams motion
control system [39] is used to replace the existing CNC
controller, which is programmable using its own motion control
language6 K Motion Control language and capable of
Table 1
Workingstep list [37]

Fig. 3. Process sequence graph [37].

interfacing with other CAPP/CAM programs through languages such as Visual Basic, Visual C++ and Delphi. The
STEPcNC Converter can understand and process STEP-NC
codes, and interface with the CNC controller through a Human
Machine Interface. It makes use of STEP-NC information such
as Workplan, Workingstep, machining strategy, machining
features and cutting tools that is present in a STEP-NC AIM
file.
5.4. Collaborative STEP-NC enabled machining
It can be said that the ultimate goal for the STEP-NC enabled
machining is to support Web-based, distributed and collaborative
manufacturing (Fig. 4), a scenario of design anywhere/build
anywhere. This is possible as a STEP-NC program can separate
the generic manufacturing information (what-to-do), from the
manufacturing information (how-to-do) that is native to a
specific machine tool. Therefore, a generic STEP-NC program
can be made machine-independent and has an advantage over the
conventional, G-code based NC program which is always
generated for a particular CNC machine. For this type of STEPNC program to be implemented on a native CNC system, the
native manufacturing knowledge has to be incorporated. To fulfil
this function, a native STEP-NC mapping system called Native
STEP-NC Adaptor has been developed [40]. The adaptor is
built with three parts: a native CNC system knowledge database,
a Translator and a HumanComputer Interface. The native CNC
system knowledge database has a proprietary data structure so
that the work in developing the Translator is made simpler and
coherent programming of NC components across the enterprise
is enabled.
Recently, there has been a trend of using XML (or rather ISO
10303 Part 28) instead of EXPRESS language (or ISO 10303
Part 21 [41]) to represent the STEP-NC information. The
reason for this is obvious. The XML processing ability can

Workingstep
ID

Feature

Operation

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Planar_face
Closed_pocket
Round_hole
Round_hole
Slot
Slot
Round_hole
Slot

Plane_rough_milling
Bottom_and_side_rough_milling
Drilling
Drilling
Bottom_and_side_rough_milling
Bottom_and_side_rough_milling
Drilling
Bottom_and_side_rough_milling

Fig. 4. Distributed, STEP complaint NC machining [20].

X.W. Xu, S.T. Newman / Computers in Industry 57 (2006) 141152

Fig. 5. STEP-NC milling machine [42].

147

easily support the e-Manufacturing scenario. CNC machine

tools can share information with other departments in and
outside the company over the Internet/Intranet.
ERC-ACI (Engineering Research Centre for Advance
Control and Instrumentation) in Seoul National University
[4244] has been working toward developing an XML-enabled
STEP-NC data model for milling. It can search for, extract and
store, the toolpaths generated in XML format. The milling
machine used to test the system contains four modules (Fig. 5):
XML Data Input module, Interpreter, Tool Path Generator and
Motion Control Board. The XML Data Input module and
Interpreter generate STEP-NC programs from CAD files,
whereas the other two generate and execute native CNC process
plans.
A framework of a STEP-compliant CAPP system has been
developed at the University of Auckland [29,30]. The system
adopts three-tiered, Web-based network architecture (Fig. 6).
The client tier consists of a set of applications and a Web

Fig. 6. A STEP-compliant collaborative manufacturing model.

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X.W. Xu, S.T. Newman / Computers in Industry 57 (2006) 141152

browser, enabling interactions between users and the system.

The process plans that are used as an input to a CNC system are
described in accordance with the STEP-NC AIM standard.
Instead of low level information as stipulated by ISO 6983,
higher level information such as machining features, Workingsteps and Workplans is used to constitute a process plan. A
database structure has been proposed for both generic and
native manufacturing information and XML is used to represent
the STEP-NC information in these databases.
6. Portable STEP-NC toolpath
On 3rd February 2005, the OMAC STEP-NC Working Group
hosted an STEP-NC Forum in Orlando, FL, USA. The main
purpose of the demonstration is two-fold: (a) to demonstrate how
STEP-NC information can support portable machining on fiveaxis machining centres; and (b) to see if STEP-NC toolpath
description capabilities can be used to streamline the data flow
between existing CAD/CAM systems and machining centres.
The AIM (AP-238) version of STEP-NC was adopted, and its
CC1 (conformance class 1) Machine Independent toolpaths
[17] was used for the demonstration. The component tested was
the 5-Axis NAS 979 circle/diamond/square part with an inverted
NAS 979 cone test in the centre (Fig. 7) [45].
The business case and the main industry participant are
Boeings manufacturing plants. Like others, most five-axis
machining centres at Boeing receive machine control data (or
MCD) in G-code format that defines each axis movement
required in order to manufacture a part. This direct programming
model means that the orientation axes are traversed as
synchronized axes, and are tied to a specific tool length. The
problem with these MCD programs is that they are neither
portable nor adaptable. Lack of portability presents a problem
since unique axes position data must be generated for each
machine control combination (part, tool, and machine configuration) on which the part is to be run. MCD programs are not
adaptable as no information is provided to the machine to help it
adapt to real-time changes in machining dynamics (feed and
speeds) or machine tool alignment (tool and wear offsets).
By comparison, tool centre programming (TCP) defines
program geometry as cutter movement data, instead of axis

movement data. TCP is similar to robotic 6D pose representation.

Motion is defined as a 3D tool-tip position (X, Y, Z) and a 3D tool
axis orientation (I, J, K). For each TCP (X, Y, Z, I, J, K), the CNC
controls the two rotation axes so that the tool is positioned and
oriented as specified. In addition, the CNC controller performs
tool offset compensation along the tool axis according to the
position of the tool tip in the proper position and orientation.
STEP-NC allows tool centre programming to define
program geometry as cutter movement data, instead of axis
movement data. STEP-NC also provides rich, high level
information about the part features, materials, cutters, and
dimensional tolerances. In the aerospace industry, tighter and
tighter part tolerances are the expected norm so that the need for
STEP-NC is pronounced. TCP can provide some direct
accuracy improvements since each CNC will determine its
tool tip position, as opposed to a CAM system generating static
toolpaths as a series of axes positions. Since machine
geometries can vary slightly even between identical machines,
expected accuracy improvement should be significant.
At the STEP-NC Forum in Orlando, four CAD/CAM systems
(i.e. Unigraphics, Catia, GibbsCAM and MasterCAM) were used
to generate CL part programs. These CL data represent angular
cutter motions in a CNC configuration-independent I, J, K way,
with the assumption that the underlying machine tool controller
will translate the I, J, K into machine specific five-axes angular
configuration. CL-AP-238 converters have been developed to
translate the CL file into AP-238 Part 21 file based on the AP-238
CC1 toolpaths technology. This STEP-NC file encodes machine
Workingsteps as TCP toolpaths based on the AP-238 Express
schema, which is then suitable for the transfer between differing
machining centres. Different machine-specific converters have
been developed to translate the STEP-NC file into a controllerspecific TCP programs (Fig. 8). These converters will be
eventually embedded in the controllers. It is to be noted that the
STEP-NC (AP-238) file is now neutral to all five-axis machines,
be it a five-axis gantry CNC, C on A machining centre or C
on B machining centre. It is portable because it defines program
geometry as cutter movement data, instead of axes movement
data. It is adaptable because it can account for any configurations
changes on a machine tool.
7. Challenges and opportunities
Though some early research work has shown that STEP-NC
can be an enabling tool for developing more open, interoperable
and intelligent CNC machine tools, to gain acceptability by the
NC community and particularly the CNC programmers and
operators, a number of challenges still lie ahead. These
challenges also present ample opportunities for various parties
such as NC machine tool manufacturers, CNC controller
manufacturers and commercial CAD/CAPP/CAM vendors.
7.1. STEP-NC information models

Fig. 7. Five-axis NAS 979 circle/diamond/square part.

The use of STEP-NC brings the benefit of better integration

for information models from design to manufacture, effectively
eliminating semantic errors and bringing an end to the

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149

Fig. 8. Smart CNC data flow through using STEP-NC.

translation between proprietary and non-proprietary formats.

However, the fact that both STEP-NC ARM (ISO 14649) and
AIM (AP-238) co-exist and have each been implemented by
different groups, presents a less than satisfactory environment
for users. It is of particular importance that one understands the
difference between these two versions of STEP-NC prior to
implementation. The main difference between these two
models is the degree to which they use the STEP representation
methods and technical architecture. Both versions can be
viewed as different implementation methods of the STEP-NC
standard. The ISO 14649 standard is more likely to be used in
an environment in which CAM systems have exact information
from the shop-floor, whereas STEP AP-238, as a part of the
STEP standard, is more suitable for a complete design and
manufacturing integration. The ISO 14649 standard has few
mechanism to incorporate other types of STEP data, hence
making bi-directional data flow between design and manufacturing more difficult. Unlike ISO 14649, STEP AP-238
encompasses all the information from STEP AP-203 and AP224 plus an interpreted model mapped from ISO 14649. Hence,
bi-directional data exchange is enabled. A major problem with
STEP AP-238 though, is that the STEP Integrated Resources
used in AP-238 are not adapted to application areas; hence the
data in its files are fragmented and distributed. It only provides
an information view of the data, whereas the ARM provides a
functional view of the data.
7.2. Feature recognition for STEP-NC
For STEP-NC to take off, machining feature recognition is
an important prerequisite, as it is a linkage between STEPenabled CAD and CAPP. Most of the current feature
recognition systems are prototypes and incapable of dealing
with a sufficient broad space of feature spectrum. Also, very
few systems can perform feature recognition in a STEP in,
STEP out manner, i.e. recognizing STEP AP-224 machining
features based on the STEP AP-203 or AP-214 data.

The literature to date has shown some effort spared in this

area. Based on the technology developed at Honeywell Federal
Manufacturing & Technologies (FM&T), ST-Plan can create
STEP AP-224 machining features from STEP (AP-203 or AP214) data. Parameters such as tolerances, features, processes
and tool requirements can be manipulated. ST-Plan claims to be
the first-to-the-market software package dedicated to STEP-NC
and e-Manufacturing [31]. The system has two major modules:
feature-based machining (FBMach) and feature-based tolerancing (FBTol). FBMach is used to recognise manufacturing
features and allow Workingsteps to be defined for those
features, whereas FBTol is used to define tolerances. FBMach
contains a library of machining features and feature recognition
algorithms. The system creates both surface and volume-based
machining features. A surface-based machining feature is
based on sets of faces on the solid model-the skin that
represents the shape of a feature. A volumetric machining
feature is represented by delta volumes, which are solid
bodies showing the shape and amount of material to be
removed. Toolpaths may also be determined by delta volumes
in applications for generating CNC routines.
The SFP system developed at NRL-SNT can also generate
STEP AP-224 features based on AP-203 data [3537]. These
features are then input to the process planning stage, during
which the native machine tool information and machining
parameters are added to the program. Workingsteps of each
manufacturing feature are defined and saved into an ISO 14649
part program. The STEPturn system developed at ISW also has a
feature recognition function that precedes Workingstep sequencing in order to generate a STEP-NC (ISO 14649) physical file.
7.3. Intelligent CNC controllers
STEP-NC delivers a complete package of information, be it
design or manufacturing information, to the CNC machine. On
the one hand, the CNC controller gets much richer information
making it possible to perform a true adaptable, optimal and

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intelligent control. On the other hand, the NC controller

manufacturers, once persuaded, have to re-design their controller
structures and strategies to take this advantage. This being done, a
major shift in culture and user belief is also needed to trust the
new breed of intelligent controllers to translate feature-based
conversational programming to the correct toolpath at the
machine. This is recognized as a paradigm shift where the
equivalent of todays post processor functions at the off-line
CAD/CAM system will take place at the machine (or within the
new controller) leading to the end of G-code era. A closer
collaboration between the CNC control vendors and CAx
vendors may have to happen to enable this dramatic change.
7.4. Manufacturing knowledge
The adoption of the STEP-NC paradigm brings forth the
opportunity to consider not just the ways of representing
information but also the type of information to be represented.
To be more precisely, it is the knowledge required for process
planning and machining discrete parts that needs to be
accumulated and validated. The knowledge-based systems
thus developed need to be robust. At present the developments
in STEP-NC have considered relatively simple components, i.e.
2D-components with autonomous or compound features.
Parts containing more complex geometry with intricate
interactions require additional knowledge-based intelligent
solutions. A sound balance between standardizing such
solutions as much as possible and still leaving enough room
for customization is hard to keep.
7.5. Challenges related to the supporting technologies
For a STEP-NC enabled machine tool to be fully
autonomous as well as interoperable, a suite of supporting
technologies needs to be further developed. At the CAD/CAPP
end, it is the old topic of automatic feature recognition based
on a STEP AP-203 model. At the machine side, more adaptable
and faster control is needed. Intelligent embedded machatronic
systems and OMAC seem to offer a viable solution, but more
research has to be carried out in the areas of modular software
and hardware design, intelligent control algorithms and
distributed control technology. The knowledge-based systems
as mentioned above need to be mobile and easy to share. XML
is being recognized as a promising means of modelling
knowledge and distributing it across the Internet. Current
Internet technologies are not yet fit to serve such portable
systems, not to mention the venerability of the Web space.
8. Conclusions
Modern CNC machine tools, though capable in functionalities, lack adaptability, portability and intelligence. This is
due to the fact that a 50-year-old language is still employed by
these machine tools. NC programs following this format are
only meant for execution on a specific machine tool. They
cannot be reinterpreted by a CAM system or a SFP system for a
different machine tool. Automatic generation of a 100%

optimised NC program is not possible as design information

and know-how about the machine tools and materials is
represented in different formats and on different databases.
STEP-NC can provide a uniform NC program format for
CAM, SFP and NC, avoiding post-processing and entail a truly
exchangeable format. The operator can now be supported at
CAM, SFP and NC level by complete information containing
understandable geometry (features), task oriented operations,
strategies and tool definitions. Availability of design data at the
machining stage also enables a reliable collision check, accurate
simulation and feedback from the machining stage to the design
stage. Part programs following the STEP-NC standard are
interoperable in a sense that they can be adapted to any CNC
machine tools that have the ability to execute the machining
tasks. CNC machines implementing STEP-NC can have a more
open and adaptable architecture, making it easier to integrate
with other manufacturing facilities, e.g. workpiece handling
device. STEP-NC also supports distributed manufacturing
scenario through, for example, Ethernet connections to
accomplish data collection, diagnostics and maintenance,
monitoring and production scheduling on the same platform.
The demonstration exhibited at the OMAC STEP-NC Forum is
significant. It showed that different CAD/CAM systems can
generate the same, machine-neutral STEP-NC information. The
STEP-NC file has been adapted to different five-axis CNC
machines. The test part (NAS 979) is a true five-axis component.
It is to be pointed out that only AP-238 CC1 machine
independent toolpath data is used. Information such as
machining features and design data is not considered. Therefore,
there is limited adaptability the CNC machines can exercise in
this case.
There are still issues to be addressed and challenges to be met.
These challenges come from the drive for a uniformed STEP-NC
information model, development of STEP-NC enabled intelligent controllers, capture of necessary manufacturing knowledge
to support decision-making at the machine tool level as well as
other under-developed pertaining technologies. The challenges
co-exist with the opportunities that if seized in time can yield a
multitude of benefits that STEP-NC promises.
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Xun W. Xu received a BSc and MSc from Shenyang
Jianzhu University and Dalian University of Technology, PR China in 1982 and 1988, respectively. In
1996, he received a PhD from the Department of
Mechanical Engineering, University of Manchester
Institute of Science and Technology (UMIST), UK.
He is now a senior lecturer at the Department of
Mechanical Engineering, the University of Auckland, New Zealand. Dr. Xu is a member of ASME
and IPENZ. In addition to his teaching and research
activities at the University of Auckland, Dr. Xu has been actively engaged in
various industrial consultancy work. He heads the Manufacturing Systems
Laboratory and the CAD/CAM Laboratory in the University of Auckland. His
main interests lie in the areas of CAD/CAPP/CAM, STEP, and STEP-NC.

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X.W. Xu, S.T. Newman / Computers in Industry 57 (2006) 141152

Stephen T. Newman gained BSc honours degree in
production technology and management in 1982 from
the University of Aston, Birmingham, on a sandwich
degree sponsored by Land Rover Ltd. Having worked
at Land Rover for 4 years he joined Loughborough
University as a research associate and gained his PhD
in 1990. In 1989, he was appointed, as a lecturer in

manufacturing engineering, promoted to senior lecturer in 1997 and Reader in

computer-aided manufacturing in 2000. In January 2006, he joined
the University of Bath as a professor in the area of Innovative Manufacturing.
He has 20 years of experience in European and National R & D programmes
being involved in Eureka Factory, EU Framework V and framework
VI programmes together with numerous national EPSRC research programmes.