Lecture 1:

Part A cognitive psychology:

What is psychology:
Psychology is the science that studies behaviour and the
physiological and cognitive processes that underlie it, and it is the
profession that applies the accumulated knowledge of this science
to practical problems.

Part B cognitive neuroscience:

Cognitive neuroscience:
Study of neural basis of behaviour and thought
Brain:
Weighs about 1.4kg
2% of body weight, consumes 20% of energy
100 billions neurons
1,000,000 billion synapses
10^1,000,000 possible circuits
Neurons make up only 10% of the brain
New neurons are created in brain
Men have larger brains but women have more folds
Brain size:
Folding pattern on brain formed by
o Gyri/Gyrus (hills)
o Sulci/sulcus (valleys)
Increases size of cortex (surface of the brain) corresponds to
intelligence
Cognitive neuroscience:
Neuroscience cellular and molecular processes
Cognitive psychology theories about processes with no reference
to brain areas/mechanisms
Application of techniques to study neural basis of behaviour and
thought
Compared with neuroscience bigger focus on humans
Compared with psychology greater emphasis on bran and neurons
than cognitive motels
Cognitive neuroscience study of neural basis of behaviour
and thought

Lecture 2:
Part A:

Top-down processing what you already know (especially what you

are currently thinking) has large effects on how you take in
information
Psychology is a science
Observations should be:
Unbiased, Repeatable, Controlled, Quantitative
Theories should be:
Testable, General, Parsimonious (tentative)
Paradigm:
A perspective (mental set), approach or frame of reference, as well
as the group of researchers (who are in agreement about what they
study) whose work adheres to this strict framework with respect to:

Subject matter
General definition of the field
Specific focal topics
o Methods
o Language and concepts
o Root metaphor
o Intellectual Influences
Prior
[New paradigms usually reflect] contemporary
Behavioural paradigm:
Subject matter
o General definition of the field: The scientific study of
behaviour
o Specific focal topics: Learning
Methods: Experimental (mostly animal)
Language and Concepts: Stimulus, Response, Conditioning,
Reinforcement, Shaping
Root Metaphor: Blank slate, Lump of clay
Intellectual Influences
o Prior: Mentalism
o Contemporary: Other sciences, especially Darwinian Biology
Cognitive paradigm:
Subject matter
o General definition of the field: The scientific study of
mental processes (as shown in behaviour)
o Specific focal topics: Perception, Attention, Memory,
Thinking
Methods: Experimental (mostly human)
Language and Concepts: Input, Output, Codes, Serial Processing,
Memory Stores
Root Metaphor: Programmed Computer
Intellectual Influences
o Prior: Mentalism, Behaviourism
o Contemporary: Computer Science, especially Artificial
Intelligence
o

Part B:
Nervous system:
Central nervous system
o Brain and spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system
o Nerves throughout body
Longest nerve cell sciatic nerve

Cerebrum (cerebral hemispheres):

Two hemispheres, divided by longitudinal fissure or interhemispheric fissure (length-ways)
Cerebral cortex:
Cortex grey matter:
Cerebral cortex outermost layer of grey matter making up surface
layer of cerebrum
Surface of brain, 2-4mm thick
Contains cell bodies of brains neurons neurons in top layer of
cortex to most work
White matter underneath grey matter is all the wiring axons
(output end of neuron) of neurons connecting to spinal cord and
other area of cortex

Phrenology:
Localisation of brain function completely wrong
Phineas Gage
Pole through frontal lobes
Brocas aphasia speech production:
Patient unable to speak after damage to left frontal lobe (Brocas
area)
Speech slow/non-fluent, difficulty finding appropriate words
Speech still meaningful
Comprehension unaffected
Wernickes aphasia comprehension:
Lesions to left posterior temporal lobe led to deficits in language
comprehension
Unable to understand language (comprehension)
Speech fluent with normal prosody (rhythm, intonation)
Speech has no meaning nonsense
Wilder Penfield:

 Stimulated brain with electric probes

Summary:
Gross anatomy bigger areas
Specific functions to areas eg. Brocas

Lecture 3:
Part A:
The biological paradigm:
Subject matter
o General definition of the field: The scientific study of the
biological basis of behaviour
o Specific focal topics: Behavioural topics, Cognitive topics
Methods: Experimental (where possible), Case Study, Correlational
Language and Concepts: Biological terms, Behavioural terms,
Cognitive terms
Root Metaphor: Biological machine
Intellectual Influences
o Prior: Behaviourism
o Contemporary: Neuroanatomy and Physiology, Cognitive
Perspectives
The psychodynamic paradigm:
Subject matter
o General definition of the field: The study of conscious and
unconscious processes as seen in mental illness
o Specific focal topics: Mental Illness
Methods: Case History
Language and Concepts: Ego, Id, Superego, Defence
Mechanisms: Repression, Projection etc.
Root Metaphor:
o Surface: Mental Illness
o Deeper: fluid dynamics
Intellectual Influences
o Prior: Philosophy
o Contemporary: Victorian culture, Medicine, Darwinian
struggle to survive
The humanistic paradigm (Maslow, 1960s):
Subject matter
o General definition of the field: The study of conscious
human experience
o Specific focal topics: Individual awareness, Conscious
choices, Well-being
Methods: Case History
Language and Concepts: Personal growth, Self-actualisation,
Awareness, Transcendence, Free will, Human potential

Root Metaphor: Growth

Intellectual Influences
o Prior: Psychodynamic, Behavioural
o Contemporary: 1960s culture, Existentialist and Eastern
philosophies

Part B:
Cells of the brain:
Brain made of neurons, glial cells (glia)
Glia or Glial cells
o Support system for neurons
o Three types
Astrocytes
Microglia
Oligodendrocytes
Astrocytes:
o Star cells
o Supply nutrients from blood to the neurons for energy
o Maintain blood-brain barrier (keep substances in
bloodstream separated from neurons of brain)
Microglia
o Brains immune system
o Clean up foreign or toxic substances
Oligodendrocytes
o Produce a fatty substance called myelin which wraps
around axons of neurons
o Essential for transmission of neural signals
Neuron:
Cell body (soma)
o Common to all cells
o Contains nucleus and all structures necessary for cell
functioning (DNA)
Dendrites (Dendron = tree)
o Unique to neurons, many per neuron
o Receives signals from other neurons
Axon
o Unique to neurons
o Sends signals starts at axon hillock (swelling
at junction of axon and cell body)
o One per neuron (for output)
Myelin of axons:
Oligodendrocytes form myelin sheath by wrapping
their membrane several times around the axon
Axon terminal/terminal buttons:
Forms synapses with other neuron (sends info)
Secretes neurotransmitters when action potential reaches them
Synapses:
Axon terminals (neuron 1) dendrites (neuron 2)
Join axon terminals of one neuron to dendrites of another neuron fro
transmission of signals
Neural signals go one-way
o Pre-synaptic (before synapse) from cell body

to axon terminal
Post-synaptic (after synapse) from dendrite
to cell body
Cell membrane wall:
Water outside cells (extra-cellular fluid)
Water inside cells (cytoplasm intra-cellular fluid)
Ion channels in cell membrane:
Sodium (Na+) and Potassium (K+) positively charged ions
Ion channels in cell membrane wall open and close to pass or
block movement of ions across cell membrane
o Exchange ions (positive charge) between intra-/
extra-cellular fluid
Membrane potential:
Difference in electrical charge (voltage) between inside and outside
cell across cell membrane wall
o

Resting potential:
Difference in electrical charge (voltage) across cell membrane wall
when neuron is at rest (no action potential) is -70mV
More Sodium ions outside cell, more Potassium ions inside cell
Sodium potassium pump
o Special ion channels actively pump Na+/K+ across cell
membrane
o Maintains membrane potential
o 3 Na+ out for 2 K+ in
Action potential:
Transmission of electrical signal along axon
Input from other neurons (via dendrites) increases membrane
potential
If voltage exceeds threshold, triggers action potential
Depolarisation of cell membrane potential goes back to 0
Repolarisation membrane potential goes back to -70mV resting
potential
Voltage-dependent ion channels:
Voltage-dependent Sodium channels closed at resting potential
Open when membrane potential reaches threshold voltage allows
Na+ into cell
Causes further depolarisation of cell (voltage closer to 0)
Na+ channels open when voltage exceeds threshold
o Na+ flows into cell
o Depolarisation
K+ channels open after depolarisation
o K+ flows out of the cell
o Repolarisation
Actions potentials
Depolarisation/repolarisation is fact ( >0.002sec)
Fixed size and all-or-none principle:
If threshold level reached, action potential of fixed size will occur
size of action potential always the same for that neuron

All-or-none either full action potential fires (membrane potential

reaches threshold) or there is no action potential
Action potential conduction along axon:
Starts at axon hillock membrane at axon hillock has lowest
threshold to trigger action potential
Depolarisation spreads from site of action potential to
neighbouring cell membrane
Repolarisation and undershoot (refractor period) prevents action
potential going backwards
Myelination and nodes or ranvier:
Myelin sheath (from oligdendroctytes) wraps around axon acts as
insulator, prevents leakage from depolarisation wave)
Depolarisation jumps between notes of ranvier (gaps in myelin
sheath)

Lecture 4:
Part A research methods:
Clever Hans:
Supposedly knew answers but action just tapping hoof while people
looked at it
Less to more control:
Introspection Naturalistic Observation Case History Survey
Test Correlation Experiment
Introspection (looking within) now abandoned:
Systematic observation of own consciousness usually with verbal
report
Naturalistic observation:
Objectively studying events as they occur without intervention
difficult
Case history:
Biological info relative to individual obtained by interview
o Most Biological, Psychodynamic and Humanistic paradigms
Survey:
Quantitative measure of responses to questions of large sample
Test:
Quantitative measure of performance relative to pre-established
norm
Correlation:
Statistical calculation of direction and degree of relationship
between any two or more observed variables (eg. Pearsons r)
cannot infer causality
Experimental method:
Manipulating one set of variables and measuring effect on other
variables
Mostly Behavioural, Cognitive (Stroop Effect) and Biological
paradigms
Stroop effect:

Sources of bias:
Sampling bias, subject bias, experimenter bias, operational
definitions
Sampling bias:
Is the sample representative of the population (generalizability)
Hawthorne/placebo effects workplace lighting
Subject bias:
Hawthorne/placebo effects were subjects responding to
expectations rather than manipulations. Solution single blind
(subjects unaware)
Experimenter bias:
Rosenthal effects student experimenters observed learning
behaviour of rates in two conditions (dull/smart) researches
influencing behaviour (double blind)
Operational definitions:
Define variables in terms of operations (methods) used to observe

Part B:

Neural signals:
Electrical within neuron (action potential)
Chemical signals between neurons (neurotransmitter across
synapse)
Synapse:

Neurotransmitter
o Chemical messenger released from pre-synaptic terminal
o Actions on post-synaptic receptors
Synaptic vesicles:
o Stores neurostrasnmitter in pre-synaptic terminal
o Joins cell membrane wall to release neurotransmitter into
synaptic cleft
o Recycles neurostransmitter taken back into pre-synaptic
terminal repackaged here
Neurotransmitter receptors:
o Gates on post-synaptic side (neuron dendrite)
o Neurotransmitter in synaptic cleft joins with receptor
o Activates receptor to transmit signal to post-synaptic neuron
Lock and key neurotransmitter receptors:
Each receptor only binds to specific type of neurotransmitter (drug
effects)
Synapse:
Re-uptake pump clears neurotransmitter from synaptic cleft into
pre-synaptic terminal

Enzymes break down neurotransmitter in synaptic cleft

Both stop neurotransmitter signalling to post-synaptic neuron
(turns off signal)
Anti-depressant drugs serotonin (neurotransmitter):
SSRIs selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors (re-uptake pump)
MAIOs monomine exidase inhibitors (enzymes)
Act to keep serotonin in synaptic cleft longer increases
serotonin signalling
Neurotransmitter receptor channels (ligand-gated channels):
Neurotransmitter receptors open ion channels when
neurotransmitter binds
Different neurotransmitters bust to and open different ion channels
(Na, K) to change membrane potential in different ways
Receptor binding
o Can cause depolarisation (less negative) Na+ flows in
o Can cause hyperpolarisation (more negative) K+ flows out
EPSPs and IPSPs excitatory and inhibitory:
Receptor channels activated by neurotransmitters. Signals can
be
Excitatory (EPSP Excitatory Post-Synaptic Potential)
o Receptor opens channels that cause depolarisation
o Closer to threshold for action potential
Inhibitory (IPSP Inhibitory Post-Synaptic Potential)
o Receptor opens channels that cause hyperpolarisation
o Further from threshold for action potential
Graded potentials:
Excitatory and inhibitory (via dendrites) sum together
o Change membrane potential at axon hillock
Graded potential at axon hillock depends on strength of synapse
connection (on dendrite)
o Strong stimulus large change in membrane potential (and
visa versa)
Graded potential also depends on timing of inputs
If enough excitatory inputs at same time, membrane potential will
exceed threshold level for action potential
If membrane exceeds threshold level (at axon hillock) triggers
action potential
Neural integration sum of all inputs
Neurotransmitter dopamine:
Oliver Sacks used drug to restore dopamine in brain and wake
catatonic

Lecture 5:
Part A Consciousness:
Paradigm and historical views and challenges to consciousness
Normal waking consciousness
Altered states sleep/dreams, hypnosis, daydreams, drugs,
meditation
Freud:
Psychodynamic paradigm (conscious, pre-conscious, unconscious)
Paradigm and historical views:

1920-50s behaviourism
1960s onwards attention (performance measure), sleep/dreams
(physiological measure), humanistic psychology (non-controlled
methods)
1. Directly
o Introspection/self-report (subjectivity issues)
2. Indirectly
o Performance (cognitive paradigm), physiology (biological)
problems with measuring corrent thing
Normal, waking consciousness:
Guided by attention and expectancies
Interpretive aspect of awareness (in perception/memory) are
constructed
Altered states of consciousness:
1. Sleeping and dreaming
Measures good for descriptive research (how often), but not for
causal (why)
May be able to gain control over dreams by lucid dreaming (Steve
LaBerge)
2. Hypnosis:
State of heightened suggestibility consciousness may/may not be
altered
3. Daydreaming:
Very frequent, every hour (but issues with self-report method)
Easy (boring/repetitive task) --? Extra capacity finds something else
to do
4. Drugs:
Essential factors for predicting/understanding drug-altered
consciousness:
o Drug variable (type), set variable (expectations/personality),
setting variable (physical) consciousness
Depressants (alcohol) diminish CNS activity, Opiates (heroin)
pain relief/sleep inducing, Stimulants (caffeine) increase CNS
functioning, Hallucinogens (LSD) distorted perception, Cannabis
altered experience
5. Mediation
Focussed attention sometimes concentration on object,
sometimes open-ness to present experience
Can be different goals, paradigm issues with studying

Part B Cognitive neuroscience toolbox measuring

brain function:
Autonomic nervous system:
Sympathetic nervous system
o Controlled by brainstem (heart-rate, respiration, perspiration,
pupils)
o Emotional arousal, stress fear (fight or flight)
Neuropsychology brain lesions:
Explains normal brain function by examining changes when brain
part damaged
Brain stimulation Wilder Penfield (electrical probes while conscious)
TMS Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation:

Very brief magnet field (TMS pulse) induces electrical current in

cortex
Stimulates neuronal firing
TMS over Primary Motor Cortex can cause muscle twitch (map body
representation in motor cortex)
Single neuron (unit) recording:
Electrode on animal brain record action potentials firing from
single neuron (measure what that neuron encodes/detects)
Best localisation/timing of brain function direction measures action
potential
Problems highly invasive, animals only
Neural encoding of actions in motor cortex:
Decoding movement plans/intentions fro neural activity
Movement coding in primary cortex:
Primary Motor Cortex neurons fire for movements in preferred
direction
Measure neuron firing to decode intended direction of movement
EEG Electroencephalography:
Summed activity from action potentials in cortex cause electrical
activity change on scalp measure these voltage changes with
electrode
Brain activity in EEG shows constant oscillations (waves) change
with alertness/sleep
Attention activity changes based on where attention focussed
ERPs event-related potentials:
Brain activity related to specific event/stimulus (average of many
EEG trials in response to stimulus)
Peaks represent different stages of processing of the stimulus
Eg. Auditory event-related potentials brain activity when
processing sounds
Example face processing (N170):
ERPs can show precise time of info processing in brain
Viewing faces elicits negative ERP peak at 170ms after seeing face
(visual cortex)
Emotional faces generate different N170 peak (within 170ms of
seeing face)
ERPs event-related potentials:
ERPs can show precise time of information processing in brain
(electrical activity)
Problems difficult to accurately localise activity to specific brain
areas
Functional brain imaging:
Change in blood flow associated with neural activity
o PET positron emission tomography (80-90s)
Radioactive substances injected into bloodstream
map neurotransmitters/receptors
Studies brain anatomy
o fMRI Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (92-current)
Measures change in blood oxygen level
Studied brain function
BOLD blood oxygen level dependent signal:

Active neurons use oxygen

Haemoglobin carries oxygen in blood (oxygen to neurons)
Deoxyhaemoglobin (after oxygen consumed) returns to heat/lungs
in veins
Change in blood oxygen level = change in brain activity
BOLD response slow and delayed:
fMRI indirect measure of brain activity
Blood oxygen change slow/delayed compared with neural activity
Peaks 4-5 secs after brain activity, lasts 10-12 secs after
fMRI:
Measures changes in blood oxygen level that accompany changes in
brain activity
Good localisation of brain actibity
Problems expensive, indirect measure of brain activity (BOLD slow
compared to brain activity)
Brain measurement isnt mind reading:
Cannot infer what someone thinking/feeling based on brain activity
measurements
Case study:
Region of male brain associated with tool use lights up when
shown pics of women
Unreliable not mind-reading
MRI reading contents of consciousness (future):
Using MRI to reconstruct what someone seeing based on visual
cortex activity

Lecture 6:
Part A Learning Classical conditioning:
Habituation:
Simplest form of learning (in most organisms)
Process by which we respond less strongly over time to repeated
stimuli
Can be studied in humans using skin conductance response
measure of anxiety
o Weak stimuli stop producing anxiety faster than strong
stimuli
o Some strong stimuli (electric shock) show no habituation and
can produce sensitisation responding more strongly to
repeated stimuli over time
Habituation responding less strongly to repeated stimuli over time
Sensitisation responding more strongly to repeated stimuli over
time
Learning associates between stimuli:
Habituation/sensitisation stimulus response
o Repeated stimulus exposures respond less strongly
(habituation) or more strongly (sensitisation)
Associative learning is adaptive and essential for survival learn
how stimuli associated
Ivan Pavlovs (1849-1936) discovery:
Found phenomenon called psychicreflex (physical reflex more
correct)

Indirext stimulus elicited autonomic (involuntary) salivary

reflex rather than stimulus that operates directly on the
stomach (food)
Dogs has test tubes inserted into salivary glands to gain info about
saliva produced during digestion. Initially dogs salivated
involuntarily when food presented
After repeat sessions dogs started to salivate before contact with
food (on sight)
Eventually dogs salivated to neutral stimuli simply associated with
act of feeding (sound of footsteps)
Classical (or Pavlovian/respondent) conditioning form of learning in
which animals come to respond to previously neutral stimuli paired
with stimulus that elicits automatic response
Pavlovs classical conditioning model:
Conditioned Stimulus (CS) neutral stimulus doesnt
instinctually elicit response from the organism (Pavlov used
metronome)
automatic, reflexive response from an organism (Pavlov used meat
powder)
Unconditioned Response (UCR) automatic response to a nonneutral stimulus (automatically respond to UCS by salivating)
We perform repeated forward pairings of CS (metronome) and UCS
(food).
Inter stimulus interval (ISI) duration between onset of CS and
onset of UCS
Inter-trial interval (ITI) duration between trials
Trial each paring of CS and UCS more trials depending on species
and UCS
Conditioned Response (CR) response previously associated
with non-neutral stimulus (UCR) that is now elicited by neutral
stimulus (CS) eg. salivation to metronome
Acquisition phase of learning in which a CR is established by
pairing CS and UCS
o

Temporal contiguity how close in time CS and UCS paired

together
o Steepness of curve depends on how close CS and UCS are
presented (faster learning occurs)
Backward conditioning when UCS presented before CS
o Extremely difficult to achieve, similarly when CS presented
simultaneously with UCS
Extinction reduction and eventual elimination of a CR when CS is
presented multiple times without UCS

Spontaneous recovery when apparently extinct CR re-emerges

(weaker) after delay if CS presented again

Stimulus generalisation when simular stimuli, CS elicits the CR

o Generalisation gradient more similar the stimuli, greater
response
Stimulus discrimination showing a weaker CR to CSs that differ
from original CS
Latent inhibition difficulty classically conditioning to a CS we have
repeatedly experienced without the CS (eg. advertising associating
movie star with Coke)
Acquiring fears Little Albert:
Watson and Rayner while 9mo Albert played with rat hit a gong to
elicit fear (UCR)
After several pairings of CS (rat) and UCS (gong), Albert displayed
CR (fear) to rat
Albert also showed stimulus generalisation to other furry things
Also alternative (lolly with rabbit = positive response)

Part B (Intro to sensation and perception vision):

Signal detection theory (SDT) (has military history):

Method to characterise (measure):
o Sensitivity (signal from background noise)
o Criterion (decision that signal strong enough to sound alarm)
o Apply SDT to measure contributions of sensory/decisions
processes involved in resolving these displays
Eg. 200 trials 100 just white noise, 100 with white noise and signal
o Session 1 told very important to catch all signals 82-100
hits
o Session 2 told very important NOT to report false alarm
55/100 hits
Response matrix

ROC Curves (Receiver Operating Characteristic Curve

D-prime sensitivity of perceptual system to distinguish a signal
from noise
Criterion index of a persons willingness to say yes, the target
was present.
o Negative value more liberal
o Positive value more conservative
The eye:
Pupil Diameter of pupil determined by cilary muscles in the iris
Lens Fine-tuning
Cornea Responsible for main refraction of light
Back of the eye light sensitive receptors
The Retina Transduction of light into neural signal
CCD from digital camera Light has unimpeded path to the surface
Fovea solution to inside out design of retina layer of cell bodies
and axons thins out around this area of the retina. Only cones in the
fovea
Two types of photoreceptors in the retina:

Cones Support colour vision. In the fovea, cones have direct line to
the visual cortex. Each has its own ganglion cell. Underscores fine
spatial resolution.
Rods Support black and white vision. Mostly rods in the periphery.
Rods have to share a line (ganglion cell) to the visual cortex. This
leads to positional uncertainty but far more sensitive to faint light.
Peripheral retina more sensitive to dim light; central retina more
sensitive to fine spatial detail
Left visual cortex processes left side of the retina in both eyes (and
visa versa)
Right visual field left visual cortex; left visual field right visual
cortex
Visual illusion/phenomena things:
Moon illusion loom looks bigger when closer to the horizon
Ames room back wall looks flat, people different size
Blue/black, white/gold

Lecture 7:
Part A Learning 2 Operant conditioning:

What is operant/incremental/instrumantal conditioning:

Learning controlled by consequences of organisms behaviour
Within operant conditioning, learning involves
o Receiving desirable stimulus to increase target behaviour
o Removing undesirable stimulus to increase target behaviour
o Receiving undesirable stimulus to decease target behaviour
o Removing desirable stimulus to decrease target behaviour
Operants behaviours produced in order to receive a reward
How operant conditioning differs from classical conditioning:
Classical Stimuli presentation independent of behaviour (target
behaviour reflexive)
Operant Stimulus presence/absence conditional on behaviour
(target behaviour voluntary)
Law of effect if a stimulus followed by behaviour results in a
reward, the stimulus is more likely to elicit the behaviour in the
future
o Skinner box (operant chamber) chamber used in
conditioning experiments that allowed both desirable and
undesirable stimuli to be presented and animal responses
recorded electronically without extraneous stimulus
interference
Concepts in operant conditioning:
Reinforcement [stimulus to] reward desired target behaviour
o Reinforcement of ANY kind used to INCREASE target
behaviour
Punishment [stimulus to] punish undesired target behaviour
o Punishment of ANY kind to DECREASE target behaviour

Positive reinforcement presenting pleasant stimulus to increase

target behaviour (pigeon pecks correct target in Skinner box gets
food)
Negative reinforcement removing unpleasant stimulus to
increase target behaviour (noise sounds until rat presses lever for
correct cue in Skinner box, car beep to put seatbelt on)
Positive punishment presenting unpleasant stimulus to
decrease target behaviour (electric shock if rat presses lever in
Skinner box for wrong cue, scold child for lying)
Negative punishment removing pleasant stimulus to decrease
target behaviour (food not dispensed when rat presses lever in
Skinner box for wrong cue)
Punishment only tells animal what NOT to do, no info on what
behaviour should replace undesired behaviour can result in
anxiety, aggression
Terminology:
Discriminant stimulus (Sd) signals consequence of an operant
response (eg. light in Skinners box that signals consequence of
operant response)
Extinction burst shortly after reinforcement withdraw, animal
increases intensity of response briefly to elicit reinforcing stimulus
Discriminate pigeons discriminate between artists painting
using operant cond.
Generalisation pigeons able to generalise to artists whose work
was similar to learned artists
Partial reinforcement:
Partial reinforcement (Humphreys paradox) reinforcing target
behaviour intermittently rather than continuously (if animal knows
they will go for multiple trials before reinforcement, will be more
willing to keep trying to elicit reinf.)
Schedule of reinforcement determines effectiveness of operant
conditioning employed during acquisition phase
o Schedules of reinforcement vary along two dimensions
How constant reinforcement is
Fixed regular, Variable regular
Reinforcing based on no. of behaviours vs. time
elapsed
Ratio schedules reinforce for no. of
behaviours produced
Interval schedules reinforce based on length
of time elapsed since last reinforcement
o Fixed ratio (FR) reinforcement provided after fixed no. of
responses

Fixed interval (FI) reinforcement provided after fixed time

has elapsed provided response has been made

Variable ratio (VR) reinforcement provided after average

no. of responses

Variable interval (VI) reinforcement provided after

average time has elapsed provided response made

Applications of operant conditioning:

Animal training
o Shaping progressively reinforcing behaviours that come
closer and closer to target behaviour
o Chaining linking simple interrelated behaviours together,
which each behaviour becoming cue for the next
Superstitious behaviour
o Superstitious behaviour in pigeons by reinforcement ever
15s regardless of behaviour some acquired strange
behaviours (may be due to accidental operant conditioning)
Putting classical and operant conditioning together:
Neuroimaging two different forms of learning operant in different
areas of brain
When person acquired phobia through classical conditioning,
avoidance of feared stimulus may negatively reinforce fear,
strengthening phobia

Part B:
Audition (Hearing)
Vibrations conveyed through air
Amplitude Strength of vibration; louder sounds: higher amplitude
o Perceptual dimension: Loudness
Frequency Number of cycles per unit of time
o Perceptual dimension: Pitch
Complexity Conveying several different waveforms
simultaneously; complexity of the sound. Component waveforms
combine to make the sound.
o Perceptual dimension: Timbre
Outer ear:
Pina Funnels soundwaves into inner canal. Each pina has a
different idiosyncratic shape. The way sound reflects off your pina
helps determine elevation of sound source
Middle Ear:
Tympanic membrane (eardrum) vibrates and sets three connected
bones into motion Oscicles:
o Hammer, Anvil, Stapes/stirrups
They amplify the vibration
Stapes is attached to the cochlea, sets fluid in cochlea in motion
Basilar and tectorial membrane Sheer back and forth relative to
one another. Hair cells of basilar membrane project up through

basilar membrane to tectorial membrane causes hair cells to bend

in mechanical transformation and generate neural signal
Transmits via auditory nerve to the brain stem and on to auditory
cortex.
How we perceive pitch:
20Hz-24,000Hz perceived by the human ear
0 100 Hz Direct firing rate of neuron (Frequency theory)
100 5000 Hz Volley theory (neurons work together to provide all
frequencies)
5000 24,0000 Place theory of Pitch Perception: Which neurons
are firing along the basilar membrane determine higher pitches
How do we localise sounds?
1. Interaural arrival time differences (how long it takes to arrive in
each ear)
2. Interaural intensity differences (intensity different in ear blocked
by your head)
Lower frequency sounds tend to bend around obstacles very easily.
You dont get an acoustic shadow with the lower frequencies as with
higher frequencies.
Hearing loss and tinnitus:
Presbyacusis progressive loss of hair cell function along the basilar
membrane. High frequencies go first
Vestibular System (Sense of balance/orientation in space relative to
gravity)
Important for balance and eye movement
Semicircular canals Set of three tubes on each side of your head
filled with fluid. Code for rotary accelerations
Otoliths Inside the semicircular canals. Code for linear
accelerations
Semicircular canals:
o Fixed to the head, inside is endolymph fluid.
o At rest cupula is neutral, when moving there is inertia on the
fluid. It pushes against the cupula, causing it to move.
o The hair cells at base of cupula are stimulated and send
information to the vestibular nerve, which codes for a certain
type of rotation
The Otoliths:
o Utricle When standing upright, hair cells are verticle. On
tops of hair cells are calcium deposits. In forward movement,
calcium deposits bend backwards with inertia. Initial bending
signals acceleration
o Sacule When standing upright, hair cells are horizontal.
Codes for accelerations relative to gravity. (Know what
upright is even with eyes closed)
Vestibular system did not evolve to code for aeroplanes, and as
such leaning forward or backwards can be mistaken for acceleration
or deceleration when the ground cannot be seen.
When there is a nerve impulse from the vestibular system it goes
straight to the eyes.
Olfactory System (Smell)
Thousands of receptors that respond to many different types of
odours and flavours

Axons Nerves project through the skull to your nose and mouth.
Can be cut off by damage to the head
Gustatory System (Taste)
Main organ tongue
Taste receptors all through mouth down to tonsils
More than 4 basic flavours. Olfactory system contributes to sense of
taste.
Papilla textured bumps on tongue attempting to increase the
surface area there is to get chemical reactions to take place
Taste buds On papilla. There are about 50 taste receptors each on
taste buds.
Somatosensory system (skin)
Responds to touch, pressure, chemicals, electrical stimulation etc.
Deep pressure Rafini endings
Pain receptors free nerve endings, receptive to temperature and
chemical etc. Distribution varies in body. Fingers, lips, face have
many, middle of back less common

Lecture 8:
Part A above:
Part B Learning and memory hippocampus and
amygdala:
Brain plasticity:
Brains capability brain to alter its functional organisation based on
experience (learning)
Ramon y Cajal (1852-1934):
Foundation of neuron theory brain made up of cells (neurons) and
nerves are cell axons
Neurogenesis:
Most cells in body divide and regenerate, neurons do not (damaged
dont re-grow)
Neural stem cell where new neurons constantly born throughout
adulthood
o Only two areas in adult bran Hippocampus (learning and
memory) and subventricular zone for olfactory bulb
Stem cells are undifferentiated cells can grow into new neurons or
glial cells
Synaptogenesis:
Generation of new synapses constantly formed/strengthened with
learning
Limbic system:
Evolutionarily old mammalian brain important for learning from
fear/threat, memory and navigation
Amygdala
o Medial temporal lobe
o Fear and arousal
o Phobias and responds to threats
Hippocampus
o Medial temporal lobe
o Memory
Forming new episodic memories

 Damage causes memory loss

o Spatial navigation (mental map of environment)
Memory patient H.M.:
Removal of hippocampus treated epilepsy but caused sever
memory loss
o Could not form new memories/recall anything from after
surgery
Memory not 1 thing but different components mediated by
different parts of brain
Short-term memory lasts several seconds (HM could mentally
rehearse to remember things)
Long term memory
o Declarative conscious recollection
Episodic memory of past events (things youve
done/seen)
Semantic facts and basic knowledge
o Procedural not for conscious recall (skills learned)
o Encoding new memories for long term-storage
o Retrieval retrieving memories for conscious recall
Learning and memory:
Strengthening synapse connections:
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
o Change in structure of synapses to give stronger signal from
pre-synaptic to post-synaptic neuron (more neurotransmitter
and receptors)
Graded potentials:
Excitatory and inhibitory inputs (via dendrites) sum together
o Change membrane potential at axon hillock graded
potentials
Graded potential depends on strength of synapse connection (on
dendrite)
o Strong stimulus causes large change in membrane potential
(& visa versa)
Hebbs law Hebbian learning:
Neurons that fire together wire together (A fires B more effectively)
Amygdala Fear learning (Little Alberts classical conditioning):
Hebbian learning repeated firing of pre-synaptic and post-synaptic
neuron at the same time strengthens synaptic connection (brain
associates through repeated pairings)

Hippocampus and memory:

Grandmother cells theoretical
o Neurons that represent (encode/fire to) a specific concept
such as your grandmother

Memory represented by individual neurons each encoding

specific concepts
"Jennifer Aniston cells in Hippocampus
o Recording from neurons in hippocampus fire specifically to
pictures of JA
Spreading activation model theory
o Neurons represent a specific concept (eg. grandmother cells)
o Share connections with neurons that represent related
concepts
Eg. Fire-engine Fire, truck, red, siren
o Activation of one leads to spreading activation to related
neurons
o

Lecture 9:
Part A Attention:
Components of attention:
1. Selectivity
Ability to differentially process/perceive/respond to one of several
sources of info
The Cocktail Party Phenomenon
General research strategy selective attention tasks
E.g. Dichotic listening
o Separate messages in each ear, attend to message in one ear
o Will you process info in other ear if not attending to it?
Theories of Selective Attention
Broadbents Filter Theory (1958)
o Early Selection Theory or Serial Processor
o Early filter that filters out before reaching perceptual system
o Names get through though even in ear that you do not attend
to
Deutsch and Deutsch (1963)
o Late selection Theory of Parallel Processor
o All processed in perceptual system and memory, however
may not be aware
Corteen and Wood (1972)
o Patients couldnt report unattended message but showed
response to unattended conditioned words multiple info
changes getting through
2. Capacity
Limitations in ability to process, perceive and respond to several
sources of information simultaneously
General research strategy Divided attention tasks (eg. dual task
performance)
3. Alertness and arousal:
Variable amount of mental energy/processing power available
General research strategy manipulate arousal and measure
performance
o Usually measured physiologically (heart rate, sweat glands)
Performance at peak at intermediate level of arousal (extroverts at
lower level of arousal, introverts at higher level)

Part B Brain laterality:

Left/right brained no evidence
Lateralisation of brain function:
Lateralised functions some brain functions rely more on one side
of brain
Left hemisphere language/speech
Right hemisphere tone of voice, face perception, perceptual
grouping
Crossed (contralateral) functions movement, sensation vision
o Left hemisphere right body movement, sensation, vision
o Right hemisphere left body movement, sensation, vision
Language (usually left hemisphere):
Language comprehension, speech, reading in left usually
Right-handed, 95% have language in left. Left-handed, 70% have
language in left
Determining language lateralisation:
fMRI brain activity during language often activation in both
hemispheres so hard to determine lateralisation
WADA Test drug stops function of one hemisphere, check for
speech/language deficits
Contralateral function motor and sensory cortex:
Contralateral = opposite side, ipsilateral = same side
Primary motor and sensory cortex connect to contralateral
(opposite) side of body (right hemisphere to left side of body, visa
versa)
Contralateral function vision:
Each side of visual space mapped to contralateral visual cortex
(right side of vision to right hemisphere, visa versa)
NOTE not left eye/right eye
o Input to each half of retina of each eye is split so that left
vision from both eyes goes to right hemisphere (visa versa)
important for 3D perception
Corpus callosum:
Connects left and right hemispheres
Axons of neurons crossing to opposite (contralateral) hemisphere
allows transfer of info between two hemispheres
Inter-hemispheric communication:
Vision goes to contralateral hemisphere
Selectively presented to right/left hemisphere (flash image in lab)
language in left hemisphere, can report what is on right side of
screen
Stimuli on left of screen right hemisphere, must cross to left
hemisphere for language to report what object was
Inter-hemispheric communication across corpus callosum
Split brain severed corpus callosum:


Split

Corpus callosum severed to stop epileptic seizures spreading to

other hemisphere
brain experiments:
Flashed images on one side of screen (only seen by one
hemisphere)
Can reach under screen and feel objects
Right hemisphere can read and understand
words but no speech (no verbal report)

Hemispheres can function independently:

Left hemisphere can tell you what it has seen, right hemisphere can
only show you (with left hand) patient cannot say what their left
hand is doing

Lecture 10:
Part A Memory:
Basic processes of memory:
Encoding transform sensory stimuli into a form that can be placed
in memory
Storage effectively retaining info for later use
Retrieval locating item and using it (recall vs recognition)
General Research Strategy for Verbal Learning Approach to Memory
Memory is a function of X
o Repetition, Word length, Word frequency, List length, Serial
position
Where memory is objectively measured
X is any objectively manipulated stimulus or environmental variable
Memory structures combined Atkinson and Shiffrin Model (1968):
Stimuli Sensory register Short term memory Long term
memory
o Lost in each stage
Memory structures 3 different stores:
1. Sensory register:
Storage system that registers (and briefly holds) information from
the sense
a) Iconic memory
o Related to the visual system, < second duration, 9-10
items
b) Echoic memory
o Related to the auditory system, - 2 seconds duration, - 5
items
2. Short term memory (STM) active/working memory:
Intermediate storage system that briefly holds info prior to
consolidation

Storage capacity of STM people can recall 5-9 numbers in short

term memory
Chunking units of subjective organisation (into years etc)
3. Long term memory (LTM):
Primacy effect memory best for things learned first
Recency effect memory also good for things learned last
Context memory better when in context you learned material in
Cognitive Research and Constructive Processes
Bartlett schema memory set of ideas about objects and events
associated with familiar activity
Loftus & Palmer eye-witness memory for events following postevent leading questions
Long Term Memory Types
o Episodic Memory for specific events
o Semantic General knowledge
o Procedural without awareness of remembering
o Declarative Conscious recollection

Part B attention and cognitive control; parietal

and prefrontal cortex:
Processes:
Voluntary control
o Top-down goals/desires
Unconscious processes
o Bottom-up sensory info about world, autonomic drives
(hunger)
o Top-down prior knowledge
Parietal lobe:
Posterior to central sulcus
Attention
o Directing attention
Spatial awareness
o Linking vision to action
Primary somatosensory cortex perception of touch, pain
Attention:
Taking of the mind or one of possible trains of thought
Selectivity choose and prioritise stimuli based on location/features
(moving spotlight)
Capacity limited
Conscious controlled top-down
o Selecting and prioritising according to task/goal
Automatic attention bottom-up
o Attention caught involuntarily but highly salient stimuli
Parietal and prefrontal network for attention:
Corbetta and Schulman
o Network of prefrontal and parietal cortex mediate attention
Spatial neglect:
Lesion to parietal cortex (stroke)
Deficit in directing attention to one side of space (cant perceive
stimuli)
Simultagnosia cant perceive multiple objects simultaneously

Frontal lobe:
Anterior to central sulcus, cognitive control of functions
Executive functions reasoning, planning, problem solving,
inhibitory control, working memory
Emotion
Motor functions motor planning and execution
Speech Brocas area
Executive and inhibitory control:
Crucial for control of behaviour selection of appropriate actions
Many disorders associated with frontal lobe function (ADHD, OCD)
Maintaining attention and inhibitory performance:
Continuous performance task:
o Test for attention deficit disorders (eg. say all letters on
screen fast except X)
Frontal lobe damage Phineas Gage:
Iron through frontal lobes
Frontal leucotomy (lobotomy):
Started by Egas Moniz for sever psychosis
Frontal lobe clinical conditions:
Fronto-temporal dementia degeneration of frontal/temporal lobe
neurons
o Symptoms Disinhibition (impulsive behaviour, dont care
about appearance), apathy (no motivation, withdrawn), loss
of empathy (unaware of emotions), executive function deficits
(planning), speech/motor deficits

Lecture 11:
Part A Thinking problem solving:
Defining thinking
Operationally defined & studied in specific problem solving tasks
(chain problem)
Gestalt Psychology Thorndike Puzzle Box (from learning operant
conditioning)
Hungry cat motivated to get out of cage
Gestalt vs Behavioural Psychology
Gestalts learning curves can be abrupt with change in perception
Thorndikes cats gradual curve, Kohlers primates aha
experience
Gestalt problems:
Old woman/young woman, 9 dot problem, 6 Matchstick problem,
chain problem
Chain Problem:
2 groups continue working/come back to it. Group that comes
back to it is faster
Incubation Unconscious problem solving
Gestalt Tradition Importance of perceptual representation and mental set
Water jug problems, Lateral thinking
Functional fixedness We see objects as having only one use
E.g. the candle problem, the electric circuit problem
Effect of motivation and evaluation on functional fixedness
High evaluation situations tends to increase functional fixedness
(and decrease creativity)

 Extrinsic motivation (outside rewards)

Cognitive/Information Processing Paradigm Newell & Simon
Process-tracing method, Problem space, Algorithms, heuristics,
Knowledge base
Algorithms, Heuristics
If ask people to verbalise their thoughts, do get record of
heuristics/strategies
Algorithms are methods/rules that produce solutions to a
problem
Heuristics are rules of thumb (short-cuts)
Form part of the knowledge base

Part B brainstem and motor system:

Brainstem and autonomic nervous system:
Disorders of consciousness, locked-in patients
Motor system
Programming of movements before initiation (Parkinsons)
Nervous system:
Central nervous system brain and spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system
o Somatic nervous system Voluntary, motor and sensory
o Autonomic nervous system involuntary hear-rate, stress
Autonomic nervous system two divisions:
Sympathetic nervous system
o Emotional arousal, stress, fear and fight or flight
Parasympathetic nervous system
o Rest and digest lowers heart-rate, increased digestion
(opposes sympathetic)
Brainstem:
Autonomic nervous system functions
Relay between cortex and spinal cord, cortex and cerrebellum
Pons
o Relays signals from cerebral cortex to cerebellum
o Cranial nerves (nerves to face and head)
To ears and vestibular system for hearing/balance
To face for facial expression, chewing
Medulla
o Autonomic nervous system functions
o Hear-rate, respiration, reflex centres (sneezing)
Disorders of consciousness:
Persistent vegetative state
o Sever damage to upper brain, no conscious awareness

If no damage to brainstem, autonomic nervous system

functions can remain (heart-rate)
Locked-in syndrome ALS, motor neurone disease, brain injury
o Intact cerebrum/brainstem but disconnected from spinal cord
o Normal cognitive function (vision/hearing) but cannot move
fully conscious and aware but unresponsive
o Similar to persistent vegetative state
Thalamus:
Sensory relay of brain sensory info from spinal cord goes through
thalamus to cortex
Consciousness regulates sensory info that reaches the cortex
Cerebellum:
Hind brain
Sense of balance/coordination, feedback control of movement
Motor learning fine adjustment of movement based on feedback
Motor system anatomy
Primary motor cortex movement execution
Supplementary motor area and premotor cortex motor planning
Motor programs and motor schema:
Movements planned and programmed before initiation
Motor program theory skilled movements stored as program,
retrieved & run
Motor schema skilled movements instead stored as general
templates
Feedback control of movement:
Planned (intended) actions compared with actual actions performed
Form sensory prediction of expected feedback from action (not
actual sensory feedback vision) can then rapidly correct
movement
Predictive model of motor control:
Brain makes prediction of expected sensory feedback of actions
Motor learning optimising predictions, minimising prediction error
Sense of agency sense that you caused action, cant tickle
yourself
Readiness potential free will:
Brain prepares for action before we are aware of intention to act
Basal ganglia:
Crucial circuit for motor control (basal ganglia motor circuit)
receives input from motor cortex and sends output back to motor
cortex (via thalamus)
Parkinsons disease:
Movement disorder, neurodegenerative loss of dopamine in basal
ganglia
Symptoms muscle rigidity/tremor, slow movement
Affects all voluntary movement, greatest difficulty with well-learnt
automatic functions (gait, handwriting)
Basal ganglia important for well-learnt automatic movements
Motor cortex plasticity:
Primary sensory and motor cortex
Brain function mapped by electrical stimulation leads to
movement
o

Brain reorganisation with experience:

String instrument players had larger hand area for left hand fingers
than non strong platers somatosensory cortex finger
representation expands with experience
Brain reorganisation after damage:
Brain lesions in motor cortex decrease in size of representation of
hand in motor cortex
With movement re-training, hand area of motor cortex expanded
After damage, motor cortex can re-organise with use to recover
function

Lecture 12:
Part A judgement and decision-making:
Availability Heuristic:
Judging frequency/probability of events based on how available they
are in memory
E.g. which is more common cause of death?
Representativeness Heuristic:
Judging frequency/probability based on how well an event or person
fits ones mental prototype
E.g. Kevin is 39, short/slim, likes poetry more likely professor or
truck driver?
Conjunction fallacy: Believing occurrence of two events is more
likely than each event separately (logical error) works in bank and
womens movement
Tends to be used when making decision about people of the form:
o Would person X be good at doing Y?
o Does X belong to the group of Z people?
Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic (primacy heuristic):
Giving inordinate weight to first pieces of info encountered
Role of primacy in Social Impression formation and impression
management:
o First impressions endure (appearance etc.)
Halo effects enduring positive judgements
Horn effects enduring negative judgements
o Labelling effects verbal categories persist
Personal: friends, enemy, nerd
Professional: criminal, schizophrenic, autistic
Framing effects the way a decision is put to us influences the decision
outcome
Confirmation Bias tendency to seek out confirmatory information only
Illusory Correlation belief that things go together when they are not in
fact related
Invalid diagnostics The draw a person test (DAP)
Better-than-average effect tendency to see self as better than average
for +ve features

Part B mirror neurons and empathy:

Mirror Neurons
Definition Neurons that fire both when performing an action and
when observing someone else perform the same action
Mirrors brain state of other in observers own brain
Historical Perspective

Have natural tendency to imitate the actions of others

People rated as more empathic are more susceptible to yawn
contagion
Simulation Theory
How do we understand others mental/emotional states?
o Simulate others situation and mental state in our own mind
Alternative Theory Theory
Rational evaluation of others situation, based on knowledge from
past experience
Mirror Neurons
Observation and Execution of Action
Mirror neurons fire when monkey performs an action, and when it
observes same action being performed
Mirrors the observed state of the other in the monkeys own brain
Understanding by Mirroring Rizzoiattis Direct Matching Hypothesis
Mirror system (theory):
o Automatically maps observed actions to the motor system
We understand actions when we map the visual representation of
the observed action onto our motor representation of the same
action
Evidence for Mirror Neurons?
o Look for signs of Direct Matching
o I.e. Changes in motor cortex activity when observing actions
Mirror neurons in humans?
Difficult to find individual neurons in humans
TMS Motor Cortex Stimulation
Primary motor cortex can cause muscle twitch in hand
TMS during action observation
o Observing action:
Increases motor cortex excitability
o Specific for the muscles involved in the observed action
Supports direct mapping of observed actions to motor cortex
o Primary motor cortex activity increases just by watching
actions
Interference Effects
Observing actions can interfere with execution of our own actions
Suggests that observed actions are automatically mapped to motor
system
o Can interfere with motor cortex activity executing our own
actions
Mirror System in Humans
fMRI activation for action execution and observation
o Overlapping activity for execution and observation
Parietal cortex, Premotor cortex, Inferior frontal gyrus
o Indirect evidence for Mirror Neuron System in humans
Direct Matching to existing motor skills
Male and Female ballet dancers, observed reactions to dance moves
for males/females stronger when mapping to an existing motor
skill
Where do mirror neurons come from?

Neonatal Imitation used as argument to support mirror neurons are

present from birth highly debated
Mirror Neurons and Associative Learning
Lifetime of experience:
o Having intentions or goals
o Making actions to achieve those goals
o Receiving sensory feedback from those actions to achieve
goals
Areas of the Brain
o Visual areas represent actions by the sensory state
o Motor areas hold the plans for action
o Prefrontal cortex Goals and intentions
Broader function of the mirror system
Understanding others actions and intentions
Evolution of language Communication through manual gestures
involved into complex speech, mediated by Brocas area
Empathy But mirror neurons only have motor properties
Broader Mirroring Mechanisms
Theory of learning by association
o Mirror neurons form associations between observed and
experienced states
o Not only for action, but also observing and experiencing
touch or emotion

Feeling others pain

fMRI study of pain-related neural activity
o Male/female couples Women in fMRI scanner received
painful stimulus
o Observed male partner receive painful stimulus
Brain activation for experienced pain compared with empathetic
pain
Affective/emotional areas Unpleasantness of pain was active both
during actual pain and observed pain
Empathy and Group Association
Group Association
o Form associations with people we perceive as like-us
o In-group vs. out-group (Social Identity Theory)
Group Behaviour

In-group Favouritism, conformity, helping

Out-Group Prejudice, discrimination, conflict
Neural empathy and mirroring depends on Group Association
Stronger for In-Group members than Out-Group
members
E.g. Fans of rival football teams less likely to help person of
opposite team, more likely to feel empathy for in-group
and Empathy:
Study found neural empathy for pain only of people from same race
Brain response not influencing behaviour or attitudes
End behaviour and attitudes combination of early, automatic brain
processes and top-down cognitive regulation and control
o
o
o

Race