1

Visual Algebra Through Symmetry

William G Mandras, © 2004

Abstract:

Algebra Through Symmetry is a visual method that was prevalent at the dawn of
the mathematical sciences. Symmetry is crucial in the formulation of the method and
it is symmetry that enables a visual solution of the algebraic equations. The visual
method achieves symmetry through a process of axiomatic reformulation.
Reformulating an equation to obtain symmetry requires less symbolic logic, fewer
arithmetic operations and activates the student’s most primitive concepts.
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First: What is algebra?

The beginning of knowledge requires a definition of the subject matter that the students are
about to study. It is a mystery why anyone would write a textbook on algebra and routinely fail to
define the subject. So what is algebra? Algebra is the language of higher mathematics, but it is not
just another language. Algebra is an abstract symbolic language plus reasoning; it is a language with
the rules logic built-in. The structure of algebra, assumption-deduction-conclusion, is based on the
concept of formal proof, a human invention that dates from the fourth century BCE. An equation in
algebra is equivalent to a sentence in a written language that has a quantitative connotation; such
sentences can be translated into equations. For example, the statement: John is five years older than
Mary, translates into: J = 5 + M, where the literals, J and M, are John and Mary’s ages, the verb
“is” translates to an equals, = sign, and the words “five years older” translates to 5 and the addition
operator, 5 +. Algebra is a tool for reasoning in that it enables the connection of one statement to
another. The additional information needed to proceed is the statement: two years ago, John was
twice as old as Mary. Both statements can now be connected through a process of reformulation and
the unknown ages can be deduced from the one-to-one matching of terms.

Statement 1: J = 5 + M  J–2=5+M–2+2–2  J–2= 7–2+M–2

Statement 2: J – 2 = 2(M – 2)  J–2=M–2+M–2  J–2=M–2+M–2

The visual method above reformulates statement 1 by subtracting 2 from both sides, adds a zero =
+ 2 – 2, requires only one arithmetic operation - the addition of 5 + 2, and rearranges the terms to
match statement 2; in statement 2 the quantity M – 2 is simply written twice. Note that the visual
method does not solve for the variable or use any abstract symbolic logic but reformulates and
compares the equations to deduce that Mary’s age is 7, and John is 5 + 7 or 12. Two years ago, John
was 10 and Mary was 5, that is, John was twice as old as Mary.
The language analogy requires the following definitions: the set of real numbers is the nouns of
the language. The set is infinite and unique with a powerful base 10 numerations that enables every
number (element) in the set to be expressed as a decimal fraction. The concept of infinity is a
human invention that does not exist; consequently, to enable student visualization, the sand on a
beach is a reasonable facsimile of the “infinite” set of real numbers, where each grain of sand has a
unique number inscribed. The grains of sand on a beach are impossible to count; similarly, the
infinite set of real numbers is also impossible to count. The set contains two numbers, zero and one,
that have special properties that enable the process of reformulation. Everyone thinks they know
what the numbers are until it comes time to define them. When the students are asked to define the
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number 3 without using the word three in their definition, there is no response. A student will
occasionally attempt to define the number 3 as 1 + 1 + 1, but then he or she is required to define the
number 1 and the operation of addition. The words used to define 1 and the operator + must in turn
be defined, so the student would soon enter an endless loop of definitions. The difficult, if not
impossible, task of trying to define the numbers can be avoided with the hypothesis that the
numbers, whatever they are, satisfy certain basic assumptions. In The Elements, by Euclid, a
textbook used at the University of Alexandria, circa 310 BCE; 5-assumptions were made to develop
the early algebra: Things that are equal to the same thing or to equal things are equal to each other.
If equals are added to equals, then the results are equal. If equals are subtracted from equals, then
the remainders are equal. Things that coincide with one another are equal to one another. The
whole is greater than the part.
These assumptions were the foundation of geometric algebra and therefore, the grammar and syntax
of the language in that era. Finally the operators, +, –, × , ÷, =, , and so on, tell us what action to
take, so they play the role of verbs in the language.

Summary:
• Algebra is the language of higher mathematics.
• The set of real numbers are the nouns.
• The operators are the verbs.
• The assumptions are the grammar and syntax of the language.
• A sentence that has a quantitative connotation can be translated into an equation.
• Algebra is a tool for reasoning in that it enables the connection of one statement to another.
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Visual Algebra Through Symmetry

Algebra was geometric1 at the dawn of the mathematical sciences. At the University of
Alexandria, circa 310 BCE, students were equipped with a straight edge and compass and could
construct the geometric diagrams to scale. Each term in an equation: 3x + 5 = 5 + 6, was depicted as
an area and a geometric diagram was constructed. Euclid’s fourth axiom: Things, which coincide
with one another are equal to one another, is compelling evidence that algebra was geometric in
that era. Equality requires that the two rectangular areas are equal; therefore length x must coincide
with length 2.
Reflective Symmetry, the Geometric Solution: 3x + 5 = 5 + 6.
Euclid’s 4th Axiom; area equality requires that x must coincide
3 3x +5 = 5 + 6 3 with 2. Geometric algebra has been absent from the pedagogy
for approximately 2000 years.
x 2

Algebra Through Symmetry is geometric algebra with symmetry substituted for geometry:

3x + 5 = 3(2) + 5 ¬ Translational symmetry; Visual solution : x = 2, by one - to - one matching of terms

3x + 5 = 5 + (2)3 ¬ Reflective symmetry; Visual solution : x = 2, by one - to - one matching of terms
x = 2, 2 = x ¬ Reflective symmetry; Axiomatic solution : x = 2, by reflection

Define Visual method:

Apply the axioms to one side of an equation to reformulate and achieve symmetry. Solve for the
variable implicitly using a one-to-one matching of terms. Check any modified expression.

Visual Mantra: Rewrite the equation until both sides look the same.

ax + b = c Apply the axioms to one side of the equation to achieve final symmetry

c- b c- b
ax + b = a( ) +b Translational symmetry; x = by the one-to-one matching of
a a
terms

c- b
ax + b = b + ( )a Reflective symmetry is a possible reformulation but is not likely
a

Define Axiomatic method:

Apply the axioms to both sides of an equation to simplify and reduce to an equivalent equation.
Solve for the variable explicitly and check the solution in the original equation.

Axiomatic Mantra: Whatever you do to one side of an equation you must do to the other.

ax + b = c Apply the axioms to both sides of the equation to achieve final symmetry

c- b c- b
x= Reflective symmetry, the axiomatic solution; x = by reflection
a a
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Note: The visual and axiomatic methods have an inverse relationship to each other in the sense that
both achieve the unique solution through symmetry, one by axiomatic reformulation to translational
symmetry and the other by axiomatic reduction to reflective symmetry.
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Section 1, Linear Equations:
Visual algebra enables the student to determine by inspection the terms needed to obtain
symmetry. Generally, the abstract portion of an equation is kept unmodified and the real portion is
reformulated such that the form of the equation is the same on both sides of the equality.
a 1
Acronyms: LHS/RHS = Left/Right Hand Side, Multiply by *1 = or by *1 = a( )
a a
L 1) Three copies of a book, plus $5.00 to mail, cost $11.00. Find the cost of each book?
Visual solution: RHS: Reformulate to obtain translational symmetry.

3b + 5 =11 ← Equation, RHS: Add 0 = −5 + 5 and group the unmatched terms: (11 – 5)
3 1
3b + 5 = (11- 5) + 5 ← RHS: Multiply the term, (11 – 5) by 1 = or by 1 = 3( )
3 3
3b + 5 = 3(
11 - 5
3
)+5 → b(ooks ) = (113- 5 ) = $2 each, from the one-to-one matching of terms
11- 5
Check: Final RHS = Original RHS? Does: 3( ) + 5 = 11? Yes.
3
3b + 5 = 3(2) + 5 ← Translational symmetry; the more likely reformulation
3b + 5 = 5 + (2)3 ← Reflective symmetry; the less likely reformulation
b = 2, 2 = b ← Reflective symmetry; the axiomatic solution

 Reflective symmetry, the Geometric Solution:

3 3b +5 = 5 + 6 3 3b + 5 = 5 + 6, Euclid’s 4th Axiom: things which coincide
with one another are equal to one another. Area equality
b 2 requires that b must coincide with 2.

L 1) Visual Alternative:
3b + 5 = 11 ← Formulate and add a symmetrical equation
1 1
3( )(11 - 5) = 3b ← b = ( )(11 - 5) = 2 from one-to-one matching
3 3
3b + 11 = 3b + 11 ← Symmetry verifies that b = 2, no additional check is needed
L 2) A salesperson earns a salary of $125 per week plus a commission of $2.40 for each item
sold. Find the number of items sold if the earnings were $528.20 in one week.
1
2.40 ν + 125 = 528 .20 ← RHS: Add 0, group unmatched terms, *1 = 2.40 ( )
2.40
1
2.40 n +125 = 2.40( )(528 .20 - 125 ) +125 ← Evaluate n:
2.40
1
(528 .20 - 125 ) = 168
2.40

2. 40 n125=2. 40  168125 ← n = 168, items sold, from one-to-one matching

L 3) The cost to rent an automobile is $37 dollars a day plus 21 cents per mile. If the final bill is
$61.15, how many miles were driven?
1
0.21m + 37 = 61.15 ← RHS: Add 0, group unmatched terms, *1 = 0.21( )
0.21
1 1
0.21m + 37 = 0.21( )(61.15 - 37) + 37 ← Evaluate m: (61.15 - 37) = 115
0.21 0.21

0.21 µ + 37 = 0.21 (115 ) + 37 m = 115 miles were driven, from one-to-one matching
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Section 2, Systems of equations:
In systems of linear equations, where the variables have a tangible meaning, the equations will be
reformulated to obtain symmetry or to contain a collinear equation (Proportional Symmetry). The
visual method will be used to obtain the solutions; current algebra textbooks would use the
axiomatic method. Moreover, the visual method requires little, if any, abstract symbolic logic, only
arithmetic. Examples: SE 1 to SE 10 introduces problem solving in two variables.

SE 1) John has harvested a combined total of 27 apples and lemons. There were twice as many
apples harvested then there were lemons. How many of each was harvested?

Reformulate each equation to obtain translational symmetry.

A + L = 27 ® A + L = 27 ® A+ L =9+9+9
A = 2L ® A + L = 2L + L ® A+ L =L+L+L

John harvested L = 9 lemons, from one-to-one matching, and A = 2L or 18 apples.

SE 2) A train leaves Boston traveling west at a speed of 30 km/h. Two hours later, another train
leaves Boston traveling in the same direction on a parallel track at 45km/h. At what elapsed time
will the faster train overtake the slower train?

Reformulate each equation to achieve translational symmetry.

T ra inA : D istan ce
= 3 0(t + 2) ® D =3 0t + 6 0 ® D = 3 0t +1 5(4)
T ra inB : D istan ce
= 4 5t ® D =3 0t +1 5t ® D = 3 0t +1 5t

The elapsed time: t = 4 hours, from one-to-one matching

SE 3) A powered catamaran took 4 hrs to make a trip downstream; the return trip took 5 hrs.
There was a constant 6-mph current. Find the speed of the catamaran in still water.

Reformulate each equation to achieve translational symmetry:

D istan ce= velo citý tim e: D = (s + 6)4 ® D =4s + 2 4 ® D = 4s - 3 0+ 5 4

D istan ce= velo citý tim e: D = (s - 6)5 ® D =5s - 3 0 ® D = 4s - 3 0+ s

The speed is: s = 54 mph in still water, from one-to-one matching

SE 4) There are two supplementary angles in which one angle is 12 degrees less than 3 times the
other. What is the measure of the angles?

Reformulate each equation to achieve translational symmetry:

x + y =1 8 0 ® x + y =1 9 2- 1 2 ® x + y = 4(4 8) - 1 2

y = 3x - 1 2 ® x + y = x + 3x - 1 2 ® x + y = 4(x) - 1 2

Angle: x = 48° from one-to-one matching, Angle: y = 180 - 48 = 132°

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Section 2, Systems of equations: (Continued)

SE 5) An investment of $4800 in two corporate bonds earn $412 in interest the first year.
The bonds pay interest of 8% and 9% per annum.
Find the amount invested at each rate of interest.

Reformulate to contain a collinear equation with coefficient ratio = 1:(0.08); 0.08(4800) = 384

E + N = 4800 ® E+ N = 4800

0.08E + 0.09N = 412 ® 0.08E + 0.08N + 0.01N = 384+ 28

28
Ν= = $2800 at 9% interest; E = $4800 – $2800 = $2000 at 8% interest
0.01

SE 6) The ground floor of the Empire State building in New York is a rectangle. The building’s
perimeter is 860 ft. The width is 100 ft less than the length. Find the length and width.

Reformulate to contain a collinear equation with coefficient ratio = 2:1

2l + 2w = 860 ® 2l + 2w = 660+ 200 ® 2l + 2w = 4(165) + 200

l =100+ w ® l + w =100+ w + w ® l + w = 2w +100

w = 165 ft from one-to-one matching. l = 100 + 165 = 265 ft

SE 7) Cool Mitts, Inc., sold 20 pairs of gloves. Plain leather gloves sold for $24.95 per pair and
Gold-braided gloves sold for $37.50 per pair. The company took in $687.25. How many of
each kind of gloves were sold?

Reformulate to contain a collinear equation with coefficient ratio = 1:24.95; 20(24.95) = 499.00
p + g = 20 ® p+ g = 20
24.95p + 37.50g = 687.25 ® 24.95p + 24.95g +12.55g = 499.00+188.25
188.25
g= ® g =15 G old- braided gloves;p = 20- 15 ® p = 5 Plainleather gloves
12.55
SE 8) Auto-Parts Inc. wants to mix 2 anti-freeze solutions to obtain 60 liters of a solution that is
3.2% methanol. Solutions: T is 2% methanol and S is 6% methanol.
How many liters of each solution are required?

Reformulate to contain a collinear equation with coefficient ratio = 1:2%

T +S =6 0 ® T+ S = 6( 0)

2%T + 6%S = 3.2% 6( 0) ® 2%T + 2%S + 4%S = 2% 6( 0) +1.2% 6( 0)

1.2%(60)
S=
4%
= 18 liters of 6% methanol, T = 60- 18 → T = 42 liters of 2% methanol
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Section 2, Systems of equations: (Continued)
In systems of abstract linear equations, one equation is kept unmodified while the other equation
is reformulated to obtain the matching terms. The procedure eliminates the entire unmodified
equation and yields a solution to the remaining variable. The coefficients are chosen as prime
numbers and fractions to make the solution difficult by the axiomatic method.

SE 9) Visual solution, system of two equations with prime numbers as coefficients

A :11x - 13y =17 ® 11x - 13y =17 A dd0, 2 places

11 11(5) 11(23)
B : 7x + 5y = 23 ® ( ´ B) : 11x - 13y +13y + y =17- 17+
7 7 7
7(13) + 55 7(- 17) + 253
B - A & C om bineterm s ( )y =
7 7
146 134 134 67
E valuatey y= ® y= [y = ]
7 7 146 73
67 73 23(73) - 5(67) 192
E valuatex B : 7x + 5( ) = 23( ) ® x= [x = ]
73 73 7(73) 73
192 67 2112 871 1241
C heck, A : 11( ) - 13( ) =17? ® - =17? ® =17? 17=17
73 73 73 73 73
192 67 1344 335 1679
C heck, B : 7( ) + 5( ) = 23? ® + = 23? ® = 23? 23= 23
73 73 73 73 73

SE 10) Visual solution, system of two equations with prime fractions as coefficients:

1 1 1 1
A: x - y =17 ® x - y =17 Add0, 2 places
11 13 11 13
1 1 7 1 1 1 7 7(23)
B: x + y = 23 ® ( ´ B) : x - y + y + y =17- 17+
7 5 11 11 13 13 55 11
13(7) + 55 11(- 17) +161
B - A & Com bineterm s ( )y =
13(55) 11
146 - 26 13(55)(26) 845
Evaluate y y= ® y =- [y = - ]
13(55) 11 146(11) 73
1 1 845 73 1 169 1679 7(1679+169) 12936
x =? B: x + (- ) = 23( ) ® x - = ® x= [x = ]
7 5 73 73 7 73 73 73 73
1 12936 1 845 1176 65 1241
Check, A : ( ) - (- )y =17? ® + y =17? ® =17? 17=17
11 73 13 73 73 73 73
1 12936 1 845 1848 169 1679
Check, B : ( ) + (- )y = 23? ® - y = 23? ® = 23? 23= 23
7 73 5 73 73 73 73
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Note: In SE 9 and SE 10) the axiomatic method (multiply each equation by the LCD to eliminate y, etc.)
requires 19 and 20 arithmetic operations, not including the check, versus 12 and 14 for the visual method.
Moreover, the visual method requires only arithmetic and little, if any, abstract symbolic logic.
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Section 3, Linear Inequalities:
Linear inequalities can be reformulated by keeping the abstract portion of the inequality
unmodified. Add the equivalent of zeros to obtain the matching terms, and then multiply by the
equivalent of one to obtain a matching coefficient. If the coefficient of the variable term is negative,
the sense of the inequality must be reversed at the final step.
+1
LI 1) Visual solution: RHS: Add 0 = –2 + 2, Group unmatched terms, multiply by 1 =- 3( )
-3
8- 2 +6
− 3 ξ + 2 < 8 → − 3x + 2 < - 3( ) + 2 → − 3x + 2 < - 3( ) + 2
-3 -3
− 3 ξ + 2 < −3( −2) + 2 → Reverse the sense of the inequality on the last step

x > – 2, from one-to-one matching

-2
LI 2) Visual solution: LHS, RHS: Add 0 = 4 – 4, group unmatched terms, multiply by 1 =
-2
− 3 ≤ −2 ξ + 4 ≤ 10
−3- 4 + 4 - 3 £ - 2x + 4 £ 1 0- 4 + 4 ® − 7 + 4 ≤ −2 ξ + 4 ≤ 6 + 4

−2 -2 7
(- 7) + 4 £ - 2x + 4 £ (6) + 4 ® - 2( ) + 4 £ - 2x + 4 £ - 2(- 3) + 4
-2 -2 2
7
Reverse the sense of the inequality; Range: ≥ x ≥ – 3, from one-to-one matching
2

LI 3) Visual solution: Multiply to clear parentheses; add like terms

− 3( ξ + 8) − 5 ξ < 4( ξ − 9) + 27 → − 3 ξ − 24 − 5 ξ < 4 ξ − 36 + 27 → −8x - 24 < 4 x - 9

− 8 ξ − 24 < 4 ξ − 9

12 ξ = − 15 →
← Formulate and add a symmetrical equation

x > –15 ÷ 12 → x > –1.25 Reverse sense of the inequality

4x – 24 = 4x – 24 Symmetry verifies that x > –1.25

LI 4) Visual solution:

4 ξ − 2 ≤ ξ + 1 ≤ 3ξ + 4
← LHS and RHS: Reformulate to match middle term

3x - 3 + (x + 1) £ (x + 1) £ 2x + 3 + (x + 1)  Cancel term (x + 1), 3 places

3x - 3 £ 0 £ 2x + 3
3
3x - 3 £ 0 → 3x - 3 £ 3( ) - 3 →    x ≤ 1 , from one-to-one matching
3
2
0 ≤ 2ξ + 3 → (- 3) + 3 £ 2x + 3
2
3 3
2(- ) + 3 £ 2x + 3 → − ≤ x , from one-to-one matching
2 2
3
− ≤ ξ ≤ 1 Range of the variable
2
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Section 4, Rational equations:
Rational equations are particularly difficult to comprehend precisely because they contain
abstract fractions. The visual solution generally keeps the more difficult side of the equation
unmodified and rewrites the less difficult side to obtain symmetry. In some cases, partial symmetry
is created followed by division. Division generally produces remainders on both sides of an
equation that must be equated repeatedly to reduce a rational equation to a linear form.

R 1) Visual solution: create partial symmetry to avoid the multiplications.

2x - 7 11 2x +11- 11- 7 29 - 29 +11 - 18 - 18

= (0 =11- 11) ® = (¸ ) ® 1+ =1+
2x +11 29 2x +11 29 2x +11 29

2x +11= 29 ← Equate denominators. Formulate and add a symmetrical equation

2(9) = 2x ® x = 9, from one-to-one matching

2x +2 9=2x +2 9 ¬ Symmetry verifies that x = 9, no additional check is needed.

R 2) Visual solution: create partial symmetry to avoid the binomial multiplications.

x + 3 2x - 7 x + 5 - 5 + 3 2x +11 - 11 - 7 -2 9 - 18
= (0 = 5 - 5) ® = (¸ ) ® 1+ ( ) = 1+
x + 5 2x + 11 x+5 2x + 11 (x + 5) 9 2x + 11
9 ξ + 45 = 2 ξ + 11 ← Equate denominators. Formulate and add a symmetrical equation

34 34
−7x = - 7( ) → ξ= − , from one-to-one matching
-7 7
34
2 ξ + 45 = 2 ξ + 45 ← Symmetry verifies that ξ = − , no additional check is
7
needed.

R 3) Visual solution: create partial symmetry to avoid the binomial multiplications.

2ξ − 7 ξ+3 2 ξ + 11 − 11 − 7 ξ+8−8+3 −
= ( +0) → = ( ÷) → 1 +
2 ξ + 11 ξ+8 2 ξ + 11 ξ+8 2ξ

5 − 18 18 −5 5 18
( ) =( ) ← Multiply by *1 = =
5 (2 ξ + 11) 18 ( ξ + 8) 5 18

10 ξ + 55 = 18 ξ + 144 ← Equate denominators. Formulate and add a symmetrical equation

1 1 - 89
8x = 8( )(55 - 144 ) → x = ( )(55 - 144 )= = – 11.125, from one-to-one matching
8 8 8

18 ξ + 55 = 18 ξ + 55 ← Symmetry verifies that: x = – 11.125, no additional check is needed.

 13
Section 4, Rational equations: (Continued)
R 4) Visual solution: rational equation, reformulate to obtain partial symmetry

x+5 1 x- 3
+ = 2x -
2 2 8

x + 5 +1 x- 3 x- 3 x- 3
- 2x + + 2x - = 2x - ← LHS: add 0 = – RHS + RHS
2 8 8 8

x+6 4 8 x- 3 4 8
( ) - 2x( ) + ← Isolate unmatched terms; multiply by 1 = =
2 4 8 8 4 8

4 x + 24 - 16 x x - 3 −11 x + 21
+ + → ← Combine unmatched terms
8 8 8 8

−11x + 21 x- 3 x- 3
+ 2x - = 2x - ← Final equation; partial symmetry
8 8 8

Unmatched term (numerator) must equal zero; reformulate to contain an inverse coefficient.
21 21
−11x + 21= 0 ® - 11x +11( ) = 0, x = , from one-to-one matching. This value produces
11 11
x- 3 x- 3 21
symmetry in the final equation, 2x - = 2x - and verifies that, x =
8 8 11

←
R 5) Visual solution: rational equation, reformulate to obtain partial symmetry
x - 4 x - 8 - 17
+ =
3x 5x x RHS: Add 0 = LHS – LHS

x - 4 x - 8 x - 4 x - 8 x - 4 x - 8 - 17
3x
+
5x
=
3x
+
5x
-
3x
-
5x
+
x ← RHS: Isolate unmatched terms

5 x- 4
5
(-
3x
3 x - 8 15 - 17
) + (-
3 5x
)+ (
15 x
)
← Unmatched terms, multiply by
1=
5 3 15
= =
5 3 15

−5x + 20 - 3x + 24 - 255
5(3x)
+
3(5x)
+
15 x →
−8x - 211
15 x ← Combine unmatched terms

x - 4 x - 8 x - 4 x - 8 −8x - 211
3x
+
5x
=
3x
+
5x
+
15 x ← Final equation; partial symmetry

Unmatched term (numerator) must equal zero; reformulate to contain an inverse coefficient

- 211 211
−8x + 8( )=0 ® x =- , from one-to-one matching. This value produces symmetry in the
+8 8
x- 4 x- 8 x- 4 x- 8 211
final equation, + = + and verifies that, x = -
3x 5x 3x 5x 8

Note: In R 4) and R 5), the axiomatic method (multiply both sides by 8 and 15x, etc.) requires 26 and 24
arithmetic operations, including the check, versus 10 and 14 for the visual method.
 14
Section 5, Second-degree equations of the quadratic form: y = ax + bx + c 2

In quadratic equations, completing-the-square is currently in vogue as the only general solution

of these equations. A geometric-numerical method2, formulated at the dawn of the mathematical
sciences, is also a general solution. At the University of Alexandria, 310 B.C.E, Euclid’s students
were equipped with a straightedge and compass and could construct the geometric diagrams to
scale. One possible diagram for the equation, xx – 6x + 8 = 0, is constructed by depicting the term
6x as an area. A rectangle is drawn with length 6 units and width x units. The area of the rectangle
must equal xx + 8 square units. Noting that 2 * 4 = 8, and that 2 + 4 = 6, area xx is drawn as a 2 * 2
square; and the lower 4 * 4 square, drawn dashed, completes the diagram. Only the diagrams of
quadratic equations with positive roots were constructed; negative numbers and exponent notation
were invented in a later era.

6
2 4 xx – 6x + 8 = 0
xx + 8 = 6x
2 xx 8 x xx + (2 * 4) = (2 + 4)x
Roots: x = [2, 4]
6
xx
4 Check: 2(2) – 6(2) + 8 = 0? Yes.
Check: 4(4) – 6(4) + 8 = 0? Yes.

Geometric-Numerical Method: 6
Example : f (x) = 3x 2 - 18x + 10 = 0 Find the roots.
10 10
3x 2 + 10 = 18x ® x 2 + = 6x ®®®®®®
3 3
10
Assume the equation is a trinomial square, that is, area = area x 2 ; the x-coordinate at the
3
6 10
vertex of a trinomial square is: ξ = = 3. Does: 32 + = 6(3) ? No.
2 3
The roots will deviate from the roots of a trinomial square by an amount:

2 10 3(9) - 1 0 17
Deviation: e =1 8- 9 - Þ e2 = Þ e2 =
3 3 3
17 17 3 51
The roots are therefore: x = 3 ± or x = 3 ± ´ Þ x = 3±
3 3 3 3

51 2 51
Does: 3(3 ± ) - 18(3 ± ) + 10 = 0? Yes.
3 3

A generalized derivation follows. Those students that have great difficulty with mathematical
abstraction may find the above derivation much easier to comprehend.
 15
Section 5, Second-degree equations of the quadratic form: (Continued)

Generalized Geometric-Numerical method:

General equation: y = ax 2 + bx + c = 0

c b
x2 + =- x ® ® ® ® ®
a a

c
The diagram is symmetrical if the equation is a trinomial square, i.e., area = area x 2 . The
a
b b
redundant roots would be: [- ,- ]; assuming that every quadratic equation has these roots
2a 2a
would produce an error; ∣e 2∣   ≥  0.  e 2 , the deviation from a trinomial square can be
computed:
2 2 b c b b b c b2 b2 c
e =- x - x- ® e = - (- ) 2 - (- ) -
2
® 2
e =- 2 +( 2)-
a a 2a a 2a a 4a 2a a
b b
b2 c ( )2 a c ( )2 - a c b - e2
2
e = 2- ® e2 = 22 - 2 ® e2 = 2 2 A ls o: f (- ) =
4a a a a a 2a a
- b /2 e2 - b /2 - e 2
The roots of a quadratic equation are: x = ± , and the vertex is: v = ( , )
a a a a
Redefine e 2 as the numerator: (- b ¸ 2) 2 - ac, and express as a determinant. Example, find the
roots and vertex of: y = 3x 2 - 18 x + 10 = 0, where the coefficients : a = +3, b = - 18, c = +10

Multiply the principle diagonals to obtain the cofactors [+81] – [+30] and subtract the products
 16

b -1 8
- a- 3
92 2 2 3
Deviation:
e = = = = [8 ] - 3 = 5 1 0 1
b -1 9 8 0
c- 1- 0
22
9 51 51 - 51
Roots: x = ± ® x = 3± V ertex: v = (3, ) ® v = (3,- 17)
3 3 3 3

The Geometric-Numerical method requires (6) arithmetic operations to compute the roots and
vertex. Considering that three coordinates can be found quickly using only arithmetic, the method
lends itself to graphing quadratic equations. In this example, the quadratic formula requires (9)
arithmetic operations to compute the roots alone. The geometric-numerical method also calls into
question the need to learn the factoring procedures to solve quadratic equations.

General Quadratic Equation: y = ax 2 + bx + c

β ε2 β ε2 - b /2 - e 2
Factored form: ( ξ + + )( ξ + − )=0 Vertex = ( , )
2α α 2α α a a
 17
Section 5, Quadratic equations: (Continued)
Geometric-Numerical solution of quadratic equations:

b
-a 2 2
2 2 - b /2 e - b /2 - e
Deviation: e = , R : x = ± , Vo : v =( , ) o e r t s t e x
b aa aa
c-
2
e 2 = The deviation from a trinomial square and also determines the nature of the solutions.

Q5.1) Acid-rain lake pollution and the antacid required to neutralize that pollution is given by the
equation: p = A(A – 6) + 9; where A is the antacid in pounds per cubic yard of water and p is the
pollutant. Find the antacid required to neutralize the pollutant.

2
312
p=A - 6A+9 e = =[9]-[9]=0
93 p-Axis

e2 =0 E; q u a t i o n i s a t r i n o m i a l s q u a r e . TGraph: h e p = A(A – 6) + 9
g r a p h iA-s A t xaa int s go en n e t pt o i tnh t e,
A-Axis
Vertex: (3, 0) = (A, p)
t h e vw e h r it ce hx , i n d i c a t e s t h e m i n i m u m p o l l u t i o n .
R o:A=3±0
o 2 t s V e =[3,0]=(A 32
r 2 t e xv, pv ) y-Axis

Q5.2)
2x - 6x- 7=0 e = =[9]- [-1 ] =2 4 3
3p o ou a fnn dpt asce cur yi bd a i wrc d ia sot e nf r en e du t eth rd ea lt pio zo e l l u t a n t .
y = 2xx – 6x – 7

x-Axis

-7 3 Vertex: (1.5, –11.5)

3 23 3 − 23
e 2 = +23 , roots are irrational : ξ =
2
±
2
, ςερτεξ : ϖ= (
2
,
2
)
 18

1
-3 v = (–0.167, 2.083) y-Axis
2 2 2 1 2 4 ( 6) + 1 2 5
2.0832.08311.5)

Q5.3) −3x -x +2=0 e = =[ ]- [- 6] e = =

14 4 4 x-Axis

2 y = –3xx – x + 2
2
1 5 1 25
e 2 = +square , roots are rational: ξ = − ± , ςερτεξ : ϖ= ( − , )
6 6 6 12

2 2
33
Q5.4)
3x - 6x +1 =0 3e = =[9]- [3 ]=- 3 9 0 y-Axis
2
y = 3xx – 6 x + 13

13 3
Vertex: (1, 10)
− 30
e 2 = - 30 , roots are complex: ξ = 1 ± , ςερτεξ : ϖ= ( 1, 10 )
3 x-Axis

30
Or, roots: ξ = 1 ± ι, ωηερε ι = −1
3
 19
Section 6, Exponential equations:
Exponential equations with variables or irrationals as exponents can be reformulated to obtain
symmetry by using the change of base formula in logarithms. Symmetrical exponential equations
eliminate the need to take the logarithm of both sides of an equation.

E 1) Visual solution: an equation containing a variable exponent.

24
24 = 5(2) x Þ 5( ) = 5(2) x Þ 5(4.8) = 5(2) x
5
log(4.8) Ln(4.8)
x
5(2) log(2)
= 5(2) 5(2) Ln(2)
= 5(2) x

L
og ( 4.8) L
n ( 4.8)
x = o
r x = f
rom o
ne -t
o -o
Lo
g ( 2) Ln ( 2)

E 2) Visual solution: an equation containing an irrational exponent.

11
Λν ( )
3
4+7
3 ξπ − 7 = 4 ⇒ 3 ξπ − 7 = 3( )−7 ⇒ 3 ξπ − 7 = 3 ξ Λν ( ξ )
−
3
11 11
Ln (
) Ln( )
π = 3 From one-to-one matching. Ln(x) = 3 Þ x =1.51221
Ln ( x ) p

E 3) Visual solution: an equation containing a variable exponent and base.

l
n y
l
n y
y = x x
⇒ x l
n x
= x x
⇒
l
n x
From one-to-one matching

l
n ψ = ξ ln ξ ⇒ l
imi
t a
s ξ → 0; l
n ψ=

Note: this statement, or its equivalent, appears in all of the algebra textbooks in print.
For any real number: α, α ≠ 0, α0 = 1.
Any nonzero number raised to the zero power is 1.

This is the eternal textbook error as shown in example E 3). While the error is minor, the statement
is false and does not belong in a textbook on algebra.

Calculator check: y = 0.000001 0.000001

= 0.99999

The graph of y = x x will show the limit (0, 1)   

(0, 1)
 20
Conclusion:

Mathematical ability, like all human abilities, is normally distributed (Bell curve) as evidenced
by the following data3 published in a journal of the Mathematical Association of America.
F D C B A No. of cases
13.8% 18.7% 32.4% 22.9% 12.2% 8319

The mean of a normal distribution implies that one-half of the student population is below
average in mathematical ability (approximately 29.5 million students4 in the US). This number is
approximate and likely higher; it does not take into account the undocumented immigrant students,
the published assertion that the mean of the distribution varies widely among the ethnic groups and
the studies that show a rapidly declining number of students that receive the educational and
psychological benefit of traditional upbringing.

This is the existential condition that a teacher encounters when they attempt to teach any level
of mathematics in K-12.

The axiomatic method has reigned too long as the exclusive basis of the algebra pedagogy to the
detriment of those students who lack the ability necessary to comprehend the concept of formal
proof and its structure of assumption-deduction-conclusion. A natural concept, on which to base the
algebra pedagogy, is the reflective symmetry of the human form, a concept that is visual and an
organic part of human understanding.

Every student, to some degree, has a measure of mathematical ability that depends on the
amount that one accumulates the mental representation of mathematical objects whose properties
are reproducible. Intuition is the faculty by which one can consider or examine the mathematical
objects that are stored in a mental set of neurons. When contemplating a problem, internal
mathematical intuition is the faculty of browsing in one’s neuron library until a new insight or
connection between the objects is found. When contemplating a diagram that has a quantitative
connotation, visual mathematical intuition is the faculty that enables one to perceive the
mathematical truth revealed in the diagram.

Because visual learning is the dominant mode, visual mathematical intuition is also the
dominant mode. These facts strongly suggest that teaching both the axiomatic and visual methods in
parallel, both in the classroom and in the textbooks, would create a more powerful pedagogy that
more closely corresponds to the mathematical abilities of the typical class in algebra.

Moreover, the visual method may be the only means available to rescue those students whose
circumstance places them at high risk of failure when the curriculum requires that they learn
abstract symbolic algebra.
 21
Endnotes
1 Euclid’s book, “The Elements was not, as is sometimes thought, a compendium of all geometric knowledge; it was instead
a textbook covering all elementary mathematics, that is, arithmetic (in the sense of the English “higher arithmetic’ or the
American “theory of numbers”), synthetic geometry (of points, lines, planes, circles, and spheres), and algebra (not in the
modern symbolic sense, but an equivalent in geometric garb).” A History Of Mathematics by Carl B. Boyer, 2nd edition,
page 104.
2 The Elements, by Euclid, in Book II, Proposition 6, depicts a geometric solution of a quadratic equation.

http://aleph0.clarku.edu/~djoyce/java/elements/bookII/propII6.html
3 Grades and Distributions, by Norman E. Rutt – Mathematical Association of America ©1943

http://www.jstor.org/pss/3030107
4 http://www.edreform.com/Fast_Facts/K12_Facts/ - Total K-12 Enrollment 59.0 Million