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A review of approaches to teaching thinking: appropriate approach

for Iran education system
Maryam Sedaghat a *, Soudeh Rahmani b
1

a
Ph.D. of educational psychology, Faculty Member of ACECR, Tehran, Iran
MSc of educational psychology, Member of Educational Science of ACECR, Tehran, 1937814653, Iran

Abstract
On the basis of theoretical and empirical evidences this paper aims to find the most appropriate approach to teaching thinking in
Iran. Theoretical framework and the most important research findings of each approach, relevant educational programs and their
strengths and weaknesses were studied through literature review. Approaches were identified on the literature according to
cultural conditions and educational features include enrichment, infusion and thinking dispositions. By considering Irans
educational system needs and situations, thinking dispositions approach seems as the most suitable approach and enculturation of
thinking is the most appropriate method for teaching thinking especially in elementary schools.

Elsevier
Ltd.Ltd. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.
2011
2011Published
Publishedbyby
Elsevier

Selection and/or peer review under responsibility of the 2nd World Conference
on Psychology, Counselling and Guidance.

Keywords: Teaching thinking approaches, enrichment, infusion, thinking disposition, enculturation of thinking.

1. Introduction
Twenty first century can be called as a century of tremendous changes in social, economical and cultural fields.
Accordingly, the most important goal of education in this century should be nurture learners that are ready to face
the changing society and complexity of information explosion period. Consequently, the development of high-level
thinking has been considered as a national priority of learning, in many countries. Despite acknowledging the
importance of thinking for students, several studies have reported the weaknesses in the high-level intellectual
activities (Perkins, Jay, and Tishman, 1993a). Studies have shown poor intellectual performance of students in Iran
is not scarce (shabani, 1374; yazdanpanah, 1385). International TIMSS (1995, 2003 and 2007) and PIRLS (2001,
2006) tests could be noted as the most important and reliable studies (Cited in TIMSS international press release
website). It seems that considerable action has not been taken after 12 years from the first attendance of Iran in such
testing and disclosure of students weaknesses in high-level intellectual activities, or these efforts were not
effective. Likewise, Review of the few actions which have done to develop thinking and its functions indicate that
these actions were scattered and using different theoretical perspectives.
Literature review showed various approaches to teaching thinking. Some of the most important approaches are:
specifically designed programs for teaching thinking and infusion of thinking in the curriculum (Nisbet, 1990;

* Maryam Sedaghat. Tel.: +98-912-288-2820; fax: +98-21-88243710.

E-mail address: msedaghat@icds.ir .

1877-0428 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.
Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of the 2nd World Conference on Psychology, Counselling and Guidance.
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.10.202

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McGuinness, 1999), enrichment and infusion (McGuinness, 2005) skills, dispositions and understanding (Harpaz,
2007), making thinking visible (Ritchhart, and Perkins, 2008) generic (Bolt-on), subject specific (Embedded) and
infusion (Dewey and Bento, 2009).
Apart from different titles like as specifically designed programs and infusion (Nisbet, 1990; McGuinness,
1999), enrichment (McGuinness, 2005), Skills (Harpaz, 2007) and generic and subject specific (Dewey and Bento,
2009) which have been used by theorists, in fact they are side programs that designed separately to enrich
curriculum and to help students for developing their thinking. Therefore consistent with McGuinness, this approach
can be called enrichment.
Attention to motivational and emotional aspects of learning, especially learning thinking is an important issue
that should not be neglected. Conceivably, lacks of attention to this important point endanger the effectiveness of
any plan -whether in the form of specific programs of enrichment or in the form of infusion across the Curriculum.
Hence, according to importance of motivational aspect in Eastern societies including Iran, adoption of approach
that considers this aspect is essential. Therefore, considering a separate approach for thinking disposition that
Harpaz (2007) mentioned it as a discrete approach and McGuinness (2005) mentioned it beneath of infusion
approach, seems appropriate.
This paper with reviewing of the aforementioned approaches aims to provide a new division to teaching thinking
approaches. So, approaches were identified on literature review by considering cultural conditions and educational
features include enrichment, infusion and disposition. Moreover, to find the most appropriate approach to teaching
thinking in Iran theoretical framework and the most important research findings of each approach, relevant
educational programs were also discussed.
1.1. Enrichment approaches
Enrichment approach is generally derived from the cognitive theories. In this approach lessons are designed
beforehand and are taught parallel with the existing curriculum to develop general thinking skills. Authors
introduced and reviewed of three programs of this approach according to their reputation and widespread uses
include instrumental enrichment (IE), cognitive acceleration (CA) and philosophy for children (P4C).
Feuerstein instrumental enrichment (FIE) is one of the most famous thinking skills training programs all over the
world which was developed 80 years ago. FIE was developed to modify the false idea of fixed intelligence ability
and psychometric approaches to assessment and in response to particular educational needs (Kozulin, 1998). The
twin pillars of IE are the theory of cognitive modifiability and mediated learning experiences (McGuinness, 2005).
Cognitive acceleration is the most successful cognitive enhancement program (Adey and Shayer, 1994). This
program draws on Piagets theory of cognitive development and Vygotskys principles of the social construction of
knowledge. This aims to accelerate childrens cognition to the next developmental stage through generation of
cognitive conflicts (Dewey and Bento, 2009). CA programs are now available for different contexts like in
education (CASE), in mathematics (CAME), and in technology (CATE).
Philosophy for children is a network whose approach is associated with Lipman (1980) and has been further
developed by Fisher (1995, 1998) in UK (Wilson, 2000). The P4C is an example of a cognitive education approach
from a philosophical perspective (Lipman, 1991). Based on the assumption that children are natural philosophers,
the program aims to help children to think for themselves by exploring alternatives, considering evidence logically
and objectively and searching for reasons. Dialogue in P4C classrooms is characterized as Socratic, with an
emphasis on exploration and questioning (McGuinness, 2005).

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1.2. Infusion approaches

In infusion approach, a variety of thinking skills have been teaches across a range of existing curricula.
Therefore curricular content and thinking skills have been taught and learnt together (Swartz and parks, 1994). This
aims to embed the teaching of thinking in all subjects so thinking skills permeate all aspects of students academic
life (Dewey and Bento, 2009). The infusion approach aims to develop children's ability to recognize and use
common patterns of thinking, deepen their understanding of curriculum topics and make connections between them
(McGuinness and Sheehy, 2008). The methodology of infusion is based on taxonomy of thinking (Swartz and
parks, 1994) and the importance of meta-cognition (McGuinness, 2005). It delineates the thinking skills of critical
thinking, creative thinking, searching for meaning, problem solving and decision making with meta-cognition at the
core of all these processes (Dewey and Bento, 2009). Infusion can be subject-specific (science, mathematics,
history) or may be developed on a wider scale across the curriculum (McGuinness, et al. 2006). In reviewing of the
infusion approach in curriculum, variety of theoretical perspectives is remarkable. For this reason, the examples that
their main focus are on cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies were investigated. Although dispositions beneath
infusion approach have been discussed in some categories, it is introduced as distinct approach due to its
importance and consideration of the emotional and motivational aspects of thinking. An explicit methodology has
been developed for infusing of the critical and creating thinking through content instruction in primary and
secondary schools (Swartz and Parks, 1994; Swartz, 2001). The Activating Childrens Thinking Skills (ACTS)
project in Northern Ireland (McGuinness, 2000; McGuinness, et al. 2006; Dewey and Bento, 2009) is another
example builds on infusion framework.
1.3. Thinking dispositions approach
Different definitions of thinking dispositions are available. Although being a good thinker means having certain
types of critical thinking and creative ability, the reality is that ability alone is not enough and good thinkers must
have motivation, attitudes, values and habits in addition to abilities (Tishman and Andreade, 1995). Thinking
dispositions are not neuronal structure in the hardware of brain, rather they are cultural phenomena and the result of
the interaction between the beliefs, values, and environmental norms (Perkins, and Tishman, 1998). Although there
are a few researches about education of thinking disposition, all results confirm that the way of teaching can
promote thinking dispositions (Langer, Bashner, and Chanowitz, 1985). In considering how to teach thinking
dispositions, it is important to note that each class has a culture that explicitly and implicitly give messages to
students. Scholars have emphasized that the individuals actions including their intellectual actions typically is
related to their context and in schools like any other places, learners tend to act so that it fits their environment
(Brown, Collins, and Dugid,1989; Perkins, 1992). Finally it can be said that enculturation is suitable pattern to
improve students thinking dispositions (Costa, 1991).
2. Result and Discussion
As it was mentioned, enrichment is one of the oldest and the most experienced approaches for teaching thinking.
Instrumental Enrichment, cognitive Acceleration and philosophy for children are some of its programs.
Enrichment programs have powerful structure and system and are executed during specified periods. Compiling
of specific educational content and teacher training programs are other features of these programs. In fact, clear
conceptualizations and systematic experimental methods are the advantages of these programs (Dewey and Bento,
2009). Long time implementation and the possibility of losing participants; requirement of hours more than
curriculum; weakness in transfer due to independence of context and nature of material and teacher training
problem are the most striking problems in these programs. Perhaps the reported lack of effectiveness of enrichment
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programs is due to these restrictions. Hence it seems that IE is more effective for the specific groups such as
children who have mental disability or cognitive disorder.
Cognitive acceleration as an enrichment program requires adequate teacher training, educational support in the
classroom, communication network within school, and administrative support. In the other word, there are several
necessary factors for the success of this program. However, research has shown the long-term effects of this
program on academic achievement of the students (Dewey and Bento, 2009).
Although the P4C is not more than a general focus on creative and critical thinking, its advantages is
emphasizing on bi and multilateral discussions in the classroom. One of the problems of 20 studies which
confirming P4C program, is the lack of adequate control group (Sternberg, and Bhana, 1996).Furthermore,
competitive atmosphere of classrooms produces serious constraints for free talks among students (Barrow, 2010).
In Infusion approach, thinking is included in the usual curriculum content; moreover, understanding and thinking
about a topic can be happened simultaneously. Although most of programs with infusion approach had a clear
curriculum materials and opportunities for teacher training (such as summer schools) they have been barely
considered in the form of controlled evaluation studies. Meanwhile, it has been also asserted that infusion is a good
strategy for intelligent students, since these are able to identify common thinking patterns, so they take advantage of
it and deepen their understanding (Bruer, 1993, as cited in McGuinnes, et al. 2006). To achieve the goal of
permeating thinking skills in all aspects of students academic life major changes in the existing curriculum content
and teaching methods are needed and expert teachers should be trained. Taking long time to change the patterns is
the main limitation for this approach.
Thinking dispositions approach pays attention to many elements. Attention to motivational and emotional
aspects, improvement of thinking language, appreciation of high-level of the knowledge, development of
strategies to manage thinking, improving transfer of the knowledge, making thinking visible for children who has
not achieved abstract thinking stage, using all class materials and facilities, emphasis on facilitative role of teacher
and active role of students, connecting course content with the real life and decontextualization of thinking are the
most important elements. Despite effective classroom activities and positive results of this approach, enculturation
is facing with obstacles. Since this approach emphasize on teacher competence, curriculum management in such
classes require special educational skills. Teachers should have commitment to higher order thinking. Achievement
of expected results in enculturation is a time and energy consuming process. Flexibility and lack of commitment to
predetermined teaching framework are some eventualities of this method. Also, to avoid conflict between school,
family and community, this approach needs a social support. Eventually, it can be concluded that the successful
improvement of the thinking requires changes in the culture of classroom, school and society. To maintain
improvement of all kinds of thinking, an open- minded attitude on the nature of knowledge is required in the
classrooms which promotes comfortable educational environment for contribution of the students in intellectually
challenging tasks, dialogues about thinking, working collaboratively, and being meta-cognitive (McGuinnes, 2005).
3. Conclusion
As mentioned, the main goal of education is training thoughtful students who are able to identify the ambiguous
and complex thinking situations and they are also capable to think actively and independently. Reviewing of the
different teaching thinking approaches and related programs showed that each of them has advantages and
disadvantages, but it does not mean that selection or production of an approach and program with a relative success
is unfeasible. It seems that rigid, inflexible and non-affecting dealing with thinking is the major problems of
educational system in Iran. Students generally perceive thinking as an abstract, non-attractive and apart from real
life. This is the reason that enriching curriculum with exhaustive programs of thinking skills (enrichment) or
entering thinking teaching to curriculum issues (infusion) seems not effective. Nowadays, students need to feel the
actual effect of thinking in their life. Perhaps an objective thinking looks odd or impossible but it was observed in
thinking disposition approach that making thinking visible is possible. In addition, impenetrable barrier between the
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student and thinking could be overcome by motivation of thinking in the context of school and class, so thinking
will become integrated part of their academic and social life. Inefficiency in the motivating of the students for
thinking is the reason which makes thinking dispositions as a good approach for teaching thinking in Iran and
weakness in thinking skills is not the case. A thorough commitment in all pillars of education is needed to attain the
main goal. Otherwise, successful training of thoughtful students will not be easily reached.
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