Educational Management Administration & Leadership-2014-Minckler-School Leadership That

Article
School leadership that

builds teacher social capital
Educational Management
Administration & Leadership
2014, Vol. 42(5) 657679
The Author(s) 2013
Reprints and permission:
sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/1741143213510502
emal.sagepub.com
Cheri Hoff Minckler
Abstract
This quantitative study explores the relationship between school leadership and the development
and sustenance of teacher social capital. The literature review discusses aspects of leadership
theory to elucidate understanding of how leadership influences teachers working relationships.
Quantitative methodology and analyses ascertain the correlation between Leithwood et al.s
dimensions of transformational leadership and the authors dimensions of teacher social capital.
Study findings indicate significant, positive moderate to high moderate correlations between:
(1) transformational leadership and the environmental conditions nurturing teacher social capital;
(2) leadership and teacher social capital; and (3) leadership and teacher collective efficacy (TCE).
An additional major finding is the perception of higher levels of transformational leadership among
teachers in middle performing and high performing schools as compared to the perceptions of
teachers in low performing schools. This study provides evidence of the importance of transformational leadership in the development of teacher social capital within a school. High levels of
teacher social capital should result in positive outcomes of student achievement, teacher quality
and teacher job satisfaction. The study findings, interpretations and conclusions contribute to both
school leadership and school improvement literature and should inform discussions about leadership development and the impact of leadership on teacher working relationships.
Keywords
collective efficacy, school leadership, teacher social capital, transformational leadership
Introduction
What leaders think, do and say matters (Sparks, 2005). Research tells us that school leaders work
indirectly through: (1) their influence on teachers; and (2) their effect on the learning environment
to improve both teacher quality and student achievement (Griffith, 2003; Leithwood et al., 2008;
Ross and Gray, 2006a). Consequently, one must ask, what are the dispositions, knowledge and
skills demonstrated by effective school leaders, those leaders who have been able to bridge the gap
between mediocrity and achievement by optimizing the teaching function? Another important
question is how do these leadership attributes and practices influence teachers to make the most
Corresponding author:
Cheri Hoff Minckler, Production Regulatory Services, LLC, 400 Lancaster Dr, Lafayette, LA 70506, USA.
Email: mincklerc@bellsouth.net
657
Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at Universiti Utara Malaysia on March 25, 2016
658
Educational Management Administration & Leadership 42(5)
of teacher social capital? The purpose of this quantitative study is to answer these questions in
order to gain better understanding of the leaders role in the development and sustenance of teacher
social capital. To address the first question, the literature review discusses aspects of leadership
theory with respect to leadership influences on teachers working relationships. To answer the second question, quantitative methodology and analysis have been used to ascertain the correlation
between leadership (particularly transformational) and teacher social capital.
Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

In the course of fulfilling the purpose of the study, social capital literature has been reviewed to
develop a definition of teacher social capital. Contributions from literature and research in social
capital theory, community psychology, leadership and education have culminated in a model that
identifies: (1) the attributes of an environment where teacher social capital can germinate and
thrive; (2) the dimensions of teacher social capital; (3) outcomes of a system of teacher social capital; and (4) the role of leadership in fostering teacher social capital. In order to test the conceptual
model, a measurement instrument was developed to operationalize teacher social capital. This
instrument was used in conjunction with measures of leadership and teacher efficacy to gather data
necessary to answer the research questions and test the hypotheses.
Definition of Teacher Social Capital

Lin (2001: 29) combines ideas from Bourdieu (1985) and Coleman (1988) to define social capital
as the resources embedded in a social structure that are accessed and/or mobilized in purposive
actions. Lins definition captures key elements involved in creating value from relationships
available resources, the social network itself and actions that mobilize the resources. For the purpose of this study, using Lins definition as a foundation, teacher social capital is defined as the
resources available to and used by a teacher by virtue of membership of social network(s) to produce outcomes that are beneficial to the teacher, her students and ultimately to the school community as a whole (Minckler, 2011). The primary network comprised of the teacher and his peers and
the resources accessible through this network constitute teacher bonding social capital (TBOSC).
TBOSC is operationalized in the Teacher Social Capital Scale (TSCS) (Minckler, 2011) as a function of sense of community and attributes of the school culture, such as norms and values that support effective teaching and learning. Teacher bridging social capital (TBRSC) refers to resources
accessed through the external networks (outside of the school) to which a teacher belongs. TBRSC
is operationalized through items on the TSCS that address participation in external social networks.
Conceptual Model
The key to understanding social capital is in recognizing that relationships have value, and that this
value may be considered a form of capital. Answering the question, Under what conditions do
teacher relationships become a form of capital valuable to the school?, assists in identifying the components of a conceptual model of teacher social capital. Relationships have value to the individual
when his or her associations accomplish two major goals: (1) help the individual accomplish things
he or she cannot do alone (task or instrumental outcomes); and (2) satisfy the individuals belonging
needs (an expressive outcome). To accomplish the task or instrumental outcomes, participants in the
relationship share or exchange both tangible (teaching materials) and intangible resources
658
Minckler: School leadership that builds teacher social capital
PRECONDITIONS/
ENERGIZERS
Opportunity
Motivation
Ability
659
SOCIAL
ACTIONS
STRUCTURES
Bonding Social Capital
Social network
Sense of Community
OUTCOMES
Individual
Positive Satisfiers
Instrumental Outcomes
Expressive Outcomes
Teacher Self Efficacy
Neighboring
Resources
Group
Positive Satisfiers
Instrumental Outcomes
Teacher Collective Efficacy
Participation
Bridging Social Capital
External
Social
Networks
Figure 1. A conceptual model of a system of teacher social capital (Minckler, 2011).
(information). Over time, networks of individuals form to increase the quantity and quality of
resources available for exchange within the group. Group members access these resources to accomplish individual and group objectives. Additionally, the group develops norms to regulate behaviors
in order to ensure group survival, facilitate task accomplishment, contribute to group morale, or
express the groups central values (Feldman, 1984: 52). Social capital theory is concerned with the
structure and function of this broader network of exchange relationships in the creation of value.
Based upon the above understanding of social capital, a conceptual model of a system of teacher
social capital has been developed that includes: (1) environmental conditions that enable valuable
relationships to develop; (2) the features of a network conducive to meeting both the instrumental
and expressive needs of the teacher participants; (3) actions that activate social capital; (4) actions
that preserve and increase social capital; and (5) outcomes that result from teacher social capital.
Figure 1 presents the elements of the system of teacher social capital (Minckler, 2011). The rationale for and conceptualization of the relationships among the variables are explained in detail elsewhere (Minckler, 2011; Minckler et al., 2010).
Leadership
Northouse (2007: 3) defines leadership as a process whereby an individual influences a group of
individuals to achieve a common goal. This definition of leadership is directly relevant to a discussion of the leaders role in developing social capital. This study considers leadership as a process of interaction between and among the leader and followers that shapes organizational culture
and influences group and individual behaviors to produce desired school outcomes. According to
Hodson (2005: 44), competent leadership is recognized an an important precondition for creation
659
660
of social capital and organizational trust based on mutual gains. Collaboration among people both
uses and generates social capital. The quality of leadership determines whether this capital is spent
on personal pursuits or is harnessed for organizational effectiveness.
Transformational Leadership in the School Setting. A number of researchers have studied leadership in
the school setting (Barnett and McCormick, 2004; Leithwood, 1992; Ross and Gray, 2006a) in an
effort to determine the degree to which school leaders are transformational and to determine the
effect of transformational leadership on school performance. According to Leithwood et al.
(2008: 27), School leadership is second only to classroom teaching as an influence on pupil learning. Additionally, researchers have determined that the leaders impact is mediated through the
teaching function (Griffith, 2003; Leithwood et al., 2008). Leithwood et al. (2008: 32) also suggest
that school leaders improve teaching and learning indirectly and most powerfully through their
influence on staff motivation, commitment, and working conditions. Ross and Gray (2006a:
813) report that principals influence student achievement indirectly by creating the organizational
conditions through which improved teaching and learning will occur. Leithwood (1992: 23)
recognizes that transformational school leaders are in continuous pursuit of three goals: (1) Helping staff members develop and maintain a collaborative, professional school culture; (2) fostering
teacher development; and (3) helping teachers solve problems together more effectively. By 2000,
Leithwood and Jantzi (2000: 114) expanded the school transformational leadership model to
include seven dimensions of transformational leadership: Building school vision and establishing
school goals; providing intellectual stimulation; offering individualized support; modeling best
practices and important organizational values; demonstrating high performance expectations; creating a productive school culture; and developing structures to foster participation in school decisions. The transformational leader works through all aspects of the school system the people, the
culture and the structure to achieve organizational goals.
As posited, transformational leadership works through relationships to accomplish organizational goals. According to Leithwood (1992), transformational leadership harnesses both individual and collective action by exercising power through people not over them. Consequently, one
may reasonably expect the transformational leader to play a pivotal role in creating and sustaining
the conditions necessary to foster teacher social capital, a system built on relationships. This study
focuses on how the transformational leader influences each component of the system of teacher
social capital through actions that reflect the dimensions of transformational leadership identified
by Leithwood and Jantzi (2000).
Research Questions and Hypotheses

Table 1 presents the research questions and hypotheses related to leadership and teacher social capital. Figure 2 presents the hypothesized relationships in graphic form. (Note: relationships among
other variables in the figures, for example, TBOSC and teacher self-efficacy are discussed in Minckler [2011].)
Methodology
Data Source
Data for the study are derived from a convenience sample of 13 schools in two school districts in
southeastern Louisiana and one middle school in north Louisiana. Teachers (N 465; 65%
660
661
Table 1. Research questions and hypotheses.

Instrument(s) or
measure
Research question
Hypothesis
What role does

transformational
leadership perform in the
development of a system
of teacher social capital?
1.1 There is a statistically

significant, positive
relationship between
transformational
leadership and the preconditions/energizers of
teacher social capital
The leadership items

in the School Core
Tasks Survey (c);
Teacher Social
Capital Scale
Bivariate correlation

transformational
leadership and TBOSC

in the School Core
Tasks Survey (c);
Teacher Social
Capital Scale
1.3There is a statistically
transformational
leadership and TBRSC

in the School Core
Tasks Survey (c);
Teacher Social
Capital Scale
1. 4 There is a statistically
transformational
leadership and TCE

in the School Core
Tasks Survey (c);
Teacher Efficacy
Belief ScaleCollective

transformational
leadership and TSE

in the School Core
Tasks Survey (c);
Teacher Self
Efficacy Scale

significant difference
between the mean
leadership score of low
performing schools and
high performing schools
The leadership items in Analysis of variance

(ANOVA);
the School Core
Multivariate
Tasks Survey (c);
Analysis of
School Performance
variance
Score
(MANOVA)
Does transformational
leadership contribute to
school performance?
Method of analysis
collective response rate for participating schools) within the middle and high schools in these districts completed a survey set designed to measure their perceptions about the degree to which the
components of a system of teacher social capital are prevalent in their respective schools. Table 2
presents the number and percentage of participants from each school. Schools have been coded to
preserve anonymity. The school code in the first column identifies each school first by school district (1, 2, or 3); then by school type (h high school or m middle school); next by a letter that
distinguishes one school from another within the school district (a, b, c, d, or e); and lastly by a
group number based on school performance score (SPS) (1 low, 2 middle, 3 high). (Note:
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to group schools according to SPS.)
661
662
Correlation
.646
.265
.388
Strength of Correlation
Small (Weak)
Medium (moderate)
Large (strong)
Teacher
Bridging
Social
Capital
Correlation Coefficient
r = .0 to .29
r = .30 to .69
r = .70 to 1.0
Participation
Activated Bridging Teacher Social Capital
.369
Neighboring
.380
.287
.453
.626
Figure 2. Correlations among the variables in the hypothesized model of the system of teacher social capital.
Transformational
Leadership
.744
Preconditions
/energizers
(motivation,
opportunity,
ability)
.570
Teacher
Bonding
Social
Capital
.382
.686
Teacher
Self
Efficacy
.441
Teacher
Collective
Efficacy
663
Table 2. Respondent schools and percentage of teachers completing the survey.

School code
1Ha-3
1Hb-3
1Hc-2
1Hd-1
1Ma-2
1Mb-1
1Mc-1
1Md-2
1Me-3
2Ha-1
2Hb-1
2Hc-1
2Ma-1
3Ma-1
SPS
Total number of teachers

in the school
Number of
completed surveys
Response
rate (%)
123.3
117.1
105.7
73.6
108.6
104.4
103.8
116.9
124.5
82.2
72.4
80.7
104.4
101.1
Total
107
92
97
60
30
40
45
35
50
36
27
40
40
20
719
44
57
88
58
13
25
37
35
41
2
24
7
14
20
465
41
63
91
97
43
63
82
100
82
6
89
18
35
100
65
Instrumentation
The following instruments comprised the survey set used to measure the key variables in the
study.
Leadership. Teachers perceptions of school leadership were assessed using 31 items from the
38-item School Core Tasks Survey (c) (SCTS-L) (Leithwood et al., 2001). The principal researcher
eliminated seven items considered redundant or irrelevant (to the sample population). The SCTS-L
is a subsection of the management and leadership component of a comprehensive school monitoring system developed by Leithwood et al. (2001). In developing the leadership items, Leithwood
et al. used a conceptualization of the school and school district as a learning organization (Senge,
1990) and school leadership as transformational. Transformational leaders foster the development
of a learning organization through their beliefs, values and actions. The items address eight dimensions of transformational leadership: provides vision and/or inspiration, models behavior, provides
individualized support, provides intellectual stimulation, fosters commitment to group goals,
encourages high performance expectations, provides contingent reward and strongly encourages
individual improvement.
Teacher Social Capital. TBOSC and TBRSC were measured using the 56-item TSCS (Minckler,
2011). Twenty-six items assess the preconditions/energizers the teachers perceptions of the
presence of: (1) opportunities to work together to plan, teach and learn from one another, and make
decisions about curriculum; (2) motivation to both improve teaching and learning and to collaborate to do so; and (3) teachers abilities, the skills and knowledge to teach effectively. Twenty-five
items address four dimensions of TBOSC effective teaching beliefs and practices, collaboration,
community identity, and culture of community. Five items address TBRSC, the degree to which
teachers are linked to people or organizations outside the school that contribute to their effectiveness as teachers.
663
664
Teacher Efficacy. The teacher efficacy variables (collective and self) are identified in the study as
outcomes of transformational leadership and teacher social capital. Hoy et al. (2002: 79) define
teacher collective efficacy as the perception of teachers in a school that the efforts of the faculty
as a whole will have a positive effect on student learning. Teachers with a strong sense of collective efficacy set goals that are more challenging, apply greater effort and are more persistent when
facing obstacles. As a result, the school is more likely to achieve success. TCE is measured using
the 10-item teacher efficacy belief scale-collective (Olivier, 2001).
Teacher self efficacy (TSE) can be defined as a teachers individual belief in their capabilities
to perform specific teaching tasks at a specified level of quality in a specified situation (Dellinger
et al., 2008: 752). TSE acknowledges the myriad tasks involved in the process that must be performed well in order to achieve the outcome of high levels of student performance. TSE is measured using the 10-item TSE scale developed by Schwarzer et al. (1999).
Data Analysis
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to analyze the data. The following
quantitative analyses were performed to examine the psychometric characteristics of the study
measures, test the proposed research hypotheses and answer the research questions:
descriptive statistics for the sample (measures of central tendency and dispersion) to provide
a snapshot of teacher perceptions of leadership, social capital and teacher efficacy among
the middle and high schools in the study sample population;
a series of bivariate correlations utilizing Pearson product moment procedures to examine
correlations among the variables in the study to test the conceptual model (including the correlation between transformational leadership and teacher social capital); and
the use of analysis of variance (ANOVA) and multivariate analysis (MANOVA) to determine whether there were significant differences in leadership, teacher social capital and
efficacy beliefs between teachers in low, average and high schools.
Prior to conducting the bivariate correlations and the analyses of variance, preliminary analyses
were conducted to test assumptions. Greater detail on the data analysis is reported in Minckler
(2011).
Findings
Findings with interpretation are presented by research question for the analyses relevant to the relationships between leadership and the components of the system of teacher social capital. Findings
relevant to the relationships among other variables in the study are presented in Minckler (2011).
Research Question 1
What role does transformation leadership perform in the development of a system of teacher social
capital? To answer this research question, relationships were hypothesized between the leadership
variable and the variables forming the system of teacher social capital: preconditions/energizers,
TBOSC and TBRSC. A series of bivariate correlations assessed the relationships among the variables. The following guidelines were used to interpret the strength of correlation: small (negligible
664
665
Table 3. Summary of correlations between multiple factor subscales of leadership and preconditions/
energizers (n 293458).
Preconditions
Instrument/subscale
SCTS-L (Leadership)
Provides vision and inspiration (4)a
Models behavior (6)
Provides individualized support (4)
Provides intellectual stimulation (3)
Fosters commitment to group goals (3)
Encourages high performance (3)
Provides contingent reward (5)
Encourages individual improvement (3)
Total leadership (31)
Opportunity
Motivation
Ability
0.552**
0.497**
0.508**
0.636**b
0.540**
0.563**
0.546**
0.599**
0.616**
0.499**
0.459**
0.406**
0.495**
0.454**
0.515**
0.480**
0.478**
0.538**
0.435**
0.447**
0.371**
0.401**
0.404**
0.460**
0.405**
0.426**
0.487**
Notes: Italics indicate the highest correlation within a group of relationships. aNumber of items in the subscale. **p < 0.01 (2tailed).
to weak), |r| 0.0 to 0.29; medium (low moderate to high moderate), |r| 0.30 to 0.69, and large,
|r| 0.70 to 1.0.
Hypothesis 1.1.
There is a statistically significant, positive relationship between (transformational) leadership
and the preconditions/energizers of teacher social capital. Table 3 presents the correlations
among the seven leadership subscales and the three preconditions/energizers subscales.
Correlations between the subscales ranged from a low moderate correlation of 0.371 (provides individualized support/ability) to a high moderate correlation of 0.636 (provides
intellectual stimulation/opportunity). Within the leadership subscales and opportunity,
correlations ranged from a moderate correlation of 0.497 (models behavior/opportunity)
to a high moderate correlation of 0.636 (provides intellectual stimulation/opportunity).
Within the leadership subscales and motivation, correlations ranged from a medium correlation of 0.406 (provides individualized support/motivation) to a moderate correlation of
0.515 (encourages high performance/motivation). Within the leadership subscales and
ability, correlations ranged from a low moderate correlation of 0.371 (provides individualized support/ability) to a moderate correlation of 0.460 (encourages high performance/
ability). Of the 28 correlations, all were positive, significant (r < 0.01) and moderate ranging from 0.371 (provides individualized support/ability) to 0.636 (provides intellectual stimulation/opportunity). The overall relationship between leadership and preconditions/
energizers was significant (r < 0.01), positive and high moderate in magnitude (r 0.646,
see Table 4). Hypothesis 1.1 has been confirmed.
Interpretation. The principal researcher hypothesized that transformational leadership works
through preconditions (opportunity, motivation and ability) to establish the environment under
which bonding and bridging social capital can thrive. In particular, school leadership certainly has
more control over opportunity than do the teachers in the school. Teachers must have the place, the
time and the imperative to form collaborative relationships. The transformational leader performs a
665
666
Table 4. Correlations among the major study variables of total leadership,a total preconditions/energizers,a
total TBOSC,a TBRSC, TCE, and TSE (n 285458).
Total
Total
leadership preconditions
Variable
Total leadership (31)b
Total preconditions/energizers (26)
Total TBOSC (25)
TBRSC (5)
TCE (10)
0.646**
Total
TBOSC
0.570**
0.744**
TBRSC
TCE
0.265**
0.388**
0.369**
0.686**
0.656**
0.626**
0.287**
TSE
(10)
0.382**
0.432**
0.453**
0.380**
0.441**
Notes: aComposite variables formed by combining all subscale items. bNumber of items included in the variable.
**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
crucial role in developing the structures, both physical (for example, shared scheduling time) and
cultural (for example, norms of collegiality) that create the opportunities for groups of teachers to
work together to create and use teacher social capital. The relationships between opportunity and
the leadership subscales indicated that the teachers in the study perceive opportunities for professional growth as an avenue for leaders to provide intellectual stimulation and to encourage individual improvement and high performance. This finding tends to support the concept of the
leaders influence through academic press (Hoy et al., 1998). Academic press encompasses leadership practices of academic emphasis, resource support, and principal influence. By envisioning
the school as a learning organization, creating structures that enable the necessary practices, establishing high expectations and encouraging individual improvement, the transformational leader
shapes a school culture that values and builds capacity.
School leadership can also be expected to affect teacher motivation (Griffith, 2003; Leithwood
and Jantzi, 2000; Piccolo and Colquitt, 2006; Webb, 2007). Study findings indicated a moderate
relationship between leadership and motivation, primarily influenced by the leader actions of
encouraging high performance, providing vision and inspiration, and providing intellectual stimulation. One might reasonably suspect that where high performance is not expected or encouraged,
motivation is apt to be low. The significant, moderate correlations between: (1) motivation and
providing intellectual stimulation; and (2) motivation and providing contingent reward, support the
research of others, that is, transformational leaders develop intrinsic motivation in their followers
through inspiration, individualized consideration and intellectual stimulation (Griffith, 2003;
Leithwood and Jantzi, 2000; Webb, 2007).
The relationships between ability and the eight leadership subscales were low moderate, indicating that teachers did not see their knowledge and teaching skills strongly influenced by school leadership. The weakest correlation between the subscale of provides individualized support and ability
particularly supports this interpretation. The strongest correlation, a moderate correlation between
encourages high performance and ability supports the findings of Phillips (as cited in Bower and
Powers, 2009) who posits that high expectations are a critical element of academic press.
Hypothesis 1.2.
There is a statistically significant, positive relationship between transformational leadership
and TBOSC. Table 5 presents the summary of intercorrelations between the multiple factor subscales of leadership and TBOSC. Correlations between the leadership and TBOSC
666
667
Table 5. Summary of intercorrelations between multiple factor subscales of leadership and TBOSC;
(n 425459).
Teacher bonding social capital
Effective teaching beliefs Collaboration Community Culture of
and practices (6)
(8)
identify (7) community (4)
Instrument/subscale
Leadership
Models behavior (6)
Encourages Individual Improvement (3)
Total Leadership (31)
0.446**
0.426**
0.366**
0.445**
0.432**
0.478**
0.414**
0.443**
0.498**
0.440**
0.405**
0.351**
0.453**
0.427**
0.444**
0.420**
0.452**
0.492**
0.431**
0.445**
0.405**
0.471**
0.426**
0.466**
0.419**
0.467**
0.513**
0.477**
0.497**
0.458**
0.461**
0.451**
0.490**
0.454**
0.474**
0.554**
Notes: Italics indicates highest correlation within a cluster. aNumber of items in the subscale. **p < 0.01 (2-tailed).
subscales ranged from a low moderate correlation of 0.351 (provides individualized support/collaboration) to a moderate correlation of 0.497 (models behavior/culture of community). Within the leadership subscales and the TBOSC subscale of effective teaching
beliefs and practices, correlations ranged from a low moderate correlation of 0.366 (provides
individualized support/effective teaching beliefs and practices) to a moderate correlation of
0.478 (encourages high performance/effective teaching beliefs and practices). Within the
leadership subscales and the TBOSC subscale of collaboration, correlations ranged from
a low moderate value of 0.351 (provides individualized support/collaboration) to a moderate
value of 0.453 (provides intellectual stimulation/collaboration). Within the leadership subscales and the TBOSC subscale of community identity, correlations ranged from a moderate
correlation of 0.405 (provides individualized support/community identity) to a moderate
correlation of 0.471 (provides intellectual stimulation/community identity). Within the leadership subscales and the TBOSC subscale of culture of community, correlations ranged from
a moderate value of 0.454 (provides contingent reward/culture of community) to a moderate
value of 0.497 (models behavior/culture of community). All 32 correlations were positive
and significant (r < 0.01). The overall relationship between leadership (31 items) and
TBOSC (25 items) was significant (r < 0.01), positive and moderate in magnitude (r
0.570, see Table 4). These findings have confirmed Hypothesis 1.2.
Interpretation. Study findings suggest that school leaders may have a greater impact on TBOSC by
establishing the conditions under which it can flourish than by directly influencing it. However,
organizational theory and research also indicates that school leaders influence the social structure
of the school through cultural mechanisms such as mission, vision, values and norms. Whether the
norms and values of the network of teachers support collaboration, capacity building and student
achievement is ultimately up to leadership. Leaders shape the organizational culture through consistency and alignment of words, attitude and actions. Leaders influence and modify group norms
through what they focus their attention on, how they react to crises, the behaviors they role model,
667
668
and whom they attract to their organizations (Bass and Avolio, 1993: 113). The moderate correlation between the leadership subscale of encourages high performance and the TBOSC subscale of
effective teaching beliefs and practices mirrors the finding of a moderate correlation between the
leadership subscale of encourages high performance and ability. These findings add support to the
interpretation that leaders affect teaching capacity through the establishment of high expectations.
The moderate correlation between the leader subscale of encourages high performance and the
TBOSC subscale of collaboration indicated that the teachers in the study associate leader expectations for high performance with their collaborative efforts to improve teaching and learning. The
moderate correlations between: (1) leadership/provides intellectual stimulation and TBOSC/collaboration; and (2) leadership/provides intellectual stimulation and TBOSC/community identity suggested that teachers in the study recognize: (1) learning occurs when they are working together;
and (2) they generally identify themselves as members of a community of learners. These findings
support the concept of schools as learning organizations. Senge (1990: 3) defines learning organizations as organizations where people continually expand their capacity to create the results they
truly desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free, and where people are continually learning to see the whole together. The findings,
in particular, support Senges (1990: 356) conceptualization of the leader as a teacher who fosters
learning for everyone.
An additional finding of the study was the high moderate correlation between leadership/models
behavior and TBOSC/culture of community. This finding reinforces the importance of the leader as
role model (Bass, 1985, 1990). Through their actions, leaders demonstrate they value community and
consider the school as community with shared vision, norms and goals.
These findings confirmed the principal researchers hypothesis: In schools where leadership
models desired behavior, provides vision and inspiration, encourages high performance and fosters
collaborative relationships focused on increasing teacher capacity and improving student achievement, TBOSC should be positively affected.
Hypothesis 1.3.
There is a statistically significant, positive relationship between transformational leadership and
TBRSC. Table 6 displays a summary of correlations between the multiple factor subscales of
leadership and the one-dimensional factor, TBRSC. Correlations between the leadership subscales and TBRSC ranged from 0.213 (small) for the provides vision and inspiration subscale
to 0.256 (also small) for the provides contingent reward subscale. All eight correlations were
positive (r < 0.01), significant and were categorized as small using the Cohen guidelines. The
overall relationship between leadership and TBRSC was significant (r < 0.01), positive and
small in magnitude (r 0.265, see Table 4). Hypothesis 1.3 has been confirmed.
Interpretation. The small correlation may indicate that teachers in the study see participation in professional organizations or professional development outside of the school as more of a self-directed
activity than a leader-directed one. The lowest correlation of the eight possible was between leader
provides contingent reward and TBRSC (0.256), suggesting the absence of both leader support and
tangible rewards for participation in these external activities.
Hypothesis 1.4.
and TCE. Table 6 presents the summary of the correlations between the leadership
668
669
Table 6. Summary of correlations between multiple factor subscales of the SCTS-L with one dimension
scales of TBRSC (items on TSCS), TCE and TSE (n 307459).
Instrument/subscale
Leadership
Models behavior (6)
Encourages individual improvement (3)
Total leadership (31)
TBRSC (5)
TCE (10)
TSE (10)
0.216**
0.219**
0.226**
0.241**
0.213**
0.229**
0.256**
0.231**
0.265**
0.638**
0.666**
0.577**
0.565**
0.592**
0.616**
0.548**
0.534**
0.686**
0.316**
0.314**
0.313**
0.341**
0.342**
0.382**
0.305**
0.322**
0.382**
Notes: Italics indicates highest correlation in the column. aNumber of items in the instrument or subscale. **p < 0.01
(2-tailed).
subscales and the one-dimensional factor of TCE. Correlations between the leadership
subscales and TCE ranged from a moderate 0.534 (Encourages Individual Improvement)
to a high moderate 0.666 (models behavior). All eight correlations were positive, significant (r < 0. 01) and moderate. The overall relationship between leadership and TCE was
significant (r < 0.01), positive and high moderate in magnitude (r 0.686, see Table 4).
Hypothesis 1.4 has been confirmed.
Interpretation. All correlations were moderate, confirming the principal researchers hypothesis that
in schools where transformation leadership is practiced, one could expect to find at least moderate
levels of TCE. Three subscales in particular, stand out as school leader behaviors related to TCE:
models behavior; provides vision and inspiration; and encourages high performance. These particular attributes also have a high moderate correlation to the four subscales of TBOSC. Apparently,
where leaders create a strong sense of community, establish and model high standards of performance, and inspire teachers to live up to those standards, teachers collective beliefs in their ability
to get the job done are strengthened.
Hypothesis 1.5.
and TSE. Table 6 presents the summary of the correlations between the Leadership subscales and the one-dimensional factor of TSE. Correlations between the leadership subscales and TSE ranged from 0.305 (provides contingent reward) to 0.382 (encourages
high performance). All eight correlations are positive, significant (r < 0.01) and moderate.
The overall relationship between leadership and TSE is significant (r < 0.01), positive and
moderate in magnitude (r 0.382, see Table 4). The hypothesis has been confirmed.
Interpretation. The relatively low moderate correlation between leadership and TSE supports the
possibility that the leader has a more indirect effect on teachers self-efficacy through the leaders
influence on collegial support. Where the leader enables and assists the teachers to establish an
efficacious collaborative process, individual teachers both provide and receive the experiences and
feedback they need to become more confident and capable in their abilities and more positive in
669
670
their attitude about teaching. For example, Whalstrom and Louis (2008: 259) state, increasing the
visibility of classroom practice through frequent teacher observations of peers has been clearly
linked to such benefits as improved instruction, improved teacher self efficacy, and improved
teacher attitudes toward professional development. These experiences (of peer observation) can
become common practice among the teacher social network when leadership expects and encourages
planning for their occurrence, provides resources to support their occurrence, and assures a defined
process/format for the observation and the sharing of results.
The low moderate correlation between leadership and TSE is also consistent with the low moderate correlation between the leadership subscale, provides individualized support, and the precondition, ability. The teacher respondents did not appear to perceive their leadership as strongly
influencing either the teaching ability of teachers in the school or their own TSE.
Pictorial Representation of the Relationships Among the Study Variables. Figure 2 presents the bivariate
linkages among the study variables. The results displayed in Figure 2 show a pattern of relationships among the variables representing leadership, teacher social capital and outcomes. As
explained in the narrative, all relationships were determined to be statistically significant; however, the magnitudes of the correlation coefficients varied from small to large. In Figure 2, medium
correlations are italicized and large correlations are bold-faced. (Note: The positive correlations
between the major variables tend to support the viability of the model of a system of teacher social
capital.)
Research Question 2
Does transformational leadership contribute to school performance?
Hypothesis 2.1.
There is a statistically significant difference between the mean leadership score of low performing schools and high performing schools.
Multivariate and one-way analysis of variance were used to test this hypothesis. An insufficient
number of schools (N 14) precluded exploring the data using the school as the unit of analysis.
However, teachers were grouped according to the schools performance score (SPS) to look for
mean differences in the study variables (leadership, TBOSC, TBRSC, TCE, TSE and SPS) among
teachers working in low, middle and high performing schools. To organize teachers into groups,
each teacher was assigned the SPS of his or her school. SPSS (the statistical software) was permitted to determine the thresholds for the three groups based on the SPS scores for the teachers
involved in the study: Group 1, the low performing group, all teachers whose schools scored less
than or equal to (<) 104.4; Group 2, the middle performing group, all teachers whose schools
scored from 104.5 to 116.9; and Group 3, the high performing group, all teachers whose schools
scored 117.0 and above.
Multivariate Analysis of Variance. A multivariate analysis of variance was conducted to determine differences between the three SPS groups on a linear combination of leadership, preconditions,
TBOSC, TBRSC, TCE and TSE. The composite precondition variable was not used because its
inclusion caused a large inequality in group size (n of the largest group is greater than 1.5 times
the n of the smallest group) which triggered a concern for sensitivity to violations of homogeneity
670
671
Table 7. Allocation of teachers according to SPS for MANOVA.

Group/SPS
1 < 104.4
2 104.5 116.9
3 117.0
Total
Frequency
Percentage
Cumulative percentage
153
120
123
396
38.6
30.3
31.1
100.0
38.6
68.9
100.0
Table 8. Allocation of teachers according to SPS for ANOVA.

Group/SPS
1 < 104.4
2 104.5 116.9
3 117.0
Total
Frequency
Percentage
Cumulative percentage
170
126
135
431
39.5
29.2
31.3
100.0
39.5
68.7
100.0
of variance/covariance matrices (Leech et al., 2008). Instead, a modified precondition variable

(MOTABIL) created by combining the two component variables of motivation and ability was
used. Table 7 presents the number and percentage of teachers assigned to each group after making
this modification. A significant difference was found, Wilks L 0.945, F (388, 776) 1.843,
r 0.038, multivariate Z2 0.028, observed power 0.931. Levenes test of equality of error variances indicated that the assumption of homogeneity of variances was violated for both TCE
(r 0.016) and leadership (r 0.011); consequently, results for these two variables should be
viewed with caution. Examinations of the coefficients for the linear combinations distinguishing the
three SPS groups indicated that leadership (b 5.216, r 0.015, Z2 0.015), TBOSC (b 3.141,
r 0.036, Z2 0.011), TCE (b 1.755, r 0.014, Z2 0.015) and MOTABIL (b 2.962,
r 0.002, Z2 0.024) contributed most to distinguishing the groups, more specifically, distinguishing the low performing Group 1 from Groups 2 and 3. The MANOVA indicates a small,
significant leadership effect on SPS.
One Way Analysis of Variance. Univariate ANOVA for the leadership variable was conducted as a
follow-up test to the MANOVA. Using the Bonferroni method for controlling Type I error rates
for multiple comparisons, ANOVA was tested at the 0.017 level. In the process of conducting the
ANOVA, the principal researcher tested the appropriate assumptions and conducted post hoc
tests for the study variables. More detailed information is available in Minckler (2011). Table 8
presents the number and percentage of teachers assigned to each group by SPSS. The Levene
statistic indicated that the data violated the assumption of equal variance among the groups;
therefore, the Welch and Brown-Forsythe statistics have been reported. Both the Welch statistic
(F (2, 282) 6.344, r 0.002, Z2 0.029 (a small effect size)) and the Brown-Forsythe statistic
(F (2, 416) 6.600, r 0.002) indicated there was a statistically significant difference among
the groups. The interpretation of the magnitude of the effect size used Cohens guidelines (Leech
et al., 2008): small 0.10, medium 0.24 and large 0.37.
Post hoc comparisons using the Games-Howell test indicated that the mean score for Group 1
(M 92.08, SD 19.82) was significantly different from Group 2 (M 98.93, SD 13.96), r
0.002. Group 1 was not significantly different from Group 3 (M 97.57, SD 18.35), r .034.
671
672
Group 2 did not differ significantly from Group 3. Although the Group 1 mean differed significantly from Groups 2 and 3, the effect size was quite small.
Interpretation. Previous studies on the relationship between leadership and student achievement
have tended to show that leaders impact on teaching and learning is indirect and is mediated
through the teaching function (Griffith, 2003; Leithwood et al., 2008; Ross and Gray, 2006a).
Ross and Gray (2006a: 813) report that principals influence student achievement indirectly
by creating the organizational conditions through which improved teaching and learning will
occur. The results of the current study suggest that leaders may also have a direct, albeit small
effect on student performance.
Major Findings and Conclusion

This section presents the main findings and conclusions of the study relative to school leadership.
Major Finding Number One

Significant, positive relationships were evident between leadership and each of the major facets of
teacher social capital (preconditions/energizers, TBOSC and TBRSC).
Preconditions/energizers. Correlations between the leadership and preconditions/energizers subscales ranged from a moderate correlation between leadership/provides individualized support and
preconditions/ability to a high moderate correlation between leadership/ provides intellectual stimulation and preconditions/opportunity.
Conclusion. Although correlations cannot be construed as causation, it is reasonable to suppose that
the findings support the hypothesis that transformational leadership works through preconditions/
energizers (opportunity, motivation and ability) to establish the environment under which teacher
social capital thrives. Teachers must have the place, the time and the imperative to form collaborative relationships, and they must have resources to share. The transformational leader performs a
crucial role in developing the structures, both physical (for example, shared scheduling time) and
cultural (for example, norms of collegiality) that create the opportunities for groups of teachers to
work together to create and use teacher social capital. The relationships between opportunity and
the leadership subscales, in particular indicate that teachers in the study perceive opportunities for
professional growth as an avenue for leaders to provide intellectual stimulation and to encourage
individual improvement and high performance. This finding tends to support the concept of the
leaders influence through academic press (Hoy et al., 1998). Academic press encompasses leadership practices of academic emphasis, resource support and principal influence. By envisioning
the school as a learning organization (Louis, 2006; Senge, 1990), creating structures that enable
the necessary practices (Hord, 1997), establishing high expectations (Leithwood and Jantzi,
2000), and encouraging individual improvement (Leithwood and Jantzi, 2000), the transformational leader shapes a school culture that values and builds capacity.
Study findings also support earlier research indicating that leadership may also affect teacher
motivation (Griffith, 2003; Leithwood and Jantzi, 2000; Piccolo and Colquitt, 2006; Webb, 2007).
Findings indicate that the strongest relationships between leadership and motivation involve the
leader actions of encouraging high performance, providing vision and inspiration, and providing
672
673
intellectual stimulation. Study findings support the research of others, that is, transformational leaders develop intrinsic motivation in their followers through inspiration, individualized consideration,
and by providing intellectual stimulation (Griffith, 2003; Leithwood and Jantzi, 2000; Webb, 2007).
The moderate relationships between preconditions/ability and the eight leadership subscales
suggest that teachers in this study do not see their knowledge and teaching skills strongly influenced
by school leadership. The low moderate correlation between the leadership subscale of provides individualized support and the preconditions/ability particularly supports this interpretation. This finding
and interpretation also support Hoy et al. (1998), who, as previously mentioned, conclude that leaders
influence ability more indirectly through academic press. Additionally, the significant, moderate correlation between leadership/encourages high performance and preconditions/ability tends to support
the findings of Phillips (as cited in Bower and Powers, 2009) who posits that high expectations are a
critical element of academic press.
TBOSC. The overall relationship between leadership and TBOSC is significant, positive and moderate in magnitude. The correlations among the subscales of each variable are significant, positive
and moderate.
Conclusion. Study findings suggest that school leaders have a greater impact on TBOSC by establishing the conditions under which it can flourish. However, organizational theory and research
also indicate that school leaders influence the social structure of the school through cultural
mechanisms such as mission, vision, values and norms. School leaders affect the social structure
of the school through cultural mechanisms such as mission, vision, values and norms. Whether the
norms and values of the network of teachers support collaboration, capacity building and student
achievement is ultimately up to leadership. Leaders shape the organizational culture through consistency and alignment of words, attitude and actions. Leaders influence and modify group norms
through their emphasis, actions and hiring practices (Bass and Avolio, 1994). The significant, moderate correlation between leadership/encourages high performance, and TBOSC/effective teaching
beliefs and practices mirrors the finding of a significant, moderate correlation between leadership/
encourages high performance and preconditions/ability and supports the interpretation that leaders
impact teaching capacity through the establishment of high expectations. the significant, moderate
correlation between leadership/encourages high performance and TBOSC/ Collaboration indicates
that the teachers in the study associate leader expectations for high performance with the work
teachers do together to improve teaching and learning. The significant, moderate correlations
between: (1) leadership/provides intellectual stimulation and TBOSC/collaboration; and (2) leadership/provides intellectual stimulation and TBOSC/community identity indicates that teachers in
the study recognize that: (1) their major learning occurs when they are working together; and (2)
they generally identify themselves as part of a community of learners. These findings support the
concept of schools as learning organizations, particularly, Senges (1990: 356) conceptualization
of the leader as a teacher who fosters learning for everyone.
An additional finding of the study was the significant, moderate correlation between the leadership/models behavior and TBOSC/culture of community reinforcing the importance of the leader
as role model (Bass, 1985, 1990). Through their actions, leaders demonstrate that the school is a
community with shared vision, norms and goals.
The Moderate Correlation between the Composite Measure of Leadership and the Composite Measure of
TBOSC. This finding confirms the principal researchers hypothesis: In schools where leadership
673
674
models desired behavior, provides vision and inspiration, encourages high performance and fosters
collaborative relationships focused on increasing teacher capacity and improving student achievement, one should see respectable levels of TBOSC.
TBRSC. The correlation between the composite leadership variable (combined eight subscales) and
TBRSC was significant, positive and small.
Conclusion. The small correlation may indicate that teachers in the study see participation in professional organizations or professional development outside of the school as more of a selfdirected activity than a leader-directed one. The lowest correlation of the eight possible is between
leadership/provides contingent reward and TBRSC suggests the absence of both leader support and
tangible rewards for participating in these external activities.
Just as transformational leaders can affect TBOSC through practices such as providing vision
and inspiration, modeling desired behavior, fostering commitment to group goals and providing
opportunity, these same actions can be used to develop bridging social capital. Resources, including time, money and substitute teachers can be provided so that teachers can take advantage of
opportunities to attend offsite workshops, conferences or meetings. If school leadership has established the structures whereby teachers can share the information, materials and skills gleaned from
these opportunities, the entire teaching community can benefit.
Major Finding Number Two

Significant, positive relationships were evident between leadership and the outcomes of TCE and
TSE.
TCE. The correlation between the composite leadership variable (eight subscales) and TCE is significant, positive and high moderate. The eight possible correlations among the subscales and TCE
are all significant, positive and moderate.
Conclusion. The findings support previous research that has demonstrated school leadership
strengthens TCE through the following actions:
building instructional knowledge and skills (Brinson and Steiner, 2007) through suitable
professional learning opportunities (Ross and Gray, 2006a: 813);
creating opportunities for teachers to collaboratively share skills and experience;
helping teachers interpret results of their efforts by defining success (Ross and Gray, 2006b);
providing actionable feedback on teachers performances (Brinson and Steiner, 2007: 3); and
involving teachers in school decision making, particularly relative to instructional goals and
pedagogy (Brinson and Steiner, 2007).
By creating a culture and organizational structures that support teacher collaboration, the leader
enlists the teachers within the school to engage in the desired activities, which in turn strengthen TCE.
TSE. The correlation between the composite leadership variable (eight subscales) and TSE was significant, positive and low moderate. All of the eight possible correlations between the subscales
and TSE were significant, positive and low moderate.
674
675
Conclusion. The low moderate correlation between leadership and TSE supports the possibility that
the leader has a more indirect effect on teachers self-efficacy via his/her influence on collegial
support. Where the leader enables and assists the teachers to establish an efficacious collaborative
process, individual teachers engage in the experiences and receive feedback they need to become
more confident and capable in their abilities and more positive in their attitude about teaching. If
this process does not exist, TSE is likely to be underdeveloped. For example, Whalstrom and Louis
(2008: 459) indicate that frequent teacher peer observations have been clearly linked to . . .
improved teacher self efficacy. These experiences can become common practice among the
teacher social network when leadership expects and encourages deliberate planning, a defined process, collegial relationships, and collective and individual participation.
Major Finding Number Three

Results of the MANOVA indicated that the mean perceived leadership measure for the teachers in
low SPS schools was significantly lower than the average leadership values for both teachers performing in middle SPS schools and in high SPS schools.
Conclusion. Previous studies on the relationship between leadership and student achievement have
tended to show that leaders impact on teaching and learning is indirect and mediated through the
teaching function (Griffith, 2003; Leithwood et al., 2008; Ross and Gray, 2006a). The results of the
current study suggest that leaders may also have a direct, albeit very small direct effect on student
performance.
Implications for School Leadership

The study findings provide insights into school leadership useful in improving both leader and
teacher effectiveness. The small, but significant relationship between leadership and school performance contributes new knowledge to the study of school leadership. Heretofore, research has indicated that the leaders impact on student performance has been indirect, through the teaching
function. The findings of the current study suggest that the emphasis upon improved leadership
(developing the knowledge, behaviors and attitudes of transformational leaders) may provide
direct payoff in terms of improved school performance. Additionally, these transformational leadership skills are significantly, moderately correlated with TBOSC, which are also related significantly to school performance (Minckler, 2011).
Additional implications for leadership are presented in the paragraphs that follow, organized by
components of the system of teacher social capital.
Preconditions/energizers
According to Leithwood et al. (2008: 27), School leadership is second only to classroom teaching
as an influence on pupil learning. Additionally, researchers have determined that the leaders
impact is mediated through the teaching function (Griffith, 2003; Leithwood et al., 2008). The identification of preconditions/energizers (opportunity, motivation and ability) introduces levers that
school leaders can use to develop a school environment where teacher social capital flourishes. The
study results reinforce the importance of creating access channels so that the individual teachers
abilities or resources become accessible to the teaching community. These channels are created when
675
676
opportunity, desire (or motivation) and imperative converge and teachers begin to collaborate to
share resources and increase the teaching capacity of the school. When these relationships are deliberate (formalized), the impact is more likely to be effective. By identifying the conditions under
which social capital forms and can be sustained, the model of a system of teacher social capital
exposes additional tools leaders can use to improve the teaching function and ultimately student
learning.
TBOSC. TBOSC and its four dimensions provide a model of teacher working relationships that
should achieve results. Guidance for leaders in reinforcing three of the dimensions is presented
here. This information is not new but reinforces the findings of others.
Culture of Community; Beliefs and Practices of Effective Teachers. Particularly through their actions,
leaders demonstrate that the school is a community with shared vision, norms and goals. By using
their influence and by establishing expectations, leaders assist teachers in identifying the beliefs
and practices of effective teaching that will achieve results of improved teacher quality and student
learning.
Collaboration. Collaboration requires a broadening of the scope of the traditional understanding of
teaching abilities. In addition to content knowledge and pedagogical skills, teachers need to be
competent collaborators. A host of skills is necessary, including communication, conflict resolution, teambuilding, team leadership and problem solving. The learning and practice of these skills
could be incorporated into a professional development and team meeting plan.
TBRSC
The small correlation between leadership and TBRSC may indicate that teachers in the study see
participation in professional organizations or professional development outside of the school as
more of a self-directed activity than a leader-directed one. If these activities can be used to increase
the teaching quality of the individual teacher, leaders need to increase the opportunity and/or motivation for teachers to participate. In order for these activities to increase the teaching capacity of
the school, leaders need to create mechanisms that assure the incorporation of new learnings into
the resource pool.
TSE
Findings of the study may support the importance of using deliberate mechanisms for increasing
TSE. The moderate correlations found in the study between: (1) teacher social capital and TSE and
(b) leadership and TSE suggest that existing training and development practices may not provide
enough of Banduras (1997) four influences: mastery experiences; vicarious experiences; social
persuasion; and positive experiences. To address Banduras postulates, school leaders can directly
affect TSE by developing processes that: (1) assure teachers receive the training and practice they
need to develop skill; (2) provide teachers with opportunities to observe other teachers who can
serve as role models; (3) use observations from leaders and peers to provide positive feedback
to help build confidence; and (4) provide mentor and peer support to help foster positive experiences that will result in reduced stress and greater job satisfaction.
676
677
Summary
This paper has presented the results of a study exploring the relationship between leadership and
teacher social capital and other variables identified in the conceptual model of a system of teacher
social capital. The study used Leithwood et al.s (2001) measure of transformational leadership
and the newly developed TSCS (Minckler, 2011) in conjunction with measures of TCE, and TSE
to explore the relationships. Study findings indicate high-moderate, positive correlations between:
transformational leadership and (1) the environmental conditions that nurture teacher social capital, (2) TBOSC, and (3) TCE. An additional major finding is the perception of higher levels of
transformational leadership among teachers in middle performing and high performing schools
as compared to the perceptions of teachers in low performing schools.
This study provides evidence of the importance of transformational leadership in the development of teacher social capital within a school. High levels of teacher social capital should result in
positive outcomes of student achievement, teacher quality and teacher job satisfaction. The study
findings, interpretations and conclusions contribute to both school leadership and school improvement literature and should inform discussions about leadership development and the impact of
leadership on teacher working relationships.
Acknowledgement
I wish to thank Dianne F. Olivier, Assistant Professor of Educational Foundations and Leadership, University
of Louisiana at Lafayette for her encouragement and support.
References
Bandura A (1997) Self Efficacy: The Exercise of Control. New York, NY: Freeman.
Barnet K and McCormick J (2004) Leadership and individual principal-teacher relationships in schools. Educational Administration Quarterly 40(3): 406434.
Bass BM (1985) Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectations. New York: Free Press.
Bass BM (1990) From transactional to transformational leadership: learning to share the vision. Organizational Dynamics 18(3): 1931.
Bass BM and Avolio BJ (1993) Transformational leadership and organizational culture. Public Administration Quarterly 17: 112121.
Bass BM and Avolio BJ (eds) (1994) Improving Organizational Effectiveness Through Transformational
Leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Bourdieu P (1985) The forms of capital. In Richardson J (ed.) Handbook of Theory and Research for the
Sociology of Education. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 214258.
Bower HA and Powers JD (2009) What is rigor?: a qualitative analysis of one schools definition. Academic
Leadership Live: The Online Journal 7(4). Available at: http://www.academicleadership.org/article/
What_is_Rigor_A_Qualitative_Analysis_of_One_School_s_Definition.
Brinson D and Steiner L (2007) Building Collective Efficacy: How Leaders Inspire Teachers to Achieve (Issue
Brief). Washington, DC: Center for Comprehensive School Reform and Improvement.
Coleman J (1988) Social capital in the creation of human capital. The American Journal of Sociology 94(Supplement): S95S120.
Dellinger AB, Bobbett JJ, Olivier DF and Ellett CD (2008) Measuring teachers self efficacy beliefs: development and use of the TEBS-Self. Teaching and Teacher Education 24: 751766.
Feldman DC (1984) The development and enforcement of group norms. Academy of Management Review
9(1): 4753.
677
678
Griffith J (2003) Relation of principal transformational leadership to school staff job satisfaction, staff turnover, and school performance. Journal of Educational Administration 42(3): 333356.
Hodson R (2005) Management behaviour as social capital: a systematic analysis of organizational ethnographies. British Journal of Industrial Relations 43(1): 4165.
Hoy WK, Sweetland SR and Smith PA (2002) Toward an organizational model of achievement in high
schools: the significance of collective efficacy. Educational Administration Quarterly 38: 7793.
Hord S (1997) Professional Learning Communities: Communities of Continuous Inquiry and Improvement.
Austin, TX: Southwest Educational Development Laboratory. Available at: http://www.sedl.org/pubs/
change34/2.html.
Leech NL, Barrett KC and Morgan GA (2008) SPSS for Intermediate Statistics: Use and Interpretation, 3rd
edn. New York, NY: Taylor & Francis.
Leithwood KA (1992) The move toward transformational leadership. Educational Leadership, 49(35): 812.
Leithwood KA, Aitken R and Jantzi D (2001) Making Schools Smarter: A System for Monitoring School and
District Progress. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Leithwood K, Harris A and Hopkins D (2008) Seven strong claims about successful school leadership. School
Leadership and Management 28(1): 2742.
Leithwood KA and Jantzi D (2000) The effects of transformational leadership on organizational conditions
and student engagement with school. Journal of Educational Administration 38(2): 112129.
Lin N (2001) Social Capital: A Theory of Social Structure and Action. New York: Cambridge University
Press.
Louis KS (2006) Changing the culture of schools: professional community, organizational learning, and trust.
Journal of School Leadership 16(5): 477489.
Minckler CH (2011) Teacher social capital: the development of a conceptual model and measurement framework with application to educational leadership and teacher efficacy. Dissertation, University of Louisiana
at Lafayette. Proquest document id: 915643477.
Minckler CH, Trahan MP and Olivier DF (2010) A conceptual model of teacher social capital. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans.
Northouse P (2007) Leadership: Theory and Practice, 4th edn. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Olivier DF (2001) Teacher personal and school culture characteristics in effective schools: Toward a model of
a professional learning community. PhD dissertation, Louisiana State University.
Pallant J (2007) SPSS Survival Manual: A Step by Step Guide to Data Analysis Using SPSS for Windows, 3rd
edn. Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Piccolo RF and Colquitt JA (2006) Transformational leadership and job behaviors: the mediating role of core
job characteristics. Academy of Management Journal 49(2): 327340.
Ross JA and Gray P (2006a) School leadership and student achievement: the mediating effects of teacher
beliefs. Canadian Journal of Education 29(3): 798822.
Ross JA and Gray P (2006b) Transformational leadership and teacher commitment to organizational values:
the mediating effects of collective teacher efficacy. School Effectiveness and School Improvement 17(2):
179199.
Schwarzer R, Schmitz G and Daytner G (1999) Teacher self efficacy. Available at: http://userpage.fu-berlin.
de/*health/teacher_se.htm.
Senge PM (1990) The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization. London: Doubleday.
Sparks D (2005) Leading for transformation in teaching, learning, and relationships. In: DuFour R, Eaker R
and DuFour R (eds) On Common Ground. Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree, 155176.
Webb K (2007) Motivating peak performance: leadership behaviors that stimulate employee motivation and
performance. Christian Higher Education 6: 5371.
678
679
Whalstrom KL and Louis KS (2008) How teachers experience principal leadership: the roles of professional
community, trust, efficacy, and shared responsibility. Educational Administration Quarterly 44(4):
45849.
Author biography
Cheri Hoff Minckler holds undergraduate degrees in sociology and in petroleum engineering
from the University of Southwestern Louisiana (now the University of Louisiana at Lafayette) and
a masters in science education from the University of Florida. She was awarded a doctor in education degree in December 2011. She has worked in the oilfield in positions ranging from roustabout to production engineer. She taught in the public school system in Florida and has more
recently taught online courses for offshore personnel in petroleum geology, drilling and production. Dr Minckler has over 25 years of training and consulting experience, and as the president
of Production Regulatory Services, LLC, works with companies in a variety of industries in the
areas of leadership and human resource and organizational development.
679

Educational Management Administration &amp; Leadership-2014-Minckler-School Leadership That

Diunggah oleh

Informasi Dokumen

Hak Cipta

Format Tersedia

Bagikan dokumen Ini

Bagikan atau Tanam Dokumen

Opsi Berbagi

Apakah menurut Anda dokumen ini bermanfaat?

Apakah konten ini tidak pantas?

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

Educational Management Administration &amp; Leadership-2014-Minckler-School Leadership That

Diunggah oleh

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

Article

School leadership that

Cheri Hoff Minckler

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at Universiti Utara Malaysia on March 25, 2016

Educational Management Administration & Leadership 42(5)

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

Definition of Teacher Social Capital

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at Universiti Utara Malaysia on March 25, 2016

Minckler: School leadership that builds teacher social capital

Bridging Social Capital

Figure 1. A conceptual model of a system of teacher social capital (Minckler, 2011).

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at Universiti Utara Malaysia on March 25, 2016

Educational Management Administration & Leadership 42(5)

Research Questions and Hypotheses

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at Universiti Utara Malaysia on March 25, 2016

Minckler: School leadership that builds teacher social capital

Table 1. Research questions and hypotheses.

What role does

1.1 There is a statistically

The leadership items

1.2 There is a statistically

The leadership items

The leadership items

The leadership items

1.5 There is a statistically

The leadership items

2.1 There is a statistically

The leadership items in Analysis of variance

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at Universiti Utara Malaysia on March 25, 2016

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at Universiti Utara Malaysia on March 25, 2016

Activated Bridging Teacher Social Capital

Minckler: School leadership that builds teacher social capital

Table 2. Respondent schools and percentage of teachers completing the survey.

Total number of teachers

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at Universiti Utara Malaysia on March 25, 2016

Educational Management Administration & Leadership 42(5)

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at Universiti Utara Malaysia on March 25, 2016

Minckler: School leadership that builds teacher social capital

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at Universiti Utara Malaysia on March 25, 2016

Educational Management Administration & Leadership 42(5)

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at Universiti Utara Malaysia on March 25, 2016

Minckler: School leadership that builds teacher social capital

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at Universiti Utara Malaysia on March 25, 2016

Educational Management Administration & Leadership 42(5)

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at Universiti Utara Malaysia on March 25, 2016

Minckler: School leadership that builds teacher social capital

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at Universiti Utara Malaysia on March 25, 2016

Educational Management Administration & Leadership 42(5)

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at Universiti Utara Malaysia on March 25, 2016

Minckler: School leadership that builds teacher social capital

Table 7. Allocation of teachers according to SPS for MANOVA.

Table 8. Allocation of teachers according to SPS for ANOVA.

of variance/covariance matrices (Leech et al., 2008). Instead, a modified precondition variable

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at Universiti Utara Malaysia on March 25, 2016

Educational Management Administration & Leadership 42(5)

Major Findings and Conclusion

Major Finding Number One

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at Universiti Utara Malaysia on March 25, 2016

Minckler: School leadership that builds teacher social capital

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at Universiti Utara Malaysia on March 25, 2016

Educational Management Administration & Leadership 42(5)

Major Finding Number Two

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at Universiti Utara Malaysia on March 25, 2016

Minckler: School leadership that builds teacher social capital

Educational Management Administration & Leadership-2014-Minckler-School Leadership That

Educational Management Administration & Leadership-2014-Minckler-School Leadership That