BODY WAVES
Traveling through the interior of the earth, body waves arrive before the surface
waves emitted by an earthquake. These waves are of a higher frequency than surface
waves.
P WAVES
S WAVES
P WAVES
fastest kind of seismic wave, and, consequently, the first to 'arrive' at a seismic
station.
Move through solid rock and fluids, like water or the liquid layers of the
earth.
pushes and pulls the rock it moves through just like sound waves push and
pull the air
P waves are also known as compressional waves, because of the pushing and
pulling
particles move in the same direction that the the wave is moving in called
the 'direction of wave propagation'.
S WAVES
S wave is slower than a P wave and can only move through solid rock.
SURFACE WAVES
Travelling only through the crust, surface waves are of a lower frequency than
body waves
This damage and the strength of the surface waves are reduced in deeper
earthquakes.
LOVE WAVES
RAYLEIGH WAVES
LOVE WAVES
It's the fastest surface wave and moves the ground from side-to-side.
Confined to the surface of the crust, Love waves produce entirely horizontal
motion.
RAYLEIGH WAVES
A Rayleigh wave rolls along the ground just like a wave rolls across a lake or
an ocean. Because it rolls, it moves the ground up and down, and side-to-side
in the same direction that the wave is moving
Black Hole
A black hole is a mathematically defined region of spacetime exhibiting such a
strong gravitational pull that no particle or electromagnetic radiation can escape
from it.
The theory of general relativity predicts that a sufficiently compact mass can
deform spacetime to form a black hole.
(In order to understand this, considered a sheet of rubber, with a weight placed on it,
to represent a star. The weight will form a depression in the rubber, and will cause
the sheet near the star to be curved, rather than flat. If one now rolls marbles on the
rubber sheet, their paths will be curved, rather than being straight lines.
Consider now placing heavier and heavier, and more and more concentrated weights
on the rubber sheet. They will depress the sheet more and more. Eventually, at a
critical weight and size, they will make a bottomless hole in the sheet, that particles
can fall into, but nothing can get out of. )
A black hole has a boundary, called the event horizon.
It is where gravity is just strong enough to drag light back, and prevent it escaping.
Because nothing can travel faster than light, everything else will get dragged back
also.
Most black holes form from the remnants of a large star that dies in a supernova
explosion. (Smaller stars become dense neutron stars, which are not massive enough
to trap light.) If the total mass of the star is large enough (about three times the mass
of the Sun), it can be proven theoretically that no force can keep the star from
collapsing under the influence of gravity.
A black hole contains a lot of information that is hidden from the outside world.But
there's a limit to the amount of information, one can pack into a region of space.
Information requires energy, and energy has mass, by Einstein's famous equation, E
= m c squared. So if there's too much information in a region of space, it will collapse
into a black hole, and the size of the black hole will reflect the amount of
information.
As particles escape from a black hole the hole will lose mass, and shrink.This will
increase the rate of emission of particles. Eventually, the black hole will lose all its
mass, and disappear.
Between each of these circulation cells are bands of high and low pressure at the
surface. The high pressure band is located about 30 N/S latitude and at each pole.
Low pressure bands are found at the equator and 50-60 N/S.
southward moving air again deflects to the right, becoming the northeasterly trade
winds.
Because of the circulation in the Hadley cell, two pressure belts are created. The first
is a belt of semipermanent high pressure that results from the sinking air at 30. This
belt of high pressure is called the subtropical ridge. The second pressure belt is a
trough of low pressure near the Equator. It is called the near equatorial trough.
At ground level , the ITCZ experiences only very gentle variable winds known as
the doldrums.
Polar Cell
This is the northern most cell of circulation and its mean position is between 60N
and the North Pole. At the pole, cold, dense air descends, causing an area of
subsidence and high pressure.
As the air sinks, it begins spreading southward. Since the coriolis force is strongest at
the poles, the southward moving air deflects sharply to the right. This wind regime
is called the surface polar easterlies, although the upper winds are still
predominantly from the southwest.
exchange of polar air moving southward and tropical air moving northward. This
best explains why the mid-latitudes experience the widest range of weather types.
El Nino
What is El Nino?
Occurs @every 3-4 years; [In theory, it should occur @every 12 years].
Trade Winds
In above image, the red (warm) water region around Australia is called
Western Pacific Pool (WPP)
WPP = low pressure = warm air ascends = cloud formation = rain over North
Australia
This air also joins walker cell and begins descending near Peru.
2. Above water Moving of air from Australia towards Peru Warm water +
low atmospheric pressure = good rainfall over Australia & Indonesia.
2.
Trade Winds
Result?
Too many fishes @Peru coast, oversupply of fishes= prices become dirt cheap
1.
2.
Trade Winds
But reverse happens warm water is dragged from Australia towards Peru.
Since Pressure is inversely related with amount of rainfall, the results are following
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
El Nino decreases earths rotation rate, decreases Coriolis force and increases
length of day. (La Nina creates opposite). How? Because El Nino changes the
wind pattern, hence Earth needs change speed to conserve its angular
momentum of Earth-Atmospheric system.
But the wind movement is part of larger atmospheric circulation hence affects
the rainfaill over India. But how?
We learned that During normal year, the warm water moves towards Australia, this
pool of warm water is called Western Pacific Pool (WPP). From WPP air rises above
and moves towards two walker cells
1.
2.
Towards Mascarene High Pressure zone near East Africa. = This affect Indian
monsoon.
Normal Pattern ::
El Nino Time ::
Distribution of Rainfall
The distribution of rainfall over the country, as we have noted earlier, is determined
by two main factors. These are: (1) the direction of the rain bearing winds and (2) the
position of the mountain ranges.
Due to these factors about 30 per cent of the area of our country receives from 15 to
80 cm; 40 per cent receives from 80 to 120 cm; 20 percent gets from 120 to 180 cm and
about 10 percent receives over 200 cm.
On the basis of the amount of rainfall our country can be divided into four rainfall
regions as follows:
1. Region of very heavy
Areas with over 300cm of rain are the southern slopes of the Eastern Himalayas,
Assam, Bengal and the West Coast Region comprising the Konkan and the Malabar
Coast.
2. Regions of heavy rainfall
Areas with rainfall between 200 to 300 cm are the Middle Ganga Valley. Western
Ghats, Eastern Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa.
3, Regions of moderate rainfall
Areas withl OOto 200 cm of rainfal are the Upper Ganga valley, Easterr Rajasthan
and Punjab, Southern Deccan comprising the plateau regions of Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
4. Regions of Scanty rainfall
Areas with less than 50 cm are the northern part of Kashmir, western Rajasthan,
southern Punjab and regions of the Deccan in the rain shadow of the Western Ghats.
Season
On the basis of the monsoon variation, the meteorologists recognize the four distinct
seasons in India such as:
1) Summer (March to May)
2) South west Monsoon.
(June to September)
3) North East Monsoon
(October to November).
4) Winter (December lo February)
1. Summer (March-May)
45 C.
Due to this high temperature, low pressure conditions prevail over northern
part of India.
Southern parts of India has moderate weather conditions because of its
India.
Because of the atomospheric pressure conditions, the winds blow from south
Strong hot winds blow during day time over northern and northwest parts of
India are called as 'Loo winds'.
Low pressure conditions over northwestern parts of India and high pressure
Ocean.
When they approach the Southern part of Kerala they give rain with violent
thunderstorms indicating the onset of the monsoon and lightning. This
of September.
The weather is generally hot and humid during this season.
The south west Monsoon is normally divided into two branches because of
the peninsular shape of the country. They are Arabian Sea branch and Bay of
Bengal branch.
The third part of this wind moves towards Rajasthan where the Aravalli
Mountains stand parallel to the direction of this wind. Hence it is not able to
strike against the mountain and does not give any rain to Rajasthan.
This is the reason why a part of Western Rajasthan remains lo be a desert. This
wind then reaches Himachal Pradesh and combines with the Bay of Bengal
branch. It gets obstructed by the Shiwalik hills and gives a good rainfall to the
foot hills of this region.
India.
A part of this branch gets deflected by the Himalayas and moves towards the
The South West Monsoon begins to retreat from the Northern India by second
week of September because of the apparent movement of the sun towards
tropic of Capricorn.
The landmass of India starts losing heat ,but the sea is still in warm condition.
High Pressure develops over the land and low pressure over the sea.
Therefore wind blows from high pressure to low pressure that is from land to
sea. It is cold dry wind and gives no rainfall to land mass.
But, when it crosses the Bay of Bengal, it absorbs moisture and gives heavy
rain to the Coromandal coast. So Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu get heavy
During this period, a low pressure depression originates over the Mediterranean
Sea and travels eastwards across Iran and Afghanistan and reaches India. This low
pressure depression Is called 'Western disturbance'.
The Jet stream plays a dominant role in bringing this disturbance to India. This
disturbances causes rainfall in Punjab. Hariyana and Himachal Pradesh which is
very useful for the cultivation of wheat. It also brings snow fall in the hills of
Jammu and Kashmir.
Cyclones ::
Cyclones are of two types - the temperate or mid latitude cyclones and the tropical or
low latitude cyclones.
Typical cyclones are elliptical arrangement of isobars having low pressure at the
centre with a convergence of winds within them. The wind direction in the cyclones
is anti clockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern
hemisphere.
Tropical Cyclones
Tropical cyclones are formed along the zone of confluence of north-east and
Cyclone Thane
The cyclone is mainly raised from the North East monsoon period of
December.
The name Thane was given by Myanmar.
Thane initially developed as a tropical disturbance within the monsoon
trough to the west of Indonesia and later it further developed to form as an
depression.
The cyclone damaged much in Puduchery and Cuddalore, district.
It had the speed of 140 kph was recorded during this period.
It has caused severe damages to agriculture, power transmission lines &
transformers and destroyed the houses.
The population of Monsoon Asia is 3.3billion people over 50% of the worlds
population. Six of the worlds most populated countries are found in
Monsoon Asia.
These countries include: China, India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Japan and
Indonesia.
Overall, Monsoon Asia has a youthful population 30% are under 15 and 8%
are over 60. The key factor in population growth in Monsoon Asia is natural
increase. Between the 1960s and 1970s high birth rates and falling death rates
in many countries led to a population explosion.
Laos is an example of a county with a youthful population 45% of its
population is under 15.
Overall, Monsoon Asias population is 68% rural. However some countries
have a higher urban based population such as Singapore (100%).
Importance of the monsoon rains to Asian people:
These areas provide pleasant living conditions and are also suitable for crop
growing.
Densely population areas in Monsoon Asia
Indian scenario ::
Due to great heat and good rainfall in summer, forests grow in this region. Forests
differ from place to place; evergreen forests grow in areas that receive heavy rainfall.
The chief occupation of the people is agriculture.
The fertile soil, adequate rainfall, high temperature and long growing seasons of this
region help people to grow many crops,. In heavy rainfall receiving areas people
grow rice, maize, cotton, sugar cane, oilseeds, tobacco, etc coconut trees grow in
coastal areas. In dry areas people grow millets and cotton. In other areas people
mainly grow wheat, barley, tea and coffee.
Kerala ::
Good rainfall
Evergreen forest
Forest products (highly valuable) and good agriculture (Plain areas)
Water and irrigations provided by Monsoon (W.Ghats)
High HDI and life expectancy rate high.
Densely populated
Tourism Industries.
Maharashtra ::
It is also called Decidious forest bcos forests shed their leaves due to dryness
Distributions :
The North - eastern states, along the foot hills of the Himalayan Mountains,
Jharkhand, West Orissa, Chattisgarh and on the eastern slopes of the
Western Ghats.
The dry monsoon forests are found on the peninsular plateau, plains of Bihar and
Uttar Pradesh.
Problems ::
The tropical monsoon forests are commercially most exploited. These forests have
also suffered from severe biotic factors such as over - cutting, over grazing and fires.
Social Forestry
The National Commission on Agriculture, Government of India, first used the term
social forestry in 1976. It was then that India embarked upon a social forestry
project with the aim of taking the pressure off the forests and making use of all
unused and fallow land.
Social forestry is the forestry by the people and for the people, whose main purpose
is to fulfill the needs of forestry which are - manure, food, fruit, fibre and productive
capacity. As a whole social forestry's main objective is to reconstruct the ecosystem
and conserve the environment. The National Commission for Farmers has
determined the following objectives for social forestry (i) To cooperate soil conservation and to prevent spoiling the productive capacity of
soil.
(ii) To increase fuel availability and to increase the food modification by increasing
fruit production.
(iii) To encourage plantation of large and beautiful trees which provide shadow to
enhance the natural beauty and to plant all around the cultivation field to increase
production.
(iv) ' To encourage environment conservation by plantation and to create general
consciousness regarding environment conservation.
(v) To enhance the natural beauty of the villages and cities by plantation.
Social forestry scheme can be categorized into groups : farm forestry, community
forestry, extension forestry and agro-forestry.
Farm forestry
Non commercial farm forestry provide shade for the agricultural crops; as
Community forestry
Extension forestry
Planting of trees on the sides of roads, canals and railways, along with
planting on wastelands is known as extension forestry, increasing the
boundaries of forests.
village common lands, government wastelands and panchayat lands.
Agro- forestry
Planting of trees on and around agricultural boundaries, and on marginal, private
lands, in combination with agricultural crops is known as agro-forestry.
Agroforestry is an innovative way to help rural India against poverty and unforeseen
weather events.
Cherry blossom
Conditions of Growth
CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS
India has varied relief features, landforms, climatic realms and vegetation types.
These have contributed in the development of various types of soils in India.
Urvara fertile,
Usara sterile
On the basis of genesis, colour, composition and location, the soils of India have been
classified into:
(i)
Alluvial soils
(ii) Black soils
(iii) Red and Yellow soils
(iv) Laterite soils
(v) Arid soils
(vi) Saline soils
(vii) Peaty soils
(viii) Forest soils.
Alluvial Soils
plains.
Alluvial soils are intensively cultivated.
Gangetic plains ,Brahmaputra plains ,deltas of east coast in peninsular india.
Black Soil :
Also known as Regur or Black Cotton Soil.
parts of Rajasthan, Gujarat, M.P, Maharshtra, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil
Laterite Soil
Present in the areas with High Rainfall and High Temperature.
Areas where found - Tamilnadu. Kerela, Karnataka, M.P. Hilly areas of
Arid Soil :
Saline Soils
Generally found in Arid , semi-Arid or waterlogged and Swampy areas.
contains large proportion of Sodium, Magnesium and potassium. Hence It is
infertile.
Found in western Gujarat, deltas of eastern coast, and in Sunderbans areas
of West Bengal.
Excessive Irrigation also causes Soil to become Saline.
Gypsum is added to solve the problem of salinity.
Peaty Soil
Found in High Rainfall and High Humidity.
Rich in Organic Matter, about 40 to 50% is the organic matter.
Peaty soils are heavy in nature and black in color.
found in coastal parts of Tamil Nadu. Odisha. West Bengal, Norther parts of
Bihar and southern Uttaranchal.
Forest Soil
Found in forests and snow-bound areas of Himalayas.
In lower valleys, it is fertile.
In Himalayas, they are acidic and have low Organic matter.
Deccan Rivers
fluctuate in volume.
Peninsular rivers contribute 30 percent of the total outflow in India.
plateau region.
erosional activities is also relatively low due to the gentler slope.
The hard rock bed and almost absence of silt and sand does not allow any
India.
Very high population pressure, primarily due to migration from
Bangladesh forced people to live in the flood prone area.
UP :
Bihar
Uttar Pradesh and Bihar are the worst flood affected states and account for
over one-third of the flood prone area of the country .
West Bengal
problem of erosion of banks of some of the rivers and on left and right banks
of the Ganga upstream and downstream respectively of the Farakka Barrage.
vast areas.
Punjab-Haryana Plain rain water in the waterlogged and poorly drained .
Satluj, the Beas, the Ghaggar and the Markanda.
Punjab
Haryana
river banks.
Similarly the Chenab and its tributaries like Tawi are often in spate
Flood Management
The subject of flood control, unlike irrigation, does not figure as such in any of
the three legislative lists included in the Constitution State list,Union list and
concurrence list of India.
State Level Mechanism - The State Level Mechanism includes the Water
Resources Departments, State Technical Advisory Committee and Flood
Control Board.
Central Government Mechanism The Union Government has set up
organizations and various expert committees (eg: cental water comission,
NDMA etc.. )
require periodic updates in order to reflect the changing risk of flooding due
to changes in sea level
The creation of flood maps usually combines topographic data with historic or
modeled information on extreme sea levels and wave heights.
The creation of flood hazard maps should promote greater awareness of the
risk of flooding.
More advanced, accurate flood hazard maps are very complex doe to lack of
req. datas and cost expensive
Flood Management
Flood Manageme