New to Straw Bale?

Its very easy to get started! We have all the resources you need
to get familiar with straw bale building and can guide you every step of the way. I
recommend you go through the steps below:
Step 1 Sign up for our Free Straw Bale E-Course
Step 2 Watch our Introductory Straw Bale Video below
Step 3- Read the FAQs below
Step 4 Visit our Straw Bale Photo Gallery
Step 5- Visit our online Store to see our full line of teaching tools we offer
Step 6- Check out our list of current Workshops
Step 7- Drop us a note and Say Hello!. We read every
comment/idea/dream/suggestion. We improve as people and as business each time we

hear from people like you!

info@strawbale.com

Step 8- Sign up for a chance to win a FREE 7 day straw bale workshop with us.
Clickhere.

Introductory Straw Bale Video

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Is a straw bale house more energy efficient?

Yes. A typical straw bale wall is roughly three times as efficient as conventional framing.
Over the life of a typical thirty year mortgage, this superior insulation can reduce energy
costs by up to 75%, saving money and vital natural resources.
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Isnt a straw bale home at greater risk for fire?

No. Canadian and U.S. materials laboratories have found that: The straw bale/mortar
structure wall has proven to be exceptionally resistant to fire. In these tests, the flames
took more than two hours to penetrate the plastered bale walls. Conventional framing
built to commercial standards took only 30 minutes to one hour to burn. Due to their tight
compaction, bales contain very little oxygen and thus resist combustion. Its like trying to
burn a phone book. Loose straw; however, is at risk for fire and should be cleaned from
the job site daily. Walls should be plastered as early as possible to increase their fire
resistance.

Fire and Straw Bale Video

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What about pests?

Pests are more of an imagined concern than a real threat. Once the walls are properly
plastered or sided, there is no way for bugs or rodents to get into the bales. If pests were

to get inside, they would find it almost impossible to move in the densely packed bales.
Termites and other pests pose more of a problem to conventional construction than they
do to straw bale structures.
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Do the thick walls provide good sound insulation?

Straw bale homes provide superior sound absorption compared with conventional
houses. This will be especially important in the town homes. The sound absorption
between units will help create separation between common wall homes.
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How do bale walls carry vertical and lateral loads?

In load bearing straw bale structures, the bales themselves carry the vertical loads. High
density bales and proper compression are a must to ensure the bales will not settle
under the weight of the roof assembly. In-fill structures rely on the framing to carry the
vertical loads. Lateral loads, or shear strength, is carried by the wall assembly as a
whole. The bales, the structural wire mesh, and the plaster all play a part in the handling
of lateral loads. Recent engineering has shown bale wall assemblies to be structural
sound even in the most volatile earthquake zones of California.
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How do I find good straw bales to build with?

There are a number of things to keep in mind when shopping for bales. Know the size
you are designing to (two string, three string, etc). The straw should be golden in color.
Darker straw is often an indication of water damage. Check the density of the bales. The
bale should not deform dramatically when lifted by one string. Use a hand held moisture
meter to check moisture content. Bales have to be below 20% MC for construction.
Finally, check for uniform shape. If the bales are all shaped properly, the baling machine
was most likely set well, producing consistent bales.

Finding Good Straw Bales

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Are there special tools?

Yes. Baling needles are a specialty tool essential to straw bale construction. Visit
our specialty straw bale tools site for the designs for the
best baling needles I use on all my jobs.
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How can I learn the ins and outs?

The best way to learn the art of straw bale construction is by taking a workshop. We offer
7 and 14 day intensive hands-on workshops in several locations each year. These
events are not only highly instructional, they are also extremely fun and often a life
changing experience for those in attendance. You can find the list of current workshops
at www.StrawBaleWorkshops.com. If you are unable to take time off work and attend,
consider purchasing one of our instructional Straw Bale DVDs. We cover all aspects of
Straw Bale construction from foundation tips to finish plaster and everything in between.
Finally, stay informed. The field of Straw Bale construction changes rapidly. To stay up
to date make sure you are subscribed to get my E-Mail Updates and my 7 Essential
Steps to Straw Bale Success E-Course.

Learn the Post and Beam Method

Learn the Load Bearing Straw Bale Method

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Do I have to design the house differently when using straw

bales?

It is a good idea to know the size of the bales you intend to use before you start
designing. That way, you can keep the modular unit of the bale in mind when laying out
the plan. Bales take up more floor space than conventional walls, so use them to your
advantage. Use window seats, wall cutouts, and flush mount cabinetry to increase the
useable space within the walls themselves. Check our free articles section and on
designing with straw bales. Also, check out www.StrawBalePlans.com for a list of
current plans we offer for sale.
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How do I teach Subcontractors what to do?

This takes experience. You might want to build a small structure yourself, start to finish,
like the one shown in our straw bale DVDs. The techniques described in the DVD will
help you fully understand the needs of the subcontractor. Scheduling is a little different
that conventional homes because the inclusion of bales affects the installation of rough
wiring and plumbing. Use our consultation services. We can teach you the ins and outs
and speak directly with subcontractors to help them bridge the gap into the world of
Straw Bale Construction.
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Should I be concerned about the straw getting wet?

Moisture concerns can be handled easily with proper design and construction methods.
So long as the bales are installed when dry (moisture content of 14% or less) and are
properly sealed within the plaster and protected from water infiltration, they will perform
well. The adopted International Residential Code, Appendix M (Straw Bale Structures)
has standards in place to accommodate this design and construction. Even if a building
is heavily rained on, it will be fine as long as it is allowed to dry out. Problems arise when
high moisture levels above 20%) are sustained for long periods of time.
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Wont the straw decompose?

Organic material requires both oxygen and water in order to decompose. With proper
construction techniques, water will not enter the building thus making decomposition
impossible. Rice straw, in particular, has a high silica content which increases its
resistance to decay. Straw has been used as an insulating material for many centuries,
and has even been found in excellent condition in Egyptian tombs thousands of years
old. Straw will not decompose as long as its moisture content is kept low.
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What does it mean that straw bale walls breathe?

Bale walls do not breathe in the sense of allowing air to move through the walls. In fact, it
is a good idea to limit air infiltration into the walls as air carries moisture. When we say
they breathe, we are referring to the movement of moisture through, and out of, the
walls. It is critical that moisture moves out of the walls. Permeable plasters such as Lime
or Earth should be used in wet or humid climates and Cement based plasters should
only be used in dry climate climates, if at all. This transfer of moisture improves indoor
air quality without sacrificing energy efficiency and keeps the bales dry. Straw is a
natural material, and as such it does not off gas the way conventional insulations do,
adding to the health of the home and its occupants.

Bale Walls Do Not Breathe!

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Do bales restrict my design options?

The thick pliable bales actually improve design options. Many nooks and window seats
are standard in straw bale construction. Built in furniture, curved walls, landscape
features, and sound barriers are all easily accomplished with bales.
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How are the walls finished?

Bale walls can be finished in many ways. The typical options include lime plaster, stucco,
and earth plaster. Each of these materials has its pro and cons although some have
more cons than pros. When choosing a finish material, consideration must be given to

durability, maintenance requirements, permeability, flexibility, strength, ease of

application, cost, embodied energy, and aesthetics. The most important factors are the
finishs breathability, embodied energy, and durability.
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How durable is a home made out of straw?

Bale homes built in the 1800s till exist in Nebraska and Europe. Straw bale homes have
consistently withstood severe weather and wind in Wyoming as well as major
earthquakes in California.I will reply to your e-mail about Insiders Guide #3 so we can
get cranking on that material. Many architects and engineers consider straw bales to be
the ideal seismic-resistant building material. In wind tests, bale structures see no
movement in a sustained 75 mph gale and only 1/16 inch movement with 100 mph
gusts.
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How does building with straw bales help our environment?

The use of straw bales can have a huge impact on our natural resources and air
pollution. Each year, the U.S. alone burns or disposes of 200 million tons of waste
straw, producing massive amounts of carbon dioxide. The use of straw as insulation
reduces the need for initial energy outputs in regards to manufacturing. There is less
embodied energy in straw as it is available in almost every local market, thereby
reducing transportation costs and efforts. Straw is a renewable resource that has a one
year growth/harvest cycle. By using this local, agricultural by-product as a building
material, we reduce energy expenditures, the amount of straw burned, and the use of
fossil fuels needed for material transportation.
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How do I hang things on the wall?

When a quality plaster is used, most items can be hung directly on the plaster with
conventional plaster screws and plugs. This is true for pictures, coat hangers, and other
small items. In order to hang larger items such as kitchen cabinets, wooden drive stakes
must be used to anchor the hangers into the bales before the plaster is applied. By
driving a wooden stake into the tough interior of the bales, a solid base is laid onto which
just about any load can be applied. In the case of extremely heavy loads, a bolt can be
threaded through the bales and fastened to an over sized washer on the opposite side of
the wall.

Straw Bale and Cabinets

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Can plumbing be run through bale walls?

In a perfect world, plumbing would be kept out of the bales entirely. Whenever possible,
design a structure so that the plumbing can be run through the floor and interior stick
frame walls. Check with your plumber about wet venting plumbing fixtures so the vents
can also be run through the floor to interior walls. When it is not possible to keep
plumbing out of the bales, you can either build a faux wall in front of the bales in which to
run the plumbing or you can place the plumbing in a continuous sleeve which will contain
any leaks or sweaty pipes.
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What about electrical systems?

Although Romex is allowed by many codes for straw bale construction, most building
inspectors want to see direct burial cable (UF-B) in the walls when a sheathed wiring is
employed. If wire upgrades are possible in the future, or if additional circuits may
someday be added, it is a good idea to use flexible chases with single wires pulled
through. If, at a later date, you decide to upgrade the system, you can simply pull new
wires through the conduit to the desired location. To reduce the effects of electrical
magnetic fields (EMFs) use metal cased, twisted wire. The twist in the wire along with
the metal conduit reduces the emission of
EMFs. Electrical boxes are typically screwed to tapered stakes driven flush with back of
recesses cut into the straw. The wires are then let into the boxes. It is important to hold

the wires back from the face of the bales so they are not damaged during the
construction or post construction process.

Straw Bale Construction

DEFINITION
CONSIDERATIONS
COMMERCIAL STATUS
IMPLEMENTATION ISSUES
GUIDELINES

DEFINITION:
Straw bale construction uses baled straw from wheat, oats, barley, rye, rice and others in
walls covered by earthen or lime stucco (some use cement stucco, but we typically dont
suggest it). Straw bale are traditionally a waste product which farmers do not till under the
soil, but do sell as animal bedding or landscape supply due to their durable nature. In many
areas of the country, it is also burned, causing severe air quality problems. It is important to
recognize that straw is the dry plant material or stalk left in the field after a plant has
matured, been harvested for seed, and is no longer alive. Hay bales are made from short
species of livestock feed grass that is green/alive and are not suitable for this application. Hay
is also typically twice the price of straw.

CONSIDERATIONS:
This technique for constructing walls has been recently revived as a low cost alternative for
building highly insulating walls. The technique was practiced in the plains states in the latter
1800s and early 1900s. Many of the early structures are still standing and being used. The
technique has been applied to homes, farm buildings, schools, commercial buildings,
churches, community centers, government buildings, airplane hangars, well houses, and
more.
Straw is also being used as a building material currently in sheet materials such as sheathing
and wall panels. However, the approach of using bales directly, despite its history, is a new
technique from a regulatory standpoint. In the 1990s a number of cities passed a straw bale
construction building code, followed by the state of California. We expect to see straw bale
codes adopted in coming years.
Building walls with straw bales can be accomplished with unskilled labor, and the low costs of
the bales make this technique economically attractive. However, it is important to realize that
the cost of straw bales will differ depending on what time of year they are harvested and how
far they need to be transported. They are cheaper at the time of harvest rather than after
they have been stored from the previous season and, of course, cheaper if they are
transported shorter distances. Bales must also be protected from getting wet. Costs also
begin to rise when one considers the type of stucco and its application. An earthen plaster

taken from site soil, applied by the owner/builder, and maintained by the owner is quite
inexpensive, but may take a long time to apply. A cement stucco applied by a contractor is
accomplished quickly and lasts a very long time without any maintenance, but also costs
money. As with any style of construction, the more labor input by the owner and the less by
the contractor, the less costly it will be.
Two basic styles of straw bale construction have been used: post and beam construction with
straw bale infill, and structural straw bale construction or Nebraska style (the weight of the
roof is supported by the bales). There are a number of straw bale buildings now located in the
Austin area and local expert consultation and construction is readily available.
(See Resources)

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Strawbale

Satisfactory

Satisfactory in most conditions

Satisfactory in Limited Conditions

Unsatisfactory or Difficult

COMMERCIAL STATUS
TECHNOLOGY:
Experimentation with straw bale construction continues. A good deal of standardization and
refinement in regard to techniques, tools, and associated materials is now appearing.

SUPPLIERS:
Straw is plentiful in many locations. However, distribution systems are not developed for
straw to be used construction.

COST:
This can be one of the most economical wall systems. Houses have been constructed for as
low cost per square foot (floor area) for very basic accomodations to high end homes at well
over $100.00 per square foot.

IMPLEMENTATION ISSUES
FINANCING:
Building code acceptance will be key to obtaining conventional financing.

PUBLIC ACCEPTANCE:
The appearance of a completed straw bale structure is similar to a southwestern adobe style
building. This look is generally positively viewed . There will be hesitation among mainstream
buyers to this technique at first since it is new and unusual. Significant interest in this type of
construction exists in our region, although the adobe style is not typical for this area.

REGULATORY:
Any unusual building technology must be evaluated by the code enforcement authorities
before approval can be granted. This is typically done by review of another code agencys
approval or position on the technology or by review of test data supplied by a reputable
independent laboratory.
In the case of straw bale construction, there are precedents of approval in other jurisdictions.
Anyone wishing to receive approval in Austin should follow the local straw bale construction
code. The inspections department in other areas can refer to the Green Building Program for
locations of precedents from our as well as other building inspection departments.
There are numerous examples of this construction in the Austin regulatory jurisdiction and in
the greater Austin area at this time. If test data is needed, the building inspection officials will
indicate what is needed. Testing is currently being done in Arizona, California and New Mexico.
At this time, there are also a number of insurance companies and lending institutions in the
Austin area that have given their approval to straw bale construction.

GUIDELINES
1.0 Summary Recommendations and Brief Overview

Straw bale construction exhibits R values from R-30 and up to R-45. The bales are typically
covered with concrete mortar/stucco or earthen/lime plaster, achieving a high degree of fire
resistance.
Two hundred million tons of straw are burned annually in the US. The stability and lack of
weathering in straw is not desirable in agriculture but quite desirable in construction.
Straw in straw bale structures has not shown evidence of termite infestations.
Dry bales should be used. Moisture levels in use and in storage should be below 14%. The
bales should be kept dry after construction.
Bales may be anchored to each other for stability while under construction using stakes of
wood (1236), rebar (#3 or #4) or bamboo that penetrate at least two bales. Another less
popular method uses mortar or clay between bales. A new method uses bamboo (or similar)
stakes on both sides of the bales, tied with wire or twine, corsetting the bales. Such
anchoring is generally accepted to be primarily necessary to keep walls from toppling during
construction; well applied plaster will usually provide sufficient stability once complete
though by that time, whatever pinning method was used is embedded in the walls.
Bales can be used flat or on edge. They are best used flat for structural purposes. Plaster will
also key into the ends of the straw when bales are laid flat, whereas bales on edge will have
the long length of the straw on the wall surface, providing a weaker bond between the plaster
and bale.
Bales come with two-wires or three-wires (or strings) holding them together. Two-wire bales
weigh about 50 pounds and three-wire bales, 75-100 pounds. Two-wire bales are usually 14
inches high, 18 inches wide, and 32-40 inches long (typical in Texas). Three-wire bales are 1617 inches high, 23-24 inches wide, and 42-47 inches long (typical in western states).
Bales should be firm and strung tightly with either baling wire or twine. Half bales and whole
bales are needed so the bales are staggered when stacked.
A timber frame construction (or steel or concrete) can use bales as infill. The frame adds to
the expense in materials and in labor for constructing it and then working around the frame
with the bales. However, this approach will be more readily received by building officials.
Window and door frames and headers can be made from wood. Windows and doors are
typically accentuated towards the interior or (less preferable) exterior of the opening creating
a deep well. Care is needed to if creating a deep well on the exterior to avoid water entering
or collecting in these areas. Windows tend to be a point of failure due to water invasion, so
they must be detailed carefully.
A wood plate or concrete beam (or bond beam) is placed on top of the wall. Trusses or roof
framing can be set on this. A threaded bar can penetrate through the top bales and be
fastened to the plate or beam for added roof stability
Poultry netting can be mounted on both sides of the walls for plastering, though it is no longer
considered mandatory by many bale builders. Stucco lath is used around windows, doors, and
corners for added strength. The wire netting and lath are typically held against the bales by
wire ties through the bales or U shaped pins into the bales.
Utilities can be laid in the walls as they are built, laid against the bales after the walls are built
or run in moldings, interior walls, under floors, or in the attic.

Structural/Load Bearing, or Nebraska Style, straw bale construction requires that the bales
sit for a short period of time to complete any settling before stucco is added, or that the walls
be mechanically pre-compressed. If the bales are firm, there will be very little settling
(typically less than 1 inch). A wire tie-down system which is connected to the foundation and
the top plate, application of downward pressure using a front end loader bucket or similar, or
any of a number of other techniques have the ability to firm up the wall and compress it to
compensate for any settling concerns.
Approximately 10,000 acres of wheat and oats are harvested in the Travis County region each
year. Eight to ten acres can supply sufficient straw to build a small house.
The best time to obtain straw is at harvest time, May through June in central Texas.
More details are becoming available for working with straw bales. See the General Assistance
listings in the Resources in the right column. Thorough research is recommended prior to
using straw bales for construction.

Straw-bale construction
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

An upscale use of straw bale insulation combined with energy-efficient passive features[1]

Straw bale construction project inWillits, California

Example of SMS Straw Bale Home

Exterior view of straw bale library inMattawa, Washington taken in 2008 (constructed 2002 by
IronStraw Group)

Straw-bale construction is a building method that uses bales of straw (commonly wheat, rice,
rye and oats straw) as structural elements, building insulation, or both. This construction method
is commonly used in natural building or "brown" construction projects. Research has shown that
straw-bale construction is a sustainable method for building, from the standpoint of both
materials and energy needed for heating and cooling.[2]
Advantages of straw-bale construction over conventional building systems include the renewable
nature of straw, cost, easy availability, naturally fire-retardant and high insulation value. [3][4]
[5]
Disadvantages include susceptibility to rot, difficulty of obtaining insurance coverage, and high
space requirements for the straw itself.[6] Research has been done using moisture probes placed
within the straw wall in which 7 of 8 locations had moisture contents of less than 20%. This is a
moisture level that does not aid in the breakdown of the straw.[7] However, proper construction of
the straw-bale wall is important in keeping moisture levels down, just as in the construction of
any type of building.
Contents
[hide]

1History

2Method

3Thermal Properties

4See also

5References

6Further reading

7External links

History[edit]
Straw houses have been built on the African plains since the Paleolithic Era. Straw bales were
used in construction 400 years ago in Germany; and straw-thatched roofs have long been used
in northern Europe and Asia. In the New World, teepees were insulated in winter with loose straw
between the inner lining and outer cover.[8]

Pilgrim Holiness Church in Arthur, Nebraska

Straw-bale construction was greatly facilitated by the mechanical hay baler, which was invented
in the 1850s and was widespread by the 1890s.[8] It proved particularly useful in the Nebraska
Sandhills. Pioneers seeking land under the 1862 Homestead Act and the 1904 Kinkaid Act found
a dearth of trees over much of Nebraska. In many parts of the state, the soil was suitable
fordugouts and sod houses.[9] However, in the Sandhills, the soil generally made poor
construction sod;[10] in the few places where suitable sod could be found, it was more valuable for
agriculture than as a building material.[11] Straw is a large "waste" product from the agricultural
industry, which should be fully utilized as a sustainable building material. [12]
The first documented use of hay bales in construction in Nebraska was a schoolhouse built in
1896 or 1897. Unfenced and unprotected by stucco or plaster, it was reported in 1902 as having
been eaten by cows. To combat this, builders began plastering their bale structures; if cement or
lime stucco was unavailable, locally obtained "gumbo mud" was employed. [11] Between 1896 and
1945, an estimated 70 straw-bale buildings, including houses, farm buildings, churches, schools,
offices, and grocery stores had been built in the Sandhills.[8] In 1990, nine surviving bale buildings
were reported in Arthur and Logan Counties,[13] including the 1928 Pilgrim Holiness Church in the
village of Arthur, which is listed in theNational Register of Historic Places.[10]
Since the 1990s straw-bale construction has been substantially revived, particularly in North
America, Europe, and Australia.[14] However, Straw-bale construction does encounter issues
regarding building codes depending on the location building.[15][16]

Method[edit]
Straw bale building typically consists of stacking rows of bales (often in running-bond) on a
raised footing or foundation, with a moisture barrier or capillary break between the bales and
their supporting platform.[17] There are two types of straw-bales commonly used, those bound
together with two strings and those with three. The three string bale is the larger in all three
dimensions.[18] Bale walls can be tied together with pins of bamboo, rebar, or wood (internal to the
bales or on their faces), or with surface wire meshes, and then stuccoed or plastered, either with
a cement-based mix, lime-based formulation, or earth/clay render. The bales may actually
provide the structural support for the building[19]("load-bearing" or "Nebraska-style" technique), as
was the case in the original examples from the late 19th century. The plastered bale assembly
also can be designed to providelateral and shear support for wind and seismic loads.

This straw bale house plastered with loam earthen plaster is located inSwalmen, in the
southeasternNetherlands

Alternatively, bale buildings can have a structural frame of other materials, usually lumber or
timber-frame, with bales simply serving as insulation and plaster substrate, ("infill" or "nonloadbearing" technique), which is most often required in northern regions and/or in wet climates.
In northern regions, the potential snow-loading can exceed the strength of the bale walls. In wet
climates, the imperative for applying a vapor-permeable finish precludes the use of cementbased stucco commonly used on load-bearing bale walls. Additionally, the inclusion of a skeletal
framework of wood or metal allows the erection of a roof prior to raising the bales, which can
protect the bale wall during construction, when it is the most vulnerable to water damage in all
but the most dependably arid climates. A combination of framingand load-bearing techniques
may also be employed, referred to as "hybrid" straw bale construction. [20]

Straw bale construction

Straw bales can also be used as part of a Spar and Membrane Structure (SMS) wall system in
which lightly reinforced 5 - 8 cm (2 - 3") gunite or shotcrete skins are interconnected with
extended "X" shaped light rebar in the head joints of the bales. [21] In this wall system the concrete
skins provide structure, seismic reinforcing, and fireproofing, while the bales are used as leaveinformwork and insulation.
The University of Bath has completed a research programme which used ModCell panels - prefabricated panels consisting of a wooden structural frame infilled with straw bales and rendered
with a breathable lime-based system - to build 'BaleHaus', a straw bale construction on the
university's campus. Monitoring work of the structure carried out by architectural researchers at
the university has found that as well as reducing the environmental footprint, the construction
offers other benefits, including healthier living through higher levels of thermal insulation and
regulation of humidity levels. The group has published a number of research papers on its
findings.[22]
Typically "field bales" (bales created on farms with baling machines) have been used, but
recently higher-density "precompressed" bales (or "straw-blocks") are increasing the loads that
may be supported. Oryzatech out of Goleta, California has been developing rice straw
compressed block.[23] Field bales might support around 900 kg per linear meter of wall (600 lb./
lin. ft.), but the high density bales bear up to 6000 kg per linear meter of wall (4,000 lb./lin.ft.),
and more. The basic bale-building method is now increasingly being extended to bound modules
of other oft-recycled materials, including tire-bales, cardboard, paper, plastic, and used carpeting.
The technique has also been extended to bags containing "bales" of wood chips or rice hulls.[4][5]
Straw bales have also been used in very energy efficient high performance buildings such as the
S-House[24] in Austria which meets the Passivhaus energy standard. In South Africa, a five-star
lodge made from 10,000 strawbales has housed luminaries such as Nelson Mandela and Tony
Blair.[25] In the Swiss Alps, in the little village of Nax Mont-Noble, construction works have begun
in October 2011 for the first hotel in Europe built entirely with straw bales. [26] The Harrison Vault,
[27]
in Joshua Tree, California, is engineered to withstand the high seismic loads in that area using
only the assembly consisting of bales, lath and plaster.[28] The technique was used successfully
for strawbale housing in rural China.[29] Straw bale domes along the Syrio-African rift at Kibbutz

Lotan have an interior geodesic frame of steel pipes.[30] Another method to reap the benefits of
straw is to incorporate straw-bale walls into a pre-existing structure. [31]

Thermal Properties[edit]
Compressed straw bales have a wide range of documented R-value. R-value is a measurement
of a materials insulating quality, higher the number the more insulating. The reported R-value
ranges from 17-55 (in American units) or 3-9.6 (in SI) depending on the study, differing wall
designs could be responsible for wide range in R-value. [32][33] Bale walls are typically coated with a
thick layer of plaster, which provides a well-distributed thermal mass, active on a short-term
(diurnal) cycle. The combination of insulation and mass provide an excellent platform for passive
solar building design for winter and summer.
Compressed and plastered straw bale walls are also resistant to fire. [34]

Earth sheltering
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

[hide]This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss t

This article contains instructions, advice, or how-to content.

(May 2013)

This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear be

Turf houses in Keldur, Iceland.

Turf house in Snautasel, Iceland.

Turf house in Snautasel, Iceland. Inside view showing the turf layers on the walls.

Earth sheltering is the architectural practice of using earth against building walls for
external thermal mass, to reduce heat loss, and to easily maintain a steady indoor air
temperature. Earth sheltering has become relatively more popular in modern times, especially
among environmentalists and advocates of passive solar and sustainable architecture. However,
the practice has been around for nearly as long as humans have been constructing their own
shelters.
Contents
[hide]

1Definition

2Background

3Types of construction

4Benefits

5Potential problems

6Landscape and site planning

o

6.1Topography

6.2Regional climate

6.3Vegetation

6.4Soil and drainage

7Construction methods
o

7.1Current methods

7.2Materials

7.2.1Structural

7.2.2Waterproofing

7.2.3Insulation

8Design for energy conservation

9Earth sheltering with solar heating

10Earth shelter construction: history and examples

o

10.1Berming

10.2In-hill

10.3Underground

11Gallery

12See also

13Notes

14References

15External links

Definition[edit]
The expression earth-sheltering is a generic term, with the general meaning: building design in
which soil plays an integral part.
A building can be described as earth-sheltered if its external envelope is in contact with a
thermally significant volume of soil or substrate (where thermally significant means making a
functional contribution to the thermal effectiveness of the building in question.)
Earth-sheltered buildings consist of one or more of three types: earth-covered, earth-bunded,
and subterranean. An earth-covered building is one where the thermally effective element is
placed solely on the roof, but is more usually a continuation of the earth-bunding at the
unexposed elevations of the building. An earth-bunded building is one where the thermally
significant element insulates one or more of the sheltered elevations of the building. The bunding
can be partial or total. A subterranean building is one where the thermally significant element
insulates all elevations of the building, leaving only the roof exposed; or, if the building is built into
an incline, it may be that the roof is covered and only one elevation is left exposed. [1]

Background[edit]
Living within earth shelters has been a large part of human history. The connection to earth
shelter dwellings began with the utilization of caves, and over time evolving technologies led to
the construction of customized earth dwellings. Today, earth shelter construction is a rare
practice, especially in the U.S.A. During the energy crisis and the1973 Oil Crisis,[2] along with
the back-to-the-land movement, there was a surge of interest in earth shelter/underground home
construction in an effort toward self-sufficient living. However, progress has been slow, and earth
shelter construction is often viewed by architects, engineers, and the public alike as an
unconventional method of building. Techniques of earth sheltering have not yet become common
knowledge, and much of society still remains unaware of the process or benefits of this type of
building construction.

Types of construction[edit]
Example of an abandoned Icelandicturf house in the region ofBahraun (is) via earth berming

Earth berming: Earth is piled up against exterior walls and packed, sloping down away
from the house. The roof may or may not be fully earth covered, and windows/openings may
occur on one or more sides of the shelter. Due to the building being above ground, fewer

moisture problems are associated with earth berming in comparison to underground/fully

recessed construction.

In-hill construction: The house is set into a slope or hillside. The most practical
application is using a hill facing towards the equator (south in the Northern Hemisphere and
north in the Southern Hemisphere). There is only one exposed wall in this type of earth
sheltering, the wall facing out of the hill, all other walls are embedded within the earth/hill.

Underground/fully recessed construction: The ground is excavated, and the house is

set in below grade. It can also be referred to as an Atrium style due to the common
atrium/courtyard constructed in the middle of the shelter to provide adequate light and
ventilation.

Benefits[edit]
The benefits of earth sheltering are numerous. They include: taking advantage of the earth as a
thermal mass, offering extra protection from the natural elements, energy savings, providing
substantial privacy, efficient use of land in urban settings, shelters have low maintenance
requirements, and earth sheltering commonly takes advantage ofpassive solar building design.
The Earth's mass absorbs and retains heat. Over time, this heat is released to surrounding
areas, such as an earth shelter. Because of the high density of the earth, change in the earths
temperature occurs slowly. This is known as thermal lag. Because of this principle, the earth
provides a fairly constant temperature for the underground shelters, even when the outdoor
temperature undergoes great fluctuation. In most of the United States, the average temperature
of the earth once below the frost line is between 55 and 57 degrees Fahrenheit (13 to 14
degrees Celsius). Frost line depths vary from region to region. In the USA frost lines can range
from just under the surface to more than 40 inches. Thus, at the base of a deep earth berm, the
house is heated against an exterior temperature gradient of perhaps ten to fifteen degrees,
instead of against a steeper temperature grade where air is on the outside of the wall instead of
earth. During the summer, the temperature gradient helps to cool the house.
The reduction of air infiltration within an earth shelter can be highly profitable. Because three
walls of the structure are mainly surrounded by earth, very little surface area is exposed to the
outside air. This alleviates the problem of warm air escaping the house through gaps around
windows and door. Furthermore, the earth walls protect against cold winter winds which might
otherwise penetrate these gaps. However, this can also become a potential indoor air quality
problem. Healthy air circulation is key.
As a result of the increased thermal mass of the structure, the thermal lag of the earth, the
protection against unwanted air infiltration and the combined use of passive solar techniques, the
need for extra heating and cooling is minimal. Therefore, there is a drastic reduction in energy
consumption required for the home compared to homes of typical construction.
Earth shelters also provide privacy from neighbours, as well as soundproofing. The ground
provides acoustic protection against outside noise. This can be a major benefit in urban areas or
near highways. In urban areas, another benefit of underground sheltering is the efficient use of
land. Many houses can sit below grade without spoiling the habitat above ground. Each site can
contain both a house and a lawn/garden.

Potential problems[edit]
Problems of water seepage, internal condensation, bad acoustics, and poor indoor air quality can
occur if an earth shelter has not been properly designed.
Issues also include the sustainability of building materials. Earth sheltering often requires heavier
construction than conventional building techniques, and many construction companies have
limited or no experience with earth sheltered construction, potentially compromising the physical
construction of even the best designs.
The threat of water seepage occurs around areas where the waterproofing layers have been
penetrated. Vents and ducts emerging from the roof can cause specific problems due to the
possibility of movement. Precast concrete slabs can have a deflection of 1/2 inch or more when
the earth/soil is layered on top of them. If the vents or ducts are held rigidly in place during this
deflection, the result is usually the failure of the waterproofing layer. To avoid this difficulty, vents
can be placed on other sides of the building (besides the roof), or separate segments of pipes
can be installed. A narrower pipe in the roof that fits snugly into a larger segment within the
building can also be used. The threat of water seepage, condensation, and poor indoor air quality
can all be overcome with proper waterproofing and ventilation.
The building materials for earth sheltered construction tend to be of non-biodegradable
substances. Because the materials must keep water out, they are often made of plastics.
Concrete is another material that is used in great quantity. More sustainable products are being
tested to replace the cement within concrete (such as fly ash), as well as alternatives to
reinforced concrete (see more under Materials: Structural). The excavation of a site is also
drastically time- and labor-consuming. Overall, the construction is comparable to conventional
construction, because the building requires minimal finishing and significantly less maintenance.
Condensation and poor quality indoor air problems can be solved by using earthtubes, or what is
known as a geothermal heat pumpa concept different from earth sheltering. With modification,
the idea of earthtubes can be used for underground buildings: instead of looping the earthtubes,
leave one end open downslope to draw in fresh air using the chimney effect by having exhaust
vents placed high in the underground building.

Landscape and site planning[edit]

The site planning for an earth sheltered building is an integral part of the overall design;
investigating the landscape of a potential building site is crucial. There are many factors to
assess when surveying a site for underground construction. The topography, regional climate,
vegetation, water table and soil type of varying landscapes all play dynamic roles in the design
and application of earth shelters.

Topography[edit]
On land that is relatively flat, a fully recessed house with an open courtyard is the most
appropriate design. On a sloping site, the house is set right into the hill. The slope will determine
the location of the window wall; a south-facing exposed wall is the most practical in the Northern
hemisphere (and north-facing in the Southern hemisphere) due to solar benefits. The most
practical house design in the tropics (and with equal advantage in both hemispheres) is that the
two shorter walls on the ends be exposed, one facing east and the other facing west.

Regional climate[edit]
Depending on the region and site selected for earth sheltered construction, the benefits and
objectives of the earth shelter construction vary. For cool and temperate climates, objectives
consist of retaining winter heat, avoiding infiltration, receiving winter sun, using thermal mass,
shading and ventilating during the summer, and avoiding winter winds and cold pockets. For hot,
arid climates objectives include maximizing humidity, providing summer shade, maximizing
summer air movement, and retaining winter heat. For hot, humid climates objectives include
avoiding summer humidity, providing summer ventilation, and retaining winter heat.
Regions with extreme daily and seasonal temperatures emphasize the value of earth as a
thermal mass. In this way, earth sheltering is most effective in regions with high cooling and
heating needs, and high temperature differentials. In regions such as the south eastern United
States, earth sheltering may need additional care in maintenance and construction due to
condensation problems in regard to the high humidity. The ground temperature of the region may
be too high to permit earth cooling if temperatures fluctuate only slightly from day to night.
Preferably, there should be adequate winter solar radiation, and sufficient means for natural
ventilation. Wind is a critical aspect to evaluate during site planning, for reasons regarding wind
chill and heat loss, as well as ventilation of the shelter. In the Northern Hemisphere, south facing
slopes tend to avoid cold winter winds typically blown in from the north. Fully recessed shelters
also offer adequate protection against these harsh winds. However, atria within the structure
have the ability to cause minor turbulence depending on the size. In the summer, it is helpful to
take advantage of the prevailing winds. Because of the limited window arrangement in most
earth shelters, and the resistance to air infiltration, the air within a structure can become stagnant
if proper ventilation is not provided. By making use of the wind, natural ventilation can occur
without the use of fans or other active systems. Knowing the direction, and intensity, of seasonal
winds is vital in promoting cross ventilation. Vents are commonly placed in the roof of bermed or
fully recessed shelters to achieve this effect.

Vegetation[edit]
The plant cover of the landscape is another important factor. Adding plants can be both positive
and negative. Nearby trees may be valuable in wet climates because their roots remove water.
However a prospective builder should know what types of trees are in the area and how large
and rapidly they tend to grow, due to possible solar-potential compromise with their growth.
Vegetation can provide a windbreak for houses exposed to winter winds. The growth of small
vegetation, especially those with deep roots, also helps in the prevention of erosion, on the
house and in the surrounding site.

Soil and drainage[edit]

The soil type is one of the most essential factors during site planning. The soil needs to provide
adequate bearing capacity and drainage, and help to retain heat. With respects to drainage, the
most suitable type of soil for earth sheltering is a mixture of sand and gravel. Well graded gravels
have a large bearing capacity (about 8,000 pounds per square foot), excellent drainage and a
low frost heave potential. Sand and clay can be susceptible to erosion. Clay soils, while least
susceptible to erosion, often do not allow for proper drainage, and have a higher potential for
frost heaves. Clay soils are more susceptible to thermal shrinking and expanding. Being aware of
the moisture content of the soil and the fluctuation of that content throughout the year will help
prevent potential heating problems. Frost heaves can also be problematic in some soil. Fine
grain soils retain moisture the best and are most susceptible to heaving. A few ways to protect
against capillary action responsible for frost heaves are placing foundations below the freezing

zone or insulating ground surface around shallow footings, replacement of frost sensitive soils
with granular material, and interrupting capillary draw of moisture by putting a drainage layer of
coarser material in the existing soil.
Water can cause potential damage to earth shelters if it ponds around the shelter. Avoiding sites
with a high water table is crucial. Drainage, both surface and subsurface, must be properly dealt
with. Waterproofing applied to the building is essential.
Atrium designs have an increased risk of flooding, so the surrounding land should slope away
from the structure on all sides. A drain pipe at the perimeter of the roof edge can help collect and
remove additional water. For bermed homes, an interceptor drain at the crest of the berm along
the edge of the roof top is recommended. An interceptor drainage swale in the middle of the
berm is also helpful or the back of the berm can be terraced with retaining walls. On sloping sites
runoff may cause problems. A drainage swale or gully can be built to divert water around the
house, or a gravel filled trench with a drain tile can be installed along with footing drains.
Soil stability should also be considered, especially when evaluating a sloping site. These slopes
may be inherently stable when left alone, but cutting into them can greatly compromise their
structural stability. Retaining walls and backfills may have to be constructed to hold up the slope
prior to shelter construction.

Construction methods[edit]
Current methods[edit]
In earth sheltered construction there is often extensive excavation done on the building site. An
excavation several feet larger than the walls' planned perimeter is made to allow for access to
the outside of the wall for waterproofing and insulation. Once the site is prepared and the utility
lines installed, a foundation of reinforced concrete is poured. The walls are then installed. Usually
they are either poured in place or formed either on or off site and then moved into place.
Reinforced concrete is the most common choice. The process is repeated for the roof structure.
If the walls, floor and roof are all to be poured in place, it is possible to make them with a single
pour. This can reduce the likelihood of there being cracks or leaks at the joints where the
concrete has cured at different times.
On the outside of the concrete a waterproofing system is applied. The most frequently used
waterproofing system includes a layer of liquid asphalt onto which a heavy grade waterproof
membrane is affixed, followed by a final liquid water sealant which may be sprayed on. It is very
important to make sure that all of the seams are carefully sealed. It is very difficult to locate and
repair leaks in the waterproofing system after the building is completed.
One or more layers of insulation board or foam are added on the outside of the waterproofing. If
the insulation chosen is porous, a top layer of waterproofing is added. After everything is
complete, earth is backfilled into the remaining space at the exterior of the wall and sometimes
over the roof to accommodate a green roof. Any exposed walls and the interior are finished
according to the owners' preferences.

Materials[edit]

Structural[edit]
Reinforced concrete is the most commonly used structural material in earth shelter construction.
It is strong and readily available. Untreated wood rots within five years of use in earth shelter
construction. Steel can be used, but needs to be encased by concrete to keep it from direct
contact with the soil which corrodes the metal. Bricks and CMUs (concrete masonry units) are
also possible options in earth shelter construction but must be reinforced to keep them from
shifting under vertical pressure unless the building is constructed with arches and vaults.
Unfortunately, reinforced concrete is not the most environmentally sustainable material. The
concrete industry is working to develop products that are more earth-friendly in response to
consumer demands. Products like Grancrete and Hycrete are becoming more readily available.
They claim to be environmentally friendly and either reduce or eliminate the need for additional
waterproofing. However, these are new products and have not been extensively used in earth
shelter construction yet.
Some unconventional approaches are also proposed. One such method is a PSP method
proposed by Mike Oehler. The PSP method uses wooden posts, plastic sheeting and nonconventional ideas that allow more windows and ventilation. This design also reduces some
runoff problems associated with conventional designs. The method uses wood posts, a frame
that acts like a rib to distribute settling forces, specific construction methods which rely on fewer
pieces of heavy equipment, plastic sheeting, and earth floors with plastic and carpeting.
Waterproofing[edit]
Several layers are used for waterproofing in earth shelter construction. The first layer is meant to
seal any cracks or pores in the structural materials, also working as an adhesive for the
waterproof membrane. The membrane layer is often a thick flexible polyethylene sheeting
called EPDM. EPDM is the material usually used in water garden, pond and swimming pool
construction. This material also prevents roots from burrowing through the waterproofing. EPDM
is very heavy to work with, and can be chewed through by some common insects like fire ants. It
is also made from petrochemicals, making it less than perfect environmentally.
There are various cementitious coatings that can be used as waterproofing. The product is
sprayed directly onto the unprotected surface. It dries and acts like a huge ceramic layer
between the wall and earth. The challenge with this method is, if the wall or foundation shifts in
any way, it cracks and water is able to penetrate through it easily.
Bituthene (Registered name) is very similar to the three coat layering process only in one step. It
comes already layered in sheets and has a self-adhesive backing. The challenge with this is the
same as with the manual layering method, in addition it is sun sensitive and must be covered
very soon after application.
Eco-Flex is an environmentally friendly waterproofing membrane that seems to work very well on
foundations, but not much is known about its effectiveness in earth sheltering. It is among a
group of liquid paint-on waterproofing products. The main challenges with these are they must be
carefully applied, making sure that every area is covered to the right thickness, and that every
crack or gap is tightly sealed.
Bentonite clay is the alternative that is closest to optimum on the environmental scale. It is
naturally occurring and self-healing. The drawback to this system is that it is very heavy and
difficult for the owner/builder to install and subject to termite damage.

Bi-membranes have been used extensively throughout Australia where 2 membranes are paired
togethertypically 2 coats of water based epoxy as a 'sealer' and stop the internal vapor
pressure of the moist concrete exploding bubbles of vapor up underneath the membrane when
exposed to hot sun. The bond strength of epoxy to concrete is stronger than the internal bond
strength of concrete so the membranes won't 'blow' off the wall in the sun. Epoxies are very
brittle so they are paired up with an overcoat of high-build flexible water based acrylic membrane
in multiple coats of different colors to ensure film coveragethis is reinforced with non-woven
polyproplene textile in corners and changes in direction.
Insulation[edit]
Unlike conventional building, earth shelters require the insulation on the exterior of the building
rather than inside the wall. One reason for this is that it provides protection for the waterproof
membrane against freeze damage, another is that the earth shelter is able to better retain its
desired temperature. There are two types of insulation used in earth shelter construction. The
first is close-celled extruded polystyrene sheets. Two to three inches glued to the outside of the
waterproofing is generally sufficient. The second type of insulation is a spray on foam. This works
very well where the shape of the structure is unconventional, rounded or difficult to get to. Foam
insulation requires an additional protective top coat such as foil to help it resist water penetration.
In some low budget earth shelters, insulation may not be applied to the walls. These methods
rely on the U factor or thermal heat storage capacity of the earth itself below the frost layer.
These designs are the exception however and risk frost heave damage in colder climates. The
theory behind no insulation designs relies on using the thermal mass of the earth to store heat,
rather than relying on a heavy masonry or cement inner structures that exist in a typical passive
solar house. This is the exception to the rule and cold temperatures may extend down into the
earth above the frost line making insulation necessary for higher efficiencies.

Design for energy conservation[edit]

Earth sheltered homes are often constructed with energy conservation and savings in mind.
Specific designs of earth shelters allow for maximum savings. For bermed or in-hill construction,
a common plan is to place all the living spaces on the side of the house facing the equator. This
provides maximum solar radiation to bedrooms, living rooms, and kitchen spaces. Rooms that do
not require natural daylight and extensive heating such as the bathroom, storage and utility room
are typically located on the opposite (or in hill) side of the shelter. This type of layout can also be
transposed to a double level house design with both levels completely underground. This plan
has the highest energy efficiency of earth sheltered homes because of the compact configuration
as well as the structure being submerged deeper in the earth. This provides it with a greater ratio
of earth cover to exposed wall than a one story shelter would.
With an atrium earth shelter the living spaces are concentrated around the atrium. The atrium
arrangement provides a much less compact plan than that of the one or two story bermed/inhill
design; therefore it is commonly less energy efficient, in terms of heating needs. This is one of
the reasons why atrium designs are classically applied to warmer climates. However, the atrium
does tend to trap air within it which is then heated by the sun and helps reduce heat loss.

Earth sheltering with solar heating[edit]

Earth sheltering is often combined with solar heating systems. Most commonly, the utilization of
passive solar design techniques is used in earth shelters. In the Northern Hemisphere, a south

facing structure with the north, east, and west sides covered with earth, is the most effective
application for passive solar systems. A large double glazed window, triple glazed
or Zomeworks beadwall (vacuum/blower pumps that filled your double pane solar windows with
styrofoam balls at night for extra insulation and vacuumed the beads out in the morning, patent
now expired. This changes a window from an R3 thermal resistance to an R16 to R32(depending
on thickness of styrofoam bead wall)), spanning most of the length of the south wall is critical for
solar heat gain. It is helpful to accompany the window with insulated drapes to protect against
heat loss at night. Also, during the summer months, providing an overhang, or some sort of
shading device, is useful to block out excess solar gain. Combining solar heating with earth
sheltering is referred to as "annualized geo solar design", "Passive annual heat storage", or
sometimes as an "Umbrella house." (See Nick Pine's posting on usenet alt.homepower and
alt.solar.thermal groups about this type of house.) In the umbrella house, Polystyrene insulation
extends around 23 feet (7.0 m) radius from underground walls. A plastic film covers the insulation
(for waterproofing), and soil is layer on top. The materials slope downward, like an umbrella. It
sheds excess water while keeping the soil temperature warm and dry.
Passive cooling which pulls air with a fan or convection from a near constant temperature air into
buried Earth cooling tubes and then into the house living space. This also provides fresh air to
occupants and the air exchange required by ASHRAE.

Earth shelter construction: history and examples[edit]

Berming[edit]

Earth Sheltered rest area alongInterstate 77 in Ohio, USA

Historically, earth berming was a common building practice that combined heavy timber framing
and rough stone work with stacking thick layers of sod or peat against the walls and on the roof.
This served as excellent protection from the elements. In a relatively short period of time the
earth layers grow together leaving the structure with an appearance of a hill with a door.
In these early structures, the heavy timber framing acted as structural support and added comfort
and warmth to the interior. Rough stone was often stacked along the outer walls with a simple
lime mortar for structural support and often serves as an exterior facing wall and foundation.
There is a greater use of stone work in earth shelter structures in areas where timber is scarce.
These are the most sustainable of the earth shelters as far as materials go because they are
able to decompose and return to earth. This is why there are few remaining example like Hvalsey
Church in Greenland where only the stacked stones remain. One of the oldest examples of
berming, dating back some 5,000 years, can be found at Skara Brae in the Orkney Islands off
northern Scotland.
Todays bermed earth structures are built quite differently from those of the past. Common
construction employs large amounts of steel reinforced concrete acting as structural support and

building shell. Bulldozers or bobcats are used to pile earth around the building and on the roof
instead of stacking earth in place. One modern example of bermed earth structures is
the Hockerton Housing Project, a community of 5 homes in Nottinghamshire, England.

In-hill[edit]
One historical example of in-hill earth shelters would be Mesa Verde, in the southwest United
States. These building are constructed directly onto the ledges and caves on the face of the
cliffs. The front wall is built up with local stone and earth to enclose the structure. Similarly today,
in-hill earth shelter construction utilizes the natural formation of a hillside for two to three of the
exterior walls and sometimes the roof of a structure. Alternative builders craft a type of in-hill
structure known as an Earthship. In Earthship construction, tires rammed with earth are used as
structural materials for three of the walls and generally have a front faade of windows to capture
passive solar energy.
A well-known example of an earth-sheltered home is the residence of Bill Gates, who had it built
over a period of several years on a heavily wooded site on the shore of Lake Washington, USA.
It is an excellent example of the lack of obtrusiveness of this kind of home, since it appears much
smaller than it actually is, when seen from the lake.

Underground[edit]
Though underground construction is relatively uncommon in the US (except for basements
where only 1 floor is underground), successful examples can be found in Australia where the
ground is so hard that there is little to no need for structural supports and a pick ax and shovel
are the tools of the builder/remodeler. See Coober Pedy and Lightning Ridge. The Forestiere
Underground Gardens in Fresno, California is a North American example.
In the early 1970s, China undertook the construction of Dixia Cheng, a city underneath Beijing. It
was primarily a complex of bomb shelters that could house 40% of the population at that time. It
was a response to the fear of Soviet attack. Parts of it are now used in more commercial
ventures.

Gallery[edit]

Loir-et-Cher (France)

Kandovan, East Azarbaijan (Iran)

Htel Sididriss inMatmata (Tunisia)

Interior of a cave inMatmata (Tunisia)

Cave house in Louresse-Rochemenier (France)

Granada (Spain)

Sassi di Matera (Italy)

Earth house estate inDietikon made by Peter Vetsch

See also[edit]
Sustainable development portal

Topics:

Earth house

Earth structure

Green building

Underground home

Underground living

Types:

Burdei

Dugout

Earth lodge

Earthship

Grubenhaus

Kiva

Pit-house

Quiggly hole

Rock cut

Sod house

Yaodong

Zemlyanka

Applications:

Daylight basement

Earth cooling tubes

Energy-efficient landscaping

Energy conservation

Green roof

Hurricane-proof building

Passive house

Passive solar

Radiation shielding

Proponents:

Bill Gates's house, a very large earth-sheltered home

Coober Pedy, an Australian opal mining town famous for its underground buildings

Cosantisite of "Earth House" designed by architect Paolo Soleri

Earl Young (architect)works commonly referred to as gnome homes, mushroom

houses, or Hobbit houses
Malcolm Wells, proponent of earth-sheltered building
David Baggs, proponent of earth-sheltered building, author and architect of over 40 earth
covered buildings in Australia

Earth Sheltered Homes

"Another type of building is emerging: one that actually heals the scars of its own
construction. It conserves rainwater and fuel and it provides a habitat for creatures
other than the human one. Maybe it will catch on, maybe it won't. We'll see." Malcolm Wells, 2002.
The earth sheltered house uses the ground as insulating blanket which

effectively protects it from temperature extremes, wind, rain and extreme weather
events. An earth sheltered home is energy-efficient, quiet, freeze-proof and low
maintenance. Aesthetically an earth sheltered home blends in with the natural
environment, leaving more yard space and more space for wildlife.
Fifteen feet below ground the soil maintains a fairly constant temperature equal to
the annual average temperature of the area's surface air. If the average temperature
in your area is 55, that means the soil temperature at 15 feet is 55 degrees and in the
winter you will only have to bring the temperature inside your earth sheltered home
up thirteen degrees, to bring it up to a comfortable 68 degrees. Versus bringing up
the inside temperature 68 degrees, if your home is above ground and the outside
windchill is 0. In the summer, that 55 degree soil will also keep your home much
cooler than an above ground home. Many earth homes incorporate passive solar
designs lessening even further the need for fuel for heating or cooling.

There are two types of earth sheltered building. Earth Sheltered - where dirt covers
three exterior sides and the roof (the walls are most often concrete). And Earth
Bermed - where dirt is pushed up against the exterior walls only, and not onto the
roof, yet the roof is usually super insulated.

Honingham Earth Sheltered Social Housing. The Uks first earth-sheltered social
housing scheme. Each two bedroom home has a high thermal mass superstructure,
is super-insulated and orientated south. These characteristics have enabled some of
the households to reduce their total annual energy consumption by two thirds of what
a convential home would use. www.publicarchitecture.co.uk

Looks like vertical placed logs are helping to support the berm on the right. "We do
not have any heating on at all in the winter and the building still stays at 72 degrees.
The light comes in through the full-length windows in winter but in the summer the
suns heat does not penetrate so you stay cool" say the owners.
www.publicarchitecture.co.uk

Earth sheltered home with conventional facade. Dig out a pond (raise fish or create a
natural swim pond) and place the soil on the house. By
Formworks. formworksbuilding.com

Earth sheltered home, as above. See the kit and plans at: earthshelter.com

The facade may accommodate any architectural styling of the home owners
choosing. Here the structure is a bolted together skeletal steel system which is then
sprayed with pressurized concrete, same process as a gunite swimming
pool. formworksbuilding.com

This earth sheltered house, in the wilds of the Outer Hebrides, provides a perfect
living environment for harsh weather. This home's support walls are constructed of
PolarWall (polystyrene). polarwall.co.uk

An award winning earth shelter dwelling by Cam Architects. The Sedum House
incorporates green technology in the form of ground source heat pumps, photovoltaic
panels and a whole house ventilation system. The use of highly insulating ICF in the
walls makes for a very low energy use dwelling. Gimingham, North Norfolk, UK. Note
the sunken room on right. More photos: camarchitects.co.uk

Side wall of above Sedum House: camarchitects.co.uk

Earth sheltered Pinnacle House is an award-winning, sustainably-designed home in

Lyme, New Hampshire. The home was designed and built by architect Don Metz in
1971, a pioneer in green home design and construction. The north-side of the house
is built into the hillside, creating a green roof through the use of earth-sheltered
building techniques. The house faces due south, offering passive solar gain and
spectacular views from every room. thepinnaclehouse.com

Inside of above. thepinnaclehouse.com

"Underhill", near Holmfirth, Yorkshire, UK.

'The first modern earth-sheltered house in Britain and the home of its architect
Arthur Quarmby, a pioneer of earth-sheltered buildings. The house features earth
embankments, turf roof, lots of insulation and a visual impact that not even the
pickiest of neighbors could fault.' martinbondphotos.co.uk

Earth Sheltered Rainbow Valley Farm.

urbanwren.wordpress.com

This bermed house in California is also passive solar. Image courtesy of NREL.

Earth bermed home. Back and one side covered with soil.
minimalisthomedezine.blogspot.com

Plan for above home. In a rainy climate, with this design, it would be necessary to
create a waterproof channel along the north wall of the home to direct water away
from the home, or possibly into a tank that could also store

heat. minimalisthomedezine.blogspot.com

Malcolm Wells Cherry Hill Office.

A quiet, light filled office beneath a meadow that physically impacts its immediate
environment as little as possible, yet is adjacent to a six lane
highway. malcolmwells.com

Earth Sheltered Homes, Parame, St-Malo, France.

Photo by: John Leather, flickr.com

Robot Ranch, seven interconnected earth sheltered domes. This home built into the
side of a hill has 4,144 square feet of living area, yet it disappears into the
landscape. monolithic.com

Earth sheltered homes in the eco-village at Dyssekilde, Denmark. dyssekilde.dk/uk

An earth sheltered home in Oregon being readied for its earth covering. A whole blog
devoted to the construction of this home here: dragonflyhill.org

Allan Shope designed an ecologically focused house for himself and his family in
Amenia, New York. The triangular house is built into the earth, and covered with
native flora transplanted from other parts of the property. shopearchitect.com

Interior of earth sheltered home, above. Interior wood was milled from trees on the
property. Image copyright Architectural Digest: architecturaldigest.com

Earth sheltered dome home in Vermont. earthshelteredtech.com

The Walled Garden, Barnsdale with greenhouse by Search Architects. The home is
single room deep, facing the sun, super-insulated, cut in to the landscape contours,
covered in earth and overlooking the open countryside. searcharchitects.co.uk

Dani Ridge House in California by Carver + Schicketanz is tucked into a hillside.

Gorgeous house, see more pics: carverschicketanz.com

An earth-sheltered dwelling (Jag Hol) on the outskirts of the Norfolk village of East
Tuddenham. A self-built insitu concrete, single story dwelling with exceptional
insulation levels which costs less than 10 a week to run. searcharchitects.co.uk

Underground home by local architect John Bodger. This two-story house is burrowed
backwards into rock at the site of on an old quarry. In Cumbria, UK. Plans and lots
more about the project: www.ingenia.org.uk.pdf

Underground home by John Bodger. As above.

Dutch Mountain House, Huizen, Netherlands by denieuwegeneratie. archdaily.com

Earth sheltered home, Saint Jeannet, France, photo by

Jean-Pierre Cavelan. picasaweb.google.com

Earth House Estate Lttenstrasse, Dietikon, Switzerland.

These earth covered houses are centered around a small artificial lake with the
entrances well hidden and integrated into the sides of the settlement. The residential
settlement consists of nine houses, one a 7 bedroom home! The daytime areas are
situated towards the south, the night time areas towards the north. In the middle, you
find the bathrooms and the connecting stairs to the basement. All the bathrooms get
natural light through rooftop windows. www.erdhaus.ch

Hobbiton, as used in The Hobbit film. Near Matamata in New Zealand. Photo: Rob
Chandler.

Underground home, Hobbiton, New Zealand.

Casa Organica. This underground house was built in 1985 by organic architect Javier
Senosiain. Naucalpan, Mexico. mustique.com.ar

Use an umbrella to insulate the surrounding soil and increase inner temperatures
even more. An umbrella house or PAHS (Passive Annual Heat Storage) home works
on the principle that Earth is an ideal thermal mass for storing heat over long time
periods. Summers heat is absorbed out of the home into the surrounding dry earth,
keeping it cool and comfortable. This heat reserve is then conducted back up into the
home when winter temperatures prevail, heat is available even through an entire
winter. To contain the heat, the heat should flow between the earth and the home,
rather than the earth and the out-of-doors. Keeping the earth dry around the
periphery of the home is necessary. The umbrella's sandwich of polystyrene
insulation and polyethylene sheeting (about R-20) insulates a huge mass of
surrounding dirt instead of just the house. The lower, inside portion of the home
needs but minimal insulation. See John Haits book: Passive Annual Heat
Storage, Improving the Design of Earth Shelters. earthshelters.com, norishouse.com

Resources:

Earth Sheltered Dome Houses:

1) The Terra-Dome building system is a forming system that helps create a concrete
steel reinforced structure in modular form of 24' x 24' or 28' x 28' (inside
measurement). These modules are poured on location and can be arranged in a
multitude of configurations. The Terra-Dome module is used for earth-sheltered

structures in most cases. www.terra-dome.com

2) Concrete Earth Sheltered Homes: earthshelteredhome.com
3) Polarwall, UK: .polarwall.co.uk
4) Monolithic Dome Homes: monolithic.com
5) Bill Lishman's unique underground house was the culmination of years of research
and countless hours of design. www.williamlishman.com
6) Earth-Sheltered Home Kits for Owner-Builders: motherearthnews.com/greenhomes
7) PBS: earthshelter.com

Plans:
1) Malcolm Wells Designs: malcolmwells.com/designs
2) Plans for an Earthbag-Earth Shelter: earthbagbuilding.com
3) Earth Sheltered Tech, Lots!: www.earthshelteredtech.com
4) Plans for a rammed tire home: groundhouse.co
5) Earth Style Home Plans: www.coolhouseplans.com
6) Atrium style: dreamgreenhomes.com
7) SolArc earth sheltered: archy-nova.de
8) Earth Berm: solaripedia.com

Books:
1) The Fifty Dollar and Up Underground House Boo k by Mike Oehler.
2) The Earth Sheltered Solar Greenhouse Book by Mike Oehler.
3) Earth-Sheltered Houses: How to Build an Affordable... By Rob Roy: amazon.com
4) Building Underground: The Design and Construction Handbook for EarthSheltered Houses by Herbert Wade, 1983. goodreads.com
4) The Earth-Sheltered House: An Architect's Sketchbook: malcolmwells.com
5) How to Build an Underground House: malcolmwells.com
6) Underground Plans Book: malcolmwells.com
7) Book Download by Jeremy Harrall - Search
Architects: ukearthshelteredbuildingphd.co.uk

8) Solar-Heating a Subterranean House: www.motherearthnews.com

9) Earth Sheltered Housing Design: Guidelines, Examples, and References,
10) Minnesota Underground Space Center, 1979. amazon.com
11) Breathing Walls A Biological Approach to
12) Healthy Building Envelope Design and Construction, 2008: breathingwalls.com

Articles:
1) "Efficient Earth shelter homes." U.S. Department of Energy. 2012. eere.energy.gov
2) "Digging for the green: Underground architecture and sustainable design." Hall,
Loretta. subsurfacebuildings.com
3) ACU professor Ronnie McQueen teaches benefits of earth house: texnews.com
4) "Underground urban farm." Trends in Japan. March 17, 2005. web-japan.org
5) Cooled soil as a cooling source for buildings: www.sciencedirect.com

In Coober Pedy, Australia daytime highs often climb into the 100s and many have
taken up residence in abandoned opal mines to beat the heat. australia.com

EFFICIENT EARTH-SHELTERED HOMES

This house in Tempe, Arizona, uses earth-sheltered construction methods to help decrease cooling
costs. | Photo by Pamm McFadden

If you are looking for a home with energy-efficient features that will provide a comfortable, tranquil,
weather-resistant dwelling, an earth-sheltered house could be right for you.
There are two basic types of earth-sheltered house designsunderground and bermed.

UNDERGROUND EARTH-SHELTERED HOMES

When an entire earth-sheltered house is built below grade or completely underground, it's called an
underground structure. An atrium or courtyard design can accommodate an underground house and
still provide an open feeling. Such a house is built completely below ground on a flat site, and the
major living spaces surround a central outdoor courtyard. The windows and glass doors that are on
the exposed walls facing the atrium provide light, solar heat, outside views, and access via a stairway
from the ground level.
The atrium design is hardly visible from ground level, creates a private outdoor space, and provides
good protection from winter winds. This design is ideal for building sites without scenic exterior views,
in dense developments, and on sites in noisy areas. Passive solar gainheat obtained through
windowsis likely to be limited because of the position of the homes windows, and courtyard
drainage and snow removal should be carefully thought through during design.

BERMED EARTH-SHELTERED HOMES

A bermed house may be built above grade or partially below grade, with earth covering one or more
walls. An elevational bermed design exposes one elevation or face of the house and covers the
other sidesand sometimes the roofwith earth to protect and insulate the house.
The exposed front of the house, usually facing south, allows the sun to light and heat the interior. The
floor plan is arranged so common areas and bedrooms share light and heat from the southern
exposure. This can be the least expensive and simplest way to build an earth-sheltered structure.
Strategically placed skylights can ensure adequate ventilation and daylight in the northern portions of
the house.
In a penetrational bermed design, earth covers the entire house, except where there are windows and
doors. The house is usually built at ground level, and earth is built up (or bermed) around and on top
of it. This design allows cross-ventilation and access to natural light from more than one side of the
house.

ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES

Like any home design, earth-sheltered houses have advantages and disadvantages.
On the plus side, an earth-sheltered home is less susceptible to the impact of extreme outdoor air
temperatures than a conventional house. Earth-sheltered houses also require less outside
maintenance, and the earth surrounding the house provides soundproofing. In addition, plans for most
earth-sheltered houses "blend" the building into the landscape more harmoniously than a
conventional home. Finally, earth-sheltered houses can cost less to insure because they offer extra
protection against high winds, hailstorms, and natural disasters such as tornados and hurricanes.
The principal downsides to earth-sheltered houses are the initial cost of construction, which can be up
to 20% more than a conventional house, and the increased level of care required to avoid moisture
problems, both during construction and over the life of the house. It can also take more diligence to
resell an earth-sheltered home, and buyers may have more hurdles to clear in the mortgage
application process.

SITE-SPECIFIC FACTORS FOR EARTH-SHELTERED HOME DESIGN

Before deciding to design and build an earth-sheltered house, youll need to consider your building
site's climate, topography, soil, and groundwater level.

CLIMATE
Studies show that earth-sheltered houses are more cost-effective in climates that have significant
temperature extremes and low humidity, such as the Rocky Mountains and northern Great Plains.
Earth temperatures vary much less than air temperatures in these areas, which means the earth can
absorb extra heat from the house in hot weather or insulate the house to maintain warmth in cold
weather.

TOPOGRAPHY AND MICROCLIMATE

The site's topography and microclimate determine how easily the building can be surrounded with
earth. A modest slope requires more excavation than a steep one, and a flat site is the most
demanding, needing extensive excavation. A south-facing slope in a region with moderate to long
winters is ideal for an earth-sheltered building. South-facing windows can let in sunlight for direct
heating, while the rest of the house is set back into the slope. In regions with mild winters and hot
summers, a north-facing slope might be ideal. Careful planning by a designer familiar with earth
sheltering can take full advantage of the conditions on your particular site.

SOIL
The type of soil at your site is another critical consideration. Granular soils such as sand and gravel
are best for earth sheltering. These soils compact well for bearing the weight of the construction
materials and are very permeable, allowing water to drain quickly. The poorest soils are cohesive, like
clay, which may expand when wet and has poor permeability.
Professional soil tests can determine the load-bearing capability of soils at your site. Soil radon levels
are another factor to consider, because high concentrations of radon can be hazardous. There are,
however, methods for reducing radon buildup in both conventional and earth-sheltered dwellings.

GROUNDWATER LEVEL
The groundwater level at your building site is also important. Natural drainage away from the building
is the best way to avoid water pressure against underground walls, but installed drainage systems can
be used to draw water away from the structure.

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND CONSIDERATIONS FOR EARTHSHELTERED HOMES

The construction materials for each earth-sheltered structure will vary depending on characteristics of
the site and the type of design. Materials must, however, provide a good surface for waterproofing and
insulation to withstand the pressure and moisture of the surrounding ground.
Concrete is the most common choice for constructing earth-sheltered buildings, because it strong,
durable, and fire resistant. Concrete masonry units (also called concrete blocks) reinforced with steel
bars placed in the core of the masonry can also be used, and generally cost less than cast-in-place
concrete.
Wood can be used in earth-sheltered construction for both interior and light structural work. Steel can
used for beams, bar joists, columns, and concrete reinforcement, but must be protected against
corrosion if it is exposed to the elements or to groundwater. It is also expensive, so it must be used
efficiently to be economical as a structural material.

OTHER CONSTRUCTION CONSIDERATIONS

WATERPROOFING
Waterproofing can be a challenge in earth-sheltered construction. Keep in mind these three ways to
reduce the risk of water damage in your house: choose the site carefully, plan the drainage both at
and below the surface of the house, and waterproof your house.
Waterproofing systems to consider include:

Rubberized asphalt combines a small amount of synthetic rubber with asphalt and is coated

with a polyethylene layer to form sheets. It can be applied directly to walls and roofs and has a
long life expectancy.
Plastic and vulcanized sheets are among the most common types of underground

waterproofing. Plastic sheets include high-density polyethylene, chlorinated polyethylene, polyvinyl

chloride, and chlorosulfonated polyethylene. Suitable vulcanized membranes or synthetic rubbers
include isobutylene isoprene, ethylene propylene diene monomer, polychloroprene (neoprene),
and polyisobutylene. For all these materials, the seams must be sealed properly to guard against
leaks.
Liquid polyurethanes are often used in places where it is awkward to apply a membrane, and

are sometimes used as a coating over insulation on underground structures. Note that weather
conditions must be dry and relatively warm during their application.
Bentonite is a natural clay formed into panels that are nailed to walls or applied as a liquid
spray. When the bentonite comes in contact with moisture, it expands and seals out moisture.

HUMIDITY
Humidity levels may increase in earth-sheltered houses during the summer, which can cause
condensation on the interior walls. Installing insulation on the outside of the walls will prevent the walls
from cooling down to earth temperature, but can also reduce the summer cooling effect of the walls.
Careful planning by a designer familiar with earth-sheltered home design can keep humidity from
becoming a problem.

INSULATION
Although insulation in an underground building does not need to be as thick as that in a conventional
house, it is necessary to make an earthen house comfortable. Insulation is usually placed on the
exterior of the house after applying the waterproofing material, so the heat generated, collected, and
absorbed within the earth-sheltered envelope is retained inside the building's interior. If insulating
outside the wall, a protective layer of board should be added to keep the insulation from contacting
the earth.

AIR EXCHANGE/AIR QUALITY

Adequate ventilation must be carefully planned in an earth-sheltered house. Combustion appliances
should be sealed combustion units that have a direct source of outside air for combustion and vent
combustion gases directly to the outside. In addition, avoiding indoor pollutants such as formaldehyde
from foam insulation, plywood, and some fabrics can help keep indoor air healthy. An energy recovery

ventilator, which exchanges heat in the outgoing exhaust air with incoming fresh air, minimizes heat
loss while ensuring good indoor air quality and is a useful addition to any energy-efficient home.

Icelandic turf house

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please

help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources.
Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2010)

Turf houses of the burstabr style inGlaumbr

Interior of a reconstructed turf house in Fljtshl

Icelandic turf houses (Icelandic: torfbir) were the product of a difficult climate, offering
superior insulation compared to buildings solely made of wood or stone, and the relative difficulty
in obtaining other construction materials in sufficient quantities.[1]
30% of Iceland was forested when it was settled, mostly with birch. Oak was the preferred timber
for building Norse halls in Scandinavia, but native birch had to serve as the primary framing
material on the remote island. However, Iceland did have a large amount of turf that was suitable
for construction. Some structures in Norway had turf roofs, so the notion of using this as a
building material was not alien to many settlers.
Contents
[hide]

1Construction

2Evolution

3See also

4References

Construction[edit]

Turf roof of a house in Glaumbr, Iceland

Peat wall, Glaumbaer, Iceland

The common Icelandic turf house would have a large foundation made of flat stones; upon this
was built a wooden frame which would hold the load of the turf. The turf would then be fitted
around the frame in blocks often with a second layer, or in the more fashionable herringbone
style. The only external wood would be the doorway which would often be decorative; the
doorway would lead in to the hall which would commonly have a great fire. Another interesting
aspect of the Icelandic turf house was the introduction of attached toilets, which were communal,
and the act of going to the attached toilet was often done in large groups. The floor of a turf
house could be covered with wood, stone or earth depending on the purpose of the building.
They also contain grass on their roofs.

Evolution[edit]

Turf house with a wooden gafli in Iceland.

Icelandic architecture changed in many ways in the more than 1,000 years the turf houses were
being constructed. The first evolutionary step happened in the 14th century, when the Viking
style longhouses were gradually abandoned and replaced with many small and specialized
interconnected buildings. Then in the late 18th century a new style started to gain momentum,
the burstabr, with its wooden ends or gaflar.[2] This is the most commonly depicted version of
the Icelandic turf houses and many such survived well into the 20th century. This style was then
slowly replaced with the urban building style of wooden house clothed in corrugated iron, which
in turn was replaced with the earthquake resistant reinforced concrete building.

Earthship
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

[hide]This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss t

This article contains weasel words: vague phrasing that often accomp
This article needs additional citations for verification.

South and East view of an Earthship passive solar home

(April 2013)

Earthship typical floorplan

An Earthship is a type of passive solar house that is made of both natural and recycled
materials (such as earth-filled tires), designed and marketed by Earthship Biotecture of Taos,
New Mexico. The term is a registered trademark[citation needed] ofMichael Reynolds, founder of
Earthship Biotecture.
Earthships are intended to be "off-the-grid ready" homes, with minimal reliance on both public
utilities and fossil fuels. Earthships are constructed to use available natural resources, especially
energy from the sun. Earthships are designed to use thermal mass construction and natural
cross ventilation, assisted by thermal draught (Stack effect), to regulate indoor temperature.
Contents
[hide]

1History

2Construction and Design

3Water
o

3.1Collection

3.2Greywater

3.3Black water

4Power

5Climate
o

5.1Ventilation
6Examples

6.1Europe

6.2Africa

6.3South America

7In popular culture

8See also

9Notes

10References

11Further reading

12External links

History[edit]
Michael Reynolds' first building, the "Thumb House", was built in the early 1970s. It included features
incorporated into later Earthship designs.

The Earthship as it exists today began to take shape in the 1970s. Michael Reynolds wanted to
create a home that would do three things: first, it would utilize sustainable architecture, and
material indigenous to the local area or recycled materials wherever possible; second, the homes
would rely on natural energy sources and be independent from the "grid"; finally, it would be
feasible for a person with no specialized construction skills to build.
A building being built of cans in the 1970s

The design used with most earthships. A large series of windows and the use of tires characterize the
earth-sheltered building

Eventually, Reynolds' vision took the form of the common U-shaped earth-filled tire homes seen
today.

Construction and Design[edit]

The buildings are often horseshoe-shaped to maximize natural light and solar-gain during winter
months, with windows on sun-facing walls admitting light and heat. The thick and dense walls
provide thermal mass that naturally regulates the interior temperature during both cold and hot
outside temperatures. The outer walls in the majority of Earthships are made of earth-rammed

tires, but any dense material with a potential to store heat, such as concrete, adobe, earth bags,
or stone, could theoretically be used to create a building similar to an Earthship. The tire walls
are strengthened by using concrete in the tires on the ends, called "concrete half blocks".
The earth-rammed tires of an Earthship are assembled by teams of two people. One member of
the team shovels dirt, which usually comes from the building site, and places it into the tire one
scoop at a time. The second member, who stands on the tire, uses a sledgehammer to pack the
dirt in while moving in a circle around the tire to keep the dirt even and avoid warping the
tire. Rammed earth tires can weigh up to 300 pounds so they are typically made in place. A
finished earth-rammed tire is large enough to surpass conventional requirements for structural
load distribution to the earth.[citation needed] Because the tire is full of soil, it does not burn when
exposed to fire.[1] In colder climates extra insulation is added on the outside of the tire walls.
On top of the tire walls are either "can and concrete bond beams" made of recycled cans joined
by concrete, or wooden bond beams with wooden shoes. These are attached to the tire walls
using concrete anchors, poured blocks of concrete located inside the top tires. Wooden
shimming blocks placed on top of the wooden bond beam make up the wooden shoes. The
wooden bond beam two layers of lumber bolted on to the concrete anchors. Re-bar is used to
"nail" the wooden shoes to the wooden bond beam.
Internal, non-load-bearing walls are often made of a honeycomb of recycled cans joined by
concrete and are referred to astin can walls. These walls are usually thickly plastered with adobe.
The roof is made using trusses, or wooden support beams called vigas, that rest on the wooden
shoes or the tin can walls placed on the bond beams. The roof as well as the north, east and
west facing walls are heavily insulated to prevent heat loss.

Water[edit]
Collection[edit]

The water system with integrated flush toilet, as used in most earthships

A scupper for collecting rainwater

Earthships are designed to catch and use water from the local environment without bringing in
water from a centralized source. Water used in an Earthship is harvested from rain, snow, and
condensation. As water collects on the roof, it is channeled through a silt-catching device and
into a cistern. The cisterns are positioned so they gravity-feed a water organization module
(WOM) that filters out bacteria and contaminants and makes it suitable for drinking. The WOM
consists of filters and a DC-pump that are screwed into a panel. Water is then pushed into a
conventional pressure tank to create common household water pressure.
Water collected in this fashion is used for every household activity except flushing toilets. The
water used for flushing toilets is what is known as greywater and has been used at least once
already. Typically it is filtered waste-water from sinks and showers.

Greywater[edit]

An interior botanical cell; the plants function as water treatment for graywater

Greywater, used water that is unsuitable for drinking, is used within the Earthship primarily for
flushing toilets. Before the greywater can be reused, it is channeled through a grease and
particle filter/digester and into a 30"-60" deep rubber-lined botanical cell, [2] a miniature living
machine, within the Earthship. In the botanical cell the water is oxygenated and filteredusing
bacteria and plants to reduce the nutrient load.[3] Water from the low end of the botanical cell is
then directed through apeat moss filter and collected in a reservoir or well. This reclaimed water
is then passed once more through a greywater board and used to flush conventional toilets.

Black water[edit]
Black water, water that has been used in a toilet, is sent to a solar-enhanced septic tank, referred
to as "the incubator", that utilizes anaerobic digestion. The solar-enhanced septic tank is a
regular septic tank which is heated by the sun and glazed with an equator-facing window. The
incubator stores the sun's heat in its concrete mass, and is insulated, to help the anaerobic
process. Water from the incubator is channeled out to an exterior leach field and then to
landscaping "planter cells", concrete cells containing plants. The cells are similar to the botanical
cell used in greywater treatment and are usually placed just before and under the windows of the
earthship.

In cases where it is not possible to use flush-toilets operating on water, dry solar toilets are
recommended.

Power[edit]
Earthships are designed to collect and store their own energy from a variety of sources. The
majority of electrical energy is harvested from the sun and wind. Photovoltaic panels
and windturbines located on or near the Earthship generate DC energy that is then stored in
several types of deep-cycle batteries. The space in which the batteries are kept is usually a
special, purpose-built room placed on the roof. Additional energy, if required, can be obtained
from gasoline-powered generators or by integrating with the city grid.
In an Earthship, a Power Organizing Module is used to take stored energy from batteries
and invert it for AC use. The Power Organizing Module is a prefabricated system provided by
Earthship Biotecture that is simply attached to a wall on the interior of the Earthship and wired in
a conventional manner. It includes the necessary equipment such as circuit
breakers and converters. The energy run through the Power Organizing Module can be used to
run any household appliance including washing machines, computers, kitchen appliances, print
machines, and vacuums. Ideally, none of the electrical energy in an Earthship is used for heating
or cooling.

Climate[edit]
Earthships rely on a balance between the solar heat gain and the ability of the tire walls and
subsoil to transport and store heat. They are designed to use the properties of thermal mass and
with the intent that the exterior earth-rammed tire walls provide thermal mass that will soak up
heat during the day and radiate heat during the night, keeping the interior climate relatively
comfortable all day. In addition to the exterior tire walls, some Earthships are sunk into the earth
to take advantage of earth-sheltering to reduce temperature fluctuations.
Some earthships appear to have problems with heat loss. In these cases heat appears to be lost
into the ground during the heating season. This may be due to belief that ground-coupled
structures, buildings in thermal contact with the ground, do not require insulation. It also may be
due to climatic differences between New Mexico where earthships were first built and cloudier,
cooler, and wetter climates. Thermal performance problems seen in some earthship designs may
also have occurred due to thermal massbeing erroneously equated to R-value. The imperial Rvalue of soil is about 1 per foot.[4] Malcolm Wells, an architect and authority on earth-sheltered
design, recommends an imperial R-value 10 insulation between deep soils and heated spaces.
Wells's insulation recommendations increase as the depth of the soil decreases.
In addition to thermal mass, Earthships also use passive solar heating and cooling. Large front
windows with integrated shades, trombe walls and other technologies such asskylights or Steve
Baer's "Track Rack" solar trackers are used for heat regulation. Earthships are positioned so that
its principal wall, which is nonstructural and made mostly of glass sheets, faces directly towards
the equator. This positioning allows for optimum solar exposure. To allow the sun to heat the
mass of the Earthship, the solar-oriented wall is angled so that it is perpendicular to light from the
winter sun. This allows for maximum exposure in the winter, when heat is wanted, and lesser
exposure in the summer, when heat is to be avoided. Some Earthships, especially those built in
colder climates, use insulated shading on the solar-orientated wall to reduce heat loss during the
night.[3]

Ventilation[edit]

Natural convection cooling an Earthship

The earthships usually use their own natural ventilation system. It consists of cooler air coming in
from a front "hopper" window and flowing out through one of the skylights. As the hot air rises,
the system creates a steady airflow - of cooler air coming in, and warmer air blowing out.

Examples[edit]
Europe[edit]

Brighton Earthship, UK

In 2000, Michael Reynolds and his team came to build the first residential earthship in Boingt
(Belgium). While water, power module, solar panels and the team were on their way to Europe,
the mayor of Boingt put his veto on the building permit. Josephine Overeem, the woman who
wanted to build the earthship, and Michael Reynolds decided to do a demonstration model in her
back yard at her residence in Strombeek (Belgium). CLEVEL[5]invited Reynolds from Belgium to
Brighton in the UK, and orchestrated plans for the earthship in Brighton, started in 2003. This
was the beginning of a series of trips made by Reynolds and the construction of earthships in the
UK, France and the Netherlands.
In 2004, the very first Earthship in the UK was opened at Kinghorn Loch in Fife, Scotland. It was
built by volunteers of the SCI charity. In 2005, the first earthship in England was established
in Stanmer Park, Brighton with the Low Carbon Trust.[citation needed]
In 2007, CLEVEL and Earthship Biotecture obtained full planning permission to build on a
development site overlooking the Brighton Marina in the UK. The application followed a sixmonth feasibility study, orchestrated by Daren Howarth, Kevan Trott and Michael Reynolds and
funded by the UK Environment Agency and the Energy Savings Trust. The successful application

was for sixteen one, two, and three-bedroom earthship homes on this site, expected to have a
sale price of 250 - 400,000 pounds.[6] The homes are all designed according to basic earthship
principles developed in the United States and adapted to the UK. 15,000 tires will be recycled to
construct these homes (the UK burns approximately 40 million tires each year). The plans
include the enhancement of habitats on the site for lizards that already live there, which is the
reasoning behind entitling the project "The Lizard". This would have been the first development
of its kind in Europe.[7]
The first official Earthship home in mainland Europe with official planning permission approval
was built in a small French village called Ger. The home, which is owned by Kevan and Gillian
Trott, was built in April 2007 by Kevan, Mike Reynolds and an Earthship Crew from Taos. The
design was modified for a European climate and is seen as the first of many for the European
arena. It is currently used as a holiday home for eco-tourists.[8]
Further adaptation to the European context was undertaken by Daren Howarth and Adrianne
Nortje in Brittany, France. They obtained full planning permission in 2007 and finished the
Brittany Groundhouse as their own home during 2009. The build experience and learning is
documented in the UK Grand Designs series and in their book.[9]
Meanwhile, earthships have been built or are being built in Portugal, Spain, France, Belgium,
The Netherlands, United Kingdom, Sweden, Denmark, Germany, Estonia and Czech Republic. A
good overview of the earthships built in Europe can be found on the web page of European
Earthship Builder United,[10] together with information on earthships being built.[11] A good
chronological overview on the earthships built in Europe by Michael Reynolds can be found in
the article 'Europe'.[12]
The first official earthship district (23 earthships) in Europe is currently being developed
in Olst (the Netherlands). Building will start in spring 2012. [13] In Belgium, 1 earthship hybrid is
also being built, intended as demonstration buildings. Since it is illegal to use tires in Belgium (for
risk of leaking toxic metals like lead and zinc),[14] the project usesearthbags to build their earthship
instead.
The Earthships built in Europe by Michael Reynolds aren't always performing as promised and
some show problems with moisture and mould.[15] Some research into performance was done by
the University of Brighton on the Brighton Earthship.[16] which was then used to create the most
detailed thermal monitoring ever carried out on an earthship (reported with a series of design
recommendations to make earthships more effective in different climatic conditions in the
book Earthships: building a zero carbon future for homes [17])

Africa[edit]
The first earthship in South Africa was built by Angel and Yvonne Kamp from 1996 to 1998. They
rammed a total of 1,500 tires for the walls. The earthship, near Hermanus, is located in a 60
hectare private nature reserve which is part of a 500000 hectare area enclosed in a game fence
and borders the Walker Bay Nature Reserve.[18]
The second earthship in South Africa is a recycling centre in Khayelitsha run as a swop shop
concept. The centre was finished in December 2010.[19] Another low cost house built with tyres is
in development in Bloemfontein.[20][21]
A project nearing completion in South Africa is a combined living quarters for 4 to 5 people, a bed
and breakfast, and an information/training centre in Orania.[22] This earthship is based on the

global earthship model and is built with a foundation of tyres, has roof bearing walls built with
earthbags, and interior walls built with cob, cans and plastic bottles. This earthship adheres to all
six principles of an earthship. This is the largest earthbag earthship in the world. [23]
A residential house is in the planning phase for Swaziland.[24]
In 2011, construction began on the Goderich Waldorf School of Sierra Leone. The school was the
first educational institution to use earthship architecture. Although Mike Reynolds and a team of
interns helped complete the first two classrooms, the majority of the building was built by
community members who had been trained in Reynolds' building techniques. [25][26]
A new project will commence in Malawi in October 2013.[27]

South America[edit]
The first Earthship in South America was built in January 2015 in the town of Ushuaia, Patagonia
(Argentina). Today this building functions as a visitor center and example of self-sustainable
living.
An earthship is currently (2015) under construction by the Aitkinson family in southern Belize. It
featured on the June 2015 UK Channel 4 TV programme Kevin McCloud's Escape to the Wild,
season 1, episode 3.
Guatemala also hosts two earthships.[28]

Recycled
plastic
Lumber
and
Synthetic
Wood
The Ideal Replacements for Wood in Construction and Building
Kedel manufacture both the recycled plastic planks and beams from British Waste Plastic, as
well as making many finished products with it.
More information about our products can be found on our FAQs or Frequently Asked
Questions pages.

Different Types of Recycled Plastic

We did a lot of research into various types of waste plastic and ended up with 5 types of
recycled plastic material -

1. Recycled
Plastic Wood
Recycled Plastic Wood or
Synthetic Wood if you prefer,
made almost entirely from
polystyrene waste
packaging, CD cases and
old coat hangers - a versatile
material with the same
density and weight as some
South American hard woods.
It can be made to look like
almost any kind of wood in
any colour.

2. Recycled
Mixed
Plastic
Profiles:
Recycled Mixed Plastic,
made mainly from HDPE and
LDPE (High and Low density
polyethylene) derived from
post industrial and domestic
waste plastic - plastic bags,
old plastic buckets, plastic
milk cartons, paint trays and
all the plastic you or your
company throw in the
recycling bin on a regular
basis.

3. Recycled
Mixed Plastic
Sheet
Kedel's Recycled Mixed
Plastic Sheet - This is made
from the same materials as
above.

4. HDPE Sheet Up to 80%

Recycled Plastic
Recycled Plastic HDPE
Sheet available in bright
solid colours or sometimes
a sandwich of two
colours that can be cut into
revealing the underlying
colour to make words,
letters, numbers and ornate
designs.
Great for manufacture
of educational products and
signs. Comes in a variety of
thicknesses.

5. Stokbord
Stokbord sometimes
misspelt as Stockboard or
Stokboarda heavy duty
sheet material made from a
mixture of HDPE and
polypropylenetough and
durable for agricultural and
equestrian use. Comes in a
variety of thicknesses and
can also be green coated.

Green Eco-Friendly Materials - the rationale

To help focus our business ideas we formulated a comprehensive green ethical policy
statement that is the basic business ethic driving our growth as a company, both now and for the
future. We are of course always open to suggestions that might improve it.

Applications and Advantages

There's a long list of applications where Recycled Mixed Plastic Lumber and Plastic Wood or
Synthetic Wood have come into their own.
Two main reasons to use recycled plastic building materials in construction projects are:

It lasts at least 5 times longer than treated timber

There are no maintenance and replacement costs - whole life savings are about 80%
when
used
instead
of
wood
(see WRAP Study)
Kedel have therefore found a growing market for recycled plastic products. Not only for recycled
plastic planks and profiles in mixed plastic, plastic wood and sheet materials, which are in high
demand from Building Professionals such as architects, specifiers and institutional buyers, but
also for finished products.

Recycled Plastic Gates and Fencing

Plastic Wood Tongue and Groove Gates are popular with Local Authorities and Housing
Associations for replacing rotten wooden back gates and doors on bin cupboards. They report
savings of up to 80% on their maintenance and replacement budgets, and that extends to their
fencing replacement programmes too. (see WRAP Study)
Deteriorated wooden fencing panels have been replaced with recycled plastic fence panels that
are vandal and graffiti resistant, can't be kicked through, need no painting or other regular
maintenance, never rot, and have no splinters for little fingers. This type of fencing is proving
very popular with residents, as it raises the quality of their living environment, and keeps it
looking good for decades, avoiding that depressing run down look of housing estates littered with
broken down and decrepit fencing. (See Your Housing Group Case Study)
Our fencing posts and related profiles make agricultural fencing and one time installation, which
is a great boon for farmers who spend inordinate amounts of their time repairing old fences. We
have both round and square posts that will take staples and many with points to make it easy to
drive them into the ground. Some of these posts are very large and long. They and can be
immersed continually in water to support jetties, fishing pegs and bridges. We even have some
recycled plastic posts and beams reinforced with steel inners for extra strength.

Eco-Friendly Drainage and Ground Reinforcement - SUDS

solutions
Many families own a car, and parking is sometimes a problem leading to paving over of gardens.
The inevitable increase in run off has put a strain on water utilities due to increased volumes of
rain water entering. This has led to new regulations requiring planning permission for non
permeable paving areas and additional charges by water utilities. Kedel's Drainage andGround
Reinforcement Grids provide a sustainable urban drainage solution which is quick to lay, cheap,
and can carry up to 16 tonne axle weight or 240 tonnes pressure per square meter. No planning
permission is required as water drains through easily.
9 grids link together to form one square meter, and besides the domestic interest in this product it
has also attracted institutional buyers looking for a temporary parking solution of access roads
that will carry fire engines in emergencies. The grids can be grassed over to maintain an
aesthetically pleasing result that will hold the ground together and not be damaged by heavy
vehicles or regular pedestrian traffic.

Temporary and Permanent Permeable and Impermeable

Paving
There is an equestrian version of our permeable drainage and ground reinforcement grid for use
where horses or cattle would otherwise churn up the ground, but hooves will not get snagged by
them as they are thicker and have smaller spaces in the grids.
Kedel also supply several other types of recycled plastic paving, both permeable and
impermeable. These solutions will neither rust nor rot, so the applications are infinite in both
domestic and commercial/industrial environments. Our Eco-slabsare octagonal and decorative
with and without slots for drainage, and all terrain sheets are great for building sites where heavy
traffic needs a temporary paving solution to protect from environmental damage during the
project.

Recycled Plastic Decking and Boardwalks

In our damp British climate Recycled Plastic Decking has been a great innovation. Not only does
it have superior slip resistance compared to wood, but it will not entertain mould, slime and moss
growth as there is nothing for it to adhere to.
A visitor to our stand at a recent exhibition told us she had had this type of decking down for 7
years. After three years some green mould developed, but she was able to use a domestic mop
to remove it. This would not have been possible with wooden decking. (It can also be jet sprayed
without harming the material.) Weathering tends to make this product even more wood-like she
told us, and her friends had no idea it was made from recycled plastic.

Difference between 100% Recycled Plastic and Composite

Wood/Plastic Decking
Our recycled plastic decking is superior to wood/plastic composite decking which can sometimes
absorb moisture. Another visitor to our exhibition stand complained that his relatively new
wood/plastic composite decking had warped badly, due to standing water which was absorbed to
some extent by the wood flour mixed with the plastic. He was unable to claim on the warranty
and was told by his supplier that the decking should have been laid at a slight angle to prevent
water standing for extended periods.
Recycled Plastic Decking does not have this limitation. You can enjoy all the aesthetics of wood
with all the advantages of plastic. We would expect the product to last several maintenance free
decades. Annual preservative treatments will never be needed.

Recycled Plastic Sheet for Education and Agriculture

We use recycled plastic HDPE sheet in bright colours in our designs of outdoor role play
equipment for schools and nurseries. The attractive colours please the children and the teachers
are very happy as it can stay outside all year round without harm from the elements.
Then there is Stokbord, which comes in a textured dark grey/black colour or with a surface
green. It's a recycled plastic sheet material in various thicknesses which is used in horse boxes,

pig pens and for other animal and equestrian related applications. The animals don't seem to
chew it and it's rot free properties are ideal for a wide variety of agricultural and related purposes.
Recycled Plastic Products in agriculture are a godsend and save on long term recurring costs.
Kedel supply recycled plastic materials for all types of animal shelters, equestrian environments
as well as for paddock and pasture fencing.

Recycled Plastic Street Furniture

Street furniture in recycled plastic is nothing new, and was one of the first applications for
recycled plastic. Kedel have improved its appearance and wood-like feel as well as adding bright
colours to the mix. And some of our seat profiles are reinforced with steel, so you can extend the
length without any sagging or creep over time.

Bollards
You will find a variety of Recycled Plastic Bollards, including the fluted classic look Buckingham
Bollard with or without reflective strips.

Information Stands and Signage

And what street is complete without signage, information stands and attractive benching. We can
make bespoke signage for any situation from city centre to country park environments. Or you
can just acquire some diamond top posts and make your own signs.

Benches and Tables

For parks and gardens you can you can add picnic tables and benches from 1.2 to 2 meters in
length and some of theserecycled plastic tables have extended ends or side recesses to make
them all inclusive for wheelchair and pushchair access. If you want them longer you only have to
ask.
They are also heavy, unlikely to blow away and extremely difficult for casual young pranksters to
move. They can of course be bolted down and we have just the right street furniture security
accessories to keep them safe. Some have holes moulded into the base ready to take an
anchoring bolt.
Kedel have designed outdoor furniture for all occasions from over 50's purpose built
accommodation, to schools and university recreation areas. Outdoor benches, patio tables and
chairs that look like the traditional wooden varieties and picnic tables with umbrella parasol holes
ready for the summer, and with global warming we might have a few more of those summer days
to look forward to.

Recycled Plastic Bins

Our Recycled Plastic Waste Bins are fully constructed and ready to go, and being recycled
plastic are far less flammable than wood besides having a much longer life and greater vandal
resistance.

In 2012 we added a variety of multicoloured lockable or standard storage, salt and grit bins that
can be produced in at least a dozen colours, to either stand out like a sore thumb or blend in and
become almost invisible. These are tough durable UV protected bins with lids that keep the wet
out and the contents dry.

Recycled Plastic Products for Industrial Environments

In an industrial setting Kedel offer cable conduit covers, some of which are reinforced with steel
inners, a variety of specialised supports and dunnage for rail, marine and heavy industry. Heavy
duty cable reel cradles to replace rotting wooden ones, marine fenders, and both permeable and
impermeable paving solutions with excellent non-slip properties.

Landscaping and Hard Landscaping

Landscape designers can choose from a variety of decorative beams and sleepers, and recycled
plastic profiles for fishing pegs, boardwalks, marinas and waterways.
Hard Landscaping Products such as Ogee Palisades that fit into each other, both solid and
hollow, with and without points and standard palisades either square of round. From Curbs and
L-Stones to Retaining plantable walls and sound barriers landscapers will find everything they
need in recycled plastic that they used to design with wood, concrete or steel.

Bespoke Design and CNC Services

And if there is anything you need to have bespoke designed, Kedel have an in-house Industrial
Product Design team and computer aided cutting equipment including CNC services at your
disposal.
No doubt we will evolve more recycled plastic building materials for the UK as time goes by, but
you can do quite a lot with the 5 types building material we supply.

Solving the Problems of Waste Plastic Intelligently

Plastic is a headache to get rid of, as it is by nature durable and resistant to decay.
In the UK we use a colossal amount plastic, and export 85% of our inevitable mountain of waste
plastic to China and other Asian countries, who buy it at about 25 a tonne. 30% of our landfill
sites are made entirely of plastic waste collected from UK households and businesses.
Putting it there costs about 200 a tonne. Recent studies in 2014 also found 41% of human
waste products on the sea bed are plastic and there is a lot of it.
It's much more sensible to make use of it intelligently to make new products that eliminate the
cost of maintenance and replacement permanently.
Our 'trade only' website, kedeltrade.co.uk, is therefore proving very popular as a one stop shop
with specifiers, architects, facilities managers, and other professionals in the construction and
building industries.

Recycling plastics is helping to save energy and landfill space. Recycled plastics are used
in new building and construction applications every day. Recycled plastics can be blended
with virgin plastic (plastic that has not been processed before) to reduce cost without
sacrificing performance. Such recycled plastics are used to make polymeric timbers for
use in everything from picnic tables to fences, thus helping to save trees. Plastic from
two-liter bottles is even being spun into fiber for the production of carpetanother
recycled product solution for our homes.
Although recycling is not best for some plastics (such as those that are soiled), the
material can still serve a useful purpose if used in a waste-to-energy system (WTE). This
process involves the conversion and recovery of the energy value in the waste material
through the application of high temperature, controlled combustion. The recovered
thermal energy can then be converted to electrical energy in steam-driven turbine
generators for plant use and for sale, or it can be sold directly as steam or hot water for
industrial processes and space heating. WTE is a treatment not available for many
alternative materials, because they do not release energy as readily when burned.

Recycled plastic cladding

Recycled plastic cladding panels from KLP have been developed in cooperation with
ANA Architects. The exterior plastic cladding panels are produced from recycled,
polyolefin plastics. KLP has the charm and usability of wood and the lifespan of plastics.
The sustainable material will last decades, it is UV and weather resistant, it does not rot,
it does not require maintenance and it can easily be cleaned. And KLP can always be
recycled again.

Due to the material's properties the exterior wall panels have a very special appearance.
This is emphasised even more by using anthracite-black planks and by the surface
structure of KLP. The fibre structure of KLP gives depth to the faade panels thus

giving it a natural appearance. KLP exterior cladding panels can for instance be applied
on office buildings, houses, sheds and garden partitions. The plastic facade panels are
mounted by means of an aluminium H profile which not only provides invisible fixing, but
will also allow for natural expansion and contraction.

KLP can easily be sawn, drilled, planed, nailed, stapled and screwed.

Shed foundation

In cooperation with De Groot Vroomshoop, Lankhorst has developed an alternative

foundation block made from environmentally-friendly,
recycled plastic that surpasses concrete and wood in
every way.
The ingenious patented design makes the foundation
beam easy to process. The foundation blocks fit
seamlessly together. This avoids the necessity of
making post-installation adjustments and gives the
interior and exterior sides of the garden shed the perfect finish.

Compliance with work health and safety legislation is becoming increasingly more
important. The overweight of concrete foundation blocks (40 kg) and the related
consequences for the health of ground workers on building sites were important reasons
behind the development of a plastic alternative. KLP Foundation blocks have a weight

of only 8 kg, so one man can do the job. The KLP Foundation block saves you time,
material and your health.

With three different types of blocks, foundations can be built for structures with
practically all dimensions. If necessary the foundation beams can simply be shortened.
This plastic can be drilled or sawed like wood. Wooden beams or entire wall units can be
fastened to the plastic foundation with standard wood screws.

Earthbag construction
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Timelapse video of an earthbag building being made

Earthbag construction is an inexpensive method to create structures which are both strong and
can be quickly built. It is a natural building technique that evolved from historic
military bunker construction techniques and temporary flood-control dike building methods. The
technique requires very basic construction materials: sturdy sacks, filled with inorganic material
usually available on site. Standard earthbag fill material has internal stability. Either moist subsoil
that contains enough clay to become cohesive when tamped, or an angulargravel or
crushed volcanic rock is used. (Sandbag structures with sand fills are an alternative technology
and require very different construction details). Walls are gradually built up by laying the bags in
courses forming a staggered pattern similar to bricklaying.
The walls can be curved or straight, domed with earth or topped with conventional roofs. Curved
walls provide good lateral stability, forming round rooms and/ or domed ceilings like an igloo.
Buildings with straight walls longer than 5 m (16.4 ft) in length need either intersecting walls or
bracing buttresses or piers added. International standards exist for bracing wall size and spacing
for earthen construction in different types of seismic risk areas, most notably the performancebased standards of New Zealand[1] recommended by the ASTM International in their Standard
Guide for Design of Earthen Wall Building Systems E2392 / E2392M 10e1). Until more
complete structural testing is available to correlate earthbag bracing need and performance

to adobe, cement-stabilized buttresses and mortar anchors to hold barbed wire at stress points
can be used for public buildings in high seismic risk areas.
To improve both friction between each row of bags and finished wall tensile strength barbed
wire is often placed between the courses. Twine is also sometimes wrapped around the bags to
tie one course to the next, serving to hold the in-progress structure together and add
strength. Rebar can easily be hammered into walls to strengthen corners and opening edges and
provide more resistance against overturning. The structure is typically finished
with plaster, stucco or adobe both to shed water and to prevent any degradation from solar
radiation. This construction technique can be used for emergency shelters, temporary or
permanent housing and barns. It is frequently chosen for many small-to-medium-sized
institutional structures in the developing world.
Contents
[hide]

1Earthbag development
o

1.1Superadobe

1.2Writers

1.3Promoters

2Construction method
o

2.1Bag types

2.2Bag-fill materials

2.3Forming the house

2.4Finishing

3Environment friendly

4Use in Disaster Areas

5Colonization of the Moon

6See also

7References

8External links
o

8.1General Information

8.2Engineering

8.3Design and Training

Earthbag development[edit]
Superadobe[edit]
While Gernot Minke, the German professor of earthen architecture, first developed a technique of
using bags filled with pumice to build walls, it was architect and builder Nader Khalili who
popularized the methods and architecture of earthbag construction (particularly for residential
buildings).[2]
Khalili called his technique superadobe, because he filled the bags with moistened adobe soil.
Many examples of his work can be seen at the Cal Earth Institute in Hesperia, CA, which he
established in 1986 to popularize his ideas about natural construction techniques. Khalili
pioneered code approval of earthbag domes for high seismic risk regions. Several books and
videos have been produced by the institute to demonstrate his methods, however a number of
other individuals and groups now offer training workshops.
Fernando Pacheco of EcoOca in Brazil later developed Hyperadobe. The big difference between
the two is that Superadobe uses woven polypropylene bags with barbed wire between the layers,
whereas Hyperadobe uses a knit raschel, the same material used in packaging fruit. This leads
to less cost compared to the poly bags.

Writers[edit]
Although Joseph Kennedy probably invented the term earthbag, Paulina Wojciechowska wrote
the first book on the topic of earthbag building in 2001: Building with Earth: A Guide to FlexibleForm Earthbag Construction. Kaki Hunter and Doni Kiffmeyer worked on a variety of projects
after studying with Khalili. They aptly called earthbag 'flexible form rammed earth'. Their 2004
book, Earthbag Building : the Tools, Tricks and Techniques is available for purchase as an easyto-translate ebook.[3]
Free online booklets have been developed by different authors. Owen Geiger and building
designer Patti Stouter have written many that address issues of using earthbag for different
cultures, climates, and levels of hazard as well as testing soils.[4]
A 2011 e-book by Owen Geiger, Earthbag Building Guide: Vertical Walls Step-by-Step, provides
complete photo illustrations of the process and up-to-date discussion of new techniques. This is
available through EarthbagBuilding.com.

Promoters[edit]
Many like Akio Inoue, from Tenri University in Japan and Scott Howard of Earthen Hand have
tested and built buildings. Kelly Hart has shared information freely on his internet sites. With
Owen Geiger of GRISB.org he encouraged earthbag's development into different culturally and
climatically-appropriate shapes. By early 2010 earthbag buildings had been built in many
countries around the world. Special reinforcement techniques are being defined for straightwalled earthbag buildings in medium and high seismic risk regions. Special techniques have
been developed and refined by innovators like Dr. John Anderton of South Africa and Fernando
Pacheco of Brazil. Anderton has tested a triple channel bag version that reduces the slumping
problems inherent in non-cohesive fill material like sand.[5]

Pacheco pioneered the use of lighter HDPE mesh tubing or hyperadobe. This process is less
expensive and simpler because the tubes are more pliable and do not require barbed wire to
provide friction between courses.
Construction information and plans appropriate for buildings in the developing world are available
on the internet. Engineer Nabil Taha has developed and shared general specifications for
reinforcement techniques appropriate for the highest seismic risk zones. [6]
Additional engineering tests are needed to further understand and refine reinforcement for
different situations. University research programs are more and more attempting to evaluate
earthbag construction.

Construction method[edit]
The basic construction method usually begins by digging a trench down to undisturbed
mineral subsoil. This trench can then be partially filled with cobble stones or gravel to create
a rubble trench foundation. In high seismic risk regions a reinforced concrete footing or grade
beam may be recommended.
Above that, several rows of doubled woven bags (or tubes) are filled with gravel and placed into
the trench and one or two courses above grade to form a water-resistantfoundation. Each
successive layer will have one or two strands of barbed wire placed on top. This digs into the
bag's weave and prevents slippage of subsequent layers, and also resists any tendency for the
outward expansion of walls (especially with domes).
The next row of bags is offset by half a bag's width to form a staggered pattern. Bags can be prefilled with material and hoisted up, or bags or tubes can be more simply filled in place. The
weight of this earth-filled layer pushes down on the barbed wire strands, locking the bag in place
on the row below. A light tamping of the bags or tubes serves to consolidate the moist claycontaining fill and creates interlocking bags or tubes of a strength between adobe and rammed
earth. The same process continues layer upon layer, forming walls. A roof can be formed by
gradually sloping the walls inward to construct a dome. Traditional types of roof can also be
made.

Bag types[edit]
The most popular type of bag is made of solid-weave polypropylene, such as the type often used
to transport rice or other grains. Polypropylene is chosen for its low cost and its resistance to
water damage, rot, and insects. Organic/natural materials such as hemp, burlap or other naturalfiber bags (like "gunny sacks") can be used; however, since these may rot, they should only be
used with fills containing a significant proportion of clay.

Bag-fill materials[edit]
Generally inorganic material is used as filler, but some organic material (such as rice hulls) can
be used if a strong matrix like wire mesh reinforces the plaster. Filled with soils containing 5- 50%
clay, like reject fines, road base, or many subsoils, earthbags tamp into solid structural units but
cannot withstand prolonged soaking. Subsoils with clay mold tightly and cure attached around
the barbed wire barbs. This may contribute significant and needed tensile strength to walls.
Sands, stone dust and gravels can survive prolonged flood conditions, but most require special
bracing during construction as well as some form of structural skin. Included chunks of cement

mortar between bags may be appropriate to hold barbed wire to bags if clay or cement-stabilized
fill is not used. Sand fill may be appropriate for several courses to provide a vibration damping
building base, but becomes unstable in ordinary bags above 60 cm- 1m (24- 39") heights.
Cement, lime or bitumen stabilization can be used to allow earths with clay to withstand flooding
or to allow sands to be used in traditional bags with a non-structural plaster skin, but because
earthbag walls are usually 38 cm (15") thick a large amount of stabilizer is needed.
Thermal insulating properties are an important consideration, particularly for climates that
experience temperature extremes. The thermal insulating value of a material is directly related to
both the porosity of the material and the thickness of the wall. Crushed volcanic
rock, pumice or rice hulls yield higher insulation value than clay or sand. Untreated organic
materials that could decay should not be used as part of a structural wall mass, but can be used
as infill. Scott Howard and others have suggested adding crushed bottles, shredded bags, or
other plastic trash as insulating filler in earthbags.
Thermal mass properties of the fill material are also an important consideration, particularly for
climates that experience high temperature fluctuations from night to day. Thethermal flywheel
effect can make massive earth walls ideal for mild climates. Materials like clay or sand also have
excellent heat retention characteristics and, when properly insulated from the home's exterior,
make a logical choice for incorporating a passive solar building design in cool climates. Such a
design has the capability of keeping a home's internal temperature stable year-round.

Forming the house[edit]

Various types of roofs may be used, including earthbag extensions of the wall which create barrel
vaulted or domed roofs, although vaulted roofs of much size are difficult to achieve with
earthbags. Earth domes are very inexpensive to build, but waterproofing them is a complex or
expensive process for humid regions. Recently rectangular and round buildings are being built
with roofs of wood or metal structure to mimic local architectural styles.

Windows and doors can be formed with a traditional masonry lintel or with corbeling or brickarch techniques, usually on temporary forms. Light may also be brought in by skylights, glasscapped pipes, or bottles which are placed between the rows of bags during construction.

Finishing[edit]
To prevent damage to the bags from UV rays or moisture, it is necessary to cover the exposed
outer surfaces of the bags with an opaque material. There are many possibilities of what material
to use, including cement-based stucco, or lime or earthen plaster. This will need to meet
any waterproofing requirements, but such requirements can also be met by using additives in the
bag-fill material. Some buildings use a planted-earth "living roof" ("green-roof") to top the
structure, while others use a more conventional framing and roof placed atop earth-bag walls.

Environment friendly[edit]
It's easy to posit that earthbag construction uses the least energy of any durable construction
method. Unlike concrete, brick or wood, no energy is needed to produce the necessary materials
other than gathering soil. With on-site soil being used, practically no energy is expended on
transportation. And unlike rammed earth construction, no energy is required to compact the soil.
The energy-intensive materials that are used plastic (for bags & twine), steel wire, and

perhaps the outer shell of plaster or stucco are used in relatively small quantities compared to
other types of construction. The buildings last a long time; however, when they are no longer
useful they may simply erode with no serious threat to the environment, or even be recycled into
new earthbag-constructed buildings.[citation needed]

Use in Disaster Areas[edit]

Several earthbag construction projects have been completed in Haiti, most of these after the
earthquake.[7] First Steps Himalaya charity had already built an earthbag building in Nepal prior to
the April 2015 earthquake. It was reportedly one of the few buildings still standing in its district
afterwards. The charity plans to start with 2 schools and another building for accommodations
and is training the local population in building techniques.[8] Earthbag building techniques were
also explored in Sri Lanka after the 2004 tsunami.[9]

Colonization of the Moon[edit]

Khalili proposed using the techniques of earthbag construction for building structures on the
Moon or other planets. Currently, it is quite expensive to lift a positive-mass payload from Earth.
Thus, Khalili's techniques would seem to be an ideal solution as the requisite supplies would
consist of lightweight bags and a few tools to fill them. He specified that such bags would
probably have pre-sewn "hook and loop" (i.e. Velcro) fastener strips in lieu of barbed wire.

EarthBag Homes - you're standing on the building materials...

earthbag home
Long sandbags are filled on-site and arranged in layers or as compressed coils.
Stabilizers such as cement, lime, or sodium carbonate may be added to an ideal mix
of 70% sand, 30% clay. Straw may also be added. The earthbags are then plastered
over with adobe. Arquitectura en Equilibrio (Architecture in Balance) flickr.com

earthbag home
Plastic bags recycled into plastic bags -- if plastic does not break down for a
thousand years, this building is sure to last several lifetimes. Of course covered with
adobe or plaster, so that the plastic does not offgas or degrade. Arquitectura en
Equilibrio, Colombia. flickr.com

earthbag construction
Foundations differ as per site. Here, in a rainy locale, rocks were placed under the
earthbags for drainage. Note the barbed wire which keeps the bags from slipping
and creates an earthquake resistent structure. Arquitectura en Equilibrio,
Colombia. flickr.com

earthbag construction
The time consuming part, filling the bags. The bags are filled in place on the wall.
The CalEarth site says that three reasonably-fit persons can lay 100 linear ft of bag
per day. Arquitectura en Equilibrio, Colombia. flickr.com

earthbag construction
Testing the strength of an arch. Arquitectura en Equilibrio, Colombia. flickr.com

earthbag home
Project Seres, Guatemala. projectseres.org, flickr.com

earthbag home
CalEarth -- Emergency Shelter Village, Hesperia, California.
Iranian born architect, Nader Khalili developed the long-bag Superadobe prototype in
California. In 1991 he founded the California Institute of Earth Art and Architecture
(Cal-Earth), a non-profit research and educational organization. Photo by
James flickr.com

earthbag home
Cal Earth -- Emergency Shelters. This long bag/barbed wire concept was originally
presented by Nader Khalili to NASA for proposed building habitats on the Moon and
Mars. Photo by Ashley Muse flickr.com

earthbag home
CalEarth let the layers show. Photo by James flickr.com

CalEarth -- this might not be totally earthbag, but like the fish face. Photo by
James flickr.com

earthbag home
The aerodynamic forms resist hurricanes and the structures pass Californias
earthquake codes. They are flood and fire resistant as well. A double eco-dome can
be built (bagged) in 10 weeks. Photo by James flickr.com

earthbag home
CalEarth photo by Mike Smith flickr.com

earthbag home
Classical Arches, domes and vaults updated. The combination fireplace and windscoop faces prevailing winds. Photo by James flickr.com

earthbag home
CalEarth -- inside of the vaulted house. calearth.org

earthbag home
CalEarth inside of the vaulted house. calearth.org

earthbag home
Cal-Earth -- exterior mud ornament. Photo by Ken McCown flickr.com

CalEarth Vault under construction. Photo by Ashley Muse flickr.com

Sandbag construction in the Philippines? Long sandbags add stability, but using
barbed wire between layers of shorter sandbags, is also fine. It takes much longer to
fill the long bags than the short ones. flickr.com

earthbag home
Ninos y Jovenes boarding school in San Juan Cosala', Mexico. Pic taken by
earthbag expert Kelly Hart see more photos of project here: flickr.com

earthbag home
This is the first EarthBag structure to receive proper building permits in New York
State. A project of Sister Marsha Allen of Rochester, she hopes the students who
helped build the structure will join her in Haiti, where she hopes to build many
more. rochestercitynewspaper.com

earthbag home
Gainesville, Florida. Photo by Justin Martin flickr.com

earthbag home
Gainesville, Florida. Photo by Justin Martin flickr.com

earthbag home
Gainesville, Florida. flickr.com

Earthbag Home under construction in Argentina. Lots more images

here: superadobeserrano.blogspot.com

earthbag construction
Tamping is a necesary step. Initially a trench is dug and then filled with gravel,
cement or a sunken layer of bags. Makes nice benches as well. ecocentro.org

earthbag construction
Everyone lends a hand. Take earth building lessons in Brazil
with ecocentro.org. Some use bags as a temporary holder of adobe. The bags could
rot away and the building would still be as sturdy. For this type of build, the bags
need to be filled with a percentage of hardening material (such as adding 5%-10%
hydrated lime or cement to dry soil, mixing well and then moistening lightly before
filling and tamping bags) or pure adobe.

Inside an EarthBag ready for plaster. The other way to make an earthbag. A mix of
native soil; clay/aggregate/sand, and/or insulating material such as lava stone,
scoria, pumice, perlite or vermiculite inside polypropylene bags (which have a half life
of 500 years). The plastic needs to be protected from the degradation of the sun's
rays with a plaster. structure1.com

earthbag home
CalEarth photo by CuteMatrix flickr.com

If you do not like the idea of plastic bags - then Kelly Hart and Dr. Owen Geiger
of Earthbag Building suggest natural porous bags (hemp, jute, flax or linen) filled with
dirt, stone powder and sodium carbonate or lime (or numerous other cement capable
wastes). After you lay a course of bags, sprinkle the layer with water, and after drying
you will have a cement layer. Read more here: earthbagbuilding.wordpress.com

Earthbag Home Plans lots more here: earthbagplans.wordpress.com

Building with sandbags is a real alternative to all conventional ways of construction. The quality of sandbag
houses is even superior to normal brick, block or adobe houses. Once the house is finished with plaster or a
wooden cladding, it looks exactly the same as a conventional house. The comfort of living is even higher in a
houses made of sand.

But most convincing is the fact that you save a significant amount of money by using the sandbag technology.
And that you reduce the carbon footprint of your house dramaticly by using the unburned and untreated sand
as the main construction material.

The use of sandbags is not limited to a specific market segment. The system can be used for all applications
from low cost government subsidized housing to the high income market. For housing, industrial or multi-level
developments.

You can see that the sandbag technology offers a revolutionary new way of construction. Learn more about it
in the Info-Center.

Advantages of the Sandbag / Ecobeam System

1. Ecological Reasons

1.

-no Energy consumption for burning bricks or producing cement

2.

-a sandbag wall has 95% less CO2 emission than the conventional brick wall

3.

-less transportation: Sand is locally available nearly all over the world

4.

-adobe plaster or a special lime plaster are very environmental friendly

2. Economical Impact

1.

-sandbag construction can be 5-40% ceaper (depending on the local situation)

2.

-the construction rate is very fast, time is money

3.

-the main work can be done by cheap, unskilled labour, or by the owner himself

4.

-foundations usually can be very simple and cost effective

5.
6.

3. Superior Material Qualities

7.

-a tremendous thermal stability, comparetively good insulation and high thermal mass

8.

-excellent sound absorbing and insulating qualities

9.

-healthy room climate, walls are vapor permeable

10.

-the huge weight makes them wind and water resistant

11.

-walls absorb all kinds of impacts, e.g. bullets or earthquakes

12.

4. Simplicity of Construction

1.

-construction technique can be learned easily within a few days by unskilled labour

2.

-the leight bags can be hadled by one person in all phases of the construction

3.

-all members of the community can participate in the construction process (feeling of
identification and ownership)

4.

-construction can take place without road access and without electricity

5.

-unused bags can be removed over night, thereby reducing the incidence of theft

Light tube
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about "light tubes" used for the illumination of buildings. For other uses of the
phrase "light tubes", see Light tube (disambiguation).
It has been suggested that Tubular daylighting device be merged into
this article. (Discuss) Proposed since September 2014.

Light tubes

Light tubes or light pipes are physical structures used for transporting or distributing natural or
artificial light for the purpose of illumination, and are examples of optical waveguides. In their
application to daylighting, they are also often called tubular daylighting devices, sun
pipes, sun scopes, or daylight pipes. Light pipes may be divided into two broad categories:
hollow structures that contain the light with a reflective lining, and transparent solids that contain
the light by total internal reflection.
Generally speaking, a light pipe or light tube may refer to:

a tube or pipe for transport of light to another location, minimizing the loss of light;

a transparent tube or pipe for distribution of light over its length, either for equidistribution
along the entire length (see also sulfur lamp) or for controlled light leakage.

Both have the purpose of lighting, for example in architecture.

Contents
[hide]

1Types
o

1.1IR light pipes/IR light tubes

1.2Light tube with reflective material

1.3Optical fiber

1.4Transparent hollow light guides

1.5Fluorescence based system

2Properties and applications

o

2.1Solar and hybrid lighting systems

2.2Security applications

3In electronic devices

4See also

5References

6External links
o

6.1Overview

6.2Other approaches to sunlight capture and transmission

Types[edit]
IR light pipes/IR light tubes[edit]

Hexagonal Light Tube reflecting Laser Beam

Only certain manufactures can custom design Infrared light pipes, hollow waveguides and
homogenizers. This is because these are tubes lined with a highly polished infrared reflective
coating of Laser Gold, which can be applied thick enough to permit these tubes to be used in
highly corrosive atmospheres. Laser Black can be applied to certain parts of light pipes to absorb
IR light (see photonics). This is done to limit IR light to only certain areas of the pipe.
While most light pipes are produced with a round cross-section, light pipes are not limited to this
geometry. Square and hexagonal cross-sections are used in special applications. Hexagonal
pipes tend to produce the most homogenized type of IR Light. The pipes do not need to be
straight. Bends in the pipe have little effect on efficiency.

Light tube with reflective material[edit]

A light tube installed in thesubterranean train station atPotsdamer Platz, Berlin, seen from above

and below ground.

(More images on Wikimedia Commons)

Also known as a tubular skylight or tubular daylighting device, this is the oldest and most
widespread type of light tube used fordaylighting. The concept was originally developed by
the ancient Egyptians. The first commercial reflector systems were patented andmarketed in the
1850s by Paul Emile Chappuis in London, utilising various forms of angled mirror designs.
Chappuis Ltds reflectors were in continuous production until the factory was destroyed in 1943.
[1]
The concept was rediscovered and patented in 1986 by SolatubeInternational of Australia.
[2]
This system has been marketed for widespread residential and commercial use. Other
daylighting products are on the market under various generic names, such as SunScope, solar
pipe, light pipe, light tube and tubular skylight.
A tube lined with highly reflective material leads the light rays through a building, starting from an
entrance-point located on its roof or one of its outer walls. A light tube is not intended for imaging
(in contrast to a periscope, for example), thus image distortions pose no problem and are in
many ways encouraged due to the reduction of directional light.
The entrance point usually comprises a dome (cupola), which has the function of collecting and
reflecting as much sunlight as possible into the tube. Many units also have directional
collectors, reflectors or even Fresnel lens devices that assist in collecting additional directional
light down the tube.
A set-up in which a laser cut acrylic panel is arranged to redirect sunlight into a horizontally or
vertically orientated mirrored pipe, combined with a light spreading system with a triangular
arrangement of laser cut panels that spread the light into the room, was developed at
theQueensland University of Technology in Brisbane.[3] In 2003, Veronica Garcia Hansen, Ken
Yeang, and Ian Edmonds were awarded the Far East Economic Review Innovation Award in
bronze for this development.[4][5]
Light transmission efficiency is greatest if the tube is short and straight. In longer, angled, or
flexible tubes, part of the light intensity is lost. To minimize losses, a high reflectivity of the tube
lining is crucial; manufacturers claim reflectivities of their materials, in the visible range, of up to
almost 99.5 percent.[6][7]
At the end point (the point of use), a diffuser spreads the light into the room.
To further optimize the use of solar light, a heliostat can be installed which tracks the movement
of the sun, thereby directing sunlight into the light tube at all times of the day as far as the
surroundings limitations allow, possibly with additional mirrors or other reflective elements that
influence the light path. The heliostat can be set to capture moonlight at night.

Optical fiber[edit]
Optical fibers are well known as fiberscopes for imaging applications and as light guides for a
wide range of non-imaging applications. In the latter context, they can also be used for
daylighting: a solar lighting system based on plastic optical fibers was in development at Oak
Ridge National Laboratory in 2004;[8][9] the system was installed at the American Museum of
Science and Energy, Tennessee, USA, in 2005,[10] and brought to market the same year by the
company Sunlight Direct.[11][12] However, this system was taken off the market in 2009.
Optical fibers are also used in the Bjork system sold by Parans Solar Lighting AB.[13][14] The optic
fibers in this system are made of PMMA (PolyMethylMethAcrylate) and sheathed with Megolon, a
halogen-free thermoplastic resin. A system such as this, however, is quite expensive. [15]

A similar system, but using optical fibers of glass, had earlier been under study in Japan. [16]

The Copper Box, venue for Handball at the 2012 Summer Olympics, makes use of light tubes to reduce
energy use.

In view of the usually small diameter of the fibers, an efficient daylighting set-up requires
a parabolic collector to track the sun and concentrate its light. Optical fibers intended for light
transport need to propagate as much light as possible within the core; in contrast, optical fibers
intended for light distribution are designed to let part of the light leak through their cladding. [17]

Transparent hollow light guides[edit]

A prism light guide was developed in 1981 by Lorne Whitehead, a physics professor at
the University of British Columbia[18][19] and has been used in solar lighting for both transport and
distribution of light.[20][21] A large solar pipe based on the same principle has been set up in a
narrow courtyard of a 14-floor building of a Washington D.C. law firm in 2001, [22][23][24][25][26] and a
similar proposal has been made for London.[27] A further system has been installed in Berlin.[28]
The 3M company developed a system based on optical lighting film [29] and developed the 3M light
pipe,[30] which is a light guide designed to distribute light uniformly over its length, with a thin film
incorporating microscopic prisms,[19] which has been marketed in connection with artificial light
sources, e.g. sulfur lamps.
In contrast to an optical fiber which has a solid core, a prism light guide leads the light through air
and is therefore referred to as hollow light guide.
The project ARTHELIO,[31][32] partially funded by the European Commission, was an investigation
in years 1998 to 2000 into a system for adaptive mixing of solar and artificial light, and which
includes a sulfur lamp, a heliostat, and hollow light guides for light transport and distribution.
Disney has experimented in using 3D printing to print internal light guides for illuminated toys.[33]

Fluorescence based system[edit]

In a system developed by Fluorosolar and the University of Technology, Sydney,
two fluorescent polymer layers in a flat panel capture short wave sunlight, particularly ultraviolet
light, generating red and green light, respectively, which is guided into the interior of a building.
There, the red and green light is mixed with artificial blue light to yield white light, without infrared
or ultraviolet. This system, which collects light without requiring mobile parts such as a heliostat
or a parabolic collector, is intended to transfer light to any place within a building. [34][35][36] By

capturing ultraviolet the system can be especially effective on bright but overcast days; this since
ultraviolet is diminished less by cloud cover than are the visible components of sunlight.

Properties and applications[edit]

Solar and hybrid lighting systems[edit]
Solar light pipes, compared to conventional skylights and other windows, offer better heat
insulation properties and more flexibility for use in inner rooms, but less visual contact with the
external environment.
In the context of seasonal affective disorder, it may be worth consideration that an additional
installation of light tubes increases the amount of natural daily light exposure. It could thus
possibly contribute to residents or employees well-being while avoiding overillumination effects.
Compared to artificial lights, light tubes have the advantage of providing natural light and of
saving energy. The transmitted light varies over the day; should this not be desired, light tubes
can be combined with artificial light in a hybrid set-up.[20][37][38][39]
Some artificial light sources are marketed which have a spectrum similar to that of sunlight, at
least in the human visible spectrum range,[40][41][42] as well as low flicker.[42] Their spectrum can be
made to vary dynamically such as to mimick the changes of natural light over the day.
Manufacturers and vendors of such light sources claim that their products can provide the same
or similar health effects as natural light.[42][43][44] When considered as alternatives to solar light
pipes, such products may have lower installation costs but do consume energy during use;
therefore they may well be more wasteful in terms of overall energy resources and costs.
On a more practical note, light tubes do not require electric installations or insulation, and are
thus especially useful for indoor wet areas such as bathrooms and pools. From a more artistic
point of view, recent developments, especially those pertaining to transparent light tubes, open
new and interesting possibilities for architectural design.

Security applications[edit]
Due to the relatively small size and high light output of sun pipes, they have an ideal application
to security oriented situations, such as prisons, police cells and other locations where restricted
access is required. Being of a narrow diameter, and not largely affected by internal security grills,
this provides daylight to areas without providing electrical connections or escape access, and
without allowing objects to be passed into a secure area.

In electronic devices[edit]
Molded plastic light tubes are commonly used in the electronics industry to direct illumination
from LEDs on a circuit board to indicator symbols or buttons. These light tubes typically take on a
highly complex shape that uses either gentle curving bends as in an optic fiber or have sharp
prismatic folds which reflect off the angled corners. Multiple light tubes are often molded from a
single piece of plastic, permitting easy device assembly since the long thin light tubes are all part
of a single rigid component that snaps into place.

Light tube indicators make electronics cheaper to manufacture since the old way would be to
mount a tiny lamp into a small socket directly behind the spot to be illuminated. This often
requires extensive hand-labor for installation and wiring. Light tubes permit all lights to be
mounted on a single flat circuit board, but the illumination can be directed up and away from the
board by several inches, wherever it is required.

Windcatcher
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

An ab anbar (water reservoir) with double domes and windcatchers (openings near the top of the towers) in
the central desert city of Naeen, Iran

A windcatcher (Persian: bdgir: bd "wind" + gir "catcher" "History and Use of

Windcatchers in Traditional Middle Eastern Architecture". Yahoo! Voices. 2011-05-01.
Retrieved 2013-04-22.</ref>[unreliable source?][1]) is a traditional Persian architectural element to create
natural ventilation in buildings.[2] Windcatchers come in various designs: uni-directional, bidirectional, and multi-directional. Windcatchers remain present in many countries and can be
found in traditional Persian-influenced architecture throughout the Middle East, including in the
small Arab states of the Persian Gulf (mostly Bahrain and Dubai[3]), Pakistan, and Afghanistan.[4]
Contents
[hide]

1Background

2Windcatchers in Egypt

3Structure and architecture

4Function
o

4.1Downward airflow due to direct wind entry

4.2Upward airflow due to temperature gradient

4.2.1Wind-assisted temperature gradient

4.2.2Solar-produced temperature gradient

5Modern applications

6Gallery

7See also

8Notes

9References

10External links

Background[edit]
Central Iran shows large diurnal temperature variation with an arid climate. Most buildings are
constructed from thick ceramic with high insulation values. Towns centered on desert oases tend
to be packed very closely together with high walls and ceilings, maximizing shade at ground
level. The heat of direct sunlight is minimized with small windows that face away from the sun. [4]
The windcatcher's effectiveness had led to its routine use as a refrigerating device in Persian
architecture. Many traditional water reservoirs (ab anbars) are built with windcatchers that are
capable of storing water at near freezing temperatures during summer months. The evaporative
cooling effect is strongest in the driest climates, such as on the Iranian plateau, leading to the
ubiquitous use of windcatchers in drier areas such as Yazd, Kerman, Kashan, Sirjan, Nain,
and Bam.
A small windcatcher is called a shish-khan in traditional Persian architecture. Shish-khans can
still be seen on top of ab anbars in Qazvin and other northern cities in Iran. These seem to
function more as ventilators than as the temperature regulators seen in the central deserts of
Iran.

Windcatchers in Egypt[edit]

Dwelling house in Ancient Egypt with windcatcher.

Ancient Egyptian House miniature showing windcatchers, dating fromEarly Dynastic Period of Egypt, found
inAbou Rawsh near Cairo. Now inLouvre.

Model of an Ancient Egyptian house with windcatcher, Roemer- und Pelizaeus-Museum Hildesheim

The windcatchers are known in traditional Egyptian architecture in Ancient Egypt as

demonstrated in Windcatchers on the Pharonic house of Neb- Ammun, Egypt, 19th Dynasty,
c.1300 BC, British Museum.[5] It was revived in Neoislamic architecture as the works of Hassan
Fathy. In Egypt the windcatchers are known as "Malqaf".[1][6][7][8]

Structure and architecture[edit]

Windcatchers tend to have one, four, or eight openings. In the city of Yazd, all windcatchers are
four- or eight-sided. The construction of a windcatcher depends on the direction of airflow at that
specific location: if the wind tends to blow from only one side, it is built with only one downwind
opening. This is the style most commonly seen in Meybod, 50 kilometers from Yazd: the
windcatchers are short and have a single opening.
To keep buildings free of dust and sand blown in from the desert, windcatchers were built facing
away from the wind.[9]

Function[edit]

A windcatcher or malqaf used in traditional Persian/Arabic architecture

The windcatcher can function in three ways: directing airflow downward using direct wind entry,
directing airflow upwards using a wind-assisted temperature gradient, or directing airflow
upwards using a solar-assisted temperature gradient.

Downward airflow due to direct wind entry[edit]

One of the most common uses of the windcatcher is to cool the inside of the dwelling; it is often
used in combination with courtyards anddomes as an overall ventilation and heat-management
strategy. It is essentially a tall, capped tower with one face open at the top. This open side faces
the prevailing wind, thus "catching" it, and brings it down the tower into the heart of the building
to maintain air flow, thus cooling the building interior. It does not necessarily cool the air itself, but
rather relies on the rate of airflow to provide a cooling effect. Windcatchers have been employed
in this manner for thousands of years, as detailed by contemporary Egyptian architect Hassan
Fathy.[10]

A windcatcher and qanat used for cooling

Upward airflow due to temperature gradient[edit]

Wind-assisted temperature gradient[edit]

Windcatchers are also used in combination with a qanat, or underground canal. In this method,
the open side of the tower faces away from the direction of the prevailing wind (the tower's
orientation can be adjusted by directional ports at the top). By keeping only this tower open, air is
drawn upwards using the Coand effect.
The pressure differential on one side of the building causes air to be drawn down into the
passage on the other side. The hot air is brought down into the qanat tunnel and is cooled by
coming into contact with the cool earth[Note 1] and cold water running through the qanat. The cooled
air is drawn up through the windcatcher, again by the Coand effect. On the whole, the cool air
flows through the building, decreasing the structure's overall temperature. The effect is magnified
by the water vapour from the qanat.
Solar-produced temperature gradient[edit]
In a windless environment or waterless house, a windcatcher functions as a solar chimney. It
creates a pressure gradient which allows hot air, which is less dense, to travel upwards and
escape out the top. This is also compounded significantly by thediurnal cycle, trapping cool air
below. The temperature in such an environment cannot drop below the nightly low temperature.
When coupled with thick adobe that exhibits good resistance against heat transmission qualities,
the windcatcher is able to chill lower-level spaces in mosques and houses (e.g. shabestans) in
the middle of the day to frigid temperatures.
Directing airflow upwards using wind-assisted or solar-produced temperature gradients has
gained some ground in Western architecture, and there are several commercial products using
the name windcatcher.

Modern applications[edit]
The windcatcher approach has recently been utilized in Western architecture, such as in the
visitor center at Zion National Park, Utah,[11] where it functions without the addition of mechanical
devices in order to regulate temperature.[12]
Using aluminum for the windcatcher provides a more efficient capturing system, allowing for wind
capture from multiple directions. The Kensington Oval cricket ground in Barbados and the Sainttienne Mtropoles Zenith both use this method.[12]

Gallery[edit]
Wikimedia Commons
has media related
toWindcatchers.

The windcatcher of Dowlatabad in Yazd, Iranone of the tallest existing windcatchers

Borujerdi ha House, in central Iran. Built in 1857, it is an excellent example of ancient Persian desert
architecture. The two tall windcatchers cool theandaruni (courtyard) of the house.

The tower on this barasti (palm fronds)-made house catches the wind the same way as a normal
wind tower and cools the interior.

Windtower of Isa bin Ali House, in Muharraq,Bahrain

Golestan Palace, Tehran

Solar thermal collector

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Solar thermal collector dish

Part of a series about

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A solar thermal collector collects heat by absorbing sunlight. A collector is a device for
capturing solar radiation. Solar radiation is energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation from
the infrared (long) to the ultraviolet (short) wavelengths. The quantity of solar energy striking the
Earth's surface (solar constant) averages about 1,000 watts per square meter under clear skies,
depending upon weather conditions, location and orientation.
The term "solar collector" commonly refers to solar hot water panels, but may refer to
installations such as solar parabolic troughs andsolar towers; or basic installations such as solar
air heaters. Concentrated solar power plants usually use the more complex collectors to
generate electricity by heating a fluid to drive a turbine connected to an electrical generator.
[1]
Simple collectors are typically used in residential and commercial buildings for space heating.
Contents
[hide]

1Heat collectors
o

1.1Flat plate collectors

1.2Evacuated tube collectors

1.3Comparisons of flat plate and evacuated tube collectors

1.4Bowl

1.5Air

1.6Unglazed transpired solar collectors

1.7Glazed air systems

1.8SPF Solar Air Heat Collector

2Air heat applications

o

2.1Space heating applications

2.2Process heat applications

3Types of solar collectors for electricity generation

o

3.1Parabolic trough

3.2Parabolic dish

3.3Power tower

4Standards

5See also

6References

7External links

Heat collectors[edit]
Solar collectors are either non-concentrating or concentrating. In the non-concentrating type, the
collector area (i.e., the area that intercepts the solar radiation) is the same as the absorber area
(i.e., the area absorbing the radiation). In these types the whole solar panel absorbs light.
Concentrating collectors have a bigger interceptor than absorber.[2]
Flat-plate and evacuated-tube solar collectors are used to collect heat for space heating,
domestic hot water or cooling with an absorption chiller.

Flat plate collectors[edit]

Flat plate thermal system for water heating deployed on a flat roof.

Flat-plate collectors, developed by Hottel and Whillier in the 1950s, are the most common type.
They consist of (1) a dark flat-plate absorber, (2) a transparent cover that reduces heat losses,
(3) a heat-transport fluid (air, antifreeze or water) to remove heat from the absorber, and (4) a
heat insulating backing. The absorber consists of a thin absorber sheet (of thermally stable
polymers, aluminum, steel or copper, to which a matte black or selective coating is applied) often
backed by a grid or coil of fluid tubing placed in an insulated casing with a glass or polycarbonate
cover. In water heat panels, fluid is usually circulated through tubing to transfer heat from the
absorber to an insulated water tank. This may be achieved directly or through a heat exchanger.
Most air heat fabricators and some water heat manufacturers have a completely flooded
absorber consisting of two sheets of metal which the fluid passes between. Because the heat
exchange area is greater they may be marginally more efficient than traditional absorbers.
[3]
Sunlight passes through the glazing and strikes the absorber plate, which heats up, changing
solar energy into heat energy. The heat is transferred to liquid passing through pipes attached to
the absorber plate. Absorber plates are commonly painted with "selective coatings," which
absorb and retain heat better than ordinary black paint. Absorber plates are usually made of
metaltypically copper or aluminumbecause the metal is a good heat conductor. Copper is
more expensive, but is a better conductor and less prone to corrosion than
aluminum. (See: Copper in solar water heaters). In locations with average available solar energy,
flat plate collectors are sized approximately one-half to one square foot per gallon of one day's
hot water use. Absorber piping configurations include:

harp traditional design with bottom pipe risers and top collection pipe, used in low
pressure thermosyphon and pumped systems;

serpentine one continuous S that maximizes temperature but not total energy yield in
variable flow systems, used in compact solar domestic hot water only systems (no space
heating role);

flooded absorber consisting of two sheets of metal stamped to produce a circulation

zone;

boundary layer absorber collectors consisting of several layers of transparent and

opaque sheets that enable absorption in a boundary layer. Because the energy is absorbed
in the boundary layer, heat conversion may be more efficient than for collectors where
absorbed heat is conducted through a material before the heat is accumulated in a
circulating liquid.[citation needed]

Polymer flat plate collectors are an alternative to metal collectors and are now being produced in
Europe. These may be wholly polymer, or they may include metal plates in front of freeze-

tolerant water channels made of silicone rubber. Polymers are flexible and therefore freezetolerant and can employ plain water instead of antifreeze, so that they may be plumbed directly
into existing water tanks instead of needing heat exchangers that lower efficiency. By dispensing
with a heat exchanger, temperatures need not be quite so high for the circulation system to be
switched on, so such direct circulation panels, whether polymer or otherwise, can be more
efficient, particularly at low light levels. Some early selectively coated polymer collectors suffered
from overheating when insulated, as stagnation temperatures can exceed the polymer's melting
point.[4][5] For example, the melting point of polypropylene is 160 C (320 F), while the stagnation
temperature of insulated thermal collectors can exceed 180 C (356 F) if control strategies are
not used. For this reason polypropylene is not often used in glazed selectively coated solar
collectors. Increasingly polymers such as high temperate silicones (which melt at over 250 C
(482 F)) are being used. Some non polypropylene polymer based glazed solar collectors are
matte black coated rather than selectively coated to reduce the stagnation temperature to 150 C
(302 F) or less.
In areas where freezing is a possibility, freeze-tolerance (the capability to freeze repeatedly
without cracking) can be achieved by the use of flexible polymers. Silicone rubber pipes have
been used for this purpose in UK since 1999. Conventional metal collectors are vulnerable to
damage from freezing, so if they are water filled they must be carefully plumbed so they
completely drain using gravity before freezing is expected, so that they do not crack. Many metal
collectors are installed as part of a sealed heat exchanger system. Rather than having potable
water flow directly through the collectors, a mixture of water and antifreeze such as propylene
glycol is used. A heat exchange fluid protects against freeze damage down to a locally
determined risk temperature that depends on the proportion of propylene glycol in the mixture.
The use of glycol lowers the water's heat carrying capacity marginally, while the addition of an
extra heat exchanger may lower system performance at low light levels.
A pool or unglazed collector is a simple form of flat-plate collector without a transparent cover.
Typically polypropylene or EPDM rubber or silicone rubber is used as an absorber. Used for pool
heating it can work quite well when the desired output temperature is near the ambient
temperature (that is, when it is warm outside). As the ambient temperature gets cooler, these
collectors become less effective. Most flat plate collectors have a life expectancy of over 25
years.
Applications[edit]
The main use of this technology is in residential buildings where the demand for hot water has a
large impact on energy bills. This generally means a situation with a large family, or a situation in
which the hot water demand is excessive due to frequent laundry washing. Commercial
applications include laundromats, car washes, military laundry facilities and eating
establishments. The technology can also be used for space heating if the building is located offgrid or if utility power is subject to frequent outages. Solar water heating systems are most likely
to be cost effective for facilities with water heating systems that are expensive to operate, or with
operations such as laundries or kitchens that require large quantities of hot water. Unglazed
liquid collectors are commonly used to heat water for swimming pools but can also be applied to
large scale water pre-heating. When loads are large relative to available collector area the bulk of
the water heating can be done at low temperature, lower than at swimming pool temperatures
where unglazed collectors are well established in the marketplace as the right choice. Because
these collectors need not withstand high temperatures, they can use less expensive materials
such as plastic or rubber. Many unglazed collectors are made of polypropylene and must be
drained fully to avoid freeze damage when air temperatures drop below 44F on clear nights. [6] A
smaller but growing percentage of unglazed collectors are flexible meaning they can withstand
water freezing solid inside their absorber. The freeze concern only need be the water filled piping

and collector manifolds in a hard freeze condition. Unglazed solar hot water systems should be
installed to "drainback" to a storage tank whenever solar radiation is insufficient. There are no
thermal shock concerns with unglazed systems. Commonly used in swimming pool heating since
solar energy's early beginnings, unglazed solar collectors heat swimming pool water directly
without the need for antifreeze or heat exchangers. Hot water solar systems require heat
exchangers due to contamination possibilities and in the case of unglazed collectors, the
pressure difference between the solar working fluid (water) and the load (pressurized cold city
water). Large scale unglazed solar hot water heaters like the one at the Minoru Aquatic Center in
Richmond BC[7] operate at lower temperatures than evacuated tube or boxed and glazed
collector systems so they require larger more expensive heat exchangers but all other
components including vented storage tanks and uninsulated plastic PVC piping reduce costs of
this alternative dramatically compared to the higher temperature collector types. When heating
hot water we are actually heating cold to warm and warm to hot. We can heat cold to warm as
efficiently with unglazed collectors as we can heat warm to hot with high temperature collectors

Evacuated tube collectors[edit]

Evacuated tube collector

An array of evacuated tubes collectors on a roof.

Most vacuum tube collectors in use in middle Europe use heat pipes for their core instead of
passing liquid directly through them. Direct flow is more popular in China. Evacuated heat pipe
tubes (EHPTs) are composed of multiple evacuated glass tubes each containing an absorber
plate fused to a heat pipe.[8] The heat is transferred to the transfer fluid (water or
an antifreeze mixtypically propylene glycol) of a domestic hot water or hydronic space heating
system in a heat exchanger called a "manifold". The manifold is wrapped in insulation and

covered by a protective sheet metal or plastic case. The vacuum inside of the evacuated tube
collectors have been proven to last more than 25 years, the reflective coating for the design is
encapsulated in the vacuum inside of the tube, which will not degrade until the vacuum is lost.
[9]
The vacuum that surrounds the outside of the tube greatly
reduces convection and conduction heat loss, therefore achieving greater efficiency than flatplate collectors, especially in colder conditions. This advantage is largely lost in warmer climates,
except in those cases where very hot water is desirable, e.g., for commercial processes. The
high temperatures that can occur may require special design to prevent overheating.

Glass-glass evacuated tube

Some evacuated tubes (glass-metal) are made with one layer of glass that fuses to the heat pipe
at the upper end and encloses the heat pipe and absorber in the vacuum. Others (glass-glass)
are made with a double layer of glass fused together at one or both ends with a vacuum between
the layers (like a vacuum bottle or flask), with the absorber and heat pipe contained at normal
atmospheric pressure. Glass-glass tubes have a highly reliable vacuum seal, but the two layers
of glass reduce the light that reaches the absorber. Moisture may enter the non-evacuated area
of the tube and cause absorber corrosion. Glass-metal tubes allow more light to reach the
absorber, and protect the absorber and heat pipe from corrosion even if they are made from
dissimilar materials (see galvanic corrosion).
The gaps between the tubes may allow for snow to fall through the collector, minimizing the loss
of production in some snowy conditions, though the lack of radiated heat from the tubes can also
prevent effective shedding of accumulated snow.[10][11]

Comparisons of flat plate and evacuated tube collectors [edit]

This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this
section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may
be challenged and removed. (October 2010)
A longstanding argument exists between proponents of these two technologies. Some of this can
be related to the physical structure of evacuated tube collectors which have a discontinuous
absorbance area. An array of evacuated tubes on a roof has open space between the collector
tubes, and vacuum between the two concentric glass tubes of each collector. Collector tubes
cover only a fraction of a unit area of a roof. If evacuated tubes are compared with flat-plate
collectors on the basis of area of roof occupied, a different conclusion might be reached than if
the areas of absorber were compared. In addition, the ISO 9806 standard [12] is ambiguous in

describing the way in which the efficiency of solar thermal collectors should be measured, since
these could be measured either in terms of gross area or in terms of absorber area.
Unfortunately, power output is not given for thermal collectors as it is for PV panels. This makes it
difficult for purchasers and engineers to make informed decisions.

A comparison of the
energy output (kW.h/day)
of a flat plate collector
(blue lines;
Thermodynamics S42P[dubious discuss]; absorber 2.8
m2) and an evacuated
tube collector (green
lines; SunMaxx
20EVT[dubious discuss]; absorber
3.1 m2. Data obtained
from SRCC certification
documents on the
Internet.[dubious discuss] Tm-Ta =
temperature difference
between water in the
collector and the ambient
temperature. Q =
insolation during the
measurements. Firstly, as
(Tm-Ta) increases the flat
plate collector loses
efficiency more rapidly
than the evac tube
collector. This means the
flat plate collector is less
efficient in producing
water higher than 25
degrees C above ambient
(i.e. to the right of the red
marks on the graph).
Secondly, even

[dubious discuss]

though the output of both

collectors drop off

strongly under cloudy

conditions (low
insolation), the evac tube
collector yields
significantly more energy
under cloudiness than the
flat plate collector.
Although many factors
obstruct the extrapolation
from two collectors to two
different technologies,
above, the basic
relationships between
their efficiencies remain
valid[dubious discuss].

A field trial

[13]

illustrating

the differences discussed

in the figure on the left. A
flat plate collector and a
similar-sized evacuated
tube collector were
installed adjacently on a
roof, each with a pump,
controller and storage
tank. Several variables
were logged during a day
with intermittent rain and
cloud. Green line = solar
irradiation. The top
maroon line indicates the
temperature of the evac
tube collector for which
cycling of the pump is
much slower and even
stopping for some 30
minutes during the cool
parts of the day

(irradiation low),
indicating a slow rate of
heat collection. The
temperature of the flat
plate collector fell
significantly during the
day (bottom purple line),
but started cycling again
later in the day when
irradiation increased. The
temperature in the water
storage tank of the evac
tube system (dark blue
graph) increased by 8
degrees C during the day
while that of the flat plate
system (light blue graph)
only remained constant.
Courtesy ITS-solar.[13]
[dubious discuss]

Flat-plate collectors usually lose more heat to the environment than evacuated tubes, as an
increasing function of temperature. They are inappropriate for high temperature applications such
as process steam production. Evacuated tube collectors have a lower absorber plate area to
gross area ratio (typically 6080% of gross area) compared to flat plates. Based on absorber
plate area, most evacuated tube systems are more efficient per square meter than equivalent flat
plate systems. This makes them suitable where roof space is limiting, for example where the
number of occupants of a building is higher than the number of square metres of suitable and
available roof space. In general, per installed square metre, evacuated tubes deliver marginally
more energy when the ambient temperature is low (e.g. during winter) or when the sky is
overcast. However even in areas without much sunshine and solar heat, some low cost flat plate
collectors can be more cost efficient than evacuated tube collectors. Although several European
companies manufacture evacuated tube collectors, the evacuated tube market is dominated by
manufacturers in the East. Several Chinese companies have track records of 1530 years. There
is no unambiguous evidence that the two designs differ in long term reliability. However,
evacuated tube technology is younger and (especially for newer variants with sealed heat pipes)
still need to demonstrate competitive lifetimes. The modularity of evacuated tubes can be
advantageous in terms of extensibility and maintenance, for example if the vacuum in one tube
diminishes.

Chart showing flat-plate collectors outperforming evacuated tubes up until 120F above ambient and,
shaded in gray, the normal operating range for solar domestic hot water systems. [14]

For a given absorber area, evacuated tubes can therefore maintain their efficiency over a wide
range of ambient temperatures and heating requirements. In most climates, flat-plate collectors
will generally be more cost-effective than evacuated tubes. When employed in arrays and
considered instead on a per square metre basis, the efficient but costly evacuated tube collectors
can have a net benefit in winter and summer. They are well-suited to cold ambient temperatures
and work well in situations of consistently low sunshine, providing heat more consistently than
flat plate collectors per square metre. Heating of water by a medium to low amount (i.e. Tm-Ta) is
much more efficiently performed by flat plate collectors. Domestic hot water frequently falls into
this medium category. Glazed or unglazed flat collectors are the preferred devices for heating
swimming pool water.[15] Unglazed collectors may be suitable in tropical or subtropical
environments if domestic hot water needs to be heated by less than 20 C. A contour map can
show which type is more effective (both thermal efficiency and energy/cost) for any geographic
region.
EHPT's work as a thermal one-way valve due to their heat pipes. This gives them an inherent
maximum operating temperature that acts as a safety feature. They have less aerodynamic drag,
which may allow them to be placed onto the roof without being tied down. They can collect
thermal radiation from the bottom in addition to the top. Tubes can be replaced individually
without stopping the entire system. There is no condensation or corrosion within the tubes. One
hurdle to wider adoption of evacuated tube collectors in some markets is their inability to pass
internal thermal shock tests where ISO 9806-2 section 9 class b is a requirement for durability
certification.[16] This means that if unprotected evacuated tube collectors are exposed to full sun
for too long prior to being filled with cold water the tubes may shatter due to the rapid
temperature shift. There is also the question of vacuum leakage. Flat panels have been around
much longer and are less expensive. They may be easier to clean. Other properties, such as
appearance and ease of installation are more subjective.

Bowl[edit]
A solar bowl is a type of solar thermal collector that operates similarly to a parabolic dish, but
instead of using a tracking parabolic mirror with a fixed receiver, it has a fixed spherical mirror
with a tracking receiver. This reduces efficiency, but makes it cheaper to build and operate.
Designers call it a fixed mirror distributed focus solar power system. The main reason for its
development was to eliminate the cost of moving a large mirror to track the sun as with parabolic
dish systems.[17]
A fixed parabolic mirror creates a variously shaped image of the sun as it moves across the sky.
Only when the mirror is pointed directly at the sun does the light focus on one point. That is why
parabolic dish systems track the sun. A fixed spherical mirror focuses the light in the same place
independent of the sun's position. The light, however, is not directed to one point but is

distributed on a line from the surface of the mirror to one half radius (along a line that runs
through the sphere center and the sun).

Typical energy density along the 1/2 radius length focal line of a spherical reflector

As the sun moves across the sky, the aperture of any fixed collector changes. This causes
changes in the amount of captured sunlight, producing what is called the sinus effect of power
output. Proponents of the solar bowl design claim the reduction in overall power output
compared with tracking parabolic mirrors is offset by lower system costs. [17]
The sunlight concentrated at the focal line of a spherical reflector is collected using a tracking
receiver. This receiver is pivoted around the focal line and is usually counterbalanced. The
receiver may consist of pipes carrying fluid for thermal transfer or photovoltaic cells for direct
conversion of light to electricity.
The solar bowl design resulted from a project of the Electrical Engineering Department of the
Texas Technical University, headed by Edwin O'Hair, to develop a 5 MWe power plant. A solar
bowl was built for the town of Crosbyton, Texas as a pilot facility.[17] The bowl had a diameter of
65 ft (20 m), tilted at a 15 angle to optimize the cost/yield relation (33 would have maximized
yield). The rim of the hemisphere was "trimmed" to 60, creating a maximum aperture of 3,318
square feet (308.3 m2). This pilot bowl produced electricity at a rate of 10 kW peak.[citation needed]
A 15-meter diameter Auroville solar bowl was developed from an earlier test of a 3.5-meter bowl
in 19791982 by the Tata Energy Research Institute. That test showed the use of the solar bowl
in the production of steam for cooking. The full-scale project to build a solar bowl and kitchen ran
from 1996, and was fully operational by 2001.[citation needed]

Air[edit]

Solar air heating is a solar thermal technology in which the energy from the sun, solar insolation, is
captured by an absorbing medium and used to heat air.

Solar air heating is a renewable energy heating technology used to heat or condition air for
buildings or process heat applications. It is typically the most cost-effective of all the solar
technologies, especially in commercial and industrial applications, and it addresses the largest
usage of building energy in heating climates, which is space heating and industrial process
heating. They are either glazed or unglazed.
Glazed systems have a transparent top sheet and insulated side and back panels to minimize
heat loss to ambient air. The absorber plates in modern panels can have absorptivity of more
than 93%. Glazed Solar Collectors (recirculating types that are usually used for space heating).
Air typically passes along the front or back of the absorber plate while scrubbing heat directly
from it. Heated air can then be distributed directly for applications such as space heating and
drying or may be stored for later use. Payback for glazed solar air heating panels can be less
than 915 years depending on the fuel being replaced.
Unglazed systems, or transpired air systems, (used primarily to heat make-up or ventilation air in
commercial, industrial, agriculture and process applications)consist of an absorber plate which
air passes across or through as it scrubs heat from the absorber. These technologies are among
the most efficient, dependable, and economical solar technologies available. Payback periods of
the incremental cost for unglazed solar air heating systems can be less than one or two years
depending on the fuel or exterior cladding being avoided.

Unglazed transpired solar collectors[edit]

Background[edit]
The term "unglazed air collector" refers to a solar air heating system that consists of a metal
absorber without any glass or glazing over top. The most common type of unglazed collector on
the market is the transpired solar collector. The technology has been extensively monitored by
these government agencies, and Natural Resources Canada developed the feasibility tool
RETScreen to model the energy savings from transpired solar collectors. Since that time,
several thousand transpired solar collector systems have been installed in a variety of
commercial, industrial, institutional, agricultural, and process applications in countries around the
world. The technology was originally used primarily in industrial applications such as
manufacturing and assembly plants where there were high ventilation requirements, stratified
ceiling heat, and often negative pressure in the building. With the increasing drive to install
renewable energy systems on buildings, transpired solar collectors are now used across the
entire building stock because of high energy production (up to 750 peak thermal Watts/square
metre), high solar conversion (up to 90%) and lower capital costs when compared against solar
photovoltaic and solar water heating.
Method of operation[edit]
Unglazed air collectors heat ambient (outside) air instead of recirculated building air. Transpired
solar collectors are usually wall-mounted to capture the lower sun angle in the winter heating
months as well as sun reflection off the snow and achieve their optimum performance and return
on investment when operating at flow rates of between 4 and 8 CFM per square foot (72 to 144
m3/h.m2) of collector area.

The exterior surface of a transpired solar collector consists of thousands of tiny microperforations that allow the boundary layer of heat to be captured and uniformly drawn into an air
cavity behind the exterior panels. This heated ventilation air is drawn under negative pressure
into the buildings ventilation system where it is then distributed via conventional means or using
a solar ducting system.
Hot air that may enter an HVAC system connected to a transpired collector that has air outlets
positioned along the top of the collector, particularly if the collector is west facing. To counter this
problem, Matrix Energy has patented a transpired collector with a lower air outlet position and
perforated cavity framing to perpetrate increased air turbulence behind the perforated absorber
for increased performance.
This cutaway view shows the MatrixAir transpired solar collector components and air flow. The
lower air inlet mitigates the intake of heated air to the HVAC system during summer operation.
The extensive monitoring by Natural Resources Canada and NREL has shown that transpired
solar collector systems reduce between 10-50% of the conventional heating load and that
RETScreen is an accurate predictor of system performance. Transpired solar collectors act as a
rainscreen and they also capture heat loss escaping from the building envelope which is
collected in the collector air cavity and drawn back into the ventilation system. There is no
maintenance required with solar air heating systems and the expected lifespan is over 30 years.
Variations of transpired solar collectors[edit]
Unglazed transpired collectors can also be roof-mounted for applications in which there is not a
suitable south facing wall or for other architectural considerations. Matrix Energy Inc. has
patented a roof mounted product called the Delta a modular, roof-mounted solar air heating
system where southerly, east or west facing facades are simply not available.
Each ten foot (3.05 m) module will deliver 250 CFM (425 m3/h)of preheated fresh air typically
providing annual energy savings of 1100 kWh (4 GJ) annually. This unique two stage, modular
roof mounted transpired collector operating a nearly 90% efficiency each module delivering over
118 l/s of preheated air per two square meter collector. Up to seven collectors may be connected
in series in one row, with no limit to the number of rows connected in parallel along one central
duct typically yielding 4 CFM of preheated air per square foot of available roof area. +
Transpired collectors can be configured to heat the air twice to increase the delivered air
temperature making it suitable for space heating applications as well as ventilation air heating. In
a 2-stage system, the first stage is the typical unglazed transpired collector and the second stage
has glazing covering the transpired collector. The glazing allows all of that heated air from the
first stage to be directed through a second set of transpired collectors for a second stage of solar
heating.

Glazed air systems[edit]

Functioning in a similar manner as a conventional forced air furnace, systems provide heat by
recirculating conditioned building air through solar collectors. Through the use of an energy
collecting surface to absorb the suns thermal energy, and ducting air to come in contact with it, a
simple and effective collector can be made for a variety of air conditioning and process
applications.

SPF Solar Air Heat Collector[edit]

A simple solar air collector consists of an absorber material, sometimes having a selective
surface, to capture radiation from the sun and transfers this thermal energy to air via conduction
heat transfer. This heated air is then ducted to the building space or to the process area where
the heated air is used for space heating or process heating needs. The pioneering figure for this
type of system was George Lf, who built solar heated air system for a house in Boulder,
Colorado, in 1945. He later included a gravel bed for heat storage.
Solar Air Heating Collector types[edit]
Due to varying air-ducting methods, collectors are commonly classified as one of three types: a)
through-pass collectors, b) front-pass, c) back pass, d) combination front and back pass
collectors.
Through-pass air collector[edit]
Offering the highest efficiency of any solar technology the through-pass configuration, air ducted
onto one side of the absorber passes through a perforated material and is heated from the
conductive properties of the material and the convective properties of the moving air. Throughpass absorbers have the most surface area which enables relatively high conductive heat
transfer rates, but significant pressure drop can require greater fan power, and deterioration of
certain absorber material after many years of solar radiation exposure can additionally create
problems with air quality and performance.
Back, front, and combination passage air collector [edit]
In back-pass, front-pass, and combination type configurations the air is directed on either the
back, the front, or on both sides of the absorber to be heated from the return to the supply
ducting headers. Although passing the air on both sides of the absorber will provide a greater
surface area for conductive heat transfer, issues with dust (fouling) can arise from passing air on
the front side of the absorber which reduces absorber efficiency by limiting the amount of sunlight
received. In cold climates, air passing next to the glazing will additionally cause greater heat loss,
resulting in lower overall performance of the collector.

Air heat applications[edit]

A variety of applications can utilize solar air heat technologies to reduce the carbon footprint from
use of conventional heat sources, such as fossil fuels, to create a sustainable means to produce
thermal energy. Applications such as space heating, greenhouse season extension, pre-heating
ventilation makeup air, or process heat can be addressed by solar air heat devices.
In the field of solar co-generation solar thermal technologies are paired with photovoltaics (PV)
to increase the efficiency of the system by cooling the PV panels to improve their electrical
performance while simultaneously warming air for space heating.

Space heating applications[edit]

Space heating for residential and commercial applications can be done through the use of solar
air heating panels. This configuration operates by drawing air from the building envelope or from
the outdoor environment and passing it through the collector where the air warms via conduction
from the absorber and is then supplied to the living or working space by either passive means or
with the assistance of a fan.

Ventilation, fresh air or makeup air is required in most commercial, industrial and institutional
buildings to meet code requirements. By drawing air through a properly designed unglazed
transpired air collector or an air heater the solar heated fresh air can reduce the heating load
during daytime operation. Many applications are now being installed where the transpired
collector preheats the fresh air entering a heat recovery ventilator to reduce the defrost time of
HRV's. The higher your ventilation and temperature the better your payback time will be.

Process heat applications[edit]

Solar air heat can also be used in process applications such as drying laundry, crops (i.e. tea,
corn, coffee) and other drying applications. Air heated through a solar collector and then passed
over a medium to be dried can provide an efficient means by which to reduce the moisture
content of the material.

Types of solar collectors for electricity generation[edit]

Parabolic troughs, dishes and towers described in this section are used almost exclusively
in solar power generating stations or for research purposes. Although simple, these solar
concentrators are quite far from the theoretical maximum concentration. [18][19] For example, the
parabolic trough concentration is about 1/3 of the theoretical maximum for the same acceptance
angle, that is, for the same overall tolerances for the system. Approaching the theoretical
maximum may be achieved by using more elaborate concentrators based on nonimaging optics.
Solar thermal collectors may also be used in conjunction with photovoltaic collectors to obtain
combined heat and power.[20][21]

Parabolic trough[edit]
Main article: Parabolic trough

Parabolic trough

This type of collector is generally used in solar power plants. A trough-shaped parabolic
reflector is used to concentrate sunlight on an insulated tube (Dewar tube) or heat pipe, placed at
the focal point, containing coolant which transfers heat from the collectors to theboilers in the
power station.

Parabolic dish[edit]

Solar Parabolic dish

With a parabolic dish collector, one or more parabolic dishes concentrate solar energy at a single
focal point, similar to the way a reflecting telescope focuses starlight, or a dish antenna focuses
radio waves. This geometry may be used in solar furnaces and solar power plants.

The shape of a parabola means that incoming light rays which are parallel to the dish's axis will
be reflected toward the focus, no matter where on the dish they arrive. Light from the sun arrives
at the Earth's surface almost completely parallel. So the dish is aligned with its axis pointing at
the sun, allowing almost all incoming radiation to be reflected towards the focal point of the dish.
Most losses in such collectors are due to imperfections in the parabolic shape and imperfect
reflection.
Losses due to atmospheric scattering are generally minimal. However, on a hazy or foggy day,
light is diffused in all directions through the atmosphere, which reduces the efficiency of a
parabolic dish significantly.
In dish stirling power plant designs, a stirling engine coupled to a dynamo, is placed at the focus
of the dish. This absorbs the energy focused onto it and converts it into electricity.

Power tower[edit]
Main article: Solar power tower
A power tower is a large tower surrounded by tracking mirrors called heliostats. These mirrors
align themselves and focus sunlight on the receiver at the top of tower, collected heat is
transferred to a power station below. This design reaches very high temperatures. High
temperatures are suitable for electricity generation using conventional methods like steam
turbine or a direct high temperature chemical reaction such as liquid salt.[22] By concentrating
sunlight current systems can get better efficiency than simple solar cells. A larger area can be
covered by using relatively inexpensive mirrors rather than using expensive solar cells.
Concentrated light can be redirected to a suitable location via optical fiber cable for such uses as
illuminating buildings. Heat storage for power production during cloudy and overnight conditions
can be accomplished, often by underground tank storage of heated fluids. Molten salts have
been used to good effect. Other working fluids, such as liquid metals, have also been proposed
due to their superior thermal properties.[23]
However, concentrating systems require sun tracking to maintain sunlight focus at the collector.
They are unable to provide significant power in diffused light conditions. Solar cells are able to
provide some output even if the sky becomes cloudy, but power output from concentrating
systems drops drastically in cloudy conditions as diffused light cannot be concentrated.

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(February 2013)

Testing the thermal conductivity of a papercrete panel

Papercrete is a construction material which consists of re-pulped paper fiber with Portland
cement or clay and/or other soil added. First patented in 1928, it was revived during the 1980s.
Although perceived as an environmentally friendly material due to the significant recycled
content, this is offset by the presence of cement. The material lacks standardisation, and proper
use therefore requires care and experience. Eric Patterson and Mike McCain, who have been
credited with independently "inventing" papercrete (they called it "padobe" and "fibrous cement"),
have both contributed considerably to research into machinery to make it and ways of using it for
building.[citation needed]
Contents
[hide]

1Manufacture

2Standardization and commercial acceptance

3Do it yourself

4Similar materials

5See also

6References

7External links

Manufacture[edit]
This section is
incomplete. (July 2014)

The paper to be used can come from a variety of sources, including newspaper, junk
mail, magazines, books. A mixer is used to pulp the mix. Depending on the type of mixer, the
paper may be soaked in water beforehand.

Standardization and commercial acceptance[edit]

As of 2007, papercrete lacks approval from the International Code Council. This limits its range
of use within the city limits of most incorporated United States cities where building codes apply.
It is not used as a load-bearing wall where building codes apply. However, its strength in model
structures has been proven, and homes and small commercial buildings are being constructed.
There is little or no evidence of its long-term durability at present.
In these small building projects, papercrete is being used as an in-fill wall in conjunction
with structural steel beams or other load-bearing elements.
Papercrete gets its name from the fact that most formulas use a mixture of water and cement
with cellulose fiber. The fiber is usually acquired from recycled newspaper, lottery tickets and
phone books. The mixture has the appearance and texture of oatmeal and is poured into forms
and dried in the sun, much like the process for making adobe.
Dried papercrete has very low strength, but fails by slow compression (due to the large air
content and hence compressibility) rather than in a brittle manner. Concrete and wood (though
dry soft wood can be as high as R-2 per inch,high moisture content reduces this value markedly.)
are not known for their insulating qualities; however, papercrete also provides good insulation.
Papercrete's R-value is reported to be within 2.0 and 3.0 per inch (2.54 cm); papercrete walls are
typically 10 to 12 inches thick (about 2530 cm). Unlike concrete or adobe, papercrete blocks are
lightweight, less than a third of the weight of a comparably-sized adobe brick. Papercrete is mold
resistant and has utility as a sound-proofing material.
Research tests into papercrete have been carried out by Barry Fuller in Arizona and Zach Rabon
in Texas. Fuller directs government-funded research on papercrete through theArizona State
University Ira A. Fulton School of Engineering. He is also head of a subcommittee for
the American Society for Testing and Materials, and it is his goal to set standards that will lead to
acceptance of the product within the architectural community and commercialization of the
product, especially for affordable housing.
Structural tests have been completed on several papercrete formulas and Fuller claims the
compressive strength of papercrete to be in the 140-160 psi range (0.96 - 1.1 MPa), while others
like Kelly Hart claim 260 psi (1.7 MPa).[1] For comparison, the compressive strength of concrete
ranges from 15 MPa to over 70 MPa (2200 - 10000 psi) depending on the application. A more
useful measure of papercrete's properties is its stiffness - i.e. the extent to which it compresses
under load. Its stiffness is many times less than that of concrete, but sufficient for the support of
roof loads in some low-height buildings.[citation needed]
Dried, ready-to-use papercrete has a rough surface. This increases its surface area and provides
a very strong bond from one block to the next.
Papercrete has also been tested for its tensile strength. Fuller notes that a papercrete block is
the equivalent of hundred of pages of paper - almost like a catalog. Papercrete has very good
shear strength as a block. Lateral load involves sideways force - the wind load on the entire area

of an outside wall for example. Because papercrete walls are usually a minimum of twelve inches
thick, and usually pinned with rebar, they may be strong laterally.
Zach Rabon founded Mason Greenstar in Mason, Texas for the purpose of producing and selling
a commercially viable papercrete block. His product, Blox Building System, is at present the only
mass-produced commercial papercrete block in the market. He has built several residential
structures with it.
The Mason Greenstar block had its genesis in a journey Rabon's father, Kent Rabon, made
to Marathon, Texas. The elder Rabon made the acquaintance of Clyde T. Curry, the proprietor of
Eve's Garden Organic Bed & Breakfast and Ecology Resource Center.
Mr. Curry was an early proponent of papercrete and benefited from the lack of building
regulations in the small mountain community of Marathon. Curry built four of the rooms at the
bed and breakfast either partially or entirely out of papercrete and is in the process of building
two more, in addition to a library and reception area, entirely out of papercrete.
Papercrete's ready moldability provides considerable flexibility in the designed shape of
structures. Domed ceilings/roofs may be commonly constructed with this material.
Along with Fuller's work at Arizona State University, Curry's establishment has become a
resource center for people interested in papercrete, and workshops are intermittently held there.
The Rabons had prior experience as homebuilders and are owners of a ready-mix cement plant
in Mason. They have invested in research and testing on their product for several years.
However, they consider their product a proprietary formula. They have filed for a separate patent
even though a patent for papercrete had already been filed in 1928. The block developed by
Mason Greenstar is known for its uniform shrinkage (all papercrete blocks go through a lengthy
dry-time that involves some shrinkage), giving it a sharper edge.
Fuller has remarked that in tests he has performed on the Rabon block, it has outperformed
other formulas.
Papercrete is claimed to have benefit of being a project that involves little cost to start. The
materials are claimed to be cheap and widely available. Machinery suitable for small-scale
construction is simple to design and construct.
When properly mixed and dried, the papercrete wall can be left exposed to the elements. In its
natural state, it is a grey, fibrous-looking wall. For a more conventional look, stucco can be
applied directly to it.
A study model home made of papercrete has been built at the Lyle Center for Regenerative
Studies. This study model is a sample of homes to be built for a sustainablecommunity in Tijuana
by students of California State Polytechnic University, Pomona
Since 2006 a small company based in England, Econovate Ltd has develop with the support of
Cambridge and Bath University a papercrete formula and production process for breeze blocks
to be accepted by British Standard and a green certification for Europe. This new mixture of
papercrete is to withstand the wet and harsh English weather. As of 2009 Econovate is in the
process of developing this product and reaching the manufacturing trials stage. A patent was filed
in 2011 for the production process of breeze blocks with this material. De design of machinery
was necessary to do a successful scale up of production. In January 2013 Econovate became

fully funded to set up its first demonstration plant capable of producing up to 1.5m blocks a year
which expect to achieve certification by October 2015. The company has tested the product at
UKAS register testing houses for 17 rigours test such as fire, strength, moisture movement,
acoustics, thermal, durability and others toward the product certification. The company is also in
the process of achieving ISO 9001, 14001, 18001 and BS eN 6001 (responsible sourcing). After
gaining Certification the company will increase production blocks now called "econoblok". Initial
commercialization will be only in the UK until the production is fully tested and ready for up
scaling to full size plant. From January 2016 the company will start preparing for the full size
plant of 5-6 million block production. Econovate plans to expand to other region of the world
where a plant will be replicated and some basic recycling system exist.

Do it yourself[edit]
Papercrete is rapidly gaining a groundswell of support among "do it yourself" builders. [citation needed] It
is claimed to be a very attractive building material due to its very low cost, light weight, and high
performance.[citation needed] Many owner/builders are contributing to furthering the technology and
sharing their experiences over the internet through resources such as "Papercreters".

Similar materials[edit]
There are different earth-paper mixes promoted under different names. A mix that uses clay as a
binder instead of Portland cement is often referred to as "Hybrid Adobe", "Fidobe", or "Padobe".

Roofing with Filler slab

Example of terra cotta pot as filler

Contents
[hide]

1 Description

1.1 Concept

2 Materials

3 Details and experiences

3.1 Filler slab with terra cotta pots as fillers

Description
Filler slabs are one cost - effective roofing system which is based on the concrete portions and
instead placing filler material there.

Concept
The filler slab is based on the principle that for roofs which are simply supported, the upper part
of the slab is subjected to compressive forces and the lower part of the slab experience tensile
forces. Concrete is very good in withstanding compressive forces and steel bears the load due to
tensile forces. Thus the lower tensile region of the slab does not need any concrete except for
holding the steel reinforcements together. Therefore in a conventional RCC slab lot of concrete is
wasted and it needs extra reinforcement due to added load of the concrete which can otherwise
be replaced by low-cost and light weight filler materials, which will reduce the dead weight as well
as the cost of the slab to 25% (as 40% less steel is used and 30% less concrete). The filler slabs
also result in fewer loads getting transferred to the load-bearing walls and the foundations. The
air gap in between the tiles makes it a good heat insulator and the ceiling looks attractive as well.

Materials

Bricks

Tiles

Cellular

Concrete

Blocks

Pots

Waste bottles

Details and experiences

The mechanism The filler slab is a mechanism to replace the concrete in the tension zone. The
filler material, thus, is not a structural part of the slab. By reducing the quantity and weight of
material, the roof become less expensive, yet retains the strength of the conventional slab.
Thermal insulation The air pocket formed by the contours of the tiles makes an excellent thermal
insulation layer. The design integrity of a filler slab involves careful planning taking into account
the negative zones and reinforcement areas.
Thus the filler slab as the roof has the following advantages: Consumes less concrete and steel
due to reduced weight of slab by the introduction of a less heavy, low cost filler material like two
layers of burnt clay tiles. Slab thickness minimum 112.5 mm. Enhances thermal comfort inside
the building due to heat-resistant qualities of filler materials and the gap between two burnt clay
tiles. Makes saving on cost of this slab compared to the traditional slab by about 23%.
Reduces use of concrete and saves cement and steel by about 40%.

Filler slab with terra cotta pots as fillers

Filler slab roof construction where inverted hemispheres of terra cotta pots are pre cast and
made to rest over reinforced concrete beams before the concreting process. Here indigenous
building materials are incorporated, techniques that absorb and relate to other forms of design
and materials regardless of the field they originally belong to, and locally appropriate aesthetics
have been applied to bring these forms in the mainstream, rather than patronizing them as
alternative architecture.

Back to: Roofing Technology in Auroville

Rat trap bond

Rat trap bond is a brick masonry method of wall construction, in which bricks are placed in vertical position
instead of conventional horizontal position and thus creating a cavity (hollow space) within the wall.
Architect Laurie Baker introduced it in Kerala in the 1970s and used it extensively for its lower construction
cost, reduced material requirement and better thermal efficiency than conventional masonry wall, without
compromising strength of the wall.

constructing brick wall using rat trap bond

CONSTRUCTING BRICK WALL USING RAT TRAP BOND

The bricks are placed in vertical position, so that 110 mm face is seen from front elevation, instead of the 75mm
face (considering brick of standard size 230 X 110 X 75 mm). Since width of wall remains 230mm, an internal
cavity

is

created. This

is

where

approximately

30%

Material

(brick

and

mortar)

is

saved

and

thus overall construction cost is reduced. Cavity provides effective thermal and sound insulation. This makes rat
trap bond energy and cost efficient building technology.

corner junction details

POINTERS

Bricks should be of good quality with consistent size and straight edges

First layer (bottom) and last layer (top) of the wall should be solid (without cavity).

Layer at sill and lintel levels of opening and sides of opening should be solid (without cavity) for fixing
frames.

Reinforcement bars can be put in vertical cavities at corners and around openings to improve
earthquake resistance.

Reinforcement bars can be put in horizontally to make lintels and to improve earthquake resistance.

Electrical conduits and plumbing pipes, with prior planning, can be put inside cavity for better aesthetics.

brick wall with window opening

ADVANTAGES OF USING RAT TRAP BOND

Requires approximately 25% less bricks and 40% less mortar than traditional masonry

Reduced material requirement results in considerable cost saving

Strength of wall is not compromised, it remains same as traditional masonry wall.

Cavity induced in wall provides better thermal insulation, resulting in cooler interiors during summer and
warmer interiors during winter.

All vertical and horizontal reinforced bands, lintels (for standard size openings), electrical conduits are
hidden inside wall, resulting in better aesthetic appearance without plastering (exposed brickwork).

Rat Trap Bond A masonry technique

A.

INTRODUCTION TO RAT TRAP BOND MASONRY (RTB)

A Rat-Trap Bond is a type of wall brick masonry bond in which bricks are laid on edge (i.e. the
height of each course in case of a brick size 230x110x75 mm, will be 110 mm plus mortar
thickness) such that the shinner and rowlock are visible on the face of masonry as shown below.

This gives the wall with an internal cavity bridged by the rowlock. This is the major reason where
virgin materials like brick clay and cement can be considerably saved. This adds this technology
to the list of Green building technologies and sustainability for an appropriate option as against
conventional solid brick wall masonry.
This cavity adds an added advantage as it adds a Green building feature of help maintain
improved thermal comfort and keep the interiors colder than outside and vice versa.
The Rat trap bond construction is a modular type of masonry construction. Due care must be
taken while designing the wall lengths and heights for a structure. The openings and wall
dimensions to be in multiples of the module. Also the course below sill and lintel to be a solid
course by placing bricks on edge. The masonry on the sides of the openings also to be solid as
will help in fixing of the opening frame.

B.

MATERIALS SELECTION AS PER NEED AND DESIGN

Bricks

As far as possible, use of fired clay bricks should be checked with alternative bricks i.e.
fly ash bricks, bricks from construction waste etc as firing of bricks is in general highly
energy consuming and air polluting.

These alternate bricks provide better strength and durability than fired clay bricks and
finishing cost of your wall can be saved with a better quality and aesthetically soothing
environment in the interiors.

Mortar:

Lime should be explored as a material for mortar as it is locally available in many parts of
the country and helps reduce the consumption of cement.

Lime as a binding material along with fly ash can result in to make lime pozzolona mortar
which saves on your cost of cement. It also adds another Green building feature, use of
industrial waste (i.e. flyash) as a raw material for your construction.

C.

ADVANTAGES OF USING RAT TRAP BOND TECHNOLOGY

By adopting this method of masonry, you can save on approx. 20-35% less bricks and
30-50% less mortar; also this reduces the cost of a 9 inch wall by 20-30 % and
productivity of work enhances.

For 1 m3 of Rat trap bond, 470 bricks are required compared to conventional brick wall
where a total of 550 bricks are required.

Rat trap bond wall is a cavity wall construction with added advantage of thermal comfort.
The interiors remain cooler in summer and warmer in winters.

Rat-trap bond when kept exposed, create aesthetically pleasing wall surface and cost of
plastering and painting also may be avoided.

Rat trap bond can be used for load bearing as well as thick partition walls.

All works such as pillars, sill bands, window and tie beams can be concealed.

The walls have approx. 20% less dead weight and hence the foundations and other
supporting structural members can suitably be designed, this gives an added advantage
of cost saving for foundation.

Services installations should be planned during the masonry construction if not exposed.

Virgin materials such as bricks, cement and steel can be considerably saved upon by
adopting this technology. It will also help reduce the Embodied Energy of virgin materials
and save the production of Green House Gases into the atmosphere.

In case for more structural safety, reinforcement bars can be inserted through the cavity
till the foundation.

D. COST SAVINGS
Material saving per m3 : Rat trap bond vs. Conventional Brickwork.

1.11 bags (57% saving)

Rs 288/ m3 saving in cement cost.

80 nos. of bricks (20% saving)

Rs 576 saving in brick cost.

0.18 m3 less sand (61% saving)

Rs 13/ m3 saving.

Summarising the material cost, an approximate saving of Rs. 478 (20% saving) is achieved per
m3 of Rat trap bond brickwork compared to conventional solid BW.

Assume building a house with 100 sq m on each floor, and the periphery walls are made
of Rat trap bond instead of conventional bond, the savings in materials cost and total
brickwork cost that can be achieved are listed below:

E. EMBODIED ENERGY SAVINGS

The Embodied Energy calculations are done for the same amount of brickwork quantity as above
i.e. 70 cu.m of brickwork. The table below shows the Embodied Energy savings arriving due to
the material saving for a simple house as described in the chapter D. Cost Savings.