Computer &

Communication Networks
EE357
By Dr Mir Yasir Umair
Assistant Professor, MCS, NUST

Digital and Analog

Transmission
Lecture 04

Outline for the Lecture

Digital Transmission
Digital Signals
Line Coding Characteristics & Schemes
Block Coding
Sampling / Pulse Code Modulation

Outline for the Lecture

Analog Transmission
Aspects of Digital-to-Analog Conversion
Amplitude Shift Keying
Frequency Shift Keying
Phase Shift Keying
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
Analog Modulation

Digital Transmission
Methods to transmit data digitally
o Line coding
o Block coding
o Sampling

Digital Signals
Digital have a limited number of defined values
Use binary (0s and 1s) to encode information
Less affected by interference (noise); fewer errors

Line Coding
Process of converting binary data to a digital signal

Line Coding Characteristics

Signal Level versus Data Level
Pulse Rate versus Bit Rate
DC Components
Self-Synchronization

Signal Level versus Data Level

Signal level number of different values allowed in a signal
Data level number of symbols used to represent data

Signal Level versus Data Level

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Pulse Rate versus Bit Rate

Pulse rate defines number of pulses per second
o Pulse minimum amount of time required to transmit a symbol

Bit rate defines number of bits per second

Bit rate = Pulse rate log 2 L

When L is the number of data level of the signal

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DC Components
Residual direct-current (dc) components or zero frequencies are undesirable
o Some systems do not allow passage of a dc component (such as a transformer); may distort the signal and
create output errors
o DC component is extra energy residing on the line and is useless

When the voltage level in a digital signal is constant for a while, the spectrum
creates very low frequencies, called DC components, that present problems
for a system that cannot pass low frequencies

12

Self-Synchronization
Digital signal includes timing information in the data being transmitted to
prevent misinterpretation
Lack of synchronization

13

Line Coding Schemes

14

Unipolar
Simplest method; inexpensive
Provides a background/base to the
developed techniques
Uses only one voltage level
Almost obsolete
Polarity (+ or -) is usually assigned to binary 1;a 0 is represented by zero
voltage

15

Unipolar
Potential problems:
o DC component
o Lack of synchronization

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Polar
Uses two voltage levels, one positive and one negative
Alleviates DC component
Variations
o
o
o
o

Nonreturn to zero (NRZ)

Return to zero (RZ)
Manchester
Differential Manchester

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Nonreturn to Zero (NRZ)

Value of signal is always positive or negative
NRZ-L (NRZ-Level)
o Signal level depends on bit represented; positive usually means 0, negative usually means 1
o Problem : synchronization of long streams of 0s or 1s

NRZ-I (NRZ-Invert)
o Inversion of voltage represents a 1 bit
o 0 bit represented by no change
o Allows for synchronization

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NRZ-L and NRZ-I Encoding

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Return to Zero (RZ)

In NRZ-I, long strings of 0s may still be a problem
May include synchronization as part of the signal for both 1s and 0s
How?
o
o
o
o

Must include a signal change during each bit

Uses three values: positive, negative, and zero
1 bit represented by positive-to-zero
0 bit represented by negative-to-zero

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RZ Encoding

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RZ Encoding
Disadvantage
o Requires two signal changes to encode each bit; more bandwidth necessary

22

Manchester
Uses an inversion at the middle of each bit interval for both synchronization
and bit representation
Negative-to-positive represents binary 1
Positive-to-negative represents binary 0
Achieves same level of synchronization with only two levels of amplitude

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Manchester Encoding

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Differential Manchester
Inversion at middle of bit interval is used for synchronization
Presence or absence of additional transition at beginning of interval identifies
the bit
Transition means binary 0; no transition means 1
Requires two signal changes to represent binary 0 but only one to represent 1

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Differential Manchester

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Bipolar Encoding

Uses three voltage levels: positive, negative, and zero

Zero level represents binary 0; 1s are represented with alternating positive and
negative voltages, even when the 1 bits are not consecutive
Two schemes
o Alternate mark inversion (AMI)
o Bipolar n-zero substitution (BnZS)

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Bipolar AMI
Neutral, zero voltage represents binary 0
Binary 1s represented by alternating positive and negative voltages

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Other Schemes
2B1Q (two binary, one quaternary) uses four voltage levels
o One pulse can represent 2 bits; more efficient

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Other Schemes
MLT-3 (multi-line transmission, three level) similar to NRZ-I using three
levels of signals; signal transitions occur at beginning of 1 bit, no transition at
beginning of 0

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Block Coding
Coding method to ensure synchronization and detection of errors
Three steps: division, substitution, and line coding

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Steps in Transformation

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3
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Transformation Steps
Step 1: bit stream is divided into groups of m bits
Step 2: substitute an m-bit code for an n-bit group
o Codes with no more than three consecutive 0s or 1s are used to achieve synchronization
o Since only a subset of blocks are used, if one or more bits are changed and an invalid code is received, a receiver
can easily detect the error

Step 3: line encoding scheme is then used to create the signal

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Common Block Codes

4B/5B every 4 bits of data is encoded into a 5-bit code; NRZ-1 is usually
used for line coding
8B/10B group of 8 bits of data is substituted by a 10-bit code
8B/6T each 8-bit group is substituted with a six-symbol code; uses less
bandwidth since three signal levels may be used

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Figure 4.16 Substitution in block coding

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4B/5B encoding
Data

Code

Data

Code

0000

11110

1000

10010

0001

01001

1001

10011

0010

10100

1010

10110

0011

10101

1011

10111

0100

01010

1100

11010

0101

01011

1101

11011

0110

01110

1110

11100

0111

01111

1111

11101

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4B/5B encoding (Continued)

Data

Code

Q (Quiet)

00000

I (Idle)

11111

H (Halt)

00100

J (start delimiter)

11000

K (start delimiter)
T (end delimiter)

10001
01101

S (Set)
R (Reset)

11001
00111

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Example of 8B/6T encoding

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Sampling
Analog data must often be converted to digital format (ex: long-distance
services, audio)

Basic Approach is Pulse Code Modulation

Before that we must know Sampling

Sampling is process of obtaining amplitudes of a signal at regular intervals

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Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

Analog signals amplitude is sampled at regular intervals; result is a series of
pulses based on the sampled data
Pulse Coded Modulation (PCM) is then used to make the signal digital

40

Note:
Pulse amplitude modulation has some applications,
but it is not used by itself in data communication.
However, it is the first step in another very popular
conversion method called
pulse code modulation.

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Pulse Coded Modulation (PCM)

First quantizes PAM pulses; an integral value in a specific range to sampled
instances is assigned
Each value is then translated to its 7-bit binary equivalent
Binary digits are transformed into a digital signal using line coding

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Figure 4.19 Quantized PAM signal

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Figure 4.20 Quantizing by using sign and magnitude

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Digitization of an Analog Signal

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Sampling Rate: Nyquist Theorem

Accuracy of digital reproduction of a signal depends on number of samples
Nyquist theorem: number of samples needed to adequately represent an
analog signal is equal to twice the highest frequency of the original signal

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Note:
According to the Nyquist theorem, the sampling rate
must be at least 2 times the highest frequency.

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48

Analog Transmission
PART II

Digital-to-analog conversion

Types of digital-to-analog conversion

Note
Bit rate is the number of bits per second. Baud rate is the number of
signal
elements per second.
In the analog transmission of digital data, the baud rate is less than
or equal to the bit rate.

5.52

Binary amplitude shift keying

Binary frequency shift keying (BFSK)

Binary phase shift keying (BPSK)

1
0

QPSK
But phase shift keying is more stable than either amplitude
shift keying or frequency shift keying.

So we can create systems that use more than two phase

angles. What about a system that has 4 phase angles?

QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shift Keying)

Phase shifts occur on the 45, 135, 225, and 315 degrees. / 0, 90, 180, 270

QPSK

QPSK

Concept of a constellation diagram

Note

Quadrature amplitude modulation is a combination of

ASK and PSK.

5.60

Three constellation diagrams

QAM
Combination of ASK and PSK so that a maximum contrast between each
signal unit (bit, dibit, tribit, and so on) is achieved
x number of variations in phase and y variations in amplitude
Number of phase shifts is always larger than number of amplitude shifts due
to amplitude susceptibility to noise
QAM is therefore less susceptible to noise than ASK
Same bandwidth is required for ASK and PSK

The 4-QAM and 8-QAM constellations

Time domain for an 8-QAM signal

16 QAM constellation

Grey Code Mapping

16 QAM constellation

16 QAM constellation

16 QAM constellation

16-QAM constellations

ANALOG TO ANALOG CONVERSION

Analog-to-analog conversion is the representation of analog information by an
analog signal.
One may ask why we need to modulate an analog signal; it is already analog.
Modulation is needed if the medium is bandpass in nature or if only a bandpass
channel is available to us.

Types of analog-to-analog modulation

Amplitude Modulation

Frequency modulation

Phase modulation

Conclusion
DATA

SIGNAL

APPROACH

ANALOG

DIGITAL

ENCODING

DIGITAL

DIGITAL

ENCODING

ANALOG

ANALOG

MODULATION

DIGITAL

ANALOG

MODULATION

DEPENDS ON THE SITUATION AND THE BW REQUIREMENTS, WHICH TO CHOOSE

Credits
Data Communications and Networking, 3rd edition by Behrouz A. Forouzan. McGraw Hill Publishing, 2004

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