Reference

Animal Form and Function

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

(Use the following as guide. Skim through for relevant info in each
chapter. You may use other text books)

9th & 8th edition (with

Physiology)

Introduction
The animal body
The animal tissues
Example of an organ: the skin
Concluding remarks

Chapter 23 (section 23.1)

Chapter 31 (section 31.2)
7th edition
Chapter 22 (section 22.1)
Chapter 27 (section 27.2)

1. Introduction

What are animals?

Animals =

Why learn about animals?

Important to understand the structures and
functions of animal body and all its parts in order to
better understand diseases or ailments and make
informed medical decisions
Must understand the functioning of animals to be
able to rear them for food efficiently
Pharmaceuticals and other uses
We can learn from the animals

Members of animal kingdom (Kingdom

Animalia)

Multicellular
Cells have no cell wall
Heterotrophic
Typically reproduce sexually
Motile during some stage of their life
Most can respond quickly to external stimuli
because of activity of nerve cells, muscle
tissue or both

Animal types
Sponges
Jellyfish
Comb jellies
Flatworms
Rotifers
Roundworms
Molluscs
Annelids
Arthropods
Echinoderms
Chordates

2. The Animal Body

Multicellular
Evolved from simple forms into highly
complex, self-regulating systems of
trillions of cells

Etc.
fr Audesirk et al 2011

Cells of animals interact at three levels of

organization
o Tissue: group of cells, or group of cells
and extracellular material, that form a
structural and functional unit and is
specialized for a function
Gradient of
increasing
complexity

Cells, Tissues, Organs, and Organ Systems

o Organ: such as stomach, small

intestine, kidney. Group of 2 distinct
tissues that function together
o Organ system: group of 2 distinct
organs that work together to perform a
certain function eg digestive system:
stomach, small intestine, large intestine
fr Audesirk et al

3.1 Epithelial Tissue

3. The Animal Tissues

Tissue =

Epithelial tissue = epithelium =

Group of cells, or group of cells and

extracellular material that form a structural and
functional unit and is specialized for a function

Tissue types
1. Epithelial: cover external body surfaces and line
internal cavities
2. Connective: support, connect, strengthen, protect, and
insulate other tissues
3. Muscle: are contractile and move the body or parts of it
4. Nerve: integrates and responds to stimuli about
internal and external conditions

Sheets of epithelial tissues always bound

to basement membrane (non-cellular
layer of proteins secreted by epithelial
cells or connective tissues)

Epithelial cells

Epi = surface
Epithelial cells are the bodys
gatekeepers as they protect it from the
environment or regulate the movement
of substances in and out of the body

Epithelial tissue covers the external body

surface and lines internal cavities like the
mouth, stomach, bladder, lung etc.

Basement
membrane

fr Audesirk et al

 Types of epithelial tissue

Thin, flattened epithelial
cells with large surface
area line lungs and blood
vessels, for better diffusion
of materials
Tall, elongated epithelial
cells with cilia and can
secrete mucus line the
trachea and tubes of
reproductive organs

Simple

Stratified

1-cell thick

2-cells thick

Allows movement of
substances by
diffusion or filtration

Protective function,
can withstand wear
and tear

Lines cavities, ducts,

blood vessels

Epidermis of the skin,

lining of mouth, anus

fr Audesirk et al

Simple epithelial tissue

The structure of epithelial tissue is adapted to its
function
Eg. Thin flattened cells, single layer lines lung and
blood vessels for exchange of materials

Eg Elongated cells with cilia and capable

of secreting mucus. Line trachea that
leads to the lungs and able to trap dust
particles and transport them away from
lungs

e.g., in lungs for

exchanges of
gas molecules

Cuboidal cells that line the glands

Eg. Elongated cells that line the stomach

fr Audesirk et al

fr Audesirk et al

Stratified Epithelial Tissue

Epithelial tissues are continuously lost and

replaced by cell division. For example:
Epithelium that lines the mouth replaces itself
The stomach epithelium replaced every 2-3
days
Epidermis of skin renewed twice a month

Some epithelial tissue also form glands by

infolding during development of the tissue.

fr Audesirk et al

Exocrine Glands
Exocrine gland: remains connected to the epithelial
tissue by a duct (small tube)

Secretions
o sweat (skin)
o sebum (skin)
salivain(mouth)
Exocrineo glands
the skinoofmucus
a toad (stomach)
o milk (breast)
o earwax (ear)
o digestive enzymes (stomach)

Gland = A cluster of cells that are specialized to

secrete substances such as sweat or hormones
Gland types
Exocrine gland
Endocrine gland

Endocrine
Glands
Endocrine gland:
becomes
separated from
the epithelial
tissue that
produced the
gland and
secretes
hormones

Audesirk et al, Biology

Pancreas:
Insulin

Testes:
Testosterone

Ovaries: Estrogen

Epithelial tissues
Simple
Stratified
Infoldings
Glands
Exocrine glands
Connect to epithelium

Thyroid :
Thyroxine

3.2 Connective Tissue

Underlies all epithelial tissues and contain
capillaries that nourish the epithelium
Consisting of diverse tissues, including
bone, fat, and blood, that generally contain
large amounts of extracellular (outside cell)
material
Mainly support, connect, strengthen, protect,
and insulate other tissues

Endocrine glands
Separated from epithelium

Cells of connective tissues (except

blood and lymph) secrete a protein call
collagen which is fibrous

fr Audesirk et al

 Types

Loose connective tissue

o Loose
o Fibrous
o Specialized

Combines with epithelial tissues to

form membranes
e.g Stomach membrane

fr Audesirk et al

Diffuse network of loosely woven fibers

to bind epithelial cells to underlying
tissues & cushion and support organs

Fibrous connective tissue

Collagen fibres are
densely packed in
an orderly parallel
arrangement
Tendons (muscle to
bone) and
ligaments (bone to
bone) for
attachment of
muscles to bones
and bones to
bones
Eg. Achilles Tendon

fr Audesirk et al

fr Audesirk et al

Specialized connective tissue

Types include
Cartilage
Bone
Adipose tissue
Blood
Lymph

Cartilage
oFlexible
oWidely spaced
cells surrounded
by collagen

fr Audesirk et al

oAt ends of bones at joints

oShock-absorbing pads between
vertebrae, knee, etc.
oSupporting framework for trachea
(windpipe) and bronchi (2 branches)
oSupports ears and nose

Bone
oHardened by calcium
phosphate deposits
oForms in concentric rings
around a central canal
which contains a blood
vessel

fr Audesirk et al

 Adipose tissue

Fat cells of
the mouse

Fat cells with droplet

of oil which takes up
most of the cell
volume
Modified for longterm energy storage

Too much fat resulted in weight problem

A simple way to determine whether your
weight is likely to pose a health risk is by
BMI (Body Mass Index)
BMI = Wt (in kg) / ht2 (in m)

For insulation
Baby
hooded seal
has fat
insulation

fr Audesirk et al

Blood

platelet

Liquid tissue

Used for carrying

dissolved oxygen and
nutrients to cells and
carbon dioxide and
waste products away,
also hormones, and
for defense (wbc and
antibodies)

Connective because it
connects other tissues
and organs
Carries O2, CO2,
nutrients, hormones
Components
Red blood cells (rbc)
White blood cells
(wbc)
Plasma (fluid)
wbc

rbc

Wbc attacking bacteria

Platelets (cell
fragments)
fr Audesirk et al

fr Audesirk et al

 Lymph
Liquid tissue
Consists of
o Mostly of fluid which has
leaked out of capillaries
o Lymphocytes (produced in
the lymph nodes)
o Functions:
o Removing excess fluid and
dissolved substances that
leak from capillaries
o Fat transport from small
intestine to bloodstream
o Defense of the body by
recognised and exposed
bacteria and viruses to wbc
fr Audesirk et al

3.3 Muscle Tissue

Consist of long-thin cells which contract when stimulated
then passively relax

fr Audesirk et al

3.4 Nerve Tissue

Tissue that makes up the brain, spinal
cord, and nerves
Neurons
Generate
electrical signals
and conduct the
signals to
muscles, glands,
or other neurons

Glial cells
Surround, support, and protect
neurons (insulate) and regulate
the composition of the
extracellular fluid, to enable the
neurons to function optimally, and
also can possibly communicate
with neurons via chemical signals

Nerve cell

fr Audesirk et al

10

Alzheimers disease
Neurons in the temporal lobes that produced the
neurotransmitter acetylcholine died in large number.

4. Skin: example of an organ

Organ = Group of 2 distinct tissues that

Prominent symptom: memory loss

Parkinsons Disease
Neurons in the midbrain die, interfering complex control
system that underlies smooth movement.
Patients have difficulties initiating movement
Mad cow disease

function together
Skin: the organ that makes up the outer
surface of an animal body
Largest organ
Important barrier against entry of
microorganisms
Prevent evaporation of precious body fluid

(bovine spongiform encephalopathy)

in humans new variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease

Skin tissue types

oEpithelial
oConnective
(loose)
oConnective
(specialized eg
blood, lymph,
adipose)
oNerve
oMuscle

Stratified
epithelial

Loose
connective

fr Audesirk et al

11

Epidermis = stratified epithelial tissue

Outer layer of the skin
Stratified epithelial tissue

Dead cell layer with dead cells containing

keratin (protein) which helps make the skin
relatively waterproof.

fr Audesirk et al

Glands derived from epithelial tissue

sebaceous glands: secret sebum (oily substances)
e.g Acne: Abnormal sebum production
Obstruction of the sebaceous duct
Inflammation
fr Audesirk et al

fr Audesirk et al

Glands derived from epithelial tissue

sweat glands
hair follicles

fr Audesirk et al

12

Dermis

Dermis - mainly loose connective tissues

Signals from nerve to muscles attached to hair follicles

Lymph vessels (specialized connective tissue) collect and

carry off extra cellular fluid
Nerve

Muscle

Hairs to stand on end, increase thickness of insulating fur in cold

weather

fr Audesirk et al

fr Audesirk et al

5. Concluding remarks
The animal body is an exquisite
expression of the elegance with which
evolution has linked form to function
(Audesirk et al 2011)

Dermis
Capillaries: Small arteries (arterioles), Small
veins (venules)
Together with muscles in the arterioles and nerve to regulate heat.
Support hair follicles
fr Audesirk et al

13