2015/MPS
Authors
Affiliations
Key words
vertical jump
stretch-shortening cycle
exercise
muscle strength
muscle soreness
creatine kinase
reactive jumps
Abstract
Introduction
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IJSM/4235/17.7.2015/MPS
may shed some light on the influence of aquatic-based plyometric training on the gains in different variables of physical performance and provide strength and conditioning coaches
information and guidelines that would enable them to plan and
set-up safer and more effective plyometric training programs.
Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to compare the
effects of land-based plyometric training vs. aquatic plyometric
training on reactive jump performance, such as drop jump and
repeated jump, and muscle damage.
Participants
Testing procedures
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IJSM/4235/17.7.2015/MPS
cale, RI, Italy) was used to estimate the height of each jump.
Participants were asked to remain with their trunk in vertical
position with no excessive forward move, with their knees
extended during the flight phase. The participants held their
hands on their hips while performing the test.
Blood samples
Training program
Both APT and PT groups trained twice a week, on non-consecutive days, for a period of 10 weeks using only vertical jumps. The
number of sets, vertical jumps and inter-set recoveries (3min)
were identical for both groups in each training session. The 2
training programs were identical except for the training environment; the land training sessions were conducted in a gymnasium, over a compact cement surface, and the aquatic training
sessions were performed in a pool with a depth of 2.20m; the
temperature of the pool was kept consistent at 27C. Descriptive
characteristics of the plyometric training programs are presented in
Table 1. The volume was increased from 10 sets of 10
vertical jumps in the first week to 10 sets of 55 jumps in the last
week. Both APT and PT groups were instructed to jump for maximal height in every jump. The sessions took place at the same
time of the day (1h) for each subject and under constant environmental conditions. At least 2 trained researchers supervised
each workout session and recorded the compliance and individual workout data during each session. Each participant of the
APT group was positioned one beside the other along the 25
meter pool. They used the lane next to the edge of the pool so
that they could repose during the rest periods between sets. The
participants were required not to engage in any other type of
strenuous physical activity, exercise training or sports competition during the present study.
Statistical analysis
10
Session
12
34
56
78
910
1112
1314
1516
1718
1920
10
10
100
200
10
15
150
300
10
20
200
400
10
25
250
500
10
30
300
600
10
35
350
700
10
40
400
800
10
45
450
900
10
50
500
1000
10
55
550
1100
TOTAL
6500
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ticipants rested for 20min and then the blood sampling was
drawn. The same warm-up protocol, which consisted of 5min of
low intensity running, 2 sets of progressively faster 30m running accelerations and 2 sets of 4 countermovement jumps to
accustom the subjects to the jumping procedure was followed in
the pre- and post-tests. Following warm-up, the participants
performed: 1) drop jump 30cm (DJ30), 2) drop jump 50cm
(DJ50) and 3) repeated vertical jump (RJ). During the execution
of these tests, the participants were verbally encouraged to give
their maximal effort. For each type of jump, 2 repetitions separated by 30s rest were performed. The best attempt for height
jump was recorded for further analysis.
vs. CG) and one within factor (T1 vs. T2 vs. T3). In addition to this
null hypothesis testing, the data were assessed for clinical significance using an approach based on the magnitudes of change
[3,18]. Effect sizes (ES) were calculated using Hedges g in order
to estimate the magnitude of the training effect on the selected
neuromuscular variables within each group, as follows: g=(mean
T3
Results
Discussion
Table 2 Changes in reactive jump performance variables from pre- to post-training for each group.
Changes observed for TEST 3 vs. TEST 1
TEST 1
RJ10-APT (cm)
RJ10-PT (cm)
RJ10-CG (cm)
DJ30-APT (cm)
DJ30-PT (cm)
DJ30-CG (cm)
DJ50-APT (cm)
DJ50-PT (cm)
DJ50-CG (cm)
CK-APT (g/L)
CK-PT (g/L)
CK-CG (g/L)
26.43.6
25.14.8
24.63.7
33.55.2
31.54.5
32.95.4
33.95.3
30.25.3
31.95.6
184.1104.8
121.966.8
176.4138.8
TEST 2
27.64.2
29.55.4***$
25.83.8
35.15.6
34.77.5**
33.15.7
35.66.8
34.66.7***
32.74.6
234.6182.0
187.0144.3
174.3176.7
TEST 3
27.14.6
27.73.7*
25.24.7
35.14.7
33.85.1**
33.75.2
35.37.2
34.25.6**
32.15.3
189.5120.4
147.895.9
142.968.8
(%)
2.3
11.7
1.3
5.1
7.4
2.8
3.6
13.4
1.6
3.2
15.0
11.9
Standarized (Cohen)
Percent changes of b
etter/
trivial/worse effect
0.20 (0.290.68)
0.53 (0.250.81)
0.16 (0.230.56)
0.30 (0.120.48)
0.51 (0.24 to 0.78)
0.16 (0.110.43)
0.27 (0.080.61)
0.71 (0.430.99)
0.07 (0.270.41)
0.05 (0.320.42)
0.37 (0.180.92)
0.23 (0.520.05)
50/42/9 unclear
97/3/0 very likely
44/50/6 unclear
83/17/0 likely
97/3/0 very likely
39/59/2 trivial
63/36/1 possibly
100/0/0 most likely
26/65/9 unclear
24/63/13 unclear
70/25/4 possibly
1/41/58 possibly
Data are meanSD; ES: Effect Size; : T1-T3 Change; CI: Confidence Interval
APT: Aquatic plyometric training (n=20), PT: Plyometric training (n=20), CG: Control group (n=25)
RJ10: Rebound jump performing 10 jumps, DJ30: Drop jump from height of 30cm, DJ50: Drop jump from height of 50cm, CK: Creatine kinase
Intra-group significant differences in respect to test 1: *P<0.05, **P<0.01, ***P<0.001
Inter-group significant differences in respect to control group: $ P<0.05
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IJSM/4235/17.7.2015/MPS
IJSM/4235/17.7.2015/MPS
CG
CG
PT
PT
APT
APT
20 15 10 5
0
5
10 15 20
Impairment
Trivial
Improvement
9
12
12 9 6 3
0
3
6
Trivial
Improvement
Impairment
% Change
% Change
Creatine Kinase
CG
CG
PT
PT
APT
APT
20 15 10 5
0
5
10 15 20
Impairment
Trivial
Improvement
50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Impairment
Trivial
Improvement
% Change
% Change
RJ10
DJ30
DJ50
CK
Drop Jump 30 cm
APT vs. PT
APT vs. CG
PT vs. CG
APT vs. PT
APT vs. CG
PT vs. CG
APT vs. PT
APT vs. CG
PT vs. CG
APT vs. PT
APT vs. CG
PT vs. CG
Percent changes of
better/trivial/worse effect
APT: Aquatic plyometric training (n=20), PT: Plyometric training (n=20), CG: Control
group (n=25)
RJ10: Rebound jump performing 10 jumps, DJ30: Drop jump from height of 30cm,
DJ50: Drop jump from height of 50cm; CK: Creatine kinase; CI; confidence interval.
For clarity, all differences are presented as improvements for the first group compared with second group (i.e., U16 vs. U18), so that negative and positive differences
are in the same direction
compared the effectiveness of aquatic-based vs. land-based plyometric training on DJ and RJ tests. On the basis of previous
studies, it can also be expected that both types of training produce similar gains in the different jump tests performed in the
present study. Nonetheless, our results are not in agreement
with the above mentioned studies. After the 10 weeks training
intervention, only PT showed significant improvements in all
the variables analyzed, whereas APT and CG remained unaltered. PT presented greater gains than APT for DJ50 (13.4% vs.
3.6%), DJ30 (7.4% vs. 5.1%) and RJ10 (11.7% vs. 2.3%). These differences are also supported by the inferential statistics based on
Table 2,3). The
the interpretation of the magnitude of effects (
specificity principle could explain that APT does not produce
enhancement in DJ performance. DJ requires an athlete to drop
from a static box, land, immediately execute a maximal vertical
jump toward a target, and finish with a second landing. Thus,
performance in this kind of jump depends to a large extent on
the subjects ability to drop and jump, exploiting the elastic
energy accumulated in the elastic components in series during
the lengthening muscular phase [1]. As it has been described
previously [27], eccentric and concentric muscle actions get
slower in the aquatic environment because water is denser than
air and provides resistance to movement.
Numerous studies have shown that short-term land-based plyometric training is an effective method to improve DJ performance,
regardless of age, sex or training status [9,10,12,29,33,37,42].
In a recent review, Markovic and Mikulic [24] indicated that the
mean percent of gain produced by plyometric training on DJ performance is 13.4% (range, 1.4% to 32.4%). In some studies
[9,33,37,42], the training program included DJ itself as training
exercise, which could stimulate the enhancement by a greater
technical learning. Our results (7.4% and 13.4% for DJ30 and
DJ50, respectively) are in line with those of Markovic and Mikulic [24], despite in the present study only CMJ was used as training exercise. These improvements in DJ height could be related
to shorter ground contact time and amortization phase produced after training intervention [9,39], although this explanation is speculative since contact time was not measured in the
present study. Unlike land-based plyometric training, we have
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Repeated Jump
IJSM/4235/17.7.2015/MPS
Repetitive Jump
Drop Jump 30 cm
Drop Jump 50 cm
Creatine Kinase
PT vs. CG
APT vs. CG
APT vs. PT
12 8 8 4 4 0
8 12
12 9
12
181512 9 3 0
6 12 15 18
80 60 40 20
20
40
60
80
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Fig. 2 Change between-groups in repeated jump a, drop jump 30cm b, drop jump 50cm c and blood creatine kinase levels d in land-based plyometric
training (PT), aquatic plyometric training (APT) and control group (CG). Bars indicate uncertainty in the true mean changes with 90% confidence intervals.
Trivial (shaded) areas were calculated from the smallest worthwhile change. For clarity, all differences are presented as improvements for the first group
compared to the second group (i.e., PT vs. CG), so that negative and positive differences are in the same direction.
IJSM/4235/17.7.2015/MPS
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