Week

6
Characteris*cs (response) of
instruments

 Sta*c Response

This describes the behavior of the instrument
when it a7ains steady state
( i.e. has been allowed enough 1me to se4le
down to a steady reading)
Can also be the response to a steady input.

Dynamic Response

This relates instrument behavior to a varying
input
Or instrument behavior a?er a sudden
change in input value (e.g. applica1on of a
step input or an impulse input).

Type of inputs
i. Ramp input
Signal amplitude changes linearly with Dme
amplitude

ramp

f(t) = At; t >

0
= 0; t < 0
Dme

ii. Step/steady input

amplitude
A

f(t) = Au(t)
u(t) = 1; t > 0
= 0; t < 0

Dme

u (t ) : unit step function

iii. Impulse -
amplitude

(t ) = 0; t 0

(t ) : function

(t )dt = 1
f (t )(t )dt = f ()

Dme

iv. Step/ramp -
amplitude
f (t) = At; t > 0
= A ;t = 0

Dme

v. The sinusoid

f (t ) = A sin t

vi. Random _

f (t ) = ?

Sta*c characteris*cs
accuracy :
How close the output reading of the instrument
is to the correct value.
Percentage of the full-scale (f.s.) reading

precision:
Instruments degree of freedom from random
errors.

Accuracy and precision

Results of tests on the three industrial robots programmed

to place components at a parDcular point on the table.

sensiDvity :
Change of an instrument output per unit
change in input.
SensiDvity =

scale deflection

value of measurand causing the deflection
(slope of output / input characterisDc or
transfer funcDon)

 SensiDvity to Disturbacne :
ambient condiDons are a source of this
disturbance and the eects are in two ways:

i. Zero dri? :
zero reading is modied by ambient condiDons.

ii. SensiDvity dri? :
This denes the amount modied by changes in
ambient condiDons.

(a) Zero dri?, (b) SensiDvity dri? ( c) Zero + sensiDvity dri?

Hysteresis Eects

The noncoincidence between loading and unloading

curves

Dynamics CharacterisDcs

an empirical relaDonship between input and

output :
n

n 1

d qo
d qo
dqo
an n + an1 n1 + ....... + a1
+ a0 qo =
dt
dt
dt
m
m 1
d qi
d qi
dqi
bm m + bm1 m1 + ....... + b1
+ b0 qi
dt
dt
dt

Contd
The right hand side assumes use of known
inputs.
For a step input qi = x0 for t > 0
= xr for ramp input
= xssint
The qs are funcDons of Dme, and the as and
bs are constants.

Contd
1st assume only step input. The 1st and higher
order terms on the right hand side reduce to
zero.
i.e.:
n

d qo
dqo
an
+ ......... + a1
+ ao qo = b0 qi
n
dt
dt

Zero order instrument

2nd assumpDon
Then

an ,........, a1 = 0

bo
qo = qi = Kqi
ao

The expression describes a zero order

instrument and K is the staDc sensiDvity.

Zero-order instrument characterisDcs

First order instrument

If all second and higher order terms are
assumed to be zero
and iniDal condiDons are such that q o = 0 at t
= 0 (no bias)
dqo
Then:

a1

dt

Let D = d/dt

+ ao qo = bo qi

Then :

a1 Dqo + a0 qo = b0 qi
qo (a1 D + a0 ) = b0 qi
a1

qo D + 1 = b0 qi
a0

b0
qi
a0
qo =
a1
1+ D
a0

kqi
qo =
1 + D
a1
=
a0

Therefore:

Where:

The soluDon to the above equaDon is:

qo = qi qi e

t /

An instrument saDsfying the above condiDons

is a rst - order instrument.

63%

Dme constant

A typical rst order instrument (or part of an

instrument system) is a thermocouple.

The Dme it takes the output to reach 63% of
nal value is called the Dme constant.

Second - order instrument

AssumpDons:
i. all third order coecients and above are zero.
ii.IniDal condiDons are such that output is zero
at t = 0.
iii.The original equaDon becomes:
2

a2 D qo + a1 D + a0 qo = b0 qi

Let staDc sensiDvity

b0
K=
a0

Let un-damped natural frequency

a1
And damping raDo =
2a2

a0
=
a2

then:

qo
k
= 2
qi D / + 2 D / + 1

Any instrument which obeys the above

equaDon is a second-order instrument.
Dynamic behavior depends on the value of the
damping raDo.

Response of 2nd order Instrument

IllustraDon for dierent value of

damping raDo

=0

o
=

System oscillates at the

un-damped natural frequency

But small output overshoots

with oscillaDons that gradually die
down
0.707 The system is said to be
criDcally damped and its
behavior resembles a 1st order
instrument

2nd order instruments

Commercial second-order instruments, of which
the accelerometer is a common example, are
generally designed to have a damping raDo ()
somewhere in the range of 0.60.8