Impact Assessment

ISSN: 0734-9165 (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tiap19

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

L. W. Canter
To cite this article: L. W. Canter (1982) ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT, Impact
Assessment, 1:2, 6-40, DOI: 10.1080/07349165.1982.9725447
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07349165.1982.9725447

Published online: 06 Feb 2012.

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ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

L.W. Canter*
Over 14,000 environmental impact statements (EISs) have
been prepared in the United States since the January 1,1970 effective date of the National Environmental Policy Act (Public
Law 91-190). In addition, the number of prepared environmental impact assessments (EIAs) exceeds, by a t least a n order of
magnitude, the number of EISs. An EIA refers to a document
that provides sufficient analysis for determining whether to
prepare a n EIS or a finding of no significant impact (FONSI).
The basic purpose of NEPA is to ensure that the environment is
considered in project planning and decision-making along with
traditional technical factors and economic analyses. The 1979
Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) regulations gave
emphasis to using scientific approaches and techniques in impact prediction and analysis (Council on Environmental
Quality, 1978). This emphasis was due, in part, to the fact that
many EIAs and EISs prepared during the 1970s were lacking in
scientific approach.
The purpose of this paper is to identify scientific methods
and techniques which can be used in environmental impact
studies. A complete review of applicable approaches is beyond
the scope of this paper, therefore, only examples will be cited. A
framework for the conduct of environmental impact studies is
shown in Figure 1 (Canter, 1977). Key elements include basic
activities, preparation of a description of the affected environment, impact prediction and assessment, selection of the
preferred action from alternative plans based on environmental
effects and other considerations, and appropriate environmental documentation through the writing of an EIA or EIS.
BASIC ACTIVITIES
Basic activities include the formulation of alternatives for
meeting identified needs and the thorough review of appropriate laws, regulations, and executive orders. There are

*Professor of Civil Engineering and Environmental Science and

Co-Director, National Center for Ground Water Research, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma.
6

>

Impact Prediction
and Assessment

Figure 1:

Selection of
Proposed Action-

W
r i t t en
Documentation

Framework f o r Envirorimental Impact Studies

Description of
Affected Environment

Basic
Activities

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over 30 federal laws, regulations, and executive orders which

must be considered in the preparation of EIAs or EISs. Another
aspect is the formation of an interdisciplinary study team appropriate for each study in each geographical location. Interdisciplinary study teams should include persons who can address impacts on the physical and chemical, biological,
cultural, and socio-economic environments (U.S. Soil Conservation Service, 1977). Basic activities also include the identification of potential environmental impacts from alternative
plans. Several approaches can be utilized, including literature
reviews on the environmental consequences of similar projects
(Canter, 1980), and the development of interaction matrices or
networks. Interaction matrices are directed toward identifying
the potential impacts of project features on identified environmental factors (Leopold, 1971; Fischer and Davies, 1973;
Bhutani, et al., 1975; Yorke, 1978; Baram and Webster, 1979).
Networks refer to structured approaches in which initial and
subsequent environmental changes are linearly displayed
(Sorenson, 1971; Whitlich, 1976; and U.S. Soil Conservation
Service, 1977).
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT
The second element is the preparation of a description of the
affected environment for the potential area of influence. This
requires identification of environmental factors and their
organization into physical-chemical, biological, cultural, and
socio-economic components. Numerous checklists of environmental factors are available (Dee, et al., 1972; Carstea, et al.,
1975; Voorhees and Associates, 1975; Fitzsimmons, Stuart, and
Wolff, 1975; Duke, et al., 1977; Canter and Hill, 1979). Major
tasks include the procurement of existing baseline information
as well as the planning and conduct of necessary field studies.
Table 1 lists example references on data sources and planning.
An important need is to recognize interrelationships among environmental factors; one approach is to use indices for air and
water quality, and biological and socio-economic features
(Inhaber, 1976; Ott, 1978).
IMPACT PREDICTION AND ASSESSMENT
The most important technical element involves the predic7

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tion of changes in environmental factors resulting f r o 6 alter7

native plans, and the interpretation and assessment of their
significance. Every attempt should be made to quantify anticipated changes and to use scientific rationale for significance
assessment. Impact prediction and assessment can be considered relative to environmental components, and within the
physical-chemical component are mathematical models for
predicting changes in air, water, and noise quality as well as
other geological or physical features. Table 2 lists some example
references for various models. Assessment of impact
significance can be based on environmental standards for air,
water, and noise quality; and the exercise of professional judgment.
Biological impact prediction is primarily based on habitat or
land use changes or more sophisticated approaches such as the
Habitat Evaluation Procedure (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
1980) and the Habitat Evaluation System (U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers, 1980). A key limitation is the absence of techniques
for quantifying habitat changes, particularly when considering
long-term effects. Highly sophisticated approaches involve the
use of energy systems diagrams, although this technique is not
widely used due to data, personnel, and resource requirements.
Significance interpretation should be based on appropriate
laws, regulations, and executive orders as well as the application of ecological principles and professional judgement. Table
3 lists some example references for biological impact prediction
and assessment.
Impact prediction and assessment for the cultural environment involves eonsideration of changes in historic and
archeological resources as well as cultural attributes such as
visual quality. Several methodologies exist for describing the
visual quality of an area, and, by use of conceptual drawings
and photographs, these same methodologies can be used to
quantify and evaluate project-induced changes in visual
quality. Table 4 identifies some example references for the
cultural environment.
Socio-economic impact prediction can be based on models
ranging from simple extrapolation techniques to complicated
econometric approaches. Interpretation of changes can be
based on recommended standards or criteria, geographical
8

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averages, and the relationship of the information to original

design standards or concepts (Voorhees and Associates, 1975;
Fitzsimmons, Stuart,-and Wolff, 1975; Chalmers and Anderson,
1977). Table 5 lists some example references for socio-economic
impact prediction and assessment.
SELECTION OF PROPOSED ACTION
Selection of the proposed action from a series of alternative
plans represents the focal element in the environmental impact
process. Systematic methodologies should be used to compare
alternatives; many methodologies involve multiple criteria
decision-making wherein decision factors are assigned importance weights and each alternative is evaluated based on each
decision factor. Alternatives can be scaled or ranked from best
to worst in terms of each of the decision factors, with a final
decision matrix used for displaying the results. Table 6 identifies some methodologies which can be useful in the selection
process. Several types of alternatives should be considered, including site locations, timing alternatives, various design
features of specific alternatives a t specific locations, and no action (Council on Environmental Quality, 1978).
DOCUMENTATION
The final element is the preparation of written documentation. Appropriate technical writing principles should be utilized
in the preparation of either an EIA or EIS. One of the best aids
is the development of an extensive outline prior to initiating the
writing process. Liberal usage should be made of visual display
materials such as maps, photographs, tables, and figures.
Glossaries of technical terms can also be useful in documentation. Scientific referencing should be utilized for procured environmental setting information as well as impact prediction
techniques.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Numerous scientific methods and techniques are available
for usage in environmental impact studies; however they have
not been extensively used due to one or more of the following
reasons: (1)minimal emphasis on their use until the 1979 CEQ
regulations; (2) information gap due to lack of knowledge of
9

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available approaches on the part of many practitioners; (3)

non-existence of current technology during the early years of
the decade of the 1970s; and (4) general reluctance to use approaches which 3re perceived to be time and cost consuming.
Usage of scientific methods and techniques is expected to increase due to the 1979 CEQ regulations and the growing
emphasis on public participation. Active public participation
programs encourage practitioners to utilize the most appropriate methods and techniques in environmental impact
studies. In fact, public participation undergirds all elements in
the framework for environmental impact studies. Appropriate
public participation techniques should be selected based on the
objectives of the public participation effort, the potential
publics to be involved, and the communication characteristics
of individual techniques relative to objectives and publics
(Bishop, 1975). Another reason for an increasing usage of scientific methods and techniques is the increasing knowledge base
for conduct of environmental impact studies.
One of the long-term benefits of the environmental impact
process is that needed research continues to be identified by
agencies. This directed research should lead to cost reductions
in project planning as a result of new information on the environmental effects of various project types. Some research
needs related to environmental impact studies are listed in
Table 7. Only the first two items will be addressed from the
non-prioritized listing. Post-audit analysis refers to studies
needed to verify whether or not predicted impacts actually occurred, and if their magnitudes match those that were anticipated. If post-audit analyses can be made, this will enable
better conduct of future studies since the approaches can be
calibrated to more accurately reflect anticipated impacts.
Value judgments are used throughout the enviromental impact
process, and research is needed to better understand and integrate value judgments within the process.
Finally, environmental impact studies should be based on
the use of a systematic framework and approach. There is no
substitute for the application of the scientific process and appropriate technology in environmental impact studies. These
studies must be founded on these principles in order to achieve
an appropriate consideration of the environment in project
planning and decision-making.
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TABLE 1: EXAMPLES OF REFERENCES ON STUDIES

OF THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT
Topical Area

Reference

Data Sources

Golden, et al. (1979)Data reference book for

environmental impact
studies.
Keown and Weathersby
(1976)-Catalog of information sources for environmental
baseline
description.
Meyers, Fake, and Ausura (1977)-Directory
of major environmental
data bases maintained
by federal agencies.
Naval
Environmental
Support Office (1976)Sources of environmental information are listed,
including federal and
California state sources.
Van Weringh, e t al. (1975)
-Collection of Environmental laws, regulations,
and standards.

11

Burns (1978)-Proceedings of symposium on

planning for environmental impact studies.

Study Planning

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Rau and Wooten (1980)Comprehensive handbook for conducting environmental

impact
studies.
States, et al. (1978)Planning for ecological
baseline studies.
Stout, et al. (1978)-Planning for integrated
baseline studies of the
environment.
Ward (1978)-Book
on
planning, conducting,
and interpreting biological impact studies.

12

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TABLE 2: EXAMPLES OF REFERENCES ON IMPACT

PREDICTION A N D ASSESSMENT FOR THE
PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT
Topical Area

Reference

Air

Busse and Zimmerman

(1973)-Discussion
of
climatological dispersion model (CDM).
Turner
(1970)-Workbook of atmospheric
dispersion calculations
from multiple source
types.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1977)

-Discussion of singlesource,
steady-state
Gaussian plume dispersion model.
Surface Water

Brown (1979)-221
abstracts on the hydrodynamics and modeling of heated effluents.

Nemorow (1974)-Book
on modeling
water
quality resulting from
organic pollution.

13

Orlob (1977)-Literature
review of mathematical modeling of surface
water impoundments.

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Ozturk (1979)-Model of
dissolved oxygen in estuaries.
Velz (1970)-Book
on
modeling water quality
resulting from organic,
inorganic,
thermal,
and bacterial pollution.
Hammer and MacKichan
(1981)-Overview
of
quantity and quality
aspects of surface and
ground water.

Ground Water

Prickett
(1979)-Summary of ground water
modeling techniques.
Overton (1977)-Modeling of effects of land
use changes on streamflow quantity and quality.

Non-Point Pollution

14

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1976)

-Procedures
for predicting impacts of urban stormwater.

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Walker
(1976)-Literature review of irrigation return flow models.
Noise

Kessler, e t al. (1978)Evaluation of construction site noise.

Magrab (1975)-Book on
noise prediction from
variety of source types.

TABLE 3: EXAMPLES OF REFERENCES ON IMPACT

PREDICTION A N D ASSESSMENT FOR THE
BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT
Topical Area

Reference

Habitat Approaches

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

(198O)--Systematic methodology
for aquatic and terrestrial ecosystem evaluations.
15

U.S, Fish and Wildlife

Service (1980)-Procedural manual for estimating and comparing development project impacts on fish
and wildlife resources.

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Ecosystem Models

Gilliland
and
Risser
(1977)-Systems
diagrams and energy flow
analysis of activities
a t White Sands Missile Range.
Green (1978)-Model for
the Chesapeake Bay
ecosystem with submodels on wetlands,
plankton, seagrasses ,
other benthos, and fish
trophic levels.
Najarian and Harleman
(1977)-Model of nitrogen-cycle dynamics in
an estuarine system.
ONeill, Ferguson, and
Watts (1977)-946 references on mathematical modeling, with
emphasis on forest biomes.

16

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Ostrofsky and Duthie

(1978)-Methodology
for modeling productivity in reservoirs.
Veith, Defoe, and Bergstedt (1979)-Model for
estimating bioconcentration
of
organic
chemicals in fish.
Walker
and
Bayley
(1978)-Quantification
of the contribution of
natural ecosystems to
mans economy in benefit - cost analysis.

Assessment

Bovee and Cochnauer

(1977)-Methodology
using weighted criteria
to assess impacts on
stream habitats.
Fletcher
and
Busnel
(1978)-Book
summarizing effects of noise
on aquatic and terrestrial wildlife.
Mueller (1977)-Discussion of burdening capacity of ecosystems.

17

Perez (1978)-Discussion
of persistence limits in
ecological systems.

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Sharma (1975)-Conference proceedings on

determining the significance of biological
impacts.
Stalnaker and Arnette
(1976)-Methodologies
for determining instream flow requirements for fish, terrestrial wildlife, and water quality.

T m L E 4: EXAMPLES OF REFERENCES ON I M P E T
PREDICTION A N D A S S E S S M E N T FOR THE
CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT
Topical Area

Reference

Historical and Archeological Resources

Dickens and Hill (1978)

-16 papers on cultural
resources planning and
management.
King (1978)-Description
of methods for conducting archeological
surveys.
18

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Visual Quality

Bagley, Kroll, and Clark

(1973)-Review of 12
methodologies
for
measuring or quantifying aesthetics.

Felleman (1975)-Review
of numerical, geometric, and geomorphic
landform
description
approaches for evaluating scenic quality.

Harper (1975)-Use-oriented method for visual

quality evaluation of
the coastal zone.

U S . Bureau of Land
Management (19783)Description of visual
resource contrast rating system.

U.S. Bureau of Land

Management (1978b)Description of method
for upland visual resource inventory and
evaluation.

U.S.
Forest
Service
(1974)-Description
of
visual
management
system used for the
19

Forest Service studies

in the northwestern
United States.

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U S . Soil Conservation
Service
(1978)-Description of procedure
for landscape resource
quality.

TABLE 5: EXAMPLES OF REFERENCES ON IMPACT

PREDICTION FOR THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT
Topical Area
General Approaches

Reference
Daneke and Delli Priscoli (1979)-Discussion
of quality of life accounting
met hodologies.

Finsterbush and Wolf

(1977)-Book on methodologies for social impact assessment.
Frendeway,
Monarchi,
and Taylor (1977)Model for regional impacts of population,
employment, manufacturing, commerce, and
service industries.
20

Shapiro, Luecks, and

Kuhner (1978)-Evaluation of the infrastructure requirements
resulting from secondary development.

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Specific Projects

Chalmers and Anderson

(1977)-Methodology
for prediction of economic and demographic impacts of water
resources projects.

Christiansen
(1976)Methodology for addressing social impacts
of land development
projects.
FitzPatrick , et al. (1977)
-Methodology
for evaluation of the secondary impacts of wastewater treatment facilities.

Fitzsimmons,
Stuart,
and
Wolf
(1975)Methodology for development of social
well-being account for
water resources projects.

21

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Guldberg and DAgostino (1978)-Total air

pollutant
emissions
from induced development from a wastewater project.
Muller (1975)-Methodology for addressing
fiscal impacts of land
development projects.
Muller (1976)-Methodology for addressing
economic impacts of
land development projects.
Mumphrey, Thayer, and
Wagner (1977)-Socioeconomic impacts from
outer continental shelf
oil and gas development.
Willeke
(1978)-Socioeconomic impacts from
wastewater
management plans.

22

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TABLE 6: EXAMPLES OF METHODOLOGIES FOR

COMPARISON OF ALTERNATIVES AND SELECTION
OF PROPOSED ACTION
Methodology

Reference

Matrices

Phillips and DeFilippi

(1976)-Matrix
analysis and narrative description for wastewater
management
system.

Schwind (1977)-Matrix
used to evluate impacts of alternative
land uses in terms of
cost-benefit approaches.
Sellers and North (1979)
-Matrix
for evaluation of trade-offs between economic and
environmental objectives in water resources planning.

Tamblyn and Cederborg

(1975)-Matrix for nuclear power plant site
selection.

23

Checklists

Ahmed, Husseiny, and

Cho (1979)-Checklist
for development of index of site acceptability for nuclear power
plants.

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Burnham, Nealey, and

Maynard
(1975)Weighting checklist for
combining societal and
technical judgements
relative
to nuclear
power plant siting.

Coastal
Environments,
Inc. (1976)-Checklist
for evaluating on-shore
impacts from off-shore
oil and gas development.
Gertz
(1978)-Ranking
checklist coupled with
non-parametric statistical analysis.
Sondheim (1978)-Scaling checklist for evaluation of a proposed
dam project.

Modeling

Hill (1976)-Resource
allocation model for
evaluation of waste24

water management alternatives.

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Lavine (1979)-Energy analysis model for conducting environmental

cost-benefit
analyses
for transportation actions.
Schrender, Rustagi, and
Bare (1976)-Simulation models for evaluating the impacts of
alternative wildlanduse decisions.

Miscellaneous

Babb and Hickey (1978)

-Use
of computer
graphics for evaluation
of impacts from conventional energy systems.
Duckstein, et al. (1977)Methodology for including uncertainty in environmental impact assessment.
Hydrologic Engineering
Center (1978)-Use of
grid cell banks in environmental impact assessment.

25

Keeney (1976)-Decisionmaking using multiattribute utility tech+

niques.

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Rubinstein and Horn

(1978)-Methodology
for including risk analysis in environmental
impact assessment.

TABLE 7: RESEARCH NEEDS IN ENVIRONMENTAL

IMPACT' STUDIES
Post-Audit Analysis
Value Judgment Approaches
Techniques for Impact Prediction and Assessment
Substantive Areas of Increasing Importance
(acid rain, ground water, wetlands, energy development)
Decision-Making Techniques
Public Participation Techniques
Benefits and Costs of Environmental Impact Studies
Procedures for Systematic Review of EIS's

26

SELECTED REFERENCES
Ahmed, S., Husseiny, A.A., and Cho, H.Y. (1979). Formal
Methodology for Acceptability Analysis of Alternate Sites for
Nuclear Power Stations, Nuclear Engineering Design, 51,
361-388.

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Babb, M.C. and Hickey, H.R., Jr. (1978). Applications of Computer Graphics to Inregrated Environmental Assessments of
Energy Systems, TVA/EP-78/10, Tennessee Valley Authority,
Chattanooga, Tennessee.
Bagley, M.D., Kroll, C.A., and Clark, C. (1973). Aesthetics in
Environmental Planning, EPA-600/5-73-009, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
Baram, R. and Webster, R.D. (1979). Interactive Environmental
Impact Computer System (EICS) User Manual, CERL-TRN-80, U.S. Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratory, Champaign, Illinois.
Bhutani, J., et al. (1975). Impacts of Hydrologic Modification
on Water Quality, EPA-600/2-75-007, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
Bishop, A.B. (1975). Structuring Communications Programs for
Public Participation in Water Resources Planning, IWR
Contract Report 75-2, U.S. Army Engineer Institute for Water
Resources, Fort Belvoir, Virginia.
Bovee, K.D. and Cochnauer, T. (1977). Development and
Evaluation of Weighted-Criteria, Probability-of-Use Curve
for lnstream Flow Assessments: Fisheries, Report No.
FWS/OBS-77/63, IFIP-3, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Fort
Collins, Colorado.
27

Brown, R.J. (1979). Thermal Pollution, Part 3. Hydrology and

Hydrodynamics (A Bibliography with Abstracts), National
Technical Information Service, U S . Department of Commerce, Springfield, Virginia.

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Burnham, J.B., Nealey, S.M., and Maynard, W.S. (1975).

Method for Integrating Societal and Technical Judgements in
Environmental Decision Making, Nuclear Technology, 25,
675-681.
Burns, E.A. (1978). Symposium Proceedings of Process
Measurments for Environmental Assessment, held in Atlanta,
on February 13-15. Final Task report, April, 1977-February
1978, EPA/600/7-78/168, TRW Systems Group, Redondo
Beach, California.
Busse, A.D. and Zimmerman, J.R. (1973). Users Guide for the
Climatological Dispersion Model, Environmental Monitoring
Series EPA-R4-73-024, NERC, .EPA, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina.
Canter, L.W. (1977). Environmental Impact Assessment,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 20-29.
Canter, L.W. (1980). Review of Current Literature on Environmental Impact Studies for Water Resources Projects, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma (report submitted
to U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment
Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi).
Canter, L.W. and Hill, L.G. (1979). Handbook of Variables for
Environmental Impact Assessment, Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan.

28

Carstea, D. et al. (1975). Guidelines for the Environmental

Impact Assessment of Small Structures and Related Activities
in Coastal Bodies of Water, MTR-6916, Rev. 1, The Mitre
Corporation, McLean, Virginia.

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Chalmers, J.A. and Anderson, E.J. (1977). Economic/Demographic Assessment Manual: Current Practices, Procedural
Recommendations, and a Test Case, Engineering and
Research Center, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Denver,
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Christiansen, K. (1976). Social Impacts of Land Development,
URI 15700, The Urban Institute, Washington, D.C.
Coastal Environments, Inc. (1976). A Process for Coastal
Resources Management and Impact Assessment, report to
Louisiana State Planning Office, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Council on Environmental Quality, National Environmental
Policy Act-Regulations, Federal Register, Vol. 43, No. 230,
November 29, 55978-56007.
Daneke, G.A. and Delli Priscoli, J. (1979). Social Assessment
and Resource Policy: Lessons from Water Planning, Natural
Resources Journal, 19, 359-375.
Dee, N., et al. (1972). Environmental Evaluation System for
Water Resources Planning, Final Report, Battelle-Columbus
Laboratories, Columbus, Ohio.
Dickens, R.S., Jr. and Hill, C.E., eds. (1978). Cultural
Resources-Planning and Management, Westview Press,
Boulder, Colorado.
29

Duckstein, L., et al. (1977). Practical Use of Decision Theory

to Assess Uncertainties about Actions Affecting the Environment, Completion Report, Department of Systems and
Industrial Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson,
Arizona.

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Duke, K.M., et al. (1977). Environmental Quality Assessment in

Multiobjective Planning, Final Report to U.S. Bureau of
Reclamation, Denver, Colorado.
Fellemen, J.P. (1975). Coastal Landforms and Scenic Analysis:
A Review, Proceedings, the First Annual Conference of the
Coastal Society, November 1975, Arlington, Virginia, State
University of New York, College of Environmental Science
and Forestry, Syracuse, New York, 203-217.
Finsterbush, K. and Wolf, C.P. (1977). T h e Methodology of
Social Impact Assessment, Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross
Publishing Co., Stroudsberg, Pennsylvania.
Fischer, D.W. and Davies, G.S. (1973). An Approach to
Assessing Environmental Impacts, Journal of Environmental
Management, 1, 207-227.
FitzPatrick, M., et al. (1977). Manual for Evaluating Secondary
Impact of Waste Water Treatment Facilities, Report
No. EPA-600/5-78-003, Abt Associates, Inc., Cambridge,
Massachusetts.
Fitzsimmons, S.J., Stuart, L.I., and Wolf, P.C. (1975).
Social Assessment Manual-A Guide to the Preparation of the
Social Well-Being Account, Bureau of Reclamation, Denver,
Colorado.

30

Fletcher, J.L. and Busnel, R.G. (1978). Effects of Noise on

Wildlife, Academic Press, New York.

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Frendeway, J.O., Jr., Monarchi, D.E., and Taylor, R.H. (1977).

Evaluation of the Regional Activities Model (RAM) Developed
a t the Center for the Environment and Man, Inc.,
NSF/RA-770372, Business Research Division, University of
Colorado, Boulder, Colorado.
Gertz, S.M. (1978). Use of Ranking Methods to Assess
Environmental Data, ASTM Spec. Tech. Publ. 652, Symposium on Biological Data in Water Pollution Assessment:
Quantitative and Statistical Analyses, Minneapolis, Minnesota, June 20-21, 1977, ASTM, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,
68-77.
Gilliland, M.W. and Risser, P.G. (1977). The Use of Systems
Diagrams for Environmental Impact Assessment: Procedures
and an Application, Ecological Modeling, 3, 183-199.
Golden, J., et al. (1979). Environmental Impact Data Book, Ann
Arbor Science Publishers, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan.
Green, K.A. (1978). A Conceptual Ecological Model for
Chesapeake Bay, FWS/OBS-78/69, U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Washington, D.C.
Guldberg, P.H. and DAgostino, R.B. (1978). Growth Effects
of Major Land Use Projects (Waste Water Facilities) Volume 11. Summary, Predictive Equations, and Worksheets,
Report No. EPA/450/3-78/014B, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina.

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