Chapter 1

Focused Free Writing- is a post writing technique in which the writer explores a topic
by writing for a certain period of time without stopping, even if it means repeating the
same ideas.
Brainstorming- is a post writing technique that uses free association to create a list of
whatever words, phrases, or ideas come to mind as a given topic. It can be done alone or
in a group.
Clustering- is the mapping of whatever comes to mind when you think about a topic.
Variations of clustering are called webbing or branching.
Outlining- the most formal method of organizing post writing ideas, distinguishes
between major points and supporting details by using numerals and letters to show the
organization of the planned piece of writing.
Direct Quotation- entails using quotation marks around the exact words of another
writer.
Paraphrasing- entails using your own words to restate each idea from the text of another
writer.
Summarizing- involves using your own words to restate only the main ideas of another
writer.
Chapter 2
What are the main purposes for writing?
1. Entertainment- a writer may want to entertain an audience. One way to do
this is by telling a good story. We all remember how as children it was so
much fun when someone would read us a story. We were being entertained.
Most of the stories we see on television are shown for the purpose of
entertainment. The novels we buy in bookstores were written to entertain us.
What we call narrative writing (the telling of stories) is mostly in this
category of writing for the purpose of entertainment.
2. Information- Presentation of facts- most of writing you will do in college
and in your future career will be informational in nature. In school, you will
take written tests and write papers to explain what you know about a certain
subject; at work, you might find yourself explaining why your companies
profits might have diminished or increased. These explanations in formal
writing can be developed in more than one way, depending on the type of
information required. The methods of development which you will learn in
this book include the following:

Illustration (Giving examples)

Process (explaining how to do something)
Comparison and contrast
Cause and effect
Definition and analysis
Classification (putting material into mutually exclusive groups)
3. Persuasion or argumentation- persuasive writing, or argumentation tries to
convince the reader to agree with the writers point of view on a topic. In our
daily lives, the newspaper editorial is the common example of persuasive
writing. Such writing gives facts and examples and uses logical reasoning to
support the writers claim. An argument seeks to change the readers mind of
confirm beliefs already there. Often, the conclusion pleads for a plan of action
to be taken.
Voice: How a Writers Attitude is revealed.
An attitude toward the subject matter.
An attitude toward the audience
Formal writing: Voice is in the Third Party Person (he, she, it, they)
Less formal writing: Voice is in the Second Person (you, your)
Repetition of key words
Careful Use of Pronouns
Use of Transitional Expressions
Chapter 3
Complete sentences- is a group of words that contains a subject, a verb, and also
expresses a complete thought.
Noun- is a word that names persons, places, or things. A noun can function as a
subject, an object, or a possessive in a sentence.
Pronoun- is a word used to take the place of a noun. Just like a noun, a pronoun
can be used as the subject, the object, or I some cases as a way to show
possession.

1. Personal Pronouns Subjective

Singular Plural
1st Person
I
we
2nd Person
you
you
3rd Person
he
they
she
it
Relative Pronouns
Demonstrative Pronouns
who, whom, whose
this, that everyone
which, that, what
these, those
whoever, whichever
whatever

Objective
Singular Plural
me
us
you
you
him
them
her
it

Posessive
Singular
Plural
my (mine)
our (ours)
your (yours) your (yours)
his (his)
their (theirs)
her (hers)
its (its)
Indefinite Pronouns
Singular
someone, anyone, no one
everybody, somebody, anybody, nobody
everything, something, anything, nothing
each, another, either, neither
Singular of Plural (depending on meaning)
all, more, none
any, most, some
Plural
both, few, many, several

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Adjective- is a word that modifies (describes or limits) a noun or a pronoun.

Adjectives usually come directly in front of the nouns they modify, but they can
also appear later in the sentence and refer back to the noun or pronoun.
Compound Subject- is made up of two or more nouns or pronouns joined
together by and, or, either/or, or, neither/nor.
Prepositional Phrase- is a group of words containing a preposition and an object
of the preposition along with any modifiers. Prepositional phrases contain nouns
or pronouns, but these nouns or pronouns are never to be the subject of a
sentence. (The subject is never found within the prepositional phrase).

Common Prepositions
about, behind except on
above below
for
onto
across beneath from
out
after
beside in
outside
against between inside over
along beyond into
past
among by
like
since
around despite near
through
at
down
of
throughout
before during
off
to
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toward
under
underneath
unlike
until
up
upon
with
within
without

Common Prepositional Combinations

ahead of
in addition to
in reference to
at the time of
in between
in regard to
because of
in care of
in search of
by means of
in case of
in spite of
except for
in common with instead of
for fear of
in contrast to
on account of
for the purpose of in the course of similar to
for the sake of
in exchange for
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Appositive Phrase- is a group of words that gives us extra information about a

noun in a sentence. (The subject of a sentence is never found within the appositive
phrase).
Action Verb- tells us what the subject is doing and when the action occurs.
Actions Verbs
arrive
learn open
leave
forget write
enjoy
help speak
despise make teach
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watch
fly
catch
wait

A Linking Verb- is a verb that links the subject of a sentence to one or more
words that describe or identify the subject.
Common Linking Verbs
act
appear
be (am, is, are, was, were, have been)
become
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feel
grow
seem
taste

Helping Verbs- (Also called Auxiliary Verbs) Some verbs can be used to help
the main verb express a special meaning or a particular time.
Common Helping Verbs
can, could
may, might, must
shall, should
will, would
forms of the irregular verbs be , do , and have
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Adverbs- are words that can modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.

Chapter 4
Personal Pronouns
Singular
Plural
I sleep
we sleep
you sleep
you sleep
he, she, it sleeps
they sleep
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Personal Pronouns
Singular
Plural
I sleep
we sleep
you sleep
you sleep
he, she, it sleeps
they sleep
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The Verb To Be
Present Tense
Past Tense
Singular
Plural
I am
we are
you are
you are
he is
they are
she is
she
it is
(never use we was , you was , or they was )
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Singular
I was
you were
he was
she was
it was

Plural
we were
you were
they were

Collective nouns- name a group of people or things.

Frequently Used Collective Nouns
audience committee group
public
assembly council
herd
senate
board
crowd
jury
team
calss
faculty
orchestra tribe
club
family
panel
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Indefinite Pronouns
everyone
everybody
everything
each

someone
somebody
something
another

anyone
anybody
anything
either

no one
nobody
nothing
neither

both

few

many

Indefinite pronouns taking a plural verb

several

Indefinite pronouns taking a singular or plural verb depending on the meaning in the sentence
any
all
more
most
none
some
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Some nouns are always singular in meaning, but end in s .

mathematics, diabetes, United States, economics, measles, Kansas
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Some nouns are always plural in meaning.

clothes, scissors, fireworks, headquaters, tweezers, pants
Page 69

Some Nouns Have Unusual Plural Forms

1. Some foreign words used in
English use rules of their own
languages to make words plural.
For example, to the right are four
Latin words that show the Larin
rule (-um changes to -a to form
the plural):
2. Some words change internally
rather than add -s at the end:

3. Some words remain the same

whether singular of plural:

Singular
bacterium
datum
medium
stratum

Plural
bacteria
data
media
strata

foot
tooth
child
man
woman
mouse
ox
goose

feet
teeth
children
men
women
mice
oxen
geese

deer
elk
fish
moose

deer
elk
fish
moose

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Chapter 5
Complete Sentence- has a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought.
Fragment- is a piece of a sentence.
Phrase- is a group of words belonging together but lacking one or more of the three
elements necessary for a complete sentence.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Noun phrase: a noun plus its modifiers.

Prepositional phrase: a preposition plus its object and modifiers.
Verb phrase: the main verb plus its helping verbs.
Participle phrase: Present form ending in ing. Past form ending in d or ed.
Gerund phrase: the present form of a verb ending in ing, and any other words
necessary to complete the phrase.
6. Infinitive phrase: to plus the base form of the verb and any other words
necessary to complete the phrase.

Participle- is formed from a verb but does not always function as a verb.
Chapter 6
A Clause- is a group of words that has a subject and a verb.
Coordination- is combining of two or more independent clauses (you may think of them
as simple sentences) that are related and contain ideas of equal importance. The result is a
compound sentence.
First Method Of Coordination
Independent Clause (IC)
Comma and Coordinating Conjunction
He spoke forcefully
,and
Independent Clause (IC)
I felt compelled to listen.
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Connectors: Coordinating Conjunctions

Used in Pairs :
and
but
either or
or, nor
neither nor
for (meaning because )
not only but also
yet
so
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Coordinating Conjunctions And Their Meanings

to add an idea
to add an idea when the first clause is in the negative
to contrast two opposing ideas
to introduce a reason
to show a choice
to introduce a result

and
nor
but, yet
for
or
so
Page 99

Independent Clause (IC)

I had worked hard
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Second Method Of Coordination

Semicolon and Adverbial
Independent Clause (IC)
Conjunction and Comma
; therefore,
I expected results.

Connectors: Frequently Used Adverbial Conjunctions

Addition (and)
Contrast (but)
in addition
however
also
nevertheless
besides
nonetheless
furthermore
Moreover
Alternative (or)
Result (so)
instead
accordingly
on the other hand
hence
otherwise
therefore
thus
To Show Time
meanwhile
Page 104

Likeness
Llikewise
similarly

Emphasis
indeed
in fact

Chapter 7
Subordination- is the method of combining two clauses that contain ideas not equally
important idea is in the independent clause and the less important idea is in the
dependent clause. The result is a complex sentence.

Third Method Of Coordination

Independent Clause (IC)
Semicolon
Independent Clause (IC)
He arrived at ten
;
He felt at midnight.
Page 108

after
although
as, as if
because
before
even though
Page 118

Connectors: Frequently Used Subordinating Conjunctions

if, even if
unless
in order that
until
provided that
when, whenever
since
whether
so that
while
though

To introduce a cause : because, since

To show time : after, before, when, whenever, while, until
(Independent clause is negative)
To show place : where, wherever
To show purpose : in order that, so that
First Method:

Independent Clause (IC)

We can finish our homework

Second Method:

Dependent Clause (DC)

if Barbara leaves.
Dependent Clause (DC)
if Barbara leaves

Comma Independent Clause (IC)

,
we can finish our homework.

Page 119
Relative Pronouns
who
whose
whom
which
that
Page 122

refer to people

refers to things
refers to people and/or things

The relative pronoun and its clause must immediately follow the word to which it is
related.
Difference Between Restrictive And Nonrestrictive Clauses
Name of Relative Clause
Are Commas Required? Information
Pronoun Often Used
Restrictive Clause
no commas
essential
that
Nonrestrictive Clause
commas
not essential which
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Patterns Of Sentences With Dependent Clauses

1. Using Subordinating Conjunctions
A. Introductory dependent clause, independent clause
B. Independent clause, dependent clause
2. Using Relative Clauses with Pronouns
A. Nonessential dependent clause
B. Essential dependent clause

Chapter 8
Fragment- is a piece of a sentence.
Run-Ons- are independent clauses that have been combined incorrectly.
Chapter 9
Case- refers to the way some nouns or pronouns change their forms
depending on how they are used in a sentence.
Pronouns And Case
Pronuns Used
Pronouns Used
Pronouns Used
as Subjects
as Objects
as Possessives
Singular
I
me
my, mine
you
you
you, yours
he
him
his
she
her
hers
it
it
its
Plural
we
us
our, ours
you
you
your, yours
they
them
their, theirs
Singular Plural
who
whom
whose
Note: There is no such forms as hisself or theirselves.
Page 148

Pronouns Used
as Reflexives
myself
yourself
himself
herself
itself
ourselves
yourselves
themselves

Antecedent- is a word (or words) that is replaced by a pronoun later in a piece of writing.
Chapter 10
Modifiers- are words in a sentence that function as adjectives and adverbs. A modifier
must be placed close to the word, phrase, or clause that it modifies in order to be
understood by the reader.
almost
even
Page 171

Modifiers Often Misplaced

exactly
just
nearly
hardly
merely
only

scarcely
simply

Misplaced Modifier- is a modifier that has been placed in a wrong, awkward, or

ambiguous position in a sentence.
Dangling Modifier- is a modifier without a word, phrase, or clause that the modifier can
describe.

10

Chapter 11
Eight Verbs That Do Not Change Their Forms
(Notice They All End In -T Or -D)
Past Tense
Past Participle
Simple Form
(Used with perfect tenses after
(Also called Dictionary Form,
"has," "have," "had," "will have"
Infinitive Form,or Base From)
or with passive voice
after the verb "to be.")
bet
bet
bet
cost
cost
cost
cut
cut
cut
fit
fit
fit
hit
hit
hit
hurt
hurt
hurt
quit
quit
quit
spread
spread
spread
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Simple Form
come
become
Page 182

Two Verbs With The Same Simple Form And Past Participle Form
Past Tense
Past Participle
came
come
became
become

Twenty Verbs With The Same Past Tense Past Participle Forms
Simple Form
Past Tense
Past Participle
bend
bent
bent
lend
lent
lent
send
sent
sent
creep
crept
crept
keep
kept
kept
sleep
slept
slept
sweep
swept
swept
weep
wept
wept
teach
taught
taught
catch
caught
caught
bleed
bled
bled
feed
fed
fed
lead
led
led
speed
sped
sped
bring
brought
brought
buy
bought
bought
fight
fought
fought
think
thought
thought
seek
sought
sough
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11

Simple Form
blow
fly
grow
know
throw
begin
drink
ring
shrink
sink
sing
spring
swim
bite
hide
drive
ride
stride
rise
write
Page 184

Twenty Verbs With All Three Forms Different

Past Tense
Past Participle
blew
blown
flew
flown
grew
grown
knew
known
threw
thrown
began
begun
drank
drunk
rang
rung
shrank
shrunk
sank
sunk
sang
sung
sprang
sprung
swam
swum
bit
bitten (or bit)
hid
hidden (or hid)
drove
driven
rode
ridden
strode
stridden
rose
risen
wrote
written

The Six English Verb Tenses

Three Simple Tenses Simple Continuous Forms Three Perfect Tenses
Present
Present continuous
Present perfect
you walk
you are walking
you have walked
Past
Past continuous
Past perfect
you walked
you were walking
you had walked
Future
Future continuous
Future perfect
you will walk
you will be walking
you will have walked
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Perfect Continuous Forms

Present continuous
you have been walking
Past perfect continuous
you had been walking
Future perfect continuous
you will have been walking

Present Perfect Tense- describes an action that started in the past and continues to the
present time.
Present Perfect Tense- can also describe an action that has just taken place, or an action
where the exact time in the past is indefinite.
Past Perfect Tense- describes an action that occurred in the past before another activity
or another point of time in the past.
Sequence of Tenses- refers to the proper use of verb tenses in complex sentences
(sentences that have an independent clause and a dependent clause).

12

Subject Acted Upon

The race
The fish
The books
Page 195

Verb To Be
was
was
are

Forming The Passive Voice

Past Participle
won
cooked
illustrated

By Phrase Optional
(by the runner)
(by the chef)
(by the artist)

The Subjunctive Mood- the most limited of the three moods for English verbs, uses
special verb forms to express certain statements contrary to fact, or to express demand or
urgency after certain verbs.

13