ROSE School, Pavia, Italy

NONLINEAR STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

Spring Term 2009

Instructor: Enrico Spacone

Teaching Assistant: K. Wijesundara

The class notes for this course were developed jointly by

Prof. E. Spacone at the University G DAnnunzio of Chieti-Pescara, Italy
and Prof. J. P. Conte at the University of California, San Diego, USA

BEAM THEORY - STRONG FORM

A building is made of several/different structural elements such as beams, nodes, different forms of infills,
bracings, walls, etc. These elements are not necessarily all present in the same building. As for the frame
skeleton itself, there are regions where classical beam theories apply, typically away from beam-column
joints, and regions where classical beam theories do not apply (typically beam-column joints, corbels,
1
etc.). The former regions are sometimes called B-regions, the latter D-regions (Schlaich et al. ). This
chapter deals with the B-regions and reviews the classical Euler-Bernoulli and Timoshenko beam theories.

D = Discontinuity
B = Beam

Figure 1-1 A frame and its main components

The beam theories are reviewed assuming small deformations and small displacements, thus equilibrium
is enforced in the undeformed configuration. Axial, bending and torsional behaviors are studied separately.

Schlaich, J., Schfer, K., and Jennewein, M. (1987). Toward a Consistent Design of Structural
Concrete. J. PCI, 32(3), May-June, pp. 74-150.

1-2

1.1

BAR ELEMENT (AXIAL LOAD)

wx(x)
N

N+dN
dx
x

dx
Figure 1-2 Infinitesimal beam length with axial forces

N + N + dN + wx ( x )dx = 0

Equilibrium:

dN
= wx ( x)
dx

Constitutive Law:

N = EA( x)

Compatibility:

Problem Differential
Equation:

d
du
EA( x) = wx ( x)

dx
dx

du
dx
(1.1)

+ boundary conditions
(essential/natural)

d 2u
EA = const EA 2 = wx ( x)
dx
Solution

u ( x ) = u h ( x) + u p ( x )

Boundary conditions must be added in order to solve the problem (i.e., determine the integration
constants). Boundary solutions can be Essential or Natural. Essential b.c. are geometric restraints on the

Reminder:
n

Given

the

general

linear

differential

equation

(DE)

of

order

n 1

d
d
d
, n 1 , , , u , c) = f ( x ) , where u ( x) is the unknown function, c is a constant or a series of
n
dx dx
dx
h
p
constants, f ( x) is a known function, the solution is u ( x ) = u ( x) + u ( x ) , where:
D(

d n d n 1
d
, n 1 , , , u, c ) = 0
n
dx dx
dx

u h ( x)

= general solution of the homogeneous DE

u p ( x)

= particular solution of the non-homogeneous DE

D(

D(

d n d n 1
d
, n 1 , , , u , c) = f ( x )
n
dx dx
dx

1-3

beam ends, while Natural b.c. are force restraints on the beam ends. At a given degree of freedom, we
have either one of the two conditions. In the case of a bar we have

u (0) = uo or N (0) = N o
and

u ( L) = u L or N ( L ) = N L
In civil structures, we cannot have two Natural b.c., otherwise we have a mechanism!!!! In aerospace
engineering, the problem is different

u ( x)

wx ( x )
Equilibrium
dN dx = wx ( x )

Compatibility
= du dx

N = EA ( x )

Constitutive Law
Figure 1-3 Tontis diagram for bar problem3

Prof. Tontis webpage is www.dic.univ.trieste.it/perspage/tonti

1-4

Essential b.c.
on u

u ( x)

wx ( x )
Equilibrium
dN dx = wx ( x )

Compatibility
= du dx

N = EA ( x )

Constitutive Law
Natural b.c.
on t
Figure 1-4 Tontis diagram for bar problem + boundary conditions

t
2D body

1D body

Figure 1-5 Illustrations of main body , essential boundary conditions on u and natural boundary
conditions on t

( = u t )

1-5

1.1.1

EXAMPLE: Cable under its own weight (constant cross section)

wx ( x) = A ( = material weight density )

EA

d 2u
d 2u

2
2
dx
dx
E

u ( x) = C1 x + C2
x2


 
2E
uh ( x)

w=A

u p ( x)

Boundary conditions:

u (0) = 0

C2 = 0 (essential )

N ( L ) = P C1 =

P L
+
(natural )
EA E

P
2
P L
u ( x) =
x
+
x
2E
EA E
N ( x) = EAu ' = P + A( L x)
Note the two cases in which P

1.1.2

= 0 and w = 0.

EXAMPLE: Bar element axial stiffness matrix,

K bar

U1, N1

U2, N2

Figure 1-6 Two-node bar element: nodal displacements and nodal forces

For the case of a bar with constant EA, the bar kinematics is completely described by the end (nodal)
displacements and the bar statics is completely described by the nodal forces (shown in Figure 1-6). This
implies that given the nodal forces and displacements, the bar behavior is fully determined. It is important
in this case to find the bar element stiffness matrix K bar that relates end forces and end displacements:

P = K bar U
or

N1 k11 k12 U1
=

N 2 k21 k22 U 2

(1.2)

1-6

Column 1 of

K bar :

U1 = 1

U2 = 0

d 2u
= 0 u ( x) = Ax + B
dx 2
u (0) = 1 = B
u ( L) = 0 = AL + B A =

u ( x) = 1

1
L

x
L

N ( x) = EAu ' =

Column 2 of

EA
EA
k11 =
;
L
L

K bar :

k21 =

EA
L

U1 = 0

U2 = 1

u (0) = 0 = B
u ( L) = 1 = AL A =
u ( x) =

1
L

x
L

N ( x) = EAu ' =

EA
EA
k12 =
;
L
L

K bar =

k22 =

EA
L

EA 1 1
L 1 1

(1.3)

1-7

1.2

TORSION
This problem is formally identical to that of the bar.

mx(x)
T+dT

dx
Figure 1-7 Bar infinitesimal length

T + T + dT + mx ( x)dx = 0

Equilibrium:

dT
= mx ( x )
dx

T = GJ ( x)

Constitutive Law :
5

d
dx

Compatibility :

Problem Differential
Equation:

d
d
GJ ( x) = mx ( x)

dx
dx

(1.4)

+ boundary conditions

GJ = const GJ

( x ) = p ( x ) + h ( x)

Solution:

d 2
= mx ( x)
dx 2

GJ ( x) = torsional stiffness. For solid cross-sections: J ( x) = 2 dA = polar moment of inertia; for

A

ds
closed tubular type cross-sections: J ( x ) = 4 A 
t where Am is the mean area enclosed within the
2
m

boundary of the centerline of the tubes thickness and t is the tubes thickness; and for open tubular type
cross-sections: J ( x ) =
5

1
3

b t

3
i i

(see Gere and Timoshenko).

= twist angle per unit length (rate of twist).

1-8

1.2.1

EXAMPLE: Cantilever beam subjected to uniform distributed torque.

mx(x) = mx

mx ( x) = mx
m
d 2
d 2
=

= x
m
x
2
2
dx
dx
GJ
m
( x) = C1 x + C2 x x 2


 2GJ



h
GJ

( x)

p ( x)

Boundary conditions:

(0) = 0 C2 = 0 (essential )
mx L
d
T ( L) = GJ
( x) =

mx
GJ

dx

x=L

= 0 C1 =

GJ

(natural )

1 2

Lx x
2

T ( x ) = GJ = mx ( L x )

1.2.2

EXAMPLE: Bar element torsional stiffness matrix: K torque

1, T1

2, T2

Figure 1-8 Two-node bar element: torsional nodal displacements and nodal forces

P = K torque U
or

T1 k11
=
T2 k21

k12 1

k22 2

(1.5)

1-9

Column 1 of

1 = 1

K torque :

2 = 0

d 2
= 0 ( x) = Ax + B
dx 2
(0) = 1 = B

( L) = 0 = AL + B A =
( x) = 1

1
L

x
L

T ( x) = GJ ' =

Column 2 of

GJ
L

k11 =

GJ
;
L

k21 =

GJ
L

1 = 0

K torque :

2 =1

(0) = 0 = B
( L) = 1 = AL A =
( x) =

1
L

x
L

T ( x) = GJ ' =

GJ
L

k12 =

GJ
;
L

K torque =

k22 =

GJ
L

GJ
L

1 1
1 1

(1.6)

1-10

1.3

FLEXURE

Two theories are discussed here: the Euler-Bernoulli beam theory, which considers flexural deformations
only, and the Timoshenko beam theory, which considers both flexural and shear deformations. These
theories are widely used to develop beam elements in finite element books and codes.

y
a'

b'

v(x,y) v0(x)
v(x,y) = v0(x)

u(x,y)
a
reference
axis

x
b

u0(x)
Figure 1-9 Displacements of cross section points for beam

1.3.1

Euler-Bernoulli beam theory

The fundamental assumption of the Euler Bernoulli beam theory is that plane sections remain plane and
normal to the longitudinal axis of the beam. This is shown in Figure 1-10. The cross section ab is
normal to the longitudinal axis of the underformed beam. In the deformed configuration, the deformed
cross section ab is plane and normal to the longitudinal axis of the deformed beam axis. This implies that
the displacements at a point at a distance y from the longitudinal axis are:

u = uo y

dvo
dx

v = vo
The corresponding deformations are:

d 2v
du duo
=
y 2o = o y
dx dx
dx
dv dv
du dv
=
+
= o + o =0
dy dx
dx dx

where o

d 2vo
duo
is the strain at the reference axis and =
is the section curvature.
dx
dx 2

(1.7)

1-11

y
a'
Deformed

b'

dv0
dx

v0 (x)

a
Undeformed

x
b

u0 (x)

Figure 1-10 Deformation of Euler-Bernoulli beam

w y (x)

M + dM
V

V + dV
dx

Figure 1-11 Beam infinitesimal length

Equilibrium:

dV

+ wy ( x ) = 0

dx

dM

+V = 0

dx
Constitutive law:

Compatibility:

Differential equation:

d 2M
wy ( x ) = 0
dx 2

M = EI ( x )

d 2vo
dx 2

d 2 vo
d2
EI
(
x
)

dx 2
dx 2

= wy ( x )

(1.8)

1-12

if EI = const.

EI

d 4vo
= wy ( x )
dx 4
th

The differential equations that govern the Euler-Bernoulli beam is of the 4 order in the unknown function
vo ( x) .
Four boundary conditions (essential or natural) must be added to the above differential equations in
order to find the answer to a given problem. At least two of these must be essential, otherwise we have a
mechanism.

Essential b.c.
on u

v0 ( x )

wy ( x )

Compatibility
2
= d 2 v0 dx

Equilibrium
d M dx 2 wy ( x ) = 0

M = EI ( x )

Constitutive Law
Natural b.c.
on t
Figure 1-12 Tontis diagram for Euler-Bernoulli beam problem

1-13

1.3.2

EXAMPLE: Euler-Bernoulli cantilever beam under constant distributed load (constant

cross section)

y
w

L
Figure 1-13 Cantilever beam under constant distributed load

The problem differential equation is:

d 4vo
EI
= wy ( x ) = w
dx 4
Boundary conditions:
(1)

vo ( 0 ) = 0

essential

(2)

dvo
(0) = 0
dx

essential

(3) M ( L) = 0

natural

EI
(4)

d vo ( L)
=0
dx 2

V ( L) = 0
V ( L) =

d 2vo ( L)
=0
dx 2

natural

dM ( L )
d 3vo ( L)
= EI
=0
dx
dx3

d 3vo ( L)
=0
dx 3

Solution:

vo ( x) = voh ( x) + vop ( x)
Homogeneous solution

voh ( x) :
d 4vo
=0
dx 4
voh ( x ) = C1 + C2 x + C3 x 2 + C3 x3
EI

Particular solution

vop ( x) :
EI

d 4 vop
= w
dx 4

vop ( x) =

w 4
x
24 EI

1-14

vo ( x) = C1 + C2 x + C3 x 2 + C4 x3

w 4
x
24 EI

The integration constants are determined from the four boundary conditions:
(1)

vo ( 0 ) = 0

C1 = 0

(2)

dvo
(0) = 0
dx

C2 = 0

(3)

d 2 vo ( L)
=0
dx 2

2C3 + 6C4 L

(4)

d 3vo ( L)
=0
dx3

6C4 L

From (3),

C3 =

w 2
L =0
2 EI

w
L=0
EI

C4 =

1 wL
6 EI

wL2
=0
4 EI
vo ( x ) =

w L2 2 L 3 1 4
x
x + x
6
24
EI 4

In particular, the tip vertical displacement is:

wL4
8EI

wL4
vo ( L ) =
8 EI
The bending moment along the beam is:

dvo2 ( x )
dx 2
x2
L2
= w + Lx
2
2

M ( x ) = EI

M(x)
w

wL2
2

The shear force along the beam is:

dvo3 ( x )
dM
V ( x) =
= EI
dx
dx3
= w( x L)

V(x)
w

wL

1-15

1.3.3

EXAMPLE: Euler-Bernoulli beam element stiffness matrix K EB beam

Figure 1-14 Two-node beam element: flexural degrees of freedom only

P = K EB beam U
or

M 1 K11
=
M 2 K 21

Column 1 of

K12 1

K 22 2

1=1

K EB beam

K11
EI

d 4 vo
=0
dx 4

(1.9)

2=0

vo ( x) = C1 + C2 x + C3 x 2 + C4 x3

(1)

vo ( 0 ) = 0

C1 = 0

(2)

dvo
( 0) = 1
dx

C2 = 1

(3)

vo ( L ) = 0

L+C3 L2 + C4 L3 = 0

(4)

dvo
( L) = 0
dx

1+2C3 L + 3C4 L2 = 0

C3 =

2
L

x
vo ( x) = x 1
L

C4 =

1
L2

(cubic Hermitian polynomial)

K 21

1-16

Bending moment :

d 2 vo
4 6
M ( x) = EI
= EI + 2 x
2
dx
L L

2EI
L

4EI
L

M ( x)

1=1

2=0

4EI
L

Column 2 of

K EB beam

K12

2EI
L

K 22

1=0

2=1

This case is symmetric to the case of column 1:

2EI
L

1=0

K EB beam =

2=1

4EI
L

2 EI 2 1
L 1 2

Note that there are two different conventions for the bending moment diagram M

for the end moments M 1 , M 2 , shown in (b).

+
+
(a)

(b)

(1.10)

( x) , shown in (a), and

1-17

1.3.4

Pure Shear Beam

b'

a'
vo (x)

w y (x)

x
a
w y (x)

M
V

M + dM
V + dV

dx
Figure 1-15 Beam element with shear deformations only

Equilibrium:

V + (V + dV ) + wy ( x)dx = 0

Constitutive Law:

dV
= wy ( x )
dx

V ( x) = GAs ( x) ( x)

(1.11)

(1.12)

Compatibility:

( x) =

dvo
dx

(1.13)

1-18

Governing differential equation:

d
dv 0
GAs ( x )
= wy ( x )

dx
dx

(1.14)

d 2v0
GAs
= wy ( x )
dx 2

(1.15)

If GAs = constant, then

Solution:

vo(x)

Note:

The above governing differential equation could have been obtained by de-generating
the theory for the Timoshenko beam for the particular case.

EI =

(infinite flexural stiffness rigid in bending)

=0

(zero curvature zero flexural deformations)

d o
= 0 o ( x ) = const. = 0
dx
depends on kinematic
boundary conditions

dv
d
GAs ( x) o = wy ( x)

dx
dx

dv
d
GAs ( x ) o = V ( x) =
dx
dx

1.3.4.1

Application Example

d o
dM ( x )

EI ( x )
=


dx
dx






indeterminate

(1.16)

1-19

1.3.5

Timoshenko beam theory

1.3.5.1

Theoretical background

The Timoshenko beam theory represents a simplification of more precise beam theories that account for
shear deformations.
Deformed shape according to
Timoshenko theory

Deformed shape according to

Jourawsky theory

Figure 1-16 Cross section deformation

The fundamental assumption of the Timoshenko beam theory is that plane sections remain plane, but
no longer perpendicular to the beam axis due to the shear deformation. Figure 1-16 shows the
implication of such assumption. The cross section remains plane (contrarily to what happens according to
Jourawskys theory) and the shear deformation is constant over the cross section. The resulting stress
distribution (constant) is compared to that obtained from Jourawskys theory (labeled exact) in Figure
1-17.
SHEAR STRESSES IN RECTANGULAR SECTION

xy

xy

y
x

xy =

FG
H

6V h 2
y2
3
bh 4

IJ
K

"Exact" Theory

xy = const =

V
As

Timoshenko Beam Theory

Figure 1-17 Shear stresses in rectangular cross section: Exact vs Timoshenko beam theory stress
distributions

1-20

The essence of Timoshenko argument (Graff, Wave motion in Elastic Solids, Dover, p. 182) is as follows.
The shear force V is given by the integral of the shear stresses over the cross-section. In the linear elastic
case,

V = dA = G dA
if

=


G dA

G=const

(1.17)

is the shear strain at the centroidal axis, it follows that

V < G o A
Thus,

V = G dA = ( G o A ) k where k < 1
A

The adjustment coefficient k is usually designated as the (Timoshenko) shear coefficient. It depends on
the shape of the cross-section and must be determined, usually through stress analysis, for each cross
section type. If we define As = kA as the shear area, then

V = GAs o
The values of k for some simple cross sections are:

k=

5
6

k=

for rectangular cross section;

9
10

for circular cross section

The vertical displacement of the beam reference axis is the sum of the flexural and shear deflections, as
shown in Figure 1-18:

vo ( x ) = v f ( x ) + vs ( x )

where

(1.18)

v f is the deflection due to flexure only, and vs is the deflection due to shear only.

x
vo ( x) = v f ( x) + vs ( x )

v f ( x)

vs ( x)

Figure 1-18 Displacements of Timoshenko beam

1-21

It follows that

dvo dv f dvs
=
+
dx 
dx 
dx

This implies that the total slope of the beam axis,

(1.19)

dvo dx , is the sum of the flexural rotation o =

dv f

dx
dvs
and of the shear rotation =
. The sign convention for the flexural and the shear deformations are
dx
shown in Figure 1-19, and they follow the sign convention of the corresponding forces shown in Figure
1-11.

section shear deformation

section curvature

combined deformation

Figure 1-19 Positive flexural and shear deformations

It follows that in the deformed configuration the deformed beam cross section remains plane but rotates
by an angle

o ( x ) , which is different from

the rotation of the beam axis,

dvo dx = o + , due to the

effect of shear deformation. Euler-Bernoulli beam theory neglects the effect of shear deformation,
= V GAs , and therefore assumes that the beam axis and the beam cross section rotate by the same
amount.

1-22

The horizontal and vertical displacement fields are given by:

u = uo y o
v = vo
The corresponding deformations/strains are:

d
du duo
=
y o
dx dx
dx
dv
du dv
=
+
= o + o
dy dx
dx

(1.20)

The section generalized deformations are:

duo
dx
d
= o
dx
dv
= o o
dx

o =

(1.21)

From the constitutive law (Hookes law)

= E

and

= G

(1.22)

The section generalized forces are:

N = dA = EA
A

duo
= EA o
dx

M = ydA = EI
A

d o
= EI
dx

(1.23)

V = dA = GAs
A

1.3.5.2

Differential equations

Equilibrium:

dV
+ wy ( x ) = 0
dx
dM
+V = 0
dx

(1.24)

1-23

Constitutive laws:

M ( x ) = EI ( x ) ( x )

V ( x ) = GAs ( x ) ( x )
Compatibility:

( x) =
( x) =

(1.25)

d o ( x )
dx
dvo ( x )
dx

(1.26)

o ( x)

Differential equations:

d
dvo

o + wy ( x ) = 0
GAs
dx
dx

dv
d d o
GAs o o + EI
=0
dx
dx
dx
if EI = const. and

(1.27)

GAs = const. (uniform prismatic beam)

d 2v d
GAs 2o o + wy ( x ) = 0
dx
dx
d 2 o
dv

GAs o o + EI
=0
dx 2
dx

(1.28)

nd

There are two coupled differential equations that govern the Timoshenko beam. They are both of 2 order
in the unknown functions vo ( x) and o ( x ) .
Four boundary conditions (essential and/or natural) must be added to the above differential equations in
order to find the answer to a given problem. At least two of these must be essential, otherwise we have a
mechanism.

1-24

Essential b.c.
on u

v0 ( x)

0 ( x)

wy ( x )

Compatibility
d
dv
= 0
= 0 0
dx
dx

Equilibrium

dV
= wy ( x )
dx

V =

M = EI ( x )

V = GAs ( x )

M ,V

Constitutive Law
Natural b.c.
on t
Figure 1-20 Tontis diagram for Timoshenko beam problem

dM
dx

1-25

0 ( x)

slope of cross-section due

to bending deformation
shear deformation

Timoshenko beam theory:

plane sections remain plane
but not normal to beam axis

dv0 dx

0 ( x)

deformed beam axis

w/o shear deformation

of
direction
section
deformed

0 ( x)
a'
Deformed

b'

v0 ( x)

dv0 dx : total slope of beam axis

Undeformed

deformed beam axis

with shear deformation

u0 ( x )

Figure 1-21 Kinematics of Timoshenko Beam Theory

1-26

Figure 1-22 Formulas for shear coefficient ( A s = k A ); = Poissons ratio; neutral axis is shown as a
chain-dotted line (Cowper, 1966)

1-27

1.3.6

EXAMPLE: Timoshenko cantilever beam under tip load (constant cross section)

y
P

x
E, G, I, As
L
Figure 1-23 Cantilever beam with load P at end
The problem differential equations are:

d 2vo d o
1

=
wy ( x ) = 0
2
dx
dx
GAs

(1.29)

d 2 o
dv

GAs o o + EI
=0
dx 2
dx

(1.30)

Boundary conditions:
(1)

vo ( 0 ) = 0

essential

(2)

o ( 0) = 0

essential

(3)

(4)

M ( L) = 0
d o ( L )
EI
=0
dx
V ( L) = P

(Note that

dvo ( 0 )
dx

0 !)

natural

d o ( L )
=0
dx

natural

dv

GAs ( L) = GAs o ( L) o ( L) = P
dx

From Eq. (1.30)

dvo
EI d 2 o
= o
dx
GAs dx 2

(1.31)

Substitute into (1.29) to obtain

d
EI d 3 o d o
GAs o

=0
dx GA dx3
dx
s

d 3 o
=0
dx3

1-28

o ( x) = C1 + C2 x + C3 x 2
From (1.31)

dvo
2 EI
=
C3 + C1 + C2 x + C3 x 2
dx
GAs
Integrating with respect to x:

2 EI

1
1
vo = C4 +
C3 + C1 x + C2 x 2 + C3 x3
2
3
GAs

Determine the integration constants by applying the boundary conditions:

(1)

vo ( 0 ) = 0

C4 = 0

(2)

o ( 0) = 0

C1 = 0

(3)

d o ( L )

C2 + 2C3 L = 0

2 EIC3 = P

C2 =

dx
(4)

=0

dv

GAs o ( L) o ( L) = P
dx

C3 =

P
2 EI

PL
EI

Solution:

P
PL 2
P 3

vo ( x ) = GA x + 2 EI x 6 EI x
s

( x ) = PL x P x 2
o
EI
2 EI
In the above solution
Contribution of shear deformations:

vs ( x) =

P
x
GAs

Contribution of flexural deformations:

vf ( x) =

PL 2
P 3
x
x
2 EI
6 EI

In particular:

vo ( L ) =

PL
PL3
+
GA
3EI

s
due
due
to
shear

o ( L) =

to
flexure

PL2
2 EI

(1.32)

1-29

dvo ( L )
P
PL2
=
+
dx
GA
2 EI

s
due
due
to
shear

to
flexure

(see figures on page 1-31)

Bending moment along beam axis:

M ( x) = EI

PL

d o
= P ( L x)
dx

M(x)

PL
P
P

Shear force along beam axis:

dv

V ( x) = GAs o o = P
dx

vo ( x ) =

P
PL 2
P 3
x+
x
x
GAs
2 EI
6 EI

V(x)
P

PL
P
P

In order to better understand the relative importance of shear and flexural deformations, we study Eq.
(1.32) in more detail. Consider a b h rectangular section and express the beam depth h as a function
of the beam length, h = f L , with 0 < f < 1 . For values of f close to 1 and larger than 1, beam theories
do not apply any more. We are in this case dealing with discontinuous regions where other theories must
be considered. With this notation, we have As = kbh (with k defined in Section 1.3.5.1) and

I = bh3 12 . Thus,

1-30

vo ( L ) =

P 2 (1 + ) 4
+ 3 ;

E kbf
bf

Pc c
= 1 + 23
E f f

E
G =

2 (1 + )

(1.33)

2 (1 + )
4
( = Poissons ratio), c2 =
are two constants. It follows that when the beam is
kb
b
very slender, f is very small and the shear contribution to vo ( L ) (represented by the first term in Eq.

where

c1 =

(1.33)) can be neglected with respect to the flexural term (the second term in Eq. (1.33)). In this case, the
solution given by Timoshenko beam theory degenerates into that given by Euler-Bernoulli beam theory.
When the beam becomes short, that is when f approaches 1, the two terms in Eq. (1.33) are
comparable and the use of the Timoshenko beam theory is justified.

1-31

o =

Flexural deformations only,

i.e., EI finite
GA s =

Bernoulli-Euler
Beam:

PL2
2 EI

vo =

dvo PL2
=
dx 2 EI
PL3
3EI

P
Figure 1-24 Bernoulli-Euler beam with flexural deformations only

o = 0

Shear deformations only,

i.e., EI =
GAs finite

(Pure) Shear
Beam:

dvo
P
=
dx GAs
vo =

P
GAs

PL
GA s

Figure 1-25 Pure shear beam with shear deformations only

o =

Timoshenko
Beam:

PL2
2 EI

Flexural and shear deformations,

i.e., EI finite
GA s finite

higher-order
beam theories
dvo PL2
P
=
+
dx 2 EI GAs

vo =

PL3 PL
+
3EI GAs

P
Figure 1-26 Timoshenko beam with flexural and shear deformations

Two sources of flexibility: shear and flexural

Kb

1
1
1
=
+
K eq K b K s

Ks
Kb

Ks

< K b
K eq
< K s

1-32

1.3.7

EXAMPLE: Timoshenko beam element stiffness matrix

K T beam

Figure 1-27 Two-node Timoshenko beam element: flexural degrees of freedom only

P = K T beam U
or

M 1 K11
=
M 2 K 21
NOTE:

1 and 2

K12 1

K 22 2

(1.34)

are the rotations of the end cross-sections and not of the neutral/reference axis at the

end of the beam!

Column 1 of

1=1

K T beam :

K11
d 2vo d o
1

=
wy ( x ) = 0
2
dx
dx GAs
d 2 o
dv

=0
GAs o o + EI
dx 2
dx

Solution:

2 EI

1
1
C3 + C1 x + C2 x 2 + C3 x3
vo = C4 +
2
3

GAs

2
o ( x ) = C1 + C2 x + C3 x
Boundary conditions:
(1)

vo ( 0 ) = 0

C4 = 0

(2)

o ( 0) = 1

C1 = 1

(3)

vo ( L ) = 0

2 EI

1
1
2
3

C
+
1
3
GA
L + 2 C2 L + 3 C3 L = 0
s

(4)

o ( L) = 0

1+C2 L + C3 L2 = 0

2=0

K 21

1-33

2
L2 2 EI
+
6 GAs

C3 =

C2 =

L
1
2 2
L L 2 EI
+
6 GAs

L
1
1
o ( x) = 1 + 2 2 x + 2 2 x 2
L 2 EI
L L 2 EI
+
+

6 GAs
6 GAs

It follows that the bending moment over the beam axis is

d o ( x )
dx

1
1
= EI 2 2
+ 2
x
L L 2 EI L 2 EI
+
+

6 GAs
6 GAs

M ( x) = EI

thus,

1
K11 = M 1 = M (0) = EI + 2 2
L L 2 EI
+

6 GAs

L
1
L
K 21 = M ( L) = EI 2 2 + 2
L L 2 EI L 2 EI
+
+

6 GAs
6 GAs

Upon introduction of

12 EI
GAs L2

a dimensionless measure of the flexural-to-shear stiffness ratio, the above expressions simplify to

(1.35)

1-34

K11 =
K 21 =
Column 2 of

K T beam :

( 4 + ) EI
L(1 + )

( 2 ) EI
L (1 + )

K12

K 22

1=0

2=1

From symmetry, it is easy to verify that

K12 =
K 22 =

( 2 ) EI
L(1 + )

( 4 + ) EI
L(1 + )

It follows that the stiffness matrix is

K T beam =
The above expression for

( 4 + )
EI

L (1 + ) ( 2 )

( 2 )
( 4 + )

(1.36)

K T beam allows to arrive at conclusions similar to those drawn for the example

in Section 1.3.6. If the beam is very slender, the shear stiffness is very large relative to the bending
stiffness, then 0 and the stiffness matrix of the Timoshenko beam approaches that of the EulerBernoulli beam. At the limit, as = 0 , the two matrices coincide.

=0

K T beam = K EB beam =

EI
L

4 2
2 4

1-35

Figure 1-28 Beam with load P at midspan: flexural deformations only

Figure 1-29 Beam with load P at midspan: shear deformations only

1-36

1.4

MATRIX NOTATION FOR ENGINEERING BEAM THEORIES

We are going to rewrite the engineering beam equations (for both the Euler-Bernoulli and the
Timoshenko beam) using the notation used in the Review of Elasticity (see later chapter).

Kinematics: We deal with generalized strains (deformations) rather than strains:

= Lu
Euler-Bernoulli Beam:

0 ( x) x u0 ( x ) x

= 2
=
( x) x v0 ( x ) 0

0 u0 ( x)

2x v0 ( x)

Section displacement vector:

u ( x )
u= 0

v0 ( x )
Section generalized deformations:
( x )
= 0
( x )
Compatibility differential operator:

L= x
0

0
2x

Timoshenko Beam:

0 ( x )
x u0 ( x )
x

x 0 ( x )
( x) =
=0

( x) x v0 ( x ) 0 ( x) 0
Section displacement vector:
u0 ( x )

u = 0 ( x )

v0 ( x )

Section generalized deformations:

0 ( x )

= ( x)

( x)

Compatibility differential operator:

0 0 u0 ( x )

x 0 0 ( x)
1 x v0 ( x)

1-37

x
L = 0
0

0 0
x 0
1 x

Equilibrium: We deal with generalized stresses (forces) rather than stresses.

LT + b = 0

Euler-Bernoulli Beam:
x N ( x ) wx ( x ) x
2
+
=
x M ( x ) wy ( x ) 0

0 N ( x ) wx ( x ) 0

+
=
2x M ( x ) wy ( x ) 0

Section forces:
N ( x )

M ( x)

Body forces (applied forces):

wx ( x )
b=

wy ( x )
Timoshenko Beam:
x N ( x)

wx ( x ) x

x M ( x ) + V ( x ) + 0 = 0

xV ( x )

wy ( x ) 0
Section forces:
N ( x)

= M ( x )
V ( x)

Body forces (applied forces):

wx ( x )

b= 0
w ( x )
y

Equilibrium differential operator:

x
L = 0
0
T

0
x
0

0
1
x

0
x
0

0 N ( x ) wx ( x ) 0

1 M ( x ) + 0 = 0
x V ( x ) wy ( x ) 0

1-38

Generalized Constitutive Law (linear elastic material behavior):

= E ( 0 )
Euler-Bernoulli Beam:
EA 0
E=

0 EI

Timoshenko Beam:
EA 0
E = 0 EI
0
0

0
0
GAs

Boundary Conditions on = u t :
Natural (Static or Force) boundary conditions:

= t on t (part of boundary where forces are prescribed)

Essential (Kinematic, Geometric or Displacement) boundary conditions:
u = u on u (part of boundary where displacements are prescribed)

1-39

1.5

DYNAMICS

u ( x, t )

Bar Element (Axial Load):

N + N + dN + wx ( x, t )dx = ( Adx )

2u
t 2

dN
2u
+ wx ( x , t ) = A 2
dx
t
N = EA( x) ( x) = EA( x)

u
x

u
2u
EA
(
x
)
+
w
(
x
,
t
)
=

A
x
x
x
t 2

u
2u
EA
(
x
)

A
+ wx ( x, t ) = 0
x
x
t 2

(1.37)

If EA( x) = constant,

EA

2u
2u

A
+ wx ( x, t ) = 0
x 2
t 2

(1.38)

1-40

Torsion:

( x, t )

T + T + dT + mx ( x, t )dx = I m dx

2
t 2

Im : mass moment of inertia (about bar axis)

per unit length of bar

R
x
1
Figure 1-30 Unit bar element

Im =

1
A(1) R 2
2

R4
2
1
A2
=
2
=

dT
2
+ mx ( x, t ) = I m 2
dx
t
T = GJ ( x)

2
GJ
(
x
)

I
+ mx ( x, t ) = 0
m
x
x
t 2

(1.39)

If GJ ( x) = constant,

GJ

2
2

I
+ mx ( x, t ) = 0
m
x 2
t 2

(1.40)

1-41

v0 ( x,t )

Euler-Bernoulli Beam (including rotatory inertia):

2 vo

V
+
V
+
dV
+
w
(
x
,
t
)
dx
=

Adx
(
) 2
(
) y

2
M + M + dM + (V + dV )dx + w ( x, t ) dx + q ( x, t )dx =
y

2
2
z dxdA
A

2 vo
2 vo
2
=

z
dA
dx
A
t 2 x
t 2 x

=I

= I

2
t 2

vo
x dx

dV
2vo
+
w
(
x
,
t
)
=

A
y

t 2
dx

2
dM + V + q ( x, t ) = I vo
dx
t 2 x
M ( x) = EI ( x)

2
x 2

2vo q( x, t )
2 vo
2 vo
EI
(
x
)

I
(
x
)
+
w
(
x
,
t
)
=

A
y

x 2
x
x
t 2 x
t 2

If

I ( x)

2vo
x 2

2vo
2vo 2

I
(
x
)

+
t 2 x
x t 2 x 2

= constant and

2 vo
q( x, t )
EI
(
x
)
= w y ( x, t )

2
x
x

(1.41)

EI ( x) = constant:

2 vo
4 vo
2 2 vo
q ( x, t )

I
+
EI
= wy ( x , t )
2
2
2
4
t
x t
x
x

(1.42)

1-42

Euler-Bernoulli Beam (neglecting rotatory inertia):

vo ( x, t )

2vo

V
+
V
+
dV
+
w
(
x
,
t
)
dx
=

Adx
(
) 2
(
) y

2
M + M + dM + (V + dV )dx + w ( x, t ) dx + q ( x, t )dx = 0
y

2
(neglecting the rotatory inertia of the cross-sections)

q( x, t ) : distributed moment per unit length

dV
2vo
+
(
,
)
=

w
x
t
A
y

dx
t 2

dM + V + q ( x, t ) = 0
dx
M ( x) = EI ( x)

2
x 2

2vo
x 2

2 vo q ( x, t )
2 vo
EI
(
x
)

+
w
(
x
,
t
)
=

A
y

x 2
x
t 2

2
x 2

2 vo
2vo
q( x, t )
EI
(
x
)

A
+
= w y ( x, t )

2
2
x
t
x

(1.43)

4 vo
2 vo
q ( x, t )
+

A
= wy ( x , t )
4
2
x
t
x

(1.44)

If EI ( x ) = constant:

EI

1-43

Timoshenko Beam (including rotatory inertia):

2vo
V + ( V + dV ) + wy ( x, t )dx = ( Adx ) 2
t

2
M + M + dM + (V + dV )dx + w ( x, t ) dx + q ( x, t )dx
y

2
= z 2 dxdA
A

2 o
2 o
I
dx
=

t 2
t 2

dV
2vo
+
w
x
t
=
A
(
,
)

dx
t 2

2
dM + V + q( x, t ) = I o
dx
t 2
M ( x) = EI ( x)

o
x

V ( x) = GAs ( x) ( x) = GAs o o ( x)
x

2vo
vo

GA

x
+
w
y
x
t
=
A

(
)
(
,
)

s
o

t 2
x

2
GA vo ( x) + EI ( x) o + q ( x, t ) = I ( x) o
o

s x
x
t 2
x

If

(1.45)

EI ( x) = constant, GAs ( x) = constant, and I ( x) = constant:

2v
2v
GAs 2o o + wy ( x, t ) = A 2o
x
t
x
2 o
2 o
v

GAs o o ( x) + EI
+
q
(
x
,
t
)
=

I
x 2
t 2
x

(1.46)