QUANTITATIVE METHODS

University of Amsterdam
Coursera
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Goal: Recognize sloppy science when you see it.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------What makes knowledge scientific?
Intuition/Belief - not a good basis of knowledge
Consensus - not a good basis of knowledge
Authority - just opinion
Opposing opinions
We need evidence.
Casual Observation is not very good evidence.
Selective observation.
Informal reasoning can also be fallacious.
We need systematic observations with formal logic = scientific method.
Scientific method -> valid knowledge
Other approaches are too prone to error
scientific methods - better chance of valid explanantions
evaluate plausibility of evidence
Scientific Method Principles
- empirically testable - observations or data
- replicable
- objectivity - others can repeat the study - clear assumptions, concepts, proce
dures
- transparency - replicated by anyone, publicly shared
- falsifiable - imagine contradictory hypothesis
- logically consistent - hypothesis internally coherent, conclusion is logically
consistent
Scientific Attitude
- critical
- open, transparent
SCIENTIFIC CLAIMS
Some claims are better than others
Most basic claim is an observation
- doesnt describe/explain general relation
- accurate/inaccurate
Hypothesis
- describes/explains pattern, general relation
- Laws are strongly supported
- Not used in social sciences
Theory
- overarching explanation of many related phenomena

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Hypothesis are susceptible to alternative explanations

True Experiments
- randomized control
- maximize validity
Manipulation
- ensures cause precedes effect
- cause is in control of experimenter
Comparison
- ensures effect does not occur naturally
- eliminates the threat of maturation
Random Assignment
- no other explanations to explain effect
Replication
- required to ensure randomization works
Factorial Design
- Several independent variables (factors) investigated simultaneously
- Eg.
dosage: low
medium high
gender: men
women
for migraine drug
Can check both gender and dosage
Effects of factors - main factors
Interaction of factors
E.g adding diet - normal vs no fun
INcomplete Designs
- not all factors are present in a factorial design
REPEATED MEASURES
- different groups exposed to different levels of independent variable = between
factors
- individuals exposed to all levels of independent variables = within factors
Within factors is more efficient
Within factors = Repeated Measures - Longitudinal Design
Longitudunal - over time
MANIPULATION
control over independent variable
value/level determined by researcher
control over external variables
eg. violent imagery causes aggression
If the independent variable is absent = Control Group or Condition

Experimental Variable
Individual Differences Variables
Seemingly non-manipulable variables can be manipulated
Manipulation check
Control of variables of disinterest
ceteris paribus
harder to control external variables
control variables are held constant
Manipulation - differnet levels of independent variables
Assessing effectiveness by manipulation check
Keeping external variables constant
Individual difference variables cannot be manipulated
LAB VS FIELD
Manipulation and Control requires a lot of control
This requires a lab
In social science it is an environment under experimenters control
Lab studies can be non-experimental
Ecological Validity or Mundane Realism
Low construct validity
Low external validity
Simulated realism
Field research - uncontrolled
Natural Behaviour (non-experimental)
RANDOMIZATION
Random Assignment
Eliminates all systematic differences at once
In one particular case you can get unequal distribution - randomization failure
Groups of unequal size = statistical nuisance
Randomization Check
- measure relevant variables
Restricted randomization
- blocking
- stratified restricted random assignment
- use blocks to ensure equal representation of each characteristic
- limits: complicated for large number of characteristics
Randomization with repeated measures is still necessary
- effects could be explained by maturation
Counterbalancing to ensure subjects are exposed to conditions in random order
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
True experiment maximizes inetrnal validity
manipulation
comparison
random assignment
Two Group Design

- experimental group
- control group
Two Group Pre/Post
- can deal with maturation
Pretest can:
sensitize
practice effect
alert to purpose
SOLOMON 4 GROUP
WITHIN/REPEATED MEASURES
All participants exposed to all values of the independent variables
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