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SURFACE MINING

Surface mining is a method of mining used to extract minerals and metals which are near
the surface of the Earth. Called Surface Mining because mine is open to the sky where mineral of
interest is being excavated. in which the overlying rock is left behind, and the required mineral
deposits are removed through shafts or tunnels.
Surface mining is basically employed when deposits of commercially viable minerals or
rock are found closer to the surface; that is, where overstrain (surface material covering the
valuable deposit) is relatively very less or the material of interest is structurally unsuitable for
heavy handling or tunneling (as would usually be the case for sand, cinder, and gravel).
Where ever minerals occur deep below the earths crest or the overburden is too thick or
the mineral occurs as strands in hard rock, Underground mining methods are employed to
extract the valuable mineral deposits. Surface mines are naturally extended until either the
valuable deposit is exhausted, or the cost of de-cresting larger volumes of overburden makes
further mining an uneconomic option to shoulder.
In most types of surface mining, heavy paraphernalia's such as earthmovers are utilized.
They 1st remove the overburden the soil and rock above the deposit. Then followed by the huge
machines, such as dragline excavators, extract the mineral
Surface mining began in the mid-sixteenth century[1] and is practiced throughout the
world, although the majority of surface mining occurs in North America. [2] It gained popularity
throughout the 20th century, and is now the predominant form of mining in coal beds such as
those in Appalachia and America's Midwest.
These methods are much more economical than underground mining, yet they can have
a more significant impact on the surrounding environment unless efforts are taken to reclaim the
land.
Ground or rock that contains enough of some mineral of value to pay for extraction is
called Ore. Gets a little awkward with coal because coal miners consider ore to be a hardrock
term. They expect that when you call coal coal that you will already figure out that it is valuable.
The stuff that sits on top of ore and has to be moved to surface mine the ore is called
Overburden

OPEN PIT
SUMMARY
This review will first define the difference between open pit mines and quarries. It will then cover the details on open pit mining
methods, design aspects, and gives an example of an open pit mine. In the later half, quarrying is covered with more focus on
the sequence of mining in a quarry. Its characteristics, mining machineries involved, and publications are also mentioned.
Finally, a few more topics are covered which include computer codes, laws, and codes of practice. Publications, organizations,
and a list of companies supplying to the quarrying industry are also given.

INTRODUCTION

Open pit mining is the process of mining a near surface deposit by means of a surface pit excavated using one or more
horizontal benches. The term open pit mining is usually used for metallic or non-metallic deposits and sparingly used for
bedded deposits like coal. A quarry is a type of open pit mine used to mine building materials (construction aggregate, riprap,
sand and gravel) and dimension stones usually at shallower depths. The term quarry has traditionally been used to mine
stones.

OPEN PIT MINING


The ores in an open pit mine are covered by overburden. Both the ores and overburden are removed in benches ranging from
height 9 m to 30 m. A thin deposit may require one or few benches but a thick deposit needs more number of benches and the
pit in its production stage resembles like an inverted cone.
Design Aspects of Open Pit Mining:
1. Ultimate pit depth:
This is the maximum depth of the mine that it will reach at the end of its life. This is decided by economic reasons and a
breakeven point is decided beyond which it is not economic to continue production. As this depends on economic conditions, a
mine closed in 1980s can become economic now, as happened in case of Copper Mountain Project.
2. Bench Height:
The bench height is usually decided by the economic reach of the mining equipment used in the mine. As a thumb rule, a
bench height is equal to the economic bucket height of an excavator (like shovel or loader) plus 3 m. The thickness of the
orebody and its dip and the thickness overburden also play a deciding role in the bench height. As mentioned in Coal Trading,
the bench height depends up on:

a) Deposit character and geology: selectivity


b) Production strategy: ore/waste ratios, blending requirements, no. of working faces, operating/capital costs, etc.
c) Slope stability considerations
d) Equipment set / equipment specific optimum geometry
3. Bench Slope:
Bench Slope is decided by the geo-technical conditions of the overburden and the orebody.
4. Overall pit slope:
This is also decided by the geo-technical stability of the rocks in the mine, bench height and bench slope. Overall pit slope is
always less than the bench slope.
5. Bench Width:
This is usually decided based on the space required for the operation of the equipment on it.
6. Haul Road Width & Slope:
This depends on the operating parameters of the trucks and other hauling equipment used in the mine. It is always wider than
the bench width.
7. Bench Length:
The length of the bench depends on the production rate. A bench will be longer for higher production rate. Usually, blasting at
one bench is done not more than once a week. The extent of the orebody also has a deciding role here.
A simple diagram showing different design parameters is shown below:

A typical set of bench height, bench with and bench slope are given below:

Bingham Canyon Mine (1990), (source - Introductory Mining Engineering, Hartman)

Total production of waste and ore = 290,000 tonnes per day

Longest horizontal dimension of pit = 4,000 m

Pit Depth = 800 m

Drills - Roller bits rotary drills, 0.3 m dia

Shovel - 26 m3

Truck - 172 tonnes

Metals recovered: Cu, Mo, Au, Ag

Strip ratio - 0.83 / 1.0

Average grade - 0.6% Cu

Cut-off grade - 0.23% Cu

Wikipedia gives a very wide list of major open pit mines currently operating in the world.
Surface Mining by B. A. Kennedy provides an excellent source for mining engineers and students to know about open pit
mining.

QUARRIES
Most quarries have smaller and vertical benches. Some of the quarries do not have any bench while some even have a
highwall up to 300m.
The kinds of rocks extracted from quarries comprise:

Cinder

Chalk

China Clay

Clay

Coal

Coquina

Construction aggregate (sand and gravel)

Globigerina Limestone (Malta)

Granite

Gritstone

Gypsum

Limestone

Ores

Phosphate rock

Sandstone

Slate

Marble

SEQUENCE OF DEVELOPMENT
A quarry usually goes through the following stages before reaching the production stage:
1. Prospecting and Exploration:
The following properties of the rock are studied in the prospecting programs: physical & mineralogical properties, color and
appearance, uniformity, strength, flaws, cracks, etc.
2. Development:
Along with the removal of overburden, development stage also involves developing the processing and other construction
facility near the quarry. The main role of the processing facility is to cut and polish the rock. Large amount of wastes are
generated in processing, so it is required to plan for some storage/dump space for the cuttings.
3. Production: The stones/materials in a quarry are excavated with any of these methods:
a) Drill and Blast:
Depending upon the quality and fineness of the material desired, the drilling and blasting requirements are set. The more
uniformity is required in the rock excavated, the more drilling and controlled blasting will be
required. Light gunpowder is used as explosive to avoid any shattering effect which can bring
a significant destruction of the stone shape and quality. Two types of blasting methods are
used for quarrying:
(i) Wedges method
(ii)Plug-and-feather method
b) Compressed Air/Water and Explosives:
A small charge of dynamite is used to create cracks in the stone, which is then cut with
compressed air or water to widen the cracks and break the stone.
c) Channelling and Use of Saw:
Channelling involves cutting long and narrow channels into the rock to free up a slice from the
large rocks. Three techniques are used:
(i) Large amount of single-line drilling with a small shattering
(ii) Single line drilling with use of expansion mortars (non-explosives) like Dexpan and Rockfrac
(iii) Single-line drilling with use of non-explosives like NonexTM and Magnum BusterTM, which uses non-detonating chemicals to
break rocks.
(iv) Use of a saw to produce vertical or horizontal cuts in the rock itself. Three types of saw are mainly used: Disc/crosscut Saw,
Chain Saw and Diamond Wire Saw

Disc/Crosscut Saw, Tanamerah Quarry

Chain Saw to produce vertical cuts (Albion Quarry, Isle of Portland)

Diamond wire saw (Photo: Stonebtb.com

4. Reclamation of quarries:
The main tasks involved in the reclamation of quarries are:
(i) Stability Monitoring - to analyse the long-term stability of areas or a particular landform in and around the quarry
(ii) Grassland Establishment - to restore on grasslands waste pile
(iii) Tree Establishment - to restore the quarry sites through trees plantation. Trees restoration in a quarry site is a long term
process and usually does not provide any significant visual impact in 10 years. Selection of tree species is also important
(iv) Landscape Assessment for future application of the landforms for future application and habitat creation.
Reclamation of Limestone Quarries by Landform Simulation gives a very descriptive detail on the reclamation of a quarry.
An executive summary for the same can be found at the above link.

EQUIPMENT USED IN QUARRIES


Here are some of the equipment used in quarries:

Conveyors

Crushers

Forklifts

Front end loaders

Hammer drills

Saws

Trucks

Wheel loaders

CHARACTERISTICS
Here are the advatages and disadvantages of quarry mining that I took from Introductory Mining Engineering book, by Howard
L. Hartman and Jan M. Mutmansky:
Advantages:

Low capital cost and low mechanization

Suited to some small deposits

Easily accessible; hoisting may complicate moving stones, supplies and workers

Stable wall and benches; generally no bank support required

High selectivity; can discard low quality stones

Good safety; little chance of slope failures

Disadvantages:

Somewhat limited by depth; usually less than 90m, can be up to 300m

Low productivity; high labor costs

Highest mining cost because of low productivity

Low production rate

Relatively skilled labor is required

Inflexible; cannot easily change the mining plan at depth

Mechanisation is limited by the nature of the method

Complicated and costly rock breakage method because of inability to use the maximum power of explosives

Waste can be 60% to 90%

Strip Mining
Strip mining is a kind of surface mining. The ore is very near to the surface of the land but has
one or more layers of rock and filth on top of it. To mine the ore, these layers have to be removed.

Area mining usually progresses in a series of parallel deep trenches referred to as


furrows or strips. The length of these strips may be hundreds of metres. Contour
mining progresses in a narrow zone following the outcrop of a mineral seam in
mountainous terrain.

This type of mining uses some of the largest machines on earth, includingbucket-wheel
excavators which can move as much as 12,000 cubic meters of earth per hour.
There are two forms of strip mining. The more common method is "area stripping", which is used
on fairly flat terrain, to extract deposits over a large area. As each long strip is excavated, the
overburden is placed in the excavation produced by the previous strip.
"Contour stripping" involves removing the overburden above the mineral seam near
the outcrop in hilly terrain, where the mineral outcrop usually follows the contour of the land.
Contour stripping is often followed by auger mining into the hillside, to remove more of the
mineral. This method commonly leaves behind terraces in mountainsides.

The steps in strip mining are similar to open-pit mining. The steps are:

The trees and bushes are pushed down through bulldozers.

This waste, along with the filth or sand under it, is taken to a close area and dumped.

Lots of minute holes are drilled from the rock that is above the coal or mineral bed [vein]

Explosives are put in the holes and blazed. This breaks up the rock which is taken to the
dumping area.

When the coal or mineral is found, it may be broken up by the blazing. The size of the
chunks is important because the miners don't normally want it in minute pieces. They
usually want it in pieces that are capable to be moved with big machinery.

This mining is done in elongated, narrow strips. When the ore is done in one strip, the
miners start to create another strip next to it. The waste, filth, and rock that they take off
of the top of the next strip is put on top of the last one. This is recurring until the last strip
is done and the waste from the primary strip is brought back to fill it.

Strip mining, like other types of surface mining, finishes in hurting the area around the mine. The
rock, gravel, trees, plants, and filth are dumped in regions round the mine. When it rains, this
runs over the land and into watercourse and rivers. The rain pushes the mine filth on top of the
region topsoil and buries it. The streams lands up being blocked and rivers flood. Water is impure
by the flooding.
The mined land was normally ruined, too. There were no vegetation left. The topper most layer of
the soil was bulldozed under the rock. It became the cheap and swift way to mine awaiting the
U.S. Government made mining firms fix [regain] the land when the mining was done.
To regain land, mining firms have to fix the land and make it like it was prior to. With strip mining,
waste was pushed onto the final strip mined. This lands up making a whole bunch of rows that
require to be leveled when mining is done. The mining firm has bulldozers flatten the elevated
strips until they are all even. Topsoil is bulldozed over the top of the whole thing and trees and
grasses are planted.

In the past, strip-mined mineral deposits that became exhausted or uneconomical to


mine often were simply abandoned. The result was a barren sawtooth, lunarlike
landscape of spoil piles hostile to natural vegetation and generally unsuitable for any
immediate land use. Such spoil areas are now routinely reclaimed and permanent
vegetation reestablished as an integral part of surface-miningoperations.
Generally, reclamation is performed concurrently with mining.

MOUNTAIN TOP REMOVAL


Mountaintop removal mining (MTR), also known as mountaintop mining (MTM), is a form
of surface mining that involves the mining of the summit or summit ridge of a mountain. CoaL
seams are extracted from a mountain by removing the land, or overburden, above the seams.

This method of coal mining is conducted in the Appalachian Mountains in the eastern United
States. Explosives are used to remove up to 400 vertical feet (120 m) of mountain to expose
underlying coal seams. Excess rock and soil is dumped into nearby valleys, in what are called
"holler fills" or "valley fills. Less expensive to execute and requiring fewer employees,
mountaintop removal mining began in Appalachia in the 1970s as an extension of conventional
strip mining techniques. It is primarily occurring in Kentucky, West Virginia, Virginia, and
Tennessee.
The practice of mountaintop removal mining has been controversial. The coal industry cites
economic benefits and asserts that mountaintop removal is safer than underground mining.
Published scientific studies have found that mountaintop mining has serious environmental
impacts that mitigation practices cannot successfully address. A high potential for human health
impacts has also been reported.[4]

Overview
Mountaintop removal mining (MTR), also known as mountaintop mining (MTM), is a form
of surface mining that involves the topographical alteration and/or removal of a summit,
hill, or ridge to access buried coal seams.
The MTR process involves the removal of coal seams by first fully removing
the overburden laying atop them, exposing the seams from above. This method differs from more
traditional underground mining, where typically a narrow shaft is dug which allows miners to
collect seams using various underground methods, while leaving the vast majority of the
overburden undisturbed. The overburden from MTR is either placed back on the ridge,
attempting to reflect the approximate original contour of the mountain, and/or it is moved into
neighboring valleys.
Excess rock and soil containing mining byproducts are disposed into nearby valleys, in what are
called "holler fills" or "valley fills."[1][3][7]
MTR in the United States is most often associated with the extraction of coal in the Appalachian
Mountains, where the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates that
2,200 square miles (5,700 km2) of Appalachian forests will be cleared for MTR sites by the year
2012.[8] Sites range from Ohio to Virginia.[6] It occurs most commonly in West Virginia and
Eastern Kentucky, the top two coal-producing states in Appalachia, with each state using
approximately 1,000 tonnes of explosives per day for surface mining.[9] At current rates, MTR in
the U.S. will mine over 1.4 million acres (5,700 km) by 2010,[10] an amount of land area that
exceeds that of the state of Delaware.
Mountaintop removal has been practiced since the 1960s.[6] Increased demand for coal in the
United States, sparked by the 1973 and 1979 petroleum crises, created incentives for a more
economical form of coal mining than the traditional underground mining methods involving

hundreds of workers, triggering the first widespread use of MTR. Its prevalence expanded further
in the 1990s to retrieve relatively low-sulfur coal, a cleaner-burning form, which became
desirable as a result of amendments to the U.S. Clean Air Act that tightened emissions limits on
high-sulfur coal processing.[11]

Process[edit]

US EPA diagram of mountaintop mining:


"Step 1. Layers of rock and dirt above the coal (called overburden) are removed."
"Step 2. The upper seams of coal are removed with spoils placed in an adjacent valley."
"Step 3. Draglines excavate lower layers of coal with spoils placed in spoil piles."
"Step 4. Regrading begins as coal excavation continues."
"Step 5. Once coal removal is completed, final regrading takes place and the area is revegetated."

Land is deforested prior to mining operations and the resultant lumber is either sold[11] or burned.
[12]

According to the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (SMCRA), the topsoil is

supposed to be removed and set aside for later reclamation.[11] However, coal companies are
often granted waivers and instead reclaim the mountain with "topsoil substitute." The waivers are
granted if adequate amounts of topsoil are not naturally present on the rocky ridge top. Once the
area is cleared, miners use explosives to blast away the overburden, the rock and subsoil, to
expose coal seams beneath. The overburden is then moved by various mechanical means to
areas of the ridge previously mined. These areas are the most economical area of storage as
they are located close to the active pit of exposed coal. If the ridge topography is too steep to
adequately handle the amount of spoil produced then additional storage is used in a nearby
valley or hollow, creating what is known as a valley fill or hollow fill.[13] Any streams in a valley are
buried by the overburden.[6]
A front-end loader or excavator then removes the coal, where it is transported to a processing
plant. Once coal removal is completed, the mining operators back stack overburden from the
next area to be mined into the now empty pit. After backstacking and grading of overburden has
been completed, topsoil (or a topsoil substitute) is layered over the overburden layer. Next, grass
seed is spread in a mixture of seed, fertilizer, and mulch made from recycled newspaper.
Depending on surface land owner wishes the land will then be further reclaimed by adding trees
if the pre-approved post-mining land use is forest land or wildlife habitat. If the land owner has
requested other post-mining land uses the land can be reclaimed to be used as pasture land,
economic development or other uses specified in SMCRA.[14]

Because coal usually exists in multiple geologically stratified seams, miners can often repeat the
blasting process to mine over a dozen seams on a single mountain, increasing the mine depth
each time. This can result in a vertical descent of hundreds of extra feet into the earth. [11]

Economics[edit]
Almost half of the electricity generated in the United States is produced by coal-fired power
plants. MTR accounted for less than 5% of U.S. coal production as of 2001. [10] In some regions,
however, the percentage is higher, for example MTR provided 30% of the coal mined in West
Virginia in 2006.[15]
Historically in the U.S. the prevalent method of coal acquisition was underground mining which is
very labor-intensive. In MTR, through the use of explosives and large machinery, more than two
and a half times as much coal can be extracted per worker per hour than in traditional
underground mines,[16] thus greatly reducing the need for workers. In Kentucky, for example, the
number of workers has declined over 60% from 1979 to 2006 (from 47,190 to 17,959 workers).
[17]

The industry overall lost approximately 10,000 jobs from 1990 to 1997, as MTR and other

more mechanized underground mining methods became more widely used. [18] The coal industry
asserts that surface mining techniques, such as mountaintop removal, are safer for miners than
sending miners underground.[19]
Proponents argue that in certain geologic areas, MTR and similar forms of surface mining allow
the only access to thin seams of coal that traditional underground mining would not be able to
mine. MTR is sometimes the most cost-effective method of extracting coal.[20]
Several studies of the impact of restrictions to mountaintop removal were authored in 2000
through 2005. Studies by Mark L. Burton, Michael J. Hicks and Cal Kent identified significant
state level tax losses attributable to lower levels of mining (notably the studies did not examine
potential environmental costs, which the authors acknowledge may outweigh commercial
benefits).[21] Mountaintop removal sites are normally restored after the mining operation is
complete, but "reclaimed soils characteristically have higher bulk density, lower organic content,
low water-infiltration rates, and low nutrient content. [22]

Legislation in the United States[edit]


In the United States, MTR is allowed by section 515(c)(1) of the Surface Mining Control and
Reclamation Act of 1977. Although most coal mining sites must be reclaimed to the land's premining contour and use, regulatory agencies can issue waivers to allow MTR. [23] In such
cases, SMCRA dictates that reclamation must create "a level plateau or a gently rolling contour
with no highwalls remaining."[24]

Permits must be obtained to deposit valley fill into streams. On four occasions, federal courts
have ruled that the US Army Corps of Engineers violated the Clean Water Act by issuing such
permits.[8][25] Massey Energy Company is currently appealing a 2007 ruling, but has been allowed
to continue mining in the meantime because "most of the substantial harm has already
occurred," according to the judge.[8]
The Bush administration appealed one of these rulings in 2001 because the Act had not explicitly
defined "fill material" that could legally be placed in a waterway. The EPA andArmy Corps of
Engineers changed a rule to include mining debris in the definition of fill material, and the ruling
was overturned.[8][26]
On December 2, 2008, the Bush Administration made a rule change to remove the Stream
Buffer Zone protection provision from SMCRA allowing coal companies to place mining waste
rock and dirt directly into headwater waterways.[27]
A federal judge has also ruled that using settling ponds to remove mining waste from streams
violates the Clean Water Act. He also declared that the Army Corps of Engineers has no
authority to issue permits allowing discharge of pollutants into such in-stream settling ponds,
which are often built just below valley fills.[28]
On January 15, 2008, the environmental advocacy group Center for Biological
Diversity petitioned the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) to end a policy that waives
detailed federal Endangered Species Act reviews for new mining permits. The current policy
states that MTR can never damage endangered species or their habitat as long as mining
operators comply with federal surface mining law, despite the complexities of species and
ecosystems. Since 1996, this policy has exempted many strip mines from being subject to
permit-specific reviews of impact on individual endangered species.[29] Because of the 1996
Biological Opinion by FWS making case-by-case formal reviews unnecessary, the Interior's
Office of Surface Mining and state regulators require mining companies to hire a governmentapproved contractor to conduct their own surveys for any potential endangered species. The
surveys require approval from state and federal biologists, who provide informal guidance on
how to minimize mines' potential effects to species. While the agencies have the option to ask for
formal endangered species consultations during that process, they do so very rarely.[30]
On May 25, 2008, North Carolina State Representative Pricey Harrison introduced a bill to ban
the use of mountaintop removal coal from coal-fired power plants within North Carolina. This
proposed legislation would have been the only legislation of its kind in the United States;
however, the bill was defeated.[31]

Environmental and health impacts[edit]

The Hobet mine in West Virginia taken by NASA LANDSAT in 1984

The Hobet mine in West Virginia taken by NASA LANDSAT in 2009

Critics contend that MTR is a destructive and unsustainable practice that benefits a small number
of corporations at the expense of local communities and the environment. Though the main issue
has been over the physical alteration of the landscape, opponents to the practice have also
criticized MTR for the damage done to the environment by massive transport trucks, and the
environmental damage done by the burning of coal for power. Blasting at MTR sites also expels
dust and fly-rock into the air, which can disturb or settle onto private property nearby. This dust
may contain sulfur compounds, which corrodes structures and is a health hazard. [32]
A January 2010 report in the journal Science reviews current peer-reviewed studies and water
quality data and explores the consequences of mountaintop mining. It concludes that
mountaintop mining has serious environmental impacts that mitigation practices cannot
successfully address.[33] For example, the extensive tracts of deciduous forests destroyed by
mountaintop mining support several endangered species and some of the highest biodiversity in
North America. There is a particular problem with burial of headwater streams by valley fills
which causes permanent loss of ecosystems that play critical roles in ecological processes. In
addition, increases in metal ions, pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids due to elevated
concentrations of sulfate are closely linked to the extent of mining in West Virginia watersheds.
[33]

Declines in stream biodiversity have been linked to the level of mining disturbance in West

Virginia watersheds.[34]
Published studies also show a high potential for human health impacts. These may result from
contact with streams or exposure to airborne toxins and dust. Adult hospitalization for chronic

pulmonary disorders and hypertension are elevated as a result of county-level coal production.
Rates of mortality, lung cancer, as well as chronic heart, lung and kidney disease are also
increased.[33] A 2011 study found that counties in and near mountaintop mining areas had higher
rates of birth defects for five out of six types of birth defects, including circulatory/respiratory,
musculoskeletal, central nervous system, gastrointestinal, and urogenital defects. These defect
rates were more pronounced in the most recent period studied, suggesting the health effects of
mountaintop mining-related air and water contamination may be cumulative. [35] Another 2011
study found "the odds for reporting cancer were twice as high in the mountaintop mining
environment compared to the non mining environment in ways not explained by age, sex,
smoking, occupational exposure, or family cancer history.[36]
A United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) environmental impact statement finds
that streams near some valley fills from mountaintop removal contain higher levels of minerals in
the water and decreased aquatic biodiversity.[7] Mine-affected streams also have high selenium
concentrations, which can bioaccumulate and produce toxic effects (e.g., reproductive failure,
physical deformity, mortality), and these effects have been documented in reservoirs below
streams (Lemly 2008).[37] The statement also estimates that 724 miles (1,165 km) of Appalachian
streams were buried by valley fills between 1985 to 2001. [7] On September 28, 2010, the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agencys (EPA) independent Science Advisory Board (SAB) released
their first draft review of EPAs research into the water quality impacts of valley fills associated
with mountaintop mining, agreeing with EPAs conclusion that valley fills are associated with
increased levels of conductivity threatening aquatic life in surface waters. [38]
Although U.S. mountaintop removal sites by law must be reclaimed after mining is complete,
reclamation has traditionally focused on stabilizing rock formations and controlling for erosion,
and not on the reforestation of the affected area.[39] Fast-growing, non-native flora such
as Lespedeza cuneata, planted to quickly provide vegetation on a site, compete with tree
seedlings, and trees have difficulty establishing root systems in compacted backfill.
[7]

Consequently, biodiversity suffers in a region of the United States with numerousendemic

species.[40] In addition, reintroduced elk (Cervus canadensis) on mountaintop removal sites in


Kentucky are eating tree seedlings.
Advocates of MTR claim that once the areas are reclaimed as mandated by law, the area can
provide flat land suitable for many uses in a region where flat land is at a premium. They also
maintain that the new growth on reclaimed mountaintop mined areas is better suited to support
populations of game animals.[41] While some of the land is able to be turned into grassland which
game animals can live in, the amount of grassland is minimal. The land does not retake the form
it had before the MTR. As stated in the bookBringing Down the Mountains: "Some of the main
problems associated with MTR include soil depletion, sedimentation, low success rate of tree
regrowth, lack of successful revegetation, displacement of native wildlife, and burial of
streams."[42] The ecological benefits after MTR are far below the level of the original land.

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