CLASS-X
SCIENCE
2012 - 2013
Venue :
R.P.V.V., Sector-XI, Rohini, Delhi
Published by :
Directorate of Education Govt. of NCT of Delhi
Designation
1.
R.P.V.V., Sec.-XI,
Rohini,Delhi
2.
T.G.T. (N.Sc.)
R.P.V.V., Sec.-XI,
Rohini,Delhi
3.
T.G.T. (N.Sc.)
4.
T.G.T. (N.Sc.)
S.K.V., Kamdhenu,
D-Block, Mangolpuri,
Delhi
5.
T.G.T. (N.Sc.)
G. Co.ed.S.S.S.,
Sec.-XI, Rohini, Delhi
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List of Contents
Chapter
No.
Name of the
Chapter
Page
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Life Processes
7.
8.
9.
Heredityand Evolution
10.
11.
12.
Electricity
13.
14.
Sources of Energy
15.
Our Environment
16.
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CHAPTER 1
SECTION A : READING
q
Rusting of iron.
MgO
Physical state of the reactant and products are mentioned to make chemical
reaction more informative. eg we use (g) for gas, (l) for liquid, (s) for solid
and (aq) for aqueous.
3 Fe(s) + 4H2O(g)
q
Fe2O3(s) +4H2(g)
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eg
CaO(s) + H2O(l)
Ca(OH)2 (aq)
Calcium
Water
Calcium hydroxide
oxide
(slaked lime)
Quick lime
Ca(OH)2 slaked lime is used for white washing walls. It reacts will CO2 to
form CaCO3 and gives a shiny finish to the walls.
Ca(OH)2
(aq)+
CO2
(g)
CaCO3
(s)+
Calcium
Calcium
hydroxide
Carbonate
H2O (l)
Burning of Coal
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g) + heat + light
Formation of water
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)
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The above two reactions are used in black and white photography.
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The nail becomes brownish in colour and the blue colour of Copper Sulphate
solution fade.
Other examples
(aq)
Copper
Sulphate
Zinc
Sulphate
+ Cu(s)
(aq)
(aq)
Copper
Chloride
Lead
Chloride
Zinc and lead are more reactive elements than copper. They displace copper
from its compounds.
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BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl
+ BaCl2
(aq)
(aq)
(aq)
Sodium
Barium
Barium
Sodium
Sulphate Chloride
Sulphate Chloride
A white substance is formed due to above reaction. The insoluble substance
is called precipitate.
Precipitation Reaction Any reaction that produces a precipitate is called a
precipitation reaction.
eg. Pb(NO3)2
(aq)
(aq)
Lead Nitrate
Redox Reaction : The reaction in which one reactant gets oxidised while
other gets reduced
eg.
ZnO + C Zn + CO
MnO2 + 4HCl MnCl2 + 2H2O + Cl2
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(ii)
Rancidity : When fats and oils are oxidised they become rancid and their
smell and taste change.
EXERCISE
(Question Bank)
(1 Mark)
Answer the following questions very breifly
1.
What happens when the milk is left at room temperature during summer?
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Why does the colour of copper sulphate solution change when an iron nail is
dipped into it?
9.
10.
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(2 mark)
1.
2.
3.
Transfer the following statements into Chemical equations and then balance
them.
4.
a)
b)
Identify the substances that are oxidised and the substances that are reduced
to the folllowing reactions.
1.
Na
O2
(s)
(g)
CuO
(s)
H2
Na2O
(s)
(g)
Cu + H O
2
(l)
(s)
5.
What happens when silver chloride is exposed to sunlight? Give one practical
application of this reaction. Write the equation also.
6.
Why is the bag used for potato chips flushed with nitrogen gas?
(3 marks)
Write down the balanced chemical equations for the following reactions.
a) Zinc Carbonate(s) Zinc Oxide + Carbon Dioxide(g)
b) Aluminium(s) + Chlorine(g) Aluminium Chloride(s)
c) Magnesium(s)+ Water(l)
2.
Heat
i)
MnO2
ii)
CaO
iii)
(s)
(s)
+ CO2
(g)
CaCO3
(s)
+ Cl2
(g)
+ 2H2O
(l)
(s)
(g)
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3.
What happens when CO2 is passed through slaked lime? Write the balanced
(g)
chemical equation. Write the type of reaction that has occured.
(5 marks)
Balance the following chemical equation and identify the type of reaction they
represent
KClO3 KCl + O2
NH3 + O2 NO + H2O
Na2O + H2O NaOH
Na + H2O NaOH + H2
FeCl3 + NaOH Fe (OH)3 + NaCl.
2.
Define various types of chemical reactions. Write one chemical equation for
each type.
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CHAPTER 2
Acids
Sour in taste
Bases
Bitter in taste
SulphuricAcid H2SO4
Acetic Acid
Orange
Citric Acid
Lemon
Citric Acid
Tamarind
Tartaric Acid
Tomato
Oxalic Acid
Lactic Acid
Methanoic Acid
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Name of the
Indicator
A.
To red
No change
B.
No change
To blue
C.
Turmeric
No change
To red
D.
Methyl orange
To red
To yellow
E.
Phenolphthalein (colourless)
No change
To pink
Dilute Acid : Contains only a small amounts of acid and a large amount of
water.
Pop test : When a buring candle is brought near a test tube containing
hydrogen gas it burns with a Pop sound. This test is conducted for examining
the presence of hydrogen gas.
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(s)
Lime water Test : On passing the CO2 gas evolved through lime water,
Ca(OH)2 (aq) + CO2(g) CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
Lime water
White precipitate
On passing excess CO2 the following reaction takes place
CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) Ca(HCO3)2 aq
Soluble in water
Neutralisation Reactions
Base + Acid Salt + Water
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Neutralisation reacton takes place when the effect of a base is nullified by
an acid and vice versa to give salt and water.
Copperoxide
HCl
CuCl2
Hydrochloric
Copper + Water
acid
chloride
H2O
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Note : Non Metallic oxides are said to be acidic in nature because on reacting
with a base they produce Salt and Water.
q
H2O
+
NaOH(s)
Na (aq) + OH (aq)
H2O
+
KOH(s)
K (aq) + OH (aq)
H2O
2+
Mg(OH)2(s)
Mg (aq) + 2OH (aq)
q
Alkalis
All bases donot dissolve in water. An alkali is a base that dissolves in water.
Common alkalis are
NaOH
Sodium hydroxide
KOH
Potassium hydroxide
Ca(OH)2
Calcium hydroxide
Precaution must be taken while mixing acid or base with water. The acid must
always be added to water with constant stirring as it is highly exothermic
reaction.
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When an acid or a base is mixed with water they become dilute. This results
in the decrease in the concentration of H3O+ or OH per unit volume in acids
and bases respectively.
q
Colour of the
pH Paper
Nature of
Solution
H+ion
Conc.
O H i o n
Conc.
1.
Dark red
2.
Orange or yellow
Acidic
high
low
3.
7:
Green
Neutral
Equal
Equal
4.
10
Alkaline
low
high
5.
14
highly basic
very low
very high
very low
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Formula
1.
Potassium Sulphate
K2 SO4
KOH
H2SO4
2.
Sodium Sulphate
Na2SO4
NaOH
H2SO4
3.
Sodium Chloride
NaCl
NaOH
HCl
4.
NH4OH
HCl
Note : NaCl and Na2 SO4 belong to the family of sodium salts as they have
the same radicals. Similarly NaCl and KCl belong to the family of chloride
salts.
Importance of pH in our daily life
q
pH of Acid Rain : When pH of rain water is less than 5.6 it is called Acid
Rain.When this acidic rain flows into rivers these also get acidic, which causes
a threat to the survival of aquatic life.
Our body functions between the range of 7.0 to 7.8 living organisms can
survive only in the narrow range of pH change.
Bee sting or Nettle sting contains methanoic acid which causes pain and
irritation. When we use a weak base like baking soda on it we get relief.
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Sodium Hydroxide
Preparation : Prepared by the method called chlor-alkali
Called chlor-alkali because we get chlorine and a base in this.
2NaCl(aq) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + Cl2(g) + H2(g)
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Bleaching Power
Preparation Ca(OH)2
Cl2 CaOCl2
calcium hydroxide
chlorine
bleaching
power
H2O
water
Baking Soda
Common name Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate
Preparation NaCl + H2O + CO2 + NH3 NH4Cl + NaHCO3
Sodium
chloride
Water
Carbon
dioxide
Ammonia
Sodium hydrogen
carbonate
Heat
CO2 produced causes dough to rise and make cakes, pastries spongy.
Uses :
Washing Soda
Preparation : Recrystallisation of sodium carbonate
Na2CO3 + 10H2O
Uses
Heat
Na2CO3. 10H2O
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Uses of plaster of Paris : Making toys, decorative material and smooth surfaces.
EXERCISE
(Question Bank)
Very Short answer type questions
(1 mark)
1.
Two solution have pH number 4 and 9 respectively which solution has more
H+ ion concentration?
2.
Why should cured and sour substances not be kept in brass and copper
vessel?
3.
4.
Write down the molecular formula for one strong and one weak acid.
5.
6.
Name the gas evolved when dil. sulphuric acid acts on sodium carbonate.
7.
8.
What do you observe when a buring candle is brought near the testube
containing hydrogen gas?
9.
Name the indicator used to measure pH values over the whole range.
10.
(2 marks)
1.
2.
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3.
4.
Why metallic oxides are called as basic oxides and non-metallic oxides are
calles acidic oxides?
5.
6,
7.
(3 marks)
1.
What is acid rain? What is its pH? How does it affect the aquatic life?
2.
What happens when a metal react with dilute hydrochloric acid? Write the
reaction
NaOH + Zn _________ + _________.
3.
What happens when an acid or a base is added to the water? Why does the
beaker appear warm? Why should we always add acid or base to the water
and not water to the acid or base.
2.
(5 marks)
(a)
Write down five products formed with the help of common salt on
industrial level.
(b)
Write down the chemical name of these compounds and one use of
each of them.
d)
NaOH
e)
H2 O
_______ + _______
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CHAPTER 3
About 118 elements are known today. There are more than 90 metals, 22
non metals and a few metalloids.
Sonorous(produce sound)
Lustrous(natural shine)
Have high melting point. Cesium and gallium have very low melting point.
Generally good conductor of heat and electricity, except lead and mercury
which are comparatively poor conductors. Silver and copper are best
conductors.
Have high density. Sodium and potassium can be cut with knife, they have
low density.
Non-sonorous.
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Some metals like Na and K are kept immersed in kerosene oil as they react
vigorously with air and catch fire.
Some metals like Mg, Al, Zn, Pb react slowly with air and form a protective
layer.
Mg can also burn in air with a white dazzling light to form its oxide
Fe and Cu don't burn in air but combine with oxygen to form oxide. When
heated iron filings burn when sprinkled over flame.
Metals like silver, platinum and gold don't burn or react with air.
2Na +
O2
Na2O
2Mg +
O2
2MgO
2Cu +
O2
2CuO
4Al +
302
2Al2O3
Amphoteric Oxides : metal oxides which react with both acids as well as
bases to form salt and water e.g. Al2O3, ZnO.
Al2O3
HCl
AlCl3
H2 O
Al2O3
NaOH
NaAlO2
H2 O
2.
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Na
H2 O
NaOH
H2
H2 O
KOH
H2
Ca
H2 O
Ca(OH)2
H2
Mg
H2 O
Mg(OH)2 +
H2
In case of Ca and Mg, the metal starts floating due to dubbles of hydrogen
gas sticking to its surface.
Al
H2 O
Al2O3
H2
Fe
H2 O
Fe3O4
H2
2HCl
FeCl2
H2
Mg
2HCl
MgCl2
H2
Zn
2HCl
ZnCl2
H2
2Al +
6HCl
2AlCl3
3H2
2HNO3
Mg(NO3)2 +
H2
solution
Salt
solution
of B
Metal B
of A
All metals are not equally reactive. Reactive metals can displace less reactive
metals from their compounds in solution. This forms the basis of reactivity
series of metals.
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Fe
CuSO4
FeSO4
Cu
Zn
CuSO4
ZnSO4
Cu
Atom of metals can lose electrons from valence shells to form cations (+ve
ions).
Atom of non-metals gain electrons in valence shell to form anions (ve ions).
Oppositely charged ions attract each other and are held by strong electrostatic
forces of attraction forming ionic compounds.
Formation of MgCl2
Mg
2,8,2
Cl2
2,8,7
2e
Mg2+
2e
2Cl
2,8,8 (Chloride ion)
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Have high melting and boiling points. More energy is required to break the
strong inter-ionic attraction.
Conduct electricity in solution and in molten state. In both cases, free ions are
formed and conduct electricity.
Occurance of Metals
Minerals : elements of compounds occuring naturally are minerals.
ORES : mineral from which metal can be profitably extracted is an ore. For example,
sulphide ore, oxide ore, carbonate ore.
Metals at the bottom of activity series like gold, platinum, silver, copper
generally occur in free state. But copper and silver also occur in sulphide and
oxide ores.
Metals of medium reactivity (Zn, Fe, Pb etc.) occur mainly as oxides, sulphides
or carbonates.
Metals of high reactivity (K, Na, Ca, Mg and Al) are very reactive and thus
found in combined state.
GANGUE : ores are naturally found mixed impurities like soil, sand, etc. called
gangue. The gangue is removed from the ore.
METALLURGY : step-wise process of obtaining metal from its ore.
*Enrichment of ore
*Obtaining metal from enriched ore.
*Refining of impure metal to obtain pure metal.
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Heat Zn + CO
ZnO + C
2.
In the above reaction molten iron is formed and is used to join railway tracks.
This is called thermit reaction.
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At cathode :
Na+ + e Na
At anode :
2Cl Cl2 + 2e
Refining of Metals :
Copper is obtained using this method. Following are present inside the
electrolytic tank.
From anode copper ions are released in the solution and equivalent amount
of copper from solution is deposited at cathode.
Impurities containing silver and gold gets deposited at the bottom of anode
as anode mud.
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Corrosion :
Silver - it reacts with sulphur in air to form silver sulphide and articles become
black.
Copper - reacts with moist carbon dioxide in air and gains a green coat of
copper carbonate.
Iron-acquires a coating of a brown flaky substance called rust. Both air and
moisture are necessary for rusting of iron.
Prevention of corrosion:
Stainless steel is obtained by mixing iron with nickel and chromium. It is hard
and doesnt rust.
In brass and bronze, melting point and electrical conductivity is lower than
that of pure metal.
Solder : alloy of lead and tin has low melting point and is used for welding
electrical wires.
Question Bank
1 MARK
1
Name a metal which is the best conductor of electricity and one which is poor
conductor of electricity.
Why food cans are coated with tin and not with zinc?
3.
Name any two alloys whose electrical conductivity is less than that of pure
metals.
4.
5.
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6.
7.
An oxide of an element was dissolved in water. The final solution turned red
litmus blue. Is the element metal, non-metal or a metalloid?
8.
9.
10.
2 MARKS
1.
Why Magnesium and calcium float when they react with water?
2.
3.
4.
5.
Hydrogen gas is not evolved generally when metals react with nitric acid.
Explain.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Why highly reactive metals can't be obtained from their oxides using coke as
a reducing agent?
3 MARKS
1.
2.
5 MARKS
1.
i)
ii)
iii)
a)
b)
Name a metal which combines with hydrogen gas. Name the compound
formed.
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2. Give reasons:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
Carbonate and sulphide ores are usually converted into oxides during
the process of extraction.
Metals are generally solid, sonorous, lustrous, good conductor of heat and
electricity, malleable, ductile, high melting point, high densities, form basic
oxides, form +vely charged ion.
Metals like Na, K and Ca are highly reactive, while others like Magnesium,
Aluminium, Zinc and Lead are less reactive and some others are least reactive
like silver, gold and platinum.
Metals and non-metals react to form ionic compounds which are soluble in
water, have high melting point and are good conductor of electricity in their
aqueous solution or molten state.
Sulphide and chloride ores are roasted while carbonate ores are roasted.
Metals are generally attacked by air and corrode. To alter the properties of
metals alloys are made.
Steel, stainless steel, amalgams, brass, bronze and solder are some alloys.
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CHAPTER 4
1.
Gain 4 electrons. But it would be difficult for nucleus to hold 4 extra electrons.
2.
Carbon attains the noble gas configuration by sharing its valence electrons
with other atoms. Atoms of other elements like hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
chlorine also show sharing of valence electrons.
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It is evident that the number of shared pair of electrons can be one, two or
three. Try making the structures of H2O and CH4.
Bond formed by the sharing of an electron pair between two atoms is called
covalent bond.
Covalently bonded molecules have low melting and boiling points because of
comparatively weaker intermolecular forces, unlike ionic compounds.
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ALKANE : CnH2n+2
ALKENE : CnH2n
ALKYNE : CnH2n2
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Structural isomers : these are the compounds having identical molecular formula
but different structures. For example, isomers of butane.
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Homologous Series:
For instance, the ALCOHOLSs: CH3 OH, C2H5 OH, C3H7 OH, C4H9 OH.
The chemical properties are imparted by the functional group thus all members
have similar chemical properties. But the members have different physical
properties.
The physical properties vary among the members of homologous series due
to difference in their molecular mass.
Melting point and boiling point increases with increasing molecular mass.
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3.
If a suffix is added, then final e is removed from the name eg. methanol
(methane-e = methan + ol).
COMBUSTION :
*Carbon compounds generally burn (oxidize) in air to produce carbon dioxide and
water, and release heat and light energy.
CH4 + O2 CO2 + H2O + heat and light
*Saturated hydrocarbon burns generally with a blue flame in good supply or air and
with a yellow sooty flame in limited supply of air.
*Sooty flame is seen when unsaturated hydrocarbons are burnt.
*Burning of coal and petroleum emits oxides of sulphur and nitrogen which are
responsible for acid rain.
2.
OXIDATION :
3.
ADDITION REACTION:
Saturated fatty acids are harmful for health and oils with unsaturated fatty acids
should be used for cooking.
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4.
SUBSTITUTION REACTION :
*Consumption of dilute ethanol causes serious health issues and intake of pure
alcohol is lethal.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ETHANOL
C2H5OH Reacts with Sodium
to from Sodium Ethoxide and
Hydrogen
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Esterification :
Carboxylic acids react with alcohols in presence of few drops of concentrated
sulphuric acid as catalyst and form sweet smelling compounds called ester.
Hydrolysis :
On heating with an acid or a base the ester forms back the original alcohol and
carboxylic acid.
CH3COO CH2CH3 + NaOH CH3COONa + CH3-CH2OH
CH3COO CH2CH3
Dil.H 2 SO 4
HEAT
CH3COOH + CH3-CH2OH
Soap is sodium and potassium salt of carboxylic acids with long chain.
Soaps are effective with soft water only and ineffective with hard water.
Most dirt is oily in nature and the hydrophobic end attaches itself with dirt,
while the ionic end is surrounded with molecules of water. This result in
formation of a radial structure called micelles.
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Scum : The magnesium and calcium salts present in hard water reacts with
soap molecule to form insoluble products called scum, thus obstructing the
cleansing action. Use of detergents overcome this problem as the detergent
molecule prevents the formation of insoluble product and thus clothes get
cleaned.
EXERCISE
(Question Bank)
1MARK
1.
2.
3.
Define catenation.
4.
The kerosene/gas stove used at home has inlets for air. Give reason.
5.
Write only the chemical equation for dehydration of ethanol by hot conc.
Sulphuric acid.
6.
7.
8.
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9.
10.
2 MARKS
1. Define saponification. Write a chemical equation for it.
2. Covalent compounds generally don't conduct electricity. Why?
3.
4.
5.
3 MARKS
1.
2.
5 MARKS
1.
Differentiate between ethanol and ethanoic acid on the basis of any three
physical properties and two chemical properties.
2.
ii)
Write the chemical equation for its reaction with ethanol to form
compound 'B'.
iii)
iv)
Which gas is produced when compound 'A' reacts with washing soda?
Write the chemical equation
v)
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Carbon atom like atoms of other non-metals like oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen
and chlorine shares electrons.
The compounds of hydrogen and carbon are called hydrocarbons, which can
be saturated or unsaturated.
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CHAPTER 5
PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF
ELEMENTS
q
Elements : Substances containing atoms of only one type. eg. Na, Au, Mg etc.
There are around 118 elements known to us.
Elements
Atomic Mass
Ca
40.1
Sr
87.6
Ba
136.3
Limitations : Only three triads were recognised from the elements known at
that time.
q
Atomic mass of an element is the relative mass of its atom as compared widh
the mass of a Carbon-12 atom taken as 12 units
When elements are arranged it was found that every eighth element had
properties similar to that of the first. eg properties of sodium and Lithium are
the same.
Limitations :
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It some cases properties of the elements were not same as defined by octave.
Mendeleev's periodic law : The properties of elements are the periodic function
of their atomic mass.
Mendeleev's periodic table based on the chemical properties of elements.
Contain eight vertical columns called groups and seven horizontal rows called periods
form Mendeleevs peridic table.
Achievements of Mendeleevs Periodic table
Limitations:
No. of elements placed in a particular period depends upon the fact that how
electrons are filled into various shells.
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Position of the element in the periodic table tells about its reactivity.
Atomic size or radius decreases in moving from left to right along a period
due to increase in nuclear charge
Atomic size increases down the group because new shells are being added
as we go down the group.
Metals are electropositive as they tend to lose electrons while forming bonds.
Metals are found on the left side of the period table while non-metals are
towards the right hand side of the periodic table.
Oxides of metals are basic in nature while oxides of non-metals are acidic in
nature.
(Refer the table given on side page)
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Property
Variation
across period
Reason
Variation Reason
along group
1.
Atomic size
Decreases
due to addition
of new shells.
due to increase in
distance between
outer most electron
and nucleus.
2.
Metallic
Character
Decreases
3.
Non-Metallic Increases
Character
due to increase
Increases
in effective
nuclear charge
tendency to lose
valence electrons
decreases.
due to decrease in
effective nuclear
charge tendency to
lose valence electrons
increases.
due to increase
Decreases
in effective
nuclear charge
tendency to gain
electrons increases
due to decrease in
effective nuclear
charge tendency to
gain electron
decreases
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EXERCISE
(Question Bank)
Very Short Answer type Questions.
(1 mark)
1.
2.
3.
Which important property did Mendeleev used to classify the elements in his
periodic table.
4.
5.
Name the most metallic and most non-metallic element in the periodic table.
6.
Define Isotopes.
7.
8.
Name two elements that have two electrons in their outermost shell.
9.
How many vertical columns and horizontal rows are there in modern periodic
table. What is the special name assigned to them?
10.
(2 Marks)
1.
2.
3.
What were the drawbacks of Mendeleevs periodic table? Write any two.
4.
How does the tendency to lose electrons will change in a group and why?
5.
6.
Why metallic oxides are basic in nature whereas Non-metallic oxides are
acidic in nature.
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2.
Study the variation in the atomic radii of elements given below and arrange
them in an increasing order
Na
186
3.
(3 Marks)
Li
152
Rb
Cs
246
262
231
ii)
Name the element which has the smallest and the largest atoms.
iii)
Four elements ABCD along with their electronic configurations are given
below
Elements
Electronic Configuration
4.
2, 1
2, 8
2, 8, 1
2, 8, 8
b)
c)
(5 Marks)
1.
Write down five major differences between Mendeleev periodic table and
modern periodic table.
2.
Examine elements of the third period and classify them as metals and non
metals.
ii)
iii)
On which side of the table do you find the non-metals and why?
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AK
CHAPTER 6
LIFE PROCESSES
All living things perform certain life processes like growth, excretion, respiration,
circulation etc.
All the processes like respiration, digestion, which together keep the living organisms
alive and perform the job of body maintenance are called life processes.
Examples :
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Autotrophic Nutrition :
The organisms which carry out autotrophic nutrition are called autotrophs (green
plants)
Autotrophic nutrition is fulfilled by the process by which autotrophs take in CO2 and
H2O and convert these into carlohydrates in the presence of chlorophyll, sunlight is
called PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Equation :
Sunlight
Water water + dissolved minerals like Nitrogen phosphorous etc are taken
up by the roots from the soil.
Site of Photosynthesis :
Chloroplast in the leaf. Chloroplast contain chlorophyll. (green pigment)
Main Events of Photosynthesis :
q
(ii)
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AK
52
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Teeth
Chewing/grinding of food.
Tongue
Rolling of food
+
Tasting of food
+
Swallowing / pushing down of the food
Salivary Glands
Secrete Saliva + Mucus.
Salivary
amylase
[Saliva]
Starch
Oesophagus
Stomach
Sugar
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Small Intestinal
Small Intestine
small intestine
Receives
secretion from
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Respiration
Respiration involves
(i)
(ii)
Cellular
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Nasal Passage
Nasal Cavity
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchi
Lungs
Bronchioles
Alveolar
Blood capillaries
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Stomata in leaves
2.
Lenticels in stems
3.
X Science
AK
Human beings like other multicellular organism need regular supply of food,
oxygen etc., This function is performed by circulatory system or Transport
system.
A Pumping Organ
Heart
Deoxygenate
Blood
(from body)
Blood vessels
- Arteries & Veins
Vena
Cava
Body Parts
Right
Atrium
(Relaxed)
A circulatory medium
Blood & Lymph
Right
Atrium
(contracts)
Right
ventricle
contracts
Blood Circulation
in Human Heart
via AoRTA
Right
Ventricle
(relaxed)
Lungs
Left
Ventricle
(contracts)
Left
Ventricle
(relaxed)
Left
Atrium
(contracts)
Left
Atrium
(relaxed)
Oxygenated
blood
AORTA
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X-Science
Blood
(A fluid Connective Tissue)
Solid Component
Blood Corpuscles
R.B.C.s
- carries respect
gas (O2, CO2)
- contain Hb
impart red colour
to me blood
-
Liquid Component
PLASMA
Blood
Platelets
W.B.C.
Provide Body
defence by
engulfing the
germ cells &
producing
antibodies
helps in
Blood
Clotting
Lymph - a yellowish fluids escapes from the blood capillaries into the
intercellular spaces contain less proteins than blood. Lymph flows from the
tissues to the heart assisting in transportation and destroying germs.
Blood Vessels
Arteries
Veins
1.
1.
2.
2.
3.
3.
Transportation in Plants
There are two main conducting Pathways in a Plant
Xylem
Phloem
1.
1.
Carries product of
photosynthesis from leaves
to the other part of the plant.
2.
No energy is used.
2.
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X-Science
Transpiration is the process of loss of water as vapour from aerial parts of the
plant.
Function :
1. Absorption and upward movement of water and minerals by creating
PULL.
2. helps in temperature regulation in Plant.
Transport of food from leaves (food factory) to different part of the plant is
called Translocation.
EXCRETION
The process of the removal of the harmful metabolic wastes from the body.
Urine produced in the kidneys passes through the ureters into the urinary
bladder where it is stored until it is released through the urethera.
The purpose of making urine is to filter out waste product from the blood ie,
urea which is produced in the liver.
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Excretion in Plants
Through stomata
(Transpiration)
Other wastes may be stored in leaves, bark etc. which fall off from the plant.
Gums, Resin fi
In old Xylem
Life Processes
EXERCISE
(Question Bank)
Very Short Answers (1 Mark)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
What is emulsification
7.
8.
9.
Define transpiration
10.
2.
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X-Science
3.
ii)
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
2.
Larynx
ii)
iii)
Bronchus
iv) Lungs
62
Trachea
X-Science
CHAPTER 7
b)
Endocrine System
Nervous System :
Functions
i)
Photo receptors
Eyes
Skin
Olfactory
Receptor
(Nose)
Gustatory
Receptor
(Tongue)
Hearing/
Balance of
the body
Visual
Stimulus
Pain
Touch
Heat
Smell
Detection
Taste
Detection
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II
III
Dendrite
Cell body
and Axon
Synapse
Information is
acquired
Information
travels as an
electrical impulse
Part where
electrical signal
is converted into
chemical message
for onward transmission
to next neuron
by release of neurotransmitters
Nucleus
Nerve
ending
Dendrite
Axon
Cellpody
Structure of neuron
Fig. 7.1 (a) P 115
Synapse : The point of contact between the terminal branches of axon of one
neuron with the dendrite of another neuron is called synapse.
Reflex Action
A quick, sudden, immediate response of the body to the certain stimuli that
involves Spinal cord. eg. (not brain) withdrawal of hand, knee jerk etc.
Reflex arc : The pathway through which impulses pass is called reflex arc.
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X-Science
Stimulus
eg. Heat
Sensory Nerves
RECEPTOR
ORGAN
(SKIN)
Spinal Cord
Response
eg. Withdrawal
of
Hand
EFFECTOR
ORGAN
(MUSCLE)
Motor Nerves
Peripheral
Nervous
System
Autonomic
Nervous
System
(CNS
(PNS)
(ANS)
Brain
Spinal
Cord.
Fore Brain
Mid Brain
Cranial
Nerves
Spinal
Nerves
Arise from
the brain
Arise from
Spinal Card
Sympathetic
Nervous
System
Para
Sympathetic
Nervous
System
Hind Brain
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Human Brain
Human brain has three major parts or regions
a) Forebrain b) Mid Brain c) Hind Brain
FOREBRAIN
Most complex/specialized part of the brain is CEREBRUM
FUNCTIONS :
1. Thinking part of the brain
2. Control the voluntary actions.
3. Store information (Memory)
4. Centre associated with HUNGER
5. Receives sensory impulses from various body parts and integrates it
Mid Brain :
HYPOTHALAMUS : Chemical co-ordination
PITUITARY GLAND : Secretes hormones
Hind Brain :
CEREBELLUM i) Controls posture and balance
ii) Control precision of voluntary actions
MEDULLA
PONS
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Central
Nervous
System
[CNS]
Information
Processed
by
[CNS]
Decesion
made
[by CNS]
Action
Muscle shorten
Contraction
[Muscle cell]
(Motor Nerves)
Message
Muscles
[Change in shape
and arrangement
of proteins]
Passed to
muscles
Coordination in Plants
Movement in Plants
Movement dependent
on growth
Movement independent
of growth
[immediate response
to stimulus]
eg. dropping of leaves
of Touch-me-not
plant on touching it
Tropic movements
[directional movements
in response to stimulus]
Phototropism
Geotropism
Chemotropism
Hydrotropism
Movement
towards light
Movement
towards gravity
Movement
towards Chemicals/
growth of pollen
tube towards avule
Movement
towards /
water
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Plant hormones :
Are chemical compounds which help to coordinate growth, development and
responses to the environment.
Plant hormones : Main plant hormones are :
a) Auxin : [Synthesized at shoot tip]
Function : Helps in growth
Phototropism : more growth of cells towards light.
b) Gibberellin : Helps in the growth of the stem
c) Cytokinins : Promotes cell division
d) Abscisic acid : Inhibits growth, cause witting of leaves.
(Stress hormone)
Hormones in Animals
Hormones : These are the chemical messengers secreted in very small amounts by
specialised tissues called ductless glands. They act on target tissues/organs usually
away from their source.
Endocrine System helps in control and coordination through chemical compounds
called HORMONES
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X-Science
S.
No.
Hormone
Endocrine
Gland
Location
Functions
1.
Thyroxine
Thyroid
Neck/
Throat
region
Regulation of metabolism
of carbohydrates, fats
and proteins.
2.
Growth
hormone
Pituitary
Mid
3.
Adrenaline
Adrenal
Above
both
kidneys
Regulation (increasing)
of blood pressure, heart
heat, carbohydrate
metabolism (during
emergency)
Testosterone
in Males
Testes
Changes associated
with puberty
(Sexual maturity)
estrogen
Ovaries
Genital/
lower
abdomen
area
Insulin
Pancreas
Below
stomach
4.
SEX
Hormone
5.
G
O
N
A
D
S
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SWITCH OFF
Feedback sent
EXERCISE
(Question Bank)
Very Short Answers (1 Mark)
1.
2.
3.
4.
What is synapse.
5.
6.
Define hormones
7.
8.
What is phototropism?
9.
10.
Draw diagram of neuron and label cell body, dendrites and axon.
2.
3.
Cerebellum
ii)
Pons.
4.
5.
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X-Science
6.
What are the different receptors present in our body? What are their
functions.
7.
What are plant hormones? Name a plant hormone that promotes growth in
plants.
8.
2.
What are hormones (in animals) List four characteristics of hormones. Name
the hormone required for the following.
i)
ii)
Fore brain
b)
Mid brain
c)
Hind brain
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CHAPTER 8
Copying of DNAs is also not a foolproof exercise, even minute changes bring
about Variation in the blue print of the offsprings.
The useful variations are retained while the harmful one does not go beyond.
Asexual Reproduction
1. A single parent is involved
Sexual Reproduction
1. Both Parents involved
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VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION :
A mode of reproduction in which part like the stem, root, leaves develop into new
plant under favourable conditions.
Benefits
1.
Plants can bear flowers, fruits earlier than those produced from seeds.
2.
Growing Banana, orange, rose, jasmine that have lost the capacity to produce
seeds.
3.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
When reproduction takes place as a result of fusion between two gamets, one from
each parent, it is called sexual reproduction.
It occurs mostly in flowering plants. In fact flowers are the reproductive organ of
plants.
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X-Science
FLOWERS
Bisexual Flowers
Both male and female
reproductive part i.e., stamen &
carpel present.
Unisexual Flowers
Either male or female
reproductive part is present.
Eg. Papaya, Watermelon
A typical flower consists of four main whorls namely calyx (sepals), Corolla
(Petals), Androecium (Stamens) and Gynoecium (Carpels).
Reproductive Part of Flower
STAMEN
(male part
Filament
(2n)
Anther
MEIOSIS
(n) Pollen grain
(male gamet)
CARPEL
(female part)
Style
Stigma
Ovary
(2n)
Egg cell (ovule) [n]
Pollen grains of a flower transfer to stigma of the carpel of the same flower
(Self-Pollination) or to the carpel of the another flower (Cross-Pollination).
After Pollination, the pollen grains reach to the egg cell in the form of a pollen
tube.
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X-Science
Fertilization : The fusion between the pollen grain and female egg cell. It
occurs inside the ovary. Zygote is produced in this process.
Zygote divides several times to form an embryo within the ovule. The ovule
develops a tough coat and is converted into a seed.
Ovary grows rapidly and ripens to forms a fruit, while the seed contains the
future plant or embryo which develops into a seedling under suitable
condition. This process is known as Germination.
REPRODUCTION IN HUMAN BEINGS
It needs sexual maturation which includes creation of the germ cells ie, egg
(ova) in the female and sperm in the male partener & this period of sexual
maturation is called Puberty.
Human beings have a well developed male and female reproductive system.
The formation of male germ cell (sperms) takes place in the testes (male
reproducture organ)
Actually a pair of testes are located inside scrotum situated outside the
abdominal cavity. It is meant to keep relatively a low temperature needed for
the production of sperms by testes.
X-Science
The sperms along with the secretion of prostate gland and seminal vesicle,
together constitute semen, which is released and made to enter into the female
genital tract during Copulation.
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
?
The female germ cells or eggs are made in the ovaries, a pair of which is
located in both side of abdomen.
?
When a girl is born, the ovaries already contain thousands of immature eggs.
?
At the puberty, some of these Eggs start maturing. One egg is produced every
month by one of the ovaries.
?
The Egg is carried from the ovary to the womb through a fallopian tube. These
two fallopian tube unite into an elastic bag like structure known as Uterus.
?
The Uterus opens into the vagina through the cervix.
?
Fertilization occurs in the fallopian tube of female genital tract.
?
The fertilized egg also called zygote (2n) gets implanted in the lining of the
Uterus, and start dividing. Actually uterus is richly supplied with blood to
nourish the growing embryo. If zygote is not formed, the inner wall of uterus
breaks which causes bleeding through vagina. This process is called
MENSTRUATION. It occurs at a regular interval of 28 days.
?
The Embroyo gets nutrition fromthe mother's blood with the help of a special
tissue called PLACENTA. It provides a large surface area for glucose and
oxygen to pass from the mother to the embryo. Similarly the wastes from
developing embryo are removed to mother's blood through placenta.
?
The child is born as a result of rhythmic contractions of the muscles in the
uterus. after Nine months (36 weeks) of development inside mother's womb.
It is also called Gestation Period.
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The sexual cycle in a woman continues upto the age of 45 to 50 years. After
that the ovary do not release egg. This stage is called Menopause. It a also
marks the end of menstruation in the woman.
REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
?
Reproductive Health means a total well-being in all aspects of reproductive,
Methods of contraception
PHYSICAL
BARRIER
To prevent union of
sperm & egg.
Use of condoms,
Diaphragm & cervical
caps.
SURGICAL
METHOD
Also called sterilization
in Vasectomy, the vas
deferens of male is
blocked to prevent
sperm transfer.
In Tubectomy, the
fallopian tube of female
is blocked to prevent
egg to reach uterus.
CHEMICAL
METHOD
Oral contraceptive
(OCs) - changes the
hormonal balance to
check the egg release in
females. OCs cause side
effect.
Copper-T or loop is
placed in uterus to
prevent pregancy.
?
Healthy society needs a balanced sex ratio that can be achieved by educating
the people to avoid malpractices like female foeticide & pre-natal sex
determination.
Sexually Transmitted Disease (STDs)
VIRAL STDs
Eg. H.I.V. - AIDS
Warts
Bacterial STDs
Eg. Syphilis &
Gonorrhoea
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X-Science
EXERCISE
(Question Bank)
1.
2.
What is bisexual/hermaphrodite?
3.
4.
Write the function of the secretion of seminal vesicle and prostate gland.
5.
6.
2 Marks
7.
8.
Why is variation beneficial to the species but not necessarily for the
individual?
9.
10.
Name any two STDs. What measures can you suggest to prevent them.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
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X-Science
CHAPTER 9
X-Science
PARENT
GENERATION
Dwarf plant
Tall plant
tt
T
TT
T
GAMETES
Tt
F1 GENERATION
(first filal generation)
SELF POLLINATION
Tt
(F1) Tt
Tt
(F1)
GAMETES
T
TT
F2 GENERATION
(Second Final
TALL
Gneration
Phenotypic ratio
Phenotypic ratio
Tt
Tt
tt
TALL
TALL
SHORT
3:1
1:2:1
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X-Science
82
X-Science
TT
tt
Tt
Pure or
conditon
homozygous
Hetrozygous
condition.
[Hybrid]
Conclusions :
Dihybrid Cross : A cross macle between two plants having two pairs of
contrasting characters is called dihybrid cross.
PARENT
GENERATION
GAMETES
ROUND
GREEN SEEDS
WRINKLED
YELLOW SEEDS
RRYY
fl
RY
rryy
fl
ry
F1
RrYy
[round, yellow]
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X-Science
F1
RY
Ry
rY
ry
fl
Selfing F1fi
Rr Yy
F1
Rr Yy
RY
Ry
rY
ry
G
A
H
E
T
E
S
RY
RY
RRYY
Ry
RRYy
rY
RrYy
ry
RrYy
flRy
RRYy
RRyy
RrYy
Rryy
rY
RrYY
RrYy
rrYY
rrYy
ry
RrYy
Rryy
rrYy
rryy
F2
PHENOTYPIC RATIO :
Round, yellow
Round, green
Wrinkled, yellow
Wrinkled, green
GENOTYPIC RATIO :
RRYY
RRYy
RrYY
RRyy
RrYy
Rryy
rrYY
rrYy
rryy
;
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:9
:3
:3
:1
1
2
2
1
4
2
1
2
1
RATIO : 1 : 2 : 2 : 1 : 4 : 2 : 1 : 2 : 1
Observations :
Conclussions :
X-Science
Sex Determination
Phenomenon of decision or determination of sex of an offspring
FACTORS
Responsible for Sex Determination
Environmental
In some animals the temperature
at which the fertilised eggs are
kept decides the gender.
Genetic
In some animals like humans gender or
individual is determined by a pair of
chromosome called sex chromosome
eg. in Turtle
XX Female
XY Male
FATHER
XY
GAMETES
(Reproductive cells)
Zygote
formed
after fusion
of gametes
MOTHER
XX
XX
FEMALE
XX
FEMALE
50% probability
of a female child
XY
MALE
XY
MALE
50% probability
of a male child
This shows that half the children will be boys and half will be girls. All children
will in herit an X chromosome from their mother regardless whether they are boys
or girls. Thus sex of children will be determined by what they inherit from their
father, and not from their mother.
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X-Science
Evolution
SITUATION-I
Group of red beetles
Colour variation arises during reproduction
All beetles red except
one that is green
Number of green
beetles increases
Situation 1 : Green beetles got the survival advantage or they were naturally
selected as they were not visible in green bushes. This natural selection is exerted
by crows resulting in adaptations in the beetles to fit better in their environment
SITUATION-II
Group of red beetles
Reproduction
All beetles are red except one
that is blue
Reproduces
No. of blue
beetle increases
Crows can see both blue and red beetles and can eat them
Number reduces but still red beetles are more and blue ones are few
Suddenly elephant comes and stamps on the bushes
But now beetles left are mostly blue.
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X-Science
Situation 2 : Blue beetles did not get survivals advantage. Elephant suddenly
caused major havoc in beetle population otherwise there number would have been
considerably large.
From this we can conclude that accidents can change the frequency of some genes
even if they do not get survival advantage: This is called genetic drift and it leads to
variation.
Mechanism of Heredity
Characters or traits of an organism are controlled by the genes
A Section of DNA (cellular)
Gene
Provides information
For synthesis of Proteins
Proteins controls a character
Example :
Gene T
Gene t
responsible for
synthesis of efficient
enzyme (Protein)
responsible for
synthesis of less
efficient enzyme
87
More
production
of growth
hormone
Less
production
of growth
hormone
Results
in
Tall
Plants
Results
in
short
Plants
X-Science
SITUATION-III
Group of red beetles
Habitat of beetles (bushes)
Suffer from plant disease
Average weight of beetles
decreases due to poor nourishment
No of beetles kept on reducing
Later plant disease gets eliminated
Number and average weight of the beetles
increases again
Situation 3 : No genetic change has occured in the population of beetle. The
population gets affected for a short duration only due to environmental changes
Inherited Traits
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Speciation
Micro evolution : It is the evolution which is on a small scale. eg. change in body
colour of beetles.
Speciation : it is the process of formation of new species.
Species : A group of similar individuals that along to a population that can
interbreed and produce ferrite off spring.
Geneflow : It is exchange of genetic material by interbreeding between
populations of same species or individuals
WAYS BY WHICH SPECIATION TAKES PLACE
Speciation takes place when variation is combined with geographical isolation.
Gene flow : occurs between population that are partly but not completely
seperated
Sub Population
X1 (local)
Interbreeding
[Reproduction]
Gene
flow
Sub Population
X1 (migrant)
Variation
in
Local
population
Genetic Drift
It is the random change in the frequency of alleles (gene pair) in a population over
successive generations.
*Natural Selection : The process by which nature selects and consolidate those
organisms which are more suitably adapted and posesses favorable variations
POPULATION Z
Sub Population
Z1
GEOGRAPHICAL
BARRIER
ISOLATION
(River, Mountain)
Sub Population
Z2
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90
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(Running)
(flying)
(walk/scratch/attack)
Same basic
plan,
different
functions
II. Analogous Organs : These are the organs that have different origin and
structural plan but same function example :
Design different
Wings of bat fi
elongated fingers with skin folds
same function
ie. flight
Wings of bird fi
Feathery covering along the arm
III. Fossils : (Palaeontological evidences)
The remains and relics of dead organisms of the past.
Example :
i)
Fossil invertebrate
TRILOBITE
Fossil in vertebrate
KNIGHTIA
Fossil fish
RAJASAURUS
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X-Science
Recent
1. ...........................
2. ...........................
3. ...........................
4. ...........................
5. ..........................
6. ..........................
Older
Evolution by stages
Evolution takes place in stages ie bit by bit over generations.
I.
Fitness advantage
Evolution of Eyes
Evolution of complex organs is not sudden it occurs due to minor changes
in DNA, however takes place bit by bit over generations.
enough to
Flat worm has rudimentary eyes give fitness
advantage
Insects have compound eyes
Humans have binocular eyes
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WILD
CABBAGE
KALE
CABBAGE
with larger
leaves
with short distance
between the leaves
BROCCOLI
KOHL RABI
CAULIFLOWER
Has sterile
flowers
Arrested flower
development
With Swollen
parts
Molecular Phylogeny :
?
It is based on the idea that changes in DNA during reproduction are the basic
events in evolution
?
Organisms which are more distantly related will accumulate greater
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Human Evolution
Tools to Study Human Evolutionary Relationship
Excavating
Time dating
Fossils
Determining
DNA
Sequences
Although there is great diversity of human forms all over the world get all humans
are a single species
GENETIC FOOTPRINTS OF HUMANS
Hundreds/thousand of years ago
Earliest members arose in Africa
East Asia
South Africa
Africa
Philippines
Island
of
Indonesia
West
Asia
Central
Asia
Australia
Eurasia
?
They did'nt go in a single line
?
They went forward and backward
?
Moved in and out of Africa
?
Sometimes came back to mix with each other.
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EXERCISE
(Question Bank)
Very Short Answers (1 Mark)
1.
Define variation
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Explain monohydrid cross by taking tall and dwarf plants. Mention the
phenotypic and genotypic ratio of F1 and F2 off springs.
2.
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CHAPTER 10
LIGHT-REFLECTION
& REFRACTION
Light is a form of energy, which enable us to see the object.
In this chapter we will study the phenomena of reflection and refraction using the
property of light i.e. straight line propagation (Light wave travel from one point to
another, along a straight line).
Reflection of Light
When the light is allowed to fall on highly polished surface, such as mirror, most of
the light gets reflected.
normal
Laws of Reflection
1.
2.
i=
r
The incident ray, reflected ray and the
normal to the reflecting surface at the
point of incidence lie in the same plane.
Reflected
ray
Incident
ray
i
Points of incidences
Object
Image
B1
1)
2)
Laterally inverted (The left side of object appear on right side of image)
3)
X-Science
4.
The image formed is as for behind the mirror as the object is in front of it.
Reflecting
side
Reflecting
side
Concave
Mirror
OR CONVERGING
MIRROR
Convex
mirror
OR DIVERGING
MIRROR
Principal
Axis
Radius of curvature
R
F
f
focal length
Concave
Mirror
Radius of curvature
R
Principal
Axis
97
f
F
focal length
Convex
Mirror
X-Science
1.
Principal axis : Line joining the pole and centre of curvature of the spherical
mirror.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Radius of curvature : The separation between the pole and the centre of
curvature. ie. PC = R
6.
Focus point : The point on the principal axis, where all parallel rays meet
after reflection, denoted by (F)
7.
Focal length : The length between the pole and focus point i.e. PF = f
8.
P
Principal
Axis
P
Principal C
Axis
F
CONCAVE
MIRROR
CONCAVE
MIRROR
Principal
Axis
CONVEX MIRROR
Appear as if coming
from focus pt in case of convex mirror
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Principal
Axis
b)
A ray of light which passes through centre of curvature (it is also known as
normal at the point of incidence on spherical mirror) will retrace their path
after reflection
Pole (P)
Principal
Axis
CONCAVE
MIRROR
P
Principal
Axis
c)
CONVEX
MIRROR
A ray of light falling on pole get reflected at the same angle on the other side of
principal axis.
i=
r
99
i=
r
F
X-Science
ng
(passi c)
h
g
u
o
r
th
al
norm dence
inci
f
o
t
p
at
Note : The image will only form when two or more rays meets at apoint. Image
formation by a concave mirror for different position of the object
1.
Object
At infinity
Position of
Image
At focus
P
C
2.
Object
Beyond C
Size of
Image
Highly diminished
(point size)
A
object
B1
C image
Object
At C
A
B1 B
P
F
Position of
Image
Between F&C
Nature
Real and
Inverted
Size of
Image
Small
A1
3.
Nature
Real and
Inverted
Position of
Image
At C
Nature
Real and
Inverted
Size of
Image
Same Size
of object
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4.
Object
Between C&F
i=
r
Position of
Nature
i
Image
P
Real and
r
Beyond C
Inverted
A
Object
B1
Image
A
5.
Size of Image
Enlarged
Object
At F
A
B
i
P
i=
r
Position of
Nature
Image
Real and
At (infinity)
Inverted
Size of Image
Highly enlarged
A1
6.
Object
Between F&P
(Special Case)
i
r
B
B1
Position of Image
Behind the mirror
Size of Image
Enlarged
Nature
Virtual
and
Erect
Object
At infinity
P
F
Position of Image
At focus
Size of Image
Highly diminished
101
Nature
Virtual & erect
X-Science
1.
Object
Anywhere between
infinity and pole
of the mirror
A
A1
P
B
B1
Position of Image
Between P & F
Size of Image
Very small
Nature
Virtual & erect
2.
3.
4.
Used as rear-view mirror in vehicles because it gives erect image. It also helps
the driver to view large area.
2.
All distance should be measured from pole (P); parallel to principal axis.
3.
+x
(Cartesian system)
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MIRROR FORMULA
f fi
distance between F and Pole
v fi
distance of image from Pole
u fi
distance of object from Pole
R fi
distance between centre of curvature and pole.
1
1
1
F = v + u
R
where f = 2
MAGNIFICATION
It is expressed as the ratio of the height of the image to height of the object
m=
height of image h1
=
height of object h
m=
h
h
1
image height from principle axis
v where h fi
1
= u
h fi
Object height from principle axis.
Object height h fi
always positive | Image height h
- negative
} Real
Virtual - positive
Real - Image
always negative
v fi
Virtual - Image always positive
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Refraction is due to change in the speed of light as it enters from one transparent
medium to another.
Speed of light decreases as the beam of light travel from rarer medium to the denser
medium.
normal
normal
Incident
Ray
Denser medium
Raver medium
Denser medium
Rarer medium
Refracted Ray
When ray travel from Rarer to Denser it bends When ray travel from denser to
towards normal after refraction
rarer medium it bends away
from normal
Some Commonly observed phenomenon due to Refraction
1.
2.
3.
Incident ray
i1
K
L
O
r1
i2 N
Glass
(Denser
Medium)
O
e
M
Air (Rarer Medium)
(Refracted Ray)
C
B
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When a incident ray of light AO passes from a rarer medium (air) to a denser
medium (glass) at point. O on interface AB, it will bends towards the normal. At pt
1
O , on interface DC the light ray entered from denser medium (glass) to rarer
medium (air) here the light ray will bend away from normal OO1is a refracted ray
OB is an emergent ray. If the incident ray is extended to C, we will observe that
emergent ray O1B is parallel to incident ray. The ray will slightly displaced laterally
after refraction.
Note : When a ray of light is incident normally to the interface of two media it will
go straight, without any deviation.
Laws of refraction of light1.
The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface of two
transparent media at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.
2.
for given colour and pair of media, this law is also known as Snells Law
Constant n is the refractive index for a given pair of medium. It is the refractive
index of the second medium with respect to first medium.
n2
Sin i
Sin r = n1 = n21
Refractive Index
The refractive index of glass with respect is air is given by ratio of speed of light in
air to the speed of light in glass.
ng
Speed of light in air
c
nga = n =
= v
a
Speed of light in glass
C fi
Speed of light in vacuum = 3
108 m/s
speed of light in air is marginally less, compared to that in vacuum.
Refractive index of air with respect to glass is given by
na
a fi
air
Speed of light in glass
v
nag = n =
= c
g fi
glass
g
Speed of light in air
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C1
or (2F1)
f
O
F1
F2
Optical
centre (O)
R
Principal
Axis
C1
C2
or (2F2)
F1
F2
C2
Convex
Lens
Concave
Lens
C1
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C2
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1.
Centre of curvature - A lens, either a convex lens or a concave lens has two
spherical surfaces. Each of these surfaces form a part of sphere. The centre of
these two spheres are called centre of curvature represented by C1 and C2.
2.
Principal axis - Imaginary straight line passing through the two centres of
curvature
3.
Optical Centre - The central point of lens is its optical centre (O). A ray of
light, when passes through 'O' it remains undeviated i.e. it goes straight.
4.
5.
Focus of lens - Beam of light parallel is principal axis, after refraction from
1) Convex lens, converge to the point on principal axis, denoted by F,
known as Principal focus
Principal Axis
F1
F2
2) Concave lens, appear to diverge from a point on the principal axis, known
as principal focus.
F1
Principal
Axis
F2
F1
F1
F2
(Converge)
F2
Principal
Axis
(Diverge)
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b)
A ray passes through F, after refraction will emerge parallel to principal axis.
F1
c)
F2
Principal
Axis
F2
F1
O
Principal
Axis
A ray passes through optical centre 'O', paeses without any deviation.
F1
F1
F2
F2
Principal
Axis
Object
At infinity
2F1
2.
F1
F2
2F2
Object
Beyond 2F1
A
B1
B
2F1
F1
2F2
F2
Position of Image
At focus
F2
Size of Image
Highly
diminished
(point size)
Nature
Real &
inverted
Position of Image
Between F2 & 2F2
Nature
Real &
inverted
Size of Image
Small
A1
3.
Object
At 2F1
A
1
B
2F1
F1
2F2
F2
A1
108
Position of Image
At 2F2
Size of Image
Same size of
object
Nature
Real &
inverted
X-Science
4.
Position of Image
Beyond 2F2
Object
Between F1 & 2F1
A
Size of Image
Enlarged
B
2F1
F1
B1
2F2
F2
Nature
Real &
inverted
A1
5.
Object
At focus F1
Position of Image
at infinity
Size of Image
Highly Enlarged
B
2F1
6.
F1
(Special Case)
Object
Between F1 and
optical centre 'O'
Position of Image
On the same
side of the
object
F2
2F2
Size of Image
Enlarged
A1
A
2F1
F1 B
F2
2F2
Position of Image
At F1
Size of Image
Highly Diminished
F1
Nature
Virtual &
Erect
B1
2F1
Nature
Real &
inverted
F2
109
Nature
Virtual &
Erect
2F2
X-Science
2.
Position of Image
Between F1 & O
Object
Between infinity
and optical centre
(at any point)
Size of Image
Very small
Nature
Virtual
& Erect
A
B
F1 B
2F1
F2
2F2
x-axis
y-axis
LENS FORMULA
'O' fi
optical centre
f - distance between F and 'O'
u - distance of object from 'O'
v - distance of image from 'O'
r - distance between centre
of curvature & 'O'
1
1 1
=
f
v
u
f=
R
2
MAGNIFICATION
It is defined as the ratio of the height of image to the height of object.
m=
height of image
height of object
h
= 1
h
h image height
from principal axis
h object height
from principal axis
v
u
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X-Science
h1
h
v
u
If magnitude of m > | fi
Image is magnified
m = 1 fi
Image is of same size
m < | fi
Image is deminished
Few tips to remember sign convention for spherical lens
Object height h
fi
is always positive
Image height h1
Real fi
is always negative
Virtual fi
is always positive
Real fi
positive
Image distance from optical centre v fi
virtual fi
negative
Convex lens fi
is always positive
Focal length v fi
Concave lens fi
is always negative
Power of Lens
The degree of convergence or divergence of light ray achieved by a lens is known
as power of a lens.
It is difined as the reciprocal of its focal length Represented by P
f=
1
f
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X-Science
f is +ve
F2
If any optical instrument have many lens, then net power will be
P = P1 + P2 + P3....
EXERCISE
(Question Bank)
Very Short Answers Type Questions (1 Mark)
1.
2.
3.
4.
Find the focal length of a convex mirror, whose radius of curvature is 30 cm?
5.
6.
7.
8.
F1
112
F2
2F2
X-Science
9.
10.
2.
The refractive index of glass is 1.54 and the speed of light in air is 3x10 m/s.
Calculate the speed of light in water?
3.
A concave lens of focal length 15cm, forms an image 10 cm from the lens.
How far is the object placed from the lens? Draw the ray diagram?
5.
Two thin lens of power +3.5D and - 2.5D are placed in contact. Find the
power and focal length, if the lens are in combination.
(p = + 10, f = 1m)
6.
2.
Draw the ray diagram, showing the image formed by concave mirror, when
object is placed at
a)
at infinity
b)
between F22F
c)
At 2F
d)
At F
e)
between F&P
Draw the ray diagram, showing the image formed by convex lens, when
object is placed at.
a)
At infinity
b)
c)
At 2F1
d)
Beyond 2F1
e)
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X-Science
CHAPTER 11
2.
3.
4.
Pupil : It regulates and control the amount of light entering the eye. It is the
black opening between aqueous humour & lens.
5.
Crystalline eye lens : Provide the focussed real & inverted image of the
object on the retina. It is composed of a fibrous, jelly like material. This is
convex lens that converges light at retina.
114
X-Science
6.
7.
8.
When image formed at retina, light sensitive cells gets activated and generate
electrical signal. These signals are sent to brain via optic nerue. Brain analyse
these signals after which we perceive object as they are.
When the light is bright : Iris contracts the pupil, so that less light enters the
eye.
b)
When the light is din : Iris expand the pupil, so that more light enters the eye.
Contract
1. Eye lens become thick
2. Decreases the focal length
3. Enable us to see nearby object clearly
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CATARACT : The image can not be seen distinctly because eye lens become
milky and cloudy. This condition is known as cataract, it can cause complete
or partial loss of vision.
This can be corrected by surgical removal of extra growth (cataract surgery)
2.
Normal
Eye
Image
formed
at Retina
Object
O1
Myopic
Eye
2.
CORRECTION
Corrected by using a Concave Lens of appropriate power.
O1
Correction of Myopita
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NORMAL
EYE N
NORMAL
EYE N
Image formed
at Retina
Hypermetropic
eye
N1
2.
CORRECTION
Corrected by using a Convex Lens of appropriate power.
N1
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4.
Presbyopia
As we become old, the power of accommodation of the eye usually decreases,
the near point gradually recedes away.
This defect is called Presbyopia. Person may suffer from both myopia and
hypermetropia.
Reason of defect- Gradual weakening of ciliary muscles and decreasing the
flexibility of the eye lens.
Correction- Using of Bifocal lens with appropriate power.
Bifocal lenses consist of both concave and convex lens, upper position consist
of concave lens and lower portion consist of convex lens.
Refraction of light through a Prism
Prism- It has two triangular bases and three rectangular lateral surfaces.
These surfaces are inclines to each other. The angle between its two lateral
faces is called Angle of Prism.
A
Angle of Prism
D (Angle of deviation)
i- incident angle
Sun
t
ligh
B
e
(emergent
angle)
Em
erg
ent
ray
ht
te lig
i
h
W
beam
R
While light
Spectrum
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X-Science
te
whi
t
h
lig
rce
Sou
119
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Sunlight
Rain drop
A
At A
Refraction & dispersion takes place
At B
Internal refraction takes place
C
At C
Refraction & dispersion takes place
R
V
Atmospheric Refraction
1.
In atmosphere layer
.............................................
Refractive index
.............................................
.............................................
decreases
.............................................
.............................................
.............................................
.............................................
Atmosphere
.............................................
.............................................
EARTH
.............................................
2.
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X-Science
Ob
se
Ea rver
rth o
n
Atmosphere
Horizon
EARTH
Actual
Sun
Apparent flattering of the suns disc at sun set and sun rise is due to atmospheric
refraction.
Scattering of Light
Tyndall Effect When a beam of light strikes the minute particle of earths
atmosphere suspended particles of dust and molecule of air the path of beam
become visible. The phenomenon of scattering of light by the colloidal particle
gives rise to Tyndall Effect.
It can be observed when sunlight passes through a canopy of a dense forest.
The colour of the scattered light depends on the size of the scattering particles
Very fine particle
(scatter mainly
blue colour short
wave length)
(1)
Why cloud Appear white The size of water droplet (scattering particle) is
very large, hence scattered all wavelength of light almost equally.
(2)
Why colour of sky is blue The molecules of air and other fine particles in
the atmosphere have size smaller than the wavelength of visible light. Since
the blue has shorter wavelength than red, hence it will scattered the most.
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X-Science
(4)
(4)
(Less blue
scattered)
.............................................
.............................................
.............................................
Light Travel
large distance
.............................................
.............................................
in atmosphere
.............................................
.............................................
Atmosphere
Sun near
.............................................
.............................................
EARTH
horizon
.............................................
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EXERCISE
(Question Bank)
Very Short Answers (1 Mark)
1.
What is the phenomenon responsible for the blue colour of sky?
2.
What is the near and far point of a normal eye?
3.
Name the component of eye that is responsible for the adjustment of
eyelens?
4.
To an astronaut why does the sky appear dark instead of blue?
5.
How can your remove the defect of vision Presbyopia.
6.
Name three primary colour? (Ans. RED, BLUE, GREEN)
7.
Write the nature of image formed by our eye?
8.
What do you understand by Dispersion of light?
9.
What is Tyndall Effect?
10. A student has difficulty reading the black board while sitting in the last row.
What is the defect of vision and how it can be corrected?
Short Answers (2 Marks)
1.
Name the phenomenon responsible for formation of rainbow? Explain it
with the help of diagram?
2.
What is power of accommodation. How ciliary muscles helps in
accommodation?
3.
Why the sun appear red while sunset and sunrise. Explain?
4.
Why the star twinkle but not earth?
5.
Explain the function of
(i) Iris (ii) Pupil (iii) Retina
6.
Explain the refraction of light through glass prism with the help of diagram.
Show angle of emergence and angle of deviation?
Long Answer Type Questions (5 Marks)
1.
What is myopia. State the two causes of myopia? With the help of labelled
ray diagram show
(1) Eye defect
(2) Correction of myopia
2.
What is hypermetropia. State the two causes? With the help of labelled ray
diagram show
(1) Eye defect
(2) Correction of hypermetropia.
3.
Draw the labelled diagram of human eye and explain the image formation?
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CHAPTER 12
ELECTRICITY
Think life without electricity in this modern society. Is it possible to survive
without electrical energy in world of technology. Since we are science student, so it
is necessary to understand the basic concept behind the word electricity
Charge
(q)
It is a very small particles present in an atom it can be either negative (electron) or
positive (proton)
Coulomb is the SI unit of charge, represented by C.
Net charge (Q) Total charge
1018
IC Net charge is equivalent to the charge contained in nearly electrons 6
Q = ne (n is no: of electron)
19
10 C (negative charge on electron)
If Q = 1C, e = 1.6
n=
Q
1
=
19
e
1.6
10
100
18
18
=
10 = 6.2
10
16
18
n=6
10 electron
Current (I)
Rate of flow of net charge is called current. Denoted by (I)
I =
Q
t
t is time
1C
1s
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In an electric circuit the electric current flow in the opposite direction of the flow of
electron (ve charge) conventionally. It flows from the +ve terminal of battery or
cell to ve terminal.
Small quantity of current are expressed in
3
mA (milli Ampere) = 10 A
6
uA (micro Ampere) = 10 A
Ammeter It is an instrument used to measure the electric current in a circuit.
It is always connected in series m a circuit
It is represented by the symbol + A in an electric circuit. It has
low resistance.
Electric Circuit It is a closed path along which an electric current flow.
Bulb
The arrow shows the direction
of electric current in circuit.
Ammeter A
+
+
Key
Battery
(Having 3 cells)
The electron can only flow when there is difference of electric pressure. For
example water flowing through a tube It is only possible when there high
pressure at one side and low at another side, then it will move from high pressure to
low pressure.
In case of electric current, the flow of charge is made possible due to chemical
action with in a cell that generates the potential difference across the terminals of
the cell.
8. Electric potential Difference It is defined as the work done in carrying a unit
charge from one point to another between the two points of an electric circuits.
V Potential Difference
W Work
Q Net Charge
SI unit of potential difference Volts rep. by V
V=
W
Q
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One Volt
When 1 Joule of work is done to carry one coulomb (1C) of charge
from one point to another of a current carrying conductor then the potential
difference is send to be IV.
IV =
1J
1C
Voltmeter
It is an instrument, used to measure the potential difference and
+V
represented by the symbol
in an electric circuit. It is always
connected in parallel across the points between which the potential difference is to
be measured. It has high resistance.
Symbols for some commonly used instrument in circuit diagrams
+
(1) Cell
(2) Battery
OR
OR
(7) Bulb
+
(8) Ammeter
(9) Voltmeter
126
X-Science
GRAPH
A
+
V
(V)
+
Va
I
I (A)
Ohms Law
He stated that the electric current flowing through a conductor is
directly proportion at to the potential difference across its ends, provided the
temperature remain constant
Va
I
V = IR
Where R is the proportionality constant for the given metal at given temperature
and is said to be resistance, the graph between V and I is always straight line.
Resistance It is the property of a conductor that opposes the flow of current. It is
represented by R and symbol is
SI unit of resistance Ohm OR W
1 Ohm The resistance of a conductor is said to be one Ohm, when the potential
difference across the conductor is 1V and the current flowing through it is 1A.
V = IR
\
R= V
I
1 Ohm or 1 W
= 1V
1A
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X-Science
Rheostate
As we know that
V = IR
OR
it a conductor has less Resistance, then more current will flow through it.
FACTORS ON WHICH RESISTANCE OF A CONDUCTOR DEPENDS
(1) On its length (l)
(2) On its cross sectional area (A)
(3) On the nature of material
(Resistance)
Ra
l
1
Ra
A
l
Ra
A
R= l
A
X-Science
R2
R3
V1
V2
V3
I
+
The current (I) flowing through the resistance in series will remain same, where as
the potential difference (V) across each resistor will be different.
V = IR
V1 = IR1 , V2 = IR2 , V3 = IR3
Total potential difference (V) = V1 + V2 + V3
V = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
the value of
} Putting
V, V , V & V
1
I R = I (R1 + R2 + R3)
Reff = R1 + R2 + R3
Thus, we conclude that effective Resistance of the several resistors joined in series
is equal to the sum of their individual resistance.
Resistance in Parallel (Minimum Effective Resistance)
Let us take three R1, R2 and R3, that are connected in parallel in the electric circuit.
R1
I1
I2
I1
R2
I3
R3
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X-Science
Now,
I1 = V , I2 = V , I3 = V
R1
R2
R3
1 + 1 + 1
R1
R2
R3
1 = 1 + 1 + 1
Reff
R1
R2
R3
Thus, we conclude that the reciprocal of total effective resistance of the several
resistors connected in parallel is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the
individual resistance.
Disadvantage of series connection in on electric circuit :
1.
In series connection if any of the component fail to work, the circuit will break
and then none of the component (ex. TV, bulb, fan..) will work.
2.
It is not possible to connect a bulb and a heater in series, because they need
different value of current to operate properly.
Electron
will come in motion
to flow current
through resistor
Part of this energy is
consumed in useful
work
(like rotating of fan)
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Mathematical Expression :
Let us suppose that current (I) is flowing through a resistor of resistance (R) for the
time (t). The potential difference across the resistance is (V).
W
V= Q
\
Work done in morning the charge Q will be
W = VQ
W
Then power, P = t [Rate of change of work done]
VQ
= t
Q
P = VI
I= t
(1)
Heat energy supplied by the source for time t will be
Energy or Work
H=P
t
P=
(2)
time
Put equation (i) in equation (2)
H = VIt
= (IR) It
\
V = IR Ohms Law]
H = I Rt
This is known as Joules Law
The law stated that the heat produced in a resistor is
(i) directly proportional to square of the current(I)
(ii) directly proportional to resistance (R) for given current
(iii) directly proportional to time (t) for which current flow through resistor.
Application of Heating Effect of Electric Current :
(1) Used in electric iron, toaster, oven, heater etc.
(2) It is also used in bulb to produce light.
(Filament of bulb is made of strong metal with high melting point such as
tungsten (m.pt = 3380C). This filament can retain as much of the heat
generated as possible, to become very hot and emit light)
(3) It is also used in the fuse connected in an electric circuit {Fuse a safety
device, protect the circuits and appliance by stopping the flow of high current.
The wire of fuse is made of an alloy of metals for ex Aluminium Copper, Iron
131
X-Science
lead etc. The alloy should be of low m.pt and high resistivity, fuse is always
connected in series circuit. When large current flow through the circuit, the
temperature of fuse wire will increase. This melts the fuse wire and break the
circuit.
Fuses used for domestic purposes are rated as 1A, 2A, 3A, 5A, 10A etc. for
various operation depending upon the power of appliance using.
Example- let us consider an appliance electric Iron which consume 1KW
electric power, at 220V
P = VI
I = P = 1KW = 1000W
V
220V
220V
I = 4.54A
In this case a 5A fuse is required.
Electric Power : In case of electricity, it is defined as the rate of change electrical
energy dissipated or consumed in an electric electrical energy dissipated or
consumed in an electric circuit.
P = VI
or P = I2R
2
V
or P =
R
( V = IR Ohms Law)
( I= V )
R
E Electrical Energy
t time
\
E=P
t
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133
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EXERCISE
(Question Bank)
Very Short Answers (1 Mark)
1.
Current
(b)
Potential Difference
(c)
Resistance
(d)
Electric Power
(e)
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
2.
3.
4.
A wire of length L and R is stretched so that its lengths doubled and the area
of cross section is halved. How will its
(i)
Resistance change
(ii)
Resistivity change.
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5.
6.
(i)
1W
1W
1W
A
1W
1W
1W
3W
3W
(ii)
A
B
3W
3W
2W
(iii)
2W
2W 2W
2W
B
2.
2W
6W
6W
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3.
(1)
(2)
(3)
Three resistance of 2W
, 3W
and 5W
are connected in the electric circuit.
Calculate the
(1)
(2)
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CHAPTER 13
MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF
ELECTRIC CURRENT
In this chapter, we will study the effects of electric current :
1.
2.
Oersted Experiment
R
X
XY is conductor (Cu wire)
through which current is passed
Y
On passing the current through the copper wire XY in the circuit, the compass
needle which is placed near the conductor gets deflected. If we reverse the
direction of current, the compass needle deflect in reverse direction. If we
stop the flow of current, the needle comes at rest.
Hence, it conclude that electricity and magnetism are linked to each other. It
shows that whenever the current will flow through the conductor, then
magnetic field around. it will developer
3.
4.
5.
X-Science
The lines along which the iron filling align themselves represent magnetic
field lines.
Hence, magnetic field line is a path along which a hypothetical free north pole
tend to move towards south pole.
6.
7.
S
Cu wire
N
y
Cu wire
(a)
(b)
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Direction of magnetic
field lines.
Direction of
Current
on c
i
ecti
Dir agnet
m
f
o d
fiel
Direction can be
explained using
Right Hand Thumb
Rule
+
Pheostat
+
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Every point on the wire carrying current give rise to the magnetic field,
appearing as a straight line at the centre of loop. By applying Right hand
Thumb rule, we can find the direction of magnetic field at every section of the
wire.
11. Solenoid A Coil of many circular turns of insulated copper wire wrapped
closely in the shape of a cylinder is called solenoid.
12. Magnetic field due to a current in a solenoid
Using R.H. Thumb Rule, we can draw the pattern of magnetic field lives
around a current carrying solenod.
One end of the solenoid behaves as a magnetic north pole, white the other
end behave as the South Pole.
The filed lines inside the solenoid are in form of parallel straigh lines, that
implies that magnetic field inside the solenoid is same at all points i.e. Field is
uniform.
13. Electromagnet Strong magnetic field inside the solenoid can be used to
magnetise a magnetic material for example soft iron, when it is placed inside
the coil. The magnet so formed is called electromagnet.
14. Force on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field.
Andre Marie Ampere (1775-1836) suggested that the magnet also exert an
equal and opposite force on the current carrying conductor.
Iron Stand
Experiment
S
rod
Current Carrying
Aluminium rod should lie
between the two poles
of magnet
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We will observe that the rod will displace i.e. the rod will experience a force,
when it is placed in magnetic field, in a perpendicular direction to its length.
The direction of the exert force will be reversed if the direction of current
through the conductor is reversed.
If we change the direction of field by inter changing the two poles of the
magnet, again the direction of exert force will change.
F ather
(Force)
Motion
T humb
Field
C hild
Current
Fore finger
Middle finger
Thrust (force)
Three of them perpendicular to each other.
of your left hand such that they are mutually perpendicular to each
other.
If fore finger represent direction of magnetic field & middle finger
represent direction of current, then thumb will point in the direction
motion or force acting on the conductor.
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S
G
In this experiment, when the north pole of bar magnet is brought closes to the
coil or away from the coil, we see momentary deflection in the needle of
galvanometer on either side of null point. First right and then left.
Similarly, if we keep the magnet stationary and coil is made to move towards
or away from the north pole of magnet. Again we will observe deflection in
the needle of galvanometer.
If both bar magnet and coil kept stationary, there will be no deflection in
galvanometer.
This experiment can also be done with the south pole of magnet, we will
observe the deflection in galvanometer, but it would be in opposite direction
to the previous case.
Secondary Coil
Coil 1
G
Coil 2
In this experiment plug in the key that is connect coil with battery and observe
the deflection in galvanometer. Now plug out the key that is disconnect the
coil-1 from battery and observe the deflection in galvanometer, which will be
in reverse direction.
Hence, we conclude that potential difference is induced in secondary coil
(coil-2), whenever there is a change in current, in primary coil (coil-1) (by on
and off of key).
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Now, magnetic field lines around the secondary coil (coil-2) will change and
induces the electric current in it (observed by the deflectionof needle of
Galvanometer in secondary circuit)
This process, by which changing of strength of current in primary coil,
induces a current in secondary coil is called Electromagnetic Induction
The induced current is found to be highest when the direction of motion of coil
is at right angles to the magnetic field.
19. Flemings Right Hand Rule
(1)
(2)
M other
Motion
(movement of conductor)
Thumb
F ather
Field
(Magnetic)
Fore finger
(3)
C hild
Current
(Induced)
Middle finger
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Current
I
(A)
I
(A)
time
(s)
time
(s)
It has frequency
50Hz in India
60 Hz in America
It has frequency
OHz
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23.
Earth wire
Live wire
Distribution Box
containing main
switch & fuse
for
each
current
Ueutral wire
Electrical
Fuse board
Electricity
meter
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EXERCISE
(Question Bank)
Very Short Answers (1 Mark)
1.
2.
Name the point where the iron filling are collected more?
3.
4.
Why does a compass needle get deflected when brought near the bar
magnet?
5.
If both the coil and the magnet are stationary, will there be deflection in
galvanometer?
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Write the factors affecting the magnetic field due to a straight conductor?
A charged particles enters at right angles into a uniform magnetic field. What
is the nature of charge particle, if it experiences a force in a direction pointing
vertically out of the page.
Magnetic field
Charge particle
2.
(2)
(3)
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X-Science
3.
4.
Draw the pattern of magnetic field lines due to current carrying straight
conductor?
(5)
(6)
What is overloading?
2.
Draw the schematic diagram of domestic circuit. Write the colour and
function of Neutral wire, Live wire and Earth wire.
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CHAPTER 14
SOURCES OF ENERGY
?
Energy comes in different forms and one form can be converted to another.
For example if we drop a plate from a height, the potential energy of the plate
is converted mostly to sound energy when it hits the ground.
?
If we light a candle, the process is highly exothermic so that the chemical
energy of the wax is converted into heat energy and light energy on burning.
A Good Source of Energy would be one
be easily accessible
be economical
SOURCES OF ENERGY
Fossil Fuels
Eg. Coal & Petroleum
Bio-Mass
bio gas plant
Wind Energy
Solar Energy
Eg. Solar Cooker, Solar Cell Panel
Geothermal Energy
Nuclear Energy.
?
Amont the sources of energy, some of them get exhausted (Non-Renewable)
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Pressure
Cooker
Heat
(Fossil Fuel)
Bulb
Tennis Ball
fitted with metal plate
energy to rotor of turbine which can move shaft of the generator to produce
electricity. A very large amount of fossil fuels are burnt in Thermal Power
Plant to heat up water to produce steam.
?
Hydropower Plants Convert the Potential energy of falling water into
Electricity since there are few water-falls which could be used a source of
potential energy, hence this is the reason, a large number of DAMS are built
all over the world.
?
Around 25% of our countrys energy requirement is met by Hydro Power
Plants
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hydroelectricity.
Disadvantages of construction of Big Dams
1.
2.
3.
Biomass is Agricultural & animal wastes that can be used as a fuel. Eg. of
Biomass Firewood, cattle dung, sewage, dry leaves, stems & bagasse.
?
Normally biomass has low calorific value & produce lot of smoke when they
are burnt. Their efficiency as a good fuel has been increased tremendously
with the application of technology. For Eg. cowdung becomes efficient &
cheap good fuel in a Bio-gas plant.
?
Charcoal is better fuel than wood because it do not contain water & other
Limited
Supply of O2
Charcoal
Charcoal burns without smoke, flames & has high calorific value.
?
Bio-gas is an excellent fuel & contain 75% of Methane (CH4). It burns
without smoke, leaves no reciters like ash, with high heat capacity.
?
Biogas is produced by anerobic decomposition of the slurry (cowdung +
Digestel
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X-Science
?
The Biogas is stored in the gas tank from which they are drawn through pipes
generates air movement & causes winds to blow. This kinetic energy of the
wind can be used to do work.
?
This energy is utilised to lift water from the well & to generate electricity in
20KMPH.
Advantages of Wind Energy
1.
Eco friendly
2.
3.
2.
3.
4.
X-Science
Outer edge of the earth receives solar energy equal to 1.4 kJ/sm which is known as
solar constant.
Solar energy devices :
A large number of devices that utilize solar energy directly like :
(i) Solar Cooker
(ii) Solar furnaces
(iii) Solar cells
(iv) Solar water heaters
Solar heating devices :
?
Use black painted surface because black surface absorbs more heat as
it but doesnt allow the longer wavelength infrared radiations to through it,
that results in increase in temperature.
Solar Cooker :
Box type solar Cooker
?
It consists of a rectangular box which is made up of material such as plastic or
wood.
?
Box is covered with black sheet and its inner walls are painted black to
INNER METALLIC
BOX
GLASS COVER
BLACK CONTAINER
WOODEN BOX
SOLAR COOKER (Box Type)
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Advantages :
1. Use energy which is available in plenty (Solar Energy)
2. Is pollution free.
3. More than one food can be cooked simultaneously
Disadvantages :
1. Cannot be used for frying or baking purpose.
2. Food cannot be cooked at night or on a cloudy day.
3. Direction of reflector of solar heating has to be changed from time to time to
keep it facing the sun
Solar Cells :
?
Solar cells are device that convert Solar energy into electricity.
?
Develops a voltage of 0.5 IV and can produce about 0.7W of electricity.
Advantages of Solar Cell
1. Require a little maintenance
2. Have no moving part.
3. No focussing device is required
4. Can be set up in remote areas.
5. Environment - friendly i.e. do not cause pollution.
Disadvantage of Solar Cells
1. It require high cost
2. Efficiency is low
3. Initial cost of installation is quite high.
Uses of Solar Cell
1. Used in calculators, watches etc.
2. Used in artificial satellites and space probes.
3. It is used in radio or wireless transmission system.
Solar Panel
A large number of Solar Cells connected to each other in an arrangement is called
solar panel.
Material used for making solar cells
?
Silicon
Silver is used for inter connection of cells.
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Limitation
When strong winds stop blowing, the generator stops producing electricity
(iii) Tidal Energy
?
The tidal energy possessed by water during tides.
?
The tides are caused due to gravitational force of attraction exerted by the
liquid.
Geothermal Energy
1.
2.
The steam of underground water is taken out by sinking pipes through holes
drilled in the earths crust. The steam under high pressure is used to rotate the
turbines of the generator to produce electricity.
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Nuclear Energy
?
Nuclear energy is the energy which is stored in the nucleus of an atom.
?
Nuclear energy is of two types
2.
In nuclear power plant, the nuclear fuel is inserted once to get energy over a
long period of time.
2.
1.
2.
Use of clean fuels like CNG (compressed natural gas) because burning of
fossil fuel causes green house effect.
3.
X-Science
EXERCISE
(Question Bank)
Very Short Answers (1 Mark)
1.
What is a good source of energy.
2.
Expand CNG and LPG
3.
What is the minimum wind velocity required to obtain useful energy with a
wind mill?
4.
Name the main constituent of biogas.
5.
Giv two examples of fossil fuels
6.
Name the device which directly converts solar energy into electric energy.
7.
What does OTEC stand for?
8.
What is nuclear energy?
9.
Which one out of these is renewable source of energy solar energy, coal,
petroleum, bio gas.
10. Which source of energy would you use to heat your food and why?
Short Answers (2 or 3Marks)
1.
State two disadvantages of using fossil fuels as a source of energy.
2.
Write two disadvantages of constructing high rising dams.
3.
Give (i) two limitations and (ii) two advantages of wind mill.
4.
Name any three forms of energy of the oceans which can be converted into
usable energy forms. Describes how it is done in each case.
5.
Explain the working of biogas plant with the help of labelled diagram
6.
Explain the principle on which the solar cooker works.
7.
Write the advantages and disadvantages of using a solar cooker.
8.
How does hydro electric power plant operate? Draw diagram
Long Answer Type Questions (5 Marks)
1.
(a) Why is the solar cooker box covered with plane glass plate?
(b) Why is nuclear fission reaction considered better.
(c) Use of wood as a domestic fuel is not considered as good. State two
reasons for it
2.
Distinguish between renewable and non renewable sources of energy?
Which one of them you consider as better? Why?
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CHAPTER 15
OUR ENVIRONMENT
?
Environment means everything which surrounds us. It may include living
(biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components. So, it may includes besides all
creatures, water & air also.
?
Environment affect the life and development of an organism in its natural
wastes while some substances like plastics, some chemicals (DDTs &
fertilizers) are inert and cant be decomposed, are called Non-biodegradable
?
Actually non-biodegradable persist in the environment for a long time or may
Natural Ecosystem
Aquatic Ecosystem
Marine
Ecosystem
Eg. Sea, Oceans
Fresh water
Ecosystem
River, Lake,
Pond, pool
Terrestrial Ecosystem
land Ecosystem
Eg. Forest,
Desert, Grassland etc.
?
All living organisms are classified on the basis of the manner in which they
Producers All green plants, blue green algae can produce their food (Sugar
& starch) from in organic substance using light energy (Photosynthesis)
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II
Herbivores
Gross eaters
Carnivores
Flash Eaters
Lion, Tiger
Parasite
Live & feed
on the host body
Plasmodium
Omnivores
Feed on both plant
and flesh.
Eg. Crow
III DECOMPOSERS Fungi & Bacterias which break down (decompose) the
dead plant, animals complex compounds into the simpler one. Thus
decomposers help in the replenishment of the natural resources.
Food chain refers to an arrangement of different biotic groups in a sequence of
enery transfer. These biotic groups are producer herbivores, carnivores.
For Eg.
T1
T2
T3
Grass
DearA
Lion
A 3-setp Food chain
?
In a food chain, these biotic components where transfer of energy takes place
Secondary
Consumer
Primary
Consumer
Producer
Energy Flow
Tertiary
consumers
1kJ
10kJ
100kJ
1000 kJ
TROPHIC LEVEL
Energy
So only 10% of Energy is transferred to next trophic level while 90% of energy is
used by present trophic level in its life processes.
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?
While the conc. of harmful chemical increases with every next trophic level in
Dear
(200 ppm)
DDT
Lion
(5000ppm)
DDT
?
Maximum concentration of such chemicals accumulated in human bodies.
?
Naturally the food chains are inter-connected with each other forming a web
For Eg. the population of the producer is higher than the consumer carnivore
(lion) population.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
?
Changes in environment affect us and our activities change the environment
around us. This led to the slow degreadation of environment that arose many
environmental problems. Eg. depletion of the Ozone Layer and waste
disposal.
I
?
Ozone (O3) layer is largely found in the stratosphere which is a part of our
O2
hv
(1800A to 2000A)
O2 + O
O+O
(Splitting of
molecular oxygen)
O3 (Ozone)
?
Ozone layer is a protective blanket around earth which absorbs most of the
harmful U.V. (Ultraviolet) radiation of the Sun, thus protecting the living
beings of the earth from health hazards like skin cancer, cataract in eyes,
weaken immune system, destruction of plants etc.
?
The decline of Ozone layer thickness is Antartica was first discovered in 1985
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2.
Land fillings : Wastes are dumped in low living area and are compacted by
rolling with bulldozers
3.
Composting : Organic wastes are filled into a compost pit (2m x 1m x 1m). It
is then covered with a thin layer of soil. After about three months the same
garbage filled inside the pit changes into organic manure.
4.
Recycling : The solid wastes is broken down into its constituent simpler
materials. These materials are then used to make new items. Even non-bio
degradable solid wastes like plastic, metal can be recycled.
Reuse : A very simple conventional technique of using an item again & again.
For Eg. paper can be reused for making envelops etc.
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EXERCISE
(Question Bank)
Very Short Answers (1 Mark)
1.
Define Biomagnification
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Define Ecosystem
7.
8.
9.
10.
What is the advantage of disposable paper cup use over plastic cups?
11.
How can we help in reducing the the problem of waste disposal? Give any
two methods.
12.
13.
Give any two ways in which non biodegradable substance would affect the
environment.
14.
What are trophic levels? Give an example of a food chain and state the
different trophic levels in it.
15.
What will happen if we kill all the organisms in one trophic level?
16.
Grass
Grasshopper
Frog
II
Wheat
Rat
Snake
Hawk
Which of the two consumers frog/hawk will get more available energy and why?
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CHAPTER 16
MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL
RESOURCES
Resources provided to us by nature
Soil, air, water, forests
wildlife, coal and petroleum are used by man for his survival.
?
Natural Resources
?
Management of natural resources is needed for conservation of natural
resources.
?
There are national and international laws and Acts to protect the environment.
?
Ganga Action Plan : Multi Crore Project came in 1985 to improve the quality
of Ganga
?
Accordingly a survey was conducted and a data was collected of total
Minimum found
in Rishikesh
600-650MPN/100ml
?
MPN
Most probable number.
?
National Award for wildlife conservation In the memory Amrita Devi
Bishnoi who lost her life in the protection of Khejri trees in Rajasthan
alongwith 363 other people.
?
Chipko Andolan Movement originated in Garhwal in early 1970S that was
the result of a grassroot level effort to end the alienation of people from their
forest.
?
Protection of Sal forest in West Bengal in 1972.
?
Three Rs to save the environment
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Recycle
Segregate the waste that
can be recycled and use to make
required things.
Reuse
use the things again
and gain.
?
Reuse is better than recycling as it saves energy.
?
Management of Natural Resources is necessary so that these may last for the
generations to come and are not exploited for short term gains. Also see the
damage they cause to the environment when they are used or mixed.
?
Forest and wild life conservation Forests are biodiversity hot spots
Forest Department
(Govt. who owns
the land and controls
resources
Industrialists
(Who use various
forest products)
Wild life
enthusiasts
(who want to
conserve nature)
?
Sustainable management Management of forest resources Wisely to make it
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?
Generate electricity.
?
Continuous supply of water in regions.
?
Disadvantages :
?
No equitable distribution of water.
?
Large no. of people displaced without compensation.
?
Involves huge amount of Public money without giving proper benefits.
?
Causes deforestation and loss of biological diversity.
?
Water Harvesting Aim is to develop primary resources of land and water
and to produce secondary resources of plants and animals for use in a manner
which will not cause ecological imbalance.
?
Various ancient methods of water harvesting
?
Method
State
Khadin, tanks, nadis
Rajasthan
Bandharas, tals
Maharasthra
Bundhis
Madhya Pradesh and U.P.
Pyhes
Bihar
Kulhs
Himachal Pradesh
Ponds
Jammu Region
Eris (tanks)
Tamilnadu
Bawlis old method of water harvesting in Delhi and near by region.
?
These techniques are locale specific to ensure the mismanagement and
over-exploitation of these resources
?
Advantages of Khadin System :
Water does no evaporate
Recharge wells and moisture for vegetation.
does no provide breeding ground for mosquito
Ground water is protected from human and animal waste.
Coal and Petroleum
?
Generally called fossil fuel.
?
Formed from the disintegration of bio-mass millions of years ago.
?
They will get exhausted in the future no matter how carefully we use them.
?
Petroleum will last us for about 40 years and the coal resources will last for
another two hundred years.
?
These contain hydrogen, nitrogen and sulphur.
?
Why to use fossil fuels judiciously?
By using public transport enstead of private one, by using C.F.L. tubes, by
using stairs instead of lift, by saving electricity as much as possible.
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EXERCISE
(Question Bank)
Very Short Answers (1 Mark)
1.
Why is it necessary to conserve our environment?
2.
Define sustainable development
3.
Name any two exhaustible resources
4.
What is the most conductive PH range for the life of fresh water plants?
5.
List two advantages of water harvesting.
6.
Why reuse is better than recycle?
7.
What are Dhadin? Where there found?
8.
List two steps you would take to conserve electricity in your house.
9.
Who are called stake holders?
10. Name some traditional water harvesting systems in India.
Short Answers (2 Marks)
1.
How mining is a cause of pollution?
2.
Make a list of four forests products that we use.
3.
How burning of fossil fuels is effecting our environment?
4.
Suggest two weasures for controlling CO2 levels in atmosphere.
5.
Why should we conserve forest and wild life?
(3 Marks)
1.
What are three main problems from dams?
2.
How can you reduce energy consumption at your level. Suggest at least three
points.
3.
Explain the maximum of Reduce, Recycle and Reuse in your own
words.
(5 Marks)
1.
What is the main objective of water harvesting techniques? Name & ancient
water harvesting structures used in India. Mention 3 causes for failure to
sustain water availability under ground?
2.
Discuss the damage caused to forest by the following activities:
(a) Building rest houses for 10% tourists in national parks.
(b) Grazing domestic animals on National Parks.
(c) Tourists throwing plastic bottles, covers and other litter in National
Parks.
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