8958586

How might we use art to understand peoples ways of seeing and

understanding the world?

In order to know how art can be used as a tool to comprehend how people
see and understand the world, it is first vital to assert that while there is no
agreed definition of what art is, there is no doubt that it is a particular kind of
human action (Morphy & Perkins, 2006). The evolution of humans has given
rise to what Edelman characterizes as higher consciousness (Lewis-Williams,
2004). This involves the capacity for language, memory, and that humans
are aware of being conscious. Humans live in particular social, political and
economic contexts, and consciousness effects how people see their reality,
in terms of past and future, and act in it by constructing a socially based
selfhood (Lewis-Williams, 2004). We can conclude that art is a product of
human consciousness, by questioning why certain entities are represented,
and how they have been represented. I use represent loosely as not all art
objects have the intention to look like existing entities, such as those created
by the Abelam of New Guinea, and instances where representational images
are forbidden (Forge, 1970). This example of representational images
demonstrates that artworks echo an artist's social context. This point is
developed by noticing that the function, construal and execution of art is
subject to differences over time and space, for example the use as a hunting

magic device in the Palaeolithic Era, to fixate images of another world in

shamanic art, or to solely please and decorate (Leakey, 1995). As
anthropologists, in the scope of art, it is fundamental to see the extent that
artists are driven by their social contexts, and how social relationships have
contributed to the production of art.

Focusing on the visual arts, the scope of this essay is situated in the varying
perceptions and understandings that people have of female body. The body
is a site of image construction and affects how people interact with the
world. Body image is simply the way our body looks and is commonly defined
as an individual's satisfaction with their physical self (size, shape, general
appearance; Cash & Deagle, 1997). Body image and the concept of beauty,
or how we think our body should look, varies dependent upon the social
context, as the 'ideal' is culturally constructed (Sault, 1994; van Esterick,
2001). The representation and understanding of the female form has
constantly transformed. This can be seen through how artists have depicted
the nude in various positions, perspectives and styles, across time and place.
I have decided to focus on the nude as representing the female body in art
has consistently been faced with challenges and a tension between overtly
sexual tones and representing cultural perspectives. By paying close
attention to Baxandall's concept, the period eye, I shall examine how the
nude has displayed in western artworks to reveal the differing perceptions
and understandings of body image that artists weave into their work. I shall

argue that artworks, in a metaphorical sense, are doorways into artist's

social, economic and political context. I shall do this by demonstrating that
the skills and styles an artist uses are chosen to mimic his perception and
understanding of the world that he is part of. Similarly to the fact that we
cannot literally see into people's minds and completely comprehend how
they view the world, art will never give us a full picture of how an artist sees
and understands the world.

Baxandall's concept "the period eye" describes how art can be used as a
record to see and understand people's sociality. He states that to be able to
create and comprehend an artwork, "one brings to the picture a mass of
information and assumptions drawn from general experience... [therefore]
our comprehension depends on what we bring to the picture" (1988;35). The
information brought to an image is the repertoire of visual skills that allow
individuals to structure and draw meanings from artworks (1988;30).
Accordingly, viewers use information they have gained through experience,
and assume relevant, to draw inferences and interpret an artwork. Similarly
to how the information used is derived from the viewer's context, artworks
themselves are derived from the artists context. In other words, artworks are
created in the style that relates to the cognitive skills people have. This is
due to two reasons. Firstly, and mainly, because the artist is also "a member
of the society he works for, and shares [the viewers] visual experience and
habitat" (1988;40). Secondly, the artists must be aware of his "publics visual

capacity" as people's tastes are mediated by their cognitive skills, and we

enjoy "our own exercise of skill" (Baxandall, 1988;34,40).

The artworks produced in the ancient Greek era focused on aesthetic appeal,
but also echoed concepts of Greek sociality. The ancient Greek sculptor
Praxiteles depicted the goddess Aphrodite, left, with a fuller figure, a rounded
stomach and wide hips, shielding herself in a cocked hip and slightly
hunched pose. Alternatively, nude male figures in ancient Greek sculptures
are mesopmorphic, with nothing evading the eye. By adding context it
becomes apparent why men and women were depicted differently and how
their social context was reflected through their art. In ancient Greece, there
was a gender divide. Aristotle demonstrates this in Politics, "when one rules
and the other is ruled we endeavour to create a difference of outward
forms... the relation of the male to the female is of this kind, but there the
inequality is permanent" (350 BC). This inequality arose because in ancient
Greece, "the culturally constructed terms of femininity and masculinity...
depended upon their socially assigned differences", meaning that women
and men were excluded to act in the same spheres (Salmon, 1997;200). We
can see Baxandall's concept take life throughout ancient Greek sculptures.
The male physique was idealised, and artists "[brought] together from many
models the most beautiful features of each " (Xenophon, 400BC).
Alternatively, women were portrayed in their naturalistic form as female
modesty in ancient Greece was highly valued, and women could not act in

the sphere of power that the nude male form presented.

While the naturalistic form of the female nude was not
highly idealised like the male nude sculptures, it still
nonetheless showed how women should look. In ancient
Greece the ideal female body was one of a fuller figure,
akin to Praxiteles sculpture. This particular ideal
demonstrated wealth and a higher chance of conceiving
(Andrew, 1997). Thus, ancient Greece's beliefs about
male and female difference manifested into its artworks
as the artist was a part of that social context. Ancient
Greek artists shared the same experiences of assigned differences and
brought this information into the creation of art. Due to this a doorway was
opened through Greek sculptures as the female form was depicted as
different from males due to their differences.

According to Baxandall the skills required to understand an artworks social

context are dependent on the experience an individual holds in relation to
the piece. However, because these skills are not innately possessed, the
result of multiple interpretations of an artwork is inevitable. This is due to the
fact that different social and cultural groups across different time undergo
different experiences. By using an example outside of the western sphere, it
becomes clear that cultural knowledge is crucial to be able to 'correctly'
interpret artworks. The Warlpiri in central Australia generally represent the

body very differently to conventional Australian culture. In most societies,

such as the west, the human form is depicted with a human's most defining
features; a head, torso, and two arms and legs. However, it is common for a
U-shape to represent a whole person by both Warlpiri children and adults
(Cox, 2012;112).

Groups of people chatting around camp fires, 8-year-old

Warlpiri girl

Witchetty Grub Dreaming, Lily Gungarravi

The information a person brings to an artwork to interpret it is completely

subjective and determined by a person's culture and social experience. When
looking at the Warlpiri images above, people who live in a different social
context to the Warlpiri, and have no experience and thus knowledge that a
person is represented in a U-shape, may interpret that these U-shapes are
for example chairs in the left image due to their experience. Alternatively, in
the right image drawn by Nungarravi, people may draw on their experience
of what looks similar as it may be thought that this image is rather abstract
due to the colours and believe it could be a flower. Thus, people who live in
different social contexts to where an artwork was produced may not attain a
true understanding of how people from that social context actually viewed
the world. This will occur because, as we can see the U-shape bears no
relation to the actual shape of a real person.

Even though the Warlpiri also use 'stick men' to represent a whole person,
the U-shape is more common. The emergence of stick men can be seen in
the girls drawing, it penetrated the Warlpiri social context by appearing in
schools. This demonstrates drawings result from the reconstruction of
images that individuals have experiences (Cox, 2012;230,294), which
strengthens Baxandall's concept that experience effects the production of
art. The U-shape is prominent because it is the body's imprint left in the
sand. This is significant to the Warlpiri because they understand bodies as
"transform[ing] into the object world:.. women 'become' landscape, country,

other species" (Schildkrout, 2004;330). This elucidates differing

understanding's of the body even though representing the body as a stick
man, Dussart shows the how European-made films show the social context of
Warlpiri art which emulates the empowerment of individuals by their
knowledge of connections to the ownership of land and ritual, however
though these films which demonstrate the Warlpiri's connection with the land
are completely unrecognisable to the Walpiri. They are unrecognisable
because the Walpiri see the body in terms of its relatedness to the land
(Morphy & Banks, 1997;28-9). These are the connotations that the Warlpiri
associate to the body and its representation as a U-shape. As the Warlpiri did
not understand western films that mimicked their art and the fact that there
is no resemblance between the shape and bodies and difference in art it can
be assumed that there are no body ideals or would be distinctive.

From the previous example we can see that experience influences a person's
ability to interpret art and, in order to extract the 'correct' reading of an
artwork, the person must have an understanding of the world and context in
which it was created. This highlights the point that what we see and what we
know is never settled. From this we can conclude that art works are created
because of "motives exist[ing] in people's minds before they made images"
(Lewis-Williams, 2004). These motives behind artworks will vary depending
on what is significant and believed in an artist's social context. Particular
social, political and economic contexts are created through a common

understanding of socially shared mental images of what is significant and

believed, and this agreement is made through language. By doing this,
artists in differing social contexts create art that people would notice and
understand what it would mean, which consequently reinforces values
because seeing establishes our place in the world. However, what is
significant and believed in social contexts does not always determine how
people think and therefore what art people will create, alternatively it allows
the chance of people to surrender to common beliefs and, or, resist from
people's particular social, political and economic context. The development
of higher consciousness, that being our memory and awareness of being
conscious, allowed for the possibility of resistance. This possibility entails
that the production of artworks be endowed with alternative motives to those
already existing.

If the significant and believed ideas in a social context determined how

people thought and acted in the world then the depiction of the human figure
would not have altered, however it has, and this demonstrates that the
motives behind the reason for a certain depiction have changed. To be able
to understand, via art, the motives of an artist's social context that drive the
production of an artwork, it is necessary to draw our attention to the
processes of signification that occur in works of art. The signification of an
artwork are its conveyed meanings. We attain meanings through signs
because signs communicate things to us. O Shaughnessy (1999) stated that

the method semiotics asserts that sign systems work through certain rules
and structures and result in the ability for meanings to be communicated. He
states this can aid the understanding of what is being communicated in
artworks by simply asking "what is there?" (1999;67). By comparing the
differing depictions of the female nude created in Europe I shall demonstrate
that these two differing styles have been produced from a resistance of what
was commonly believed and significant of the time. I believe this is driven
through experience, as I have shown previously through Baxandall,
experience is central to the art that is created. I shall suggest that preexisting motives that were communicated in previous art forms, such as the
Baroque period, were not what all European's were experiencing. Using Egon
Schiele as an example I shall show that different mental images and
experiences lead to new artworks and styles because the motives altered,
there were experiences that were not being depictures in art.

The Baroque art followed from the Renaissance. While Baroque art of nudes
similarly aimed to depict the ideal body image, it was not preoccupied with
the study of mathematics as a means of constructing the ideal female form.
Baroque art refashioned the classical ideal, the signified, which was
conveyed in through the signs of ample females with rippling flesh. Rubens
was known for presenting women of this era with generous figures in his
paintings. While some contest that Rubens' art glorifies larger women, the
fact remains that this size would be portrayed in many nudes of the Baroque

era, and was regarded as fashionable, and was the ideal figure (Koda, 2006).
This created the ideal body image in Baroque art where there was no
celebration of human variety (Sorabella, 2008). Foucault stated "this political
investment of the body is bound up in accordance with complex reciprocal
relations with its economic use" (Discipline and Punish). In order to know the
reciprocal relations, O'Shaughnessy states through semiotics the viewer's
task is to "ask what all the possible connotations associated with any
particular sign or element in the image" (1999;67). The way that people
viewed women during this period is demonstrated through how Rubens has
depicted and composed the female figure in his artwork of Venus Before a
Mirror. Rubens has depicted Venus and deflected her gaze to look at the
viewer with her body filling most of the frame. Berger states that the "mirror
was often used as a symbol of the vanity of women ...in treating herself... a
sight" (1972;51). This illustrates that women were depicted and art arranged
in art "to display it to the man looking at the picture" (Berger, 1972;55). This
demonstrates the social relations that held during the Baroque art period
were those dominated by the male gaze (Rosenthal, 2005). Both the sign of a
deflected gaze and the proportion of the body taking up the frame signifies
an ideal display for men. This was the cultural connotation and
understanding of why the nude was depicted of the time; the nude had to be
conventionalized in order for it to be represented (1972;53). The portrayal of
the female nude, if wanting to gain acceptance from Baroque society, had to
be constructed with the aim of arousing the viewer, and thus must conform

to the accepted standards of how a women should,

ideally look. Woman has a submissive position in
the time of Baroque art and manifested in its
construal. This occurred because the "unequal
relationship [was] deeply embedded in the culture,
and was the structure of consciousness of many
women" (Berger, 1972;63). Being a part of the
social context and drawing from his experience,
Ruben was able to depict societies ideas around how the female body was to
be understood through his art.

O' Shaughnessy states that connotations of the time are culturally shared
and dependent on cultural knowledge (1999;65). He continues claiming that
cultural knowledge is a prerequisite in understanding art through semiotics
as it allows the interaction between the sign and the values of a culture to be
viewed; "being aware of these connotations will make us aware of the
cultural meanings in images"(1999;67). This has precedence as without
having cultural knowledge about the Warlpiri, gaining an insight into what
their art represents about how they understand the body will not be possible.
However, O'Shaughnessy claims that individual connotations are specific and
whilst they affect how we see and understand the world, because they are
not shared, they are not useful in understanding of semiotics between art
signs and values of culture. Egon Schiele's artworks of the female nude act

as a dissent of this view as a new style in its entirety formed out of his own
individual connotations. I argue that individual connotations and experiences
are a primary key in the resistance of social contexts and push new styles of
art and ultimately new representations of the body. As Tracey Emins explains
"Schiele appeared to be intensely looking at himself" (2015).

Female Nude, Egon Schiele.

Semi-Nude

Girl, Reclinging Egon Schiele.

As aforementioned, the signification of an artwork rests in its conveyed

meanings. We attain meanings through signs because signs communicate
things to us. O Shaughnessy (1999) stated that the method semiotics
asserts that sign systems work through certain rules and structures and
result in the ability for meanings to be communicated. He states this can aid
the understanding of what is being communicated in artworks by simply
asking "what is there?" (1999;67). By comparing the differing depictions of
the female nude created in Europe I shall demonstrate that these two

differing styles have been produced as a result of a resistance to common

beliefs and what was significant. I believe this is driven through experience,
as I have shown previously through Baxandall, experience is central to the
art that is created and particularly individual experiences. I shall suggest that
pre-existing motives that were communicated in previous art forms were not
what all European's were experiencing and thereby led to new art styles.
Through signification and experience people who were looking at these new
works knew what they were meaning.

Schiele's art demonstrates that his motives were not determined by his
social context, and ultimately impacted on the art he produced sparking
controversy. These motives were those of resistance to what was believed
and significant in how the body should be depicted in his social context. He
rebelled against the rigid character of naturalistic drawings of the body and
perspective drawing (Steiner,2000;25). His expressive style and use of hard,
dark and distorted lines were signs used to signify a truth of a hidden
underworld. His art moved away from an idealized worldview in European
society as what portrayed in subsequent artworks did not represent all social,
political and economic relations of European people. Schiele lived in pre-war
Europe and depicted a reality that existed away from the public eye,
challenging social norms and acting as a resistance to the idealized approach
relating to the nude and conventional norms of beauty that were bodies of
volume and soft lines. Although the compositions and poses of the bodies he

depicted were sexually direct, it was less about the gaze of the male,
because the bodies drawn were thin, gaunt and angular with unusual use of
colouring. This demonstrates a change in reciprocal relations between men
and women as they were not conventionalised or depicted to have the ideal
body thus evoking emotion. The thin figures were not depicting as a new
ideal but were used as a sign to communicate that people were living in
poverty and consequently were malnourished and had health problems in
pre-war Europe (Zwingenberger, 2011;16). Schiele lived in a socially and
psychologically charged atmosphere and this manifests in his art as those
were the mental images he experienced and thus communicated in his art.
His own individual connotations and experiences allowed for the emergence
of this art style that mimicked the reality of certain social, political and
economic contexts via the technique of stripping away the ideal female nude
depicted for men in art in prior art styles.

Schiele's depiction focusing on the social context of pre-war Europe that he

was experiencing had not been represented in art by previous works. As a
consequence, what many were experiencing was only a shadow of a true
reality. Plato used the allegory of the cave to argue that the creation of art
may present itself as something, but there is always a deeper or hidden
reality that is not observable (Plato,350 BC). Thus, the art that was produced
by Schiele's subsequent artists were not showing other political, social and
economic happenings in Europe. As Foucault stated the body was used to

deploy certain political and economic agendas. This argument encourages us

to not accept things as they appear to be, however Plato uses this to argue
that there is an objective truth of reality (Plato,350). I disagree that there is
an objective truth of reality as it is through people's senses that individuals
come to know the world. However Plato's point that there is more to what we
observe highlights the fact that art doesn't always open a doorway into how
people view and understand their world. We cannot assume that we are
literally seeing into another persons world, as this essay has shown, cultural
knowledge and specifically experience is crucial in being able to truly
understand how people view their world. O' Shaughnessy draws attention to
this point stating that when we look at art "what we are seeing is not 'reality'
but signs and signifiers that aim to represent the real world" (1999;66).

Sontag argues against the interpretation of art and the importance placed
on the meaning of an artwork's content (1990). She argues against the
necessity of a "conscious act of the mind which illustrates a certain code,
certain 'rules' of interpretation", what O' Shaughnessy provides a method of.
This leads us away from the idea that a work of art is primarily its content,
she claims, and the focus of the idea behind the art is stifling the sensuous
aspects when we encounter a work of art. Her reasoning against
interpretation is that seeing what art is 'saying' sets up "a shadow world of
'meanings'" and "tames the work of art" as she states that great artworks
have transcendental power to effect people, having the ability, for example,

to "make you feel nervous" when one does not interpret art (1990). Whilst I
agree that looking at an artwork that you lack an academic understanding of
can result in an aesthetic experience, I think it is implausible to say such an
experience is exclusive to individuals without knowledge on what it is they
are viewing. In fact, I take the view that academic interpretation, which
draws out possible social, political and economic contexts conveyed in
artworks does not stifle our sensibilities and can in fact heighten our
aesthetic experience by knowing what it is saying. Plato contends that art is
a shadow of a true reality, and that we need to be aware that our beliefs may
not always be a reflection of the reality, concluding that art isnt useful. I
believe however that artists aim to represent a transcendent in their
artworks. What they produce is driven by their existence, by their motives,
whether conventionalised or not, it is true to their reality. Sontag believes
that we save art from Plato's view if we stop interpreting it as we will just
focus on its capacity to affect us instead of its meaning (1990). However, it
does not seem that we solve the argument that Plato proposes against art. If
art were proposed without initial interpretation we would be presented with
vast amounts of interpretations which may hold no real relevance at all.
Multiple interpretations arise as shown from experience and lack of cultural
knowledge due to signs and signifiers. I believe that these interpretations
arise when one reflects inwards and draws from own personal experience to
attach meanings of artworks to our emotions, memories and thoughts. As
individual connotations are specific it allows people the freedom to project

their own viewpoint of artworks. On the other hand, this viewpoint is not
exclusive to simply just artworks where an interpretation is given, it is
possible that interpretation can intrude in on your perspective of it and affect
how one feels, but if Sontag states that "great art should make you nervous"
then great art should surely still achieve that as it has been interpreted
(1990). By being given an interpretation on it, for example political works can
make the work stronger and ground it for you. Ultimately, art should
challenge your views and expand your thinking and by understanding the
conveyed meaning it is more likely for that to have an effect on you. Not to
mention this people interpret without having academia do it for them. As
most contemporary art focuses on ideas, it is inherent that interpretations
consistently and naturally occur. If people didn't interpret through semiotics
and connotations what conveyed meanings were represented in artworks it
would stay rather stagnant.

The 21st century is saturated with social media and advertising and
constantly signifies what the ideal body is. O' Shaughnessy
shows that the media is an "agent of socialisation, ... and
communicates ideologies" (1999;349), as it communicates
ideologies through "appearing to offer pleasure and power"
(1999;361) but ultimately goes into a "traditional view of
feminine roles and ideal feminity"(1999;365). The recent

advert on the left, applying O'

Shaughnessy, offers that if you have a
certain body type, then you have the
pleasure and power of wearing a bikini
on the beach because of the way you
look. The advert implies that women
must have a particular body shape that complies with conception of beauty
to be able to wear a bikini. Feminism established itself in the beginning of
the 1900s and sought to understand the long history of woman's oppression
and aimed to alter gender roles and identities in social contexts. Feminists
question the power relations of men and women that result in these adverts
are aimed at women, more so than men. Similarly to art movements and
time periods prior to the 21st century, artists produce works to change body
ideals. It is clear that from the time of Baroque paintings up until this advert
that traditional roles and power relations have not shifted and still exist
despite artworks rebellion against ideals.
Above is an image I drew to convey the meaning that O' Shaughnessy
describes. I have signified man's ideal over woman. I positioned the man
coming out of the woman as it is our bodies which are a site where we
process images and the female body has standards that are embedded in
western culture created by men.

We come to know the world through our senses and in our mind's eye
interpret our social context, and via our experiences that are both commonly
and uniquely shared to us. Similarly to how our bodies take in the
surrounding world and we have the choice to agree and accept these values,
the uptake of women adopting the body ideal works similarly. As sight is
located from our body and is how we come to know, it is unstoppable when
looking at images of bodies to deter away from a reflection of our own. I take
this to be the case because, and to paraphrase Berger, the male gaze is
embedded in our culture and consciousness that we look at ourselves as
men do (1972). I believe that this is a determinant for why ideals pertain
throughout time in western culture and an ongoing tension between
surrender or resist to body ideals.

I have demonstrated that art is a product of its time. Artists produce works
dependent upon the their experiences in their social context and through
semiotics their productions open a doorway into their world. Throughout
history the development of the nude articulate concepts of the self, others
and social values and beliefs and ultimately it's representation and
understanding has constantly transformed. Art is used as an open doorway
and through semiotics and the period eye it aids viewer to see how people
viewed and understood their world.

Word count

4761

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