BAHA3A1/ DAHA 1Y1

HISTORY AND THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE

2016
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Lecture No 7
THE ETRUSCANS 850- 90 BC
Origin:
The Etruscans established the land of Etruria, between the rivers Arno and Tiber (in the south) and Po
valley (in the north) in the region of Italy known as Tuscany (area surrounding the modern city of
Florence).
The origin of the Etruscans is not clear but their language had Indo-European roots. Their importance in the
classical development lies in the fact that their contact with the colonies of Greece enabled them to adopt
some of the Greek culture which they subsequently passed on to the Romans once they had became Roman
citizens.
Religion:
They adopted the Greeks personification of the important gods and had their own names for the same gods
as the Greeks and the Romans:
Etruscan
Greek
Roman
Tin
Zeus
Jupiter
Uni
Hera
Juno
Menerva
Athena
Minerva
Authority and Society
Etruria consisted of twelve city-states each with a king who held secular and religious authority. Later
towards the end of the sixth century BC wealthy families held power and they in return, protected their
subordinates. Noble women were give high status and freedom of political participation previously
unknown in the Greek and early Roman society.
Architecture
The Etruscans invented a unique temple style comprising a double frontal colonnaded porch and a one or
three room cella behind it. The temple was built on a podium and had only one entrance at front. The
columns, with no fluting, a round base and capital, topped with a square abacus followed the Tuscan order.
The columns were made of wood and terracotta was used to encase the capitals.
Funerary architecture
Two types of Etruscan tombs existed. Tumulus/ tumulii were round structures covered with earth contained
several rectangular tomb chambers. The others, which were highly decorated, were cut out of soft volcanic
rock tufa. These had room for the whole families.
In the funerary furniture such as the sarcophagi and canopic urns one finds the highest sculptural
expressions of the Etruscans. Most pieces are moulded form terracotta, than carved from stone. The shewolf of the Capitol is an Etruscan sculpture. Most of their Pottery techniques resembled the Greek Doric
order.
ANCIENT ROME
Three phases can be identified of Roman history:
a) Kings 753-520 BC
Rome was founded around 750 BC by Romulus, its first king. An assembly of patres (head of
families) who formed the senate chose the king.
b) The Republic 509-27 BC

Up to its abolishment in 509 BC early Roman kingly government had seven kings, the last three
being Etruscan. In this era the Punic War against the Cartheginians (264-146 BC) took place to
decide that Rome should rule the world.
c) The Empire (Imperial Rome) 27 BC-AD 330
After the abolishing of kingly power, authority was given for one year, firstly to one man
(dictator), then later to two men called imperium. From here the boundaries were pushed ever
further from Rome culminating in the conquering of Mesopotamia and Assyria under Emperor
Trajan. Under Marcus Aurelius the tide begins to turn and decline of the Empire begins.
Roman Empire
After the death of Julius Caesar( 44 BC) Ocatvian- Augustus Caesar- succeeded him once he had
defeated Anthony and his Ptolemeian mistress Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC.
He set out to establish peace and social reforms through the Pax Romana after years of civil and foreign
wars. Under Augustus reforms, the Senate determined its own choice of leader, an emperor, who was
adopted and trained for the job. This resulted in a sequence of five good emperors who include Nerva
Trajan, Hadrian, Antonius Pius and Marcus Aurelius whose combined effort produced the most civilized
portion of mankind in the Golden Age of Rome. This has been attributed to the law and order, tolerance,
justice and capacity for sagacious government.
Beside this, Augustus undertook an ambitious building program that included a new forum and numerous
public structures
The main achievement of the Romans was the creation and administration of their vast empire
during which they introduced urban civilization throughout the Europe.
Town Planning
As was the contrast between Athens and its planned colonies, the contrast between the chaotic organic
growth of Rome and the regulated formality of the great majority of Roman towns is marked, partly as a
result of the profound size and population of the city of Rome.
Castra
In order to impose and maintain their authority the Romans built fortified legionary camps known as
castra. These were laid out according to the gridiron, with predetermined rectilinear defensive perimeters.
Though temporal most castra became the basis for permanent towns. The permanent urban settlements
whether developed from a castra or not, were given standardized plans. The perimeter is generally square
or rectangular within which the two main streets, the cardo and decumanus cross at right angles to form
the basis of the pattern of streets. Secondary streets complete the gridiron. Roman centuriation-the division
of the territory around a town into great squares(728m) each contain 100 small landholding was inspired by
the Greek practice. The building blocks are called insulae. The cardo and Decumanus form one corner of
the Forum area the Roman equivalent of the Greek agora. The forum included a colonnaded courtyard with
a meeting hall at the end. The temple, the theatre and the public baths were also located near the forum in
the centre of the town. The amphitheater was placed outside town for practical requirements of slope for
seating. Fortifications came as a later addition when the cities became insecure. The defensive wall was
rectangular in theory but was actually curving outline when built around an existing city.
The most important imperial towns were directly connected to each other and back to Rome by a system of
main roads for military and economic reasons.
Romanization of native populations was Romes way ensuring peace and cooperation of the imperial
towns.
Housing
Two base types of housing were found:
The domus for the rich families. The plan was a series of rooms facing a courtyard giving a higher degree
of privacy. The insula ( the building block) which was divided into flats for five to six persons provided
accommodation for most of the citizens of Rome. Heights ranged between three to seven storeys depending
on the regulation by the Caesar. Julius Caesar introduced an ~ 720 mm wide fire-break- ambitus- between
buildings and terra cotta tile for the roofs. Rome was an egalitarian city; anyone could live anywhere.

Rome
The City of Seven Hills had its origins in several villages built by the Latin tribes. The site though ideal
for village communities presents problems for an urban settlement because of its susceptibility to flood,
poor drainage, river pollution and drinking water problems, poor bearing capacity of site and the hilly
topography have presented problems for planners, architects and engineers.
To solve these problems aqueducts systems(Aqua Appia 312 BC and Aqua Marcia 140 BC ~ 90 km long)
and large-scale sewers( Cloaca Maxima 578 BC) were built causing barriers to further planning of the city
when the need for restructuring arose. Pont du Gard 35 kilometers, was built A.D. early in the first century
to replace old aqueducts.
Religion
Religion was a family affair and involved honouring the father of the family well as the ancestors. It was
for reason that the unique Roman portrait sculpture developed. Every residence dedicated a room for
ancestral remembrance. The sculptures ranged form the idealized images of emperor to the realistic
images of simple Romans.
The Roman also adopted the Hellenistic practice of deifying rulers and erecting temples in their honour i.e.
Temple of Trajan.
Daily Ritual
By A.D. 98 the population of Rome had grown over a million as the empire expanded. Keeping order was
key to maintaining peace in Rome. The Romans had undoubted organizing genius. This they did by
locating business in central places. The forum was the typical business place which included the general
meeting places, the market building, Halls of justice, the libraries, historical monuments and the temples
describes the activities in which the Roman citizens would partake. The Forum of Trajan was the biggest
exceeding 10 hectares. The emperor was also responsible for providing public amusement at his cost. This,
the emperor achieved by building baths, theaters and stadiums all over the city, in the process created a
variety of architectural forms and human activities that have never been surpassed (peoples palaces!).
Examples are the Baths of Caracella and Diocletian. The Colosseum AD 72-80 provided entertainment
with its gladiator contests between men and beasts.
Pantheon AD 120
It was built to reflect the world order and dedicated to the planetary deities of Saturn, Venus, Mars,
Mercury, the sun and the moon.. Its geometry is based on the combination of the circle, cylinder (44m),
and sphere to create harmonic proportions. The dome is a perfect sphere.
Roman contribution to Architecture
Roman architecture was a synthesis of the Etruscan and Greek heritage which, together with their own
significant elements of created a unique Roman architecture. Four major Roman contributions to
architecture can e identified:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Building for use (secular activities than religious: basilicas, aqueducts roads, bridges, sewers)
Development of the arch and vault as a structural principle( Arcade, barrel vault, groin vault)
Emphasis on verticality: Multi-storey markets, multi-family apartments, the Baths)
Design of interiors.(lighting, Space composition,

Construction
The Romans invented an early form of concrete made from a combination of volcanic earth Pozzolana
lime, small stones and water. It was this material that enabled rapid and economic construction of buildings.
Marble and terra cotta were used as facing to the walls of the buildings.
Utilitarianism
The Romans did not theorize about the nature of the ideal state but they instead set out to attain happiness
for its people through good governance. Therefore construction of elegantly proportioned temples was not
important as building baths and theaters. Poetry, music or a plays was deemed successful if it excited the
greater majority than the cultured few.