Fire Modelling and Transfer of Heat

9-2.
Fire behaviour
and thermal response
Frantiek Wald
Czech Technical University

y in Prague
g
Objectives
Repetition
Objectives of the lecture
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Assessment 1
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Models of fire
Software supports
pp
Models of transfer of heat into structure
Software
S ft
supports
t
Protected steel
Software support
Example of test on building
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
Conclusions
Notes
Lecture 9-1, V001, April 09
Objectives
Repetition
Repetition
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Prescriptive approach
Performace approach
Advanced fire
models
Design of building
Design of building
Assessment 1
National fire regulations
National fire regulations
Thermal response
Fire safety requirements
Software support
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
Fire test of elements
Fire tests
in Cardington
Advanced models
Fire safety requirements

Parametric curves
Nominal curves
Step by step procedure
Fire tests
Calcul. of structure temp.
Software support
Assessment 2
Calcul. of gas temp.
Fire safety
based on elements
Finite element
Struct. analyses
Wh l structure
Whole
t t
Conclusions
P t off the
Part
th structure
t t
St t l element
Structural
l
t
Notes
Fire safety of structure
Objectives
Repetition
Repetition
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
The major steps of the fire design
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Fire load
Assessment 1
Eurocodes
Fire design
Fire behaviour
Thermal response
Modelling
g of the g
gas temparature
in the fire compartment
Unprotected steel
EN 1991-1-2
Protected steel
Software support
Thermal response
Assessment 2
Transfer of heat
and development in structure
Fire tests
in Cardington
Conclusions
Notes
EN 1991-1-x
EN 199
199x-1-2
12
Mechanical load
Structural response
Design of structure at elevated temparature
Objectives
Repetition
Fire behaviour
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Nominal fire curves
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Fire behaviour
Parametric curves
Assessment 1
Zone models
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
CFD
Protected steel
Software support
Assessment 2
Thermal response
Computational Fluid Dynamics
Fire tests
in Cardington
Conclusions
Notes
St t l response
Structural
Objectives
Repetition
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Nominal fire curves

The simplest fire modelling
Advanced fire
models
Temperature, C
Software support
Pre- flashover
Pre
Post- flashover
1000 1200C
1000-1200
C
Assessment 1
Flashover
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
Software support
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
Temperature
during fire
Nominal standard
fire curve
Conclusions
Time, min
Notes
I iti
Ignition
H ti
Heating
C li .
Cooling
Objectives
Repetition
Nominal fire curves
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
Nominal standard curve

g = 20 + 345 log10 (8 t + 1)
Software support
Assessment 1
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
Software support
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
Nominal external curve
g = 20 + 660 1 0,687 e 0,32 t 0,313 e 0,38 t
Nominal hydrocarbon curve
g = 20 + 1080 1 0,325 e 0,167 t 0,675 e 2,5 t
Conclusions
Notes
Objectives
Repetition
Nominal standard fire curve
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
The temperature depends on time only
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Gas temparature, C
1200
Nominal hydrocarbon curve
Assessment 1
Thermal response
1000
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
Software support
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
800
600
Nominal external fire curve
400
Conclusions
Notes
200
0
Time, min
0
15
30
45
60
90
120
150
180
8
Objectives
Repetition
Pros and Cons
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Assessment 1
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
Software support
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
Conclusions
Notes
Has limitations
Not based on real fire data
Test repeatability difficult
No cooling phase
Uniform heating
Uses gas temperature not
not fair
fair
But
Widely used
Can be useful for crudely comparing products
Objectives
Repetition
Fire behaviour
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Nominal fire curves
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Fire behaviour
Parametric curves
Assessment 1
Zone models
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
CFD
Protected steel
Software support
Assessment 2
Thermal response
Fire tests
in Cardington
Conclusions
Notes
St t l response
Structural
10
Objectives
Repetition
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Assessment 1
Parametric fire curve

The curve contains both phases of the fire
heating and cooling.
Temperature, C
PostP
t flashover
fl h
1000-1200C
Pre- flashover
Thermal response
Flashover
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
Software support
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
Temparature
during fire
Conclusions
Parametric
fire curve
Notes
Time, min
Ignition
Heating
Cooling .
11
Objectives
Repetition
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Assessment 1
Assumptions in parametric fire curve
No heat built-up in pre-flashover phase of fire
Temperature uniform in the compartment
Uniform heat transfer coefficient in compartment

boundaries
All combustion
b ti takes
t k place
l
in
i the
th compartment
t
t
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
Software support
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
Conclusions
Notes
12
Objectives
Repetition
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Assessment 1
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
Software support
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
Limits of parametric fire curve

The calculation is in Annex A off EN 1991-1-2
The size of the compartment is limited to 500 m2
The openings are in the walls only
(no openings in the roof)
Maximal height of the compartment 4 m
The fire load density qt,d from 50 to 1000 MJ/m2
(about 3,5 kg to 70 kg of timber / m2)
Cellulosic type of fire load
1000
Gas temperature, C
800
Conclusions
600
Notes
400
Heating
Cooling
200
0
0 15 30 45 60
90
120 Time, min
13
Objectives
Repetition
Structure of parametric fire curve
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Input data
Fire load density
qt,d for calculation of ttmax
Number and size of the openings
O=
Assessment 1
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
Geometry of the fire compartment
Thermal properties of boundary of enclosure
b= c
Software support
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
Conclusions
Notes
Av h
At
[m ]
1/ 2
[J m s
2 1/ 2
O
Time modification factor = ref 2
b
bref
Fi ti titime in
Fictive
i hours
h
t* = t
14
Objectives
Repetition
Burining and cooling part of curve
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Assessment 1
Two parts of the parametric fire curve

The curve in the burning phase
g,t
= 20 + 1325 (1 0,324 e
0,2 t *
0,204 e
1,7 t *
0,472 e
19 t *
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
Software support
The curve in the cooling phase (depends on t*max, e.g.)
*
g,t = max 250 t * tmax
x
Assessment 2
1000
Fire tests
in Cardington
800
Conclusions
400
Notes
200
Gas temperature, C
600
Heating
0 15 30 45 60
Cooling
90
120 Time, min
15
Objectives
Repetition
The maximal gas temperature
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Assessment 1
Fire driven by ventilation

tmax = 0,2 10-3 qt,d / O
t*max = tmax
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
Software support
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
Fire driven by fire load

tmax = tlim = 25 min (fast fire or 20 min and 15 min slow fire)
t*max = tmax lim
1000
Gas temperature, C
800
Conclusions
600
Notes
400
Heating
Cooling
200
0
0 15 30 45 60
90
120 Time, min
16
Objectives
Repetition
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Opening factor
Influence of openings
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Assessment 1
O=
At
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
Software support
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
Av
[m ]
1/ 2
Af
Av
area of opening
height of opening
At
total surface area of the enclosure

(walls, ceiling and floor, including the openings)
Conclusions
Notes
17
Objectives
Repetition
Influence of opening factor
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Small openings - longer and colder fires

Large
g openings
p
g - faster and hotter fires
Assessment 1
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Temperature, C)
1200
1000
Protected steel
Software support
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
800
Opening
factor O [m
600
0,02
0 05
0,05
0,1
0,15
0,2
400
Conclusions
Notes
1/2
200
Small openings
Large openings
0
0
15
30
45
60
Time, min
18
Objectives
Repetition
Influence of fire load density
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Low fire load - shorter and coulder fires

High
g fire load - longer
g and wormer fires
Temperature,
C
Assessment 1
Thermal response
Fire load density [MJ/m ]
1000
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
200
400
600
800
1000
800
Software support
Assessment 2
600
Fire tests
in Cardington
400
Conclusions
Notes
200
0
0
15
30
45
60
90
120
Time, min
19
Objectives
Repetition
Influence of boundary of enclosure
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
Heavy walls - higher cooling lower temp

temp.
Isolated walls lower cooling - higher temp.
Software support
Assessment 1
b = 702
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
b = c J/m 2s1/ 2K
Temperature, C
1000
Protected steel
Software support
b = 2000
800
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
Conclusions
Notes
Gypsum board
600
b = 1120
Light weight concrete

400
Normal concrete
200
For fire load qf,d = 700 MJ/m2

0
0
30
60
90
120 Time, min

20
Objectives
Repetition
Zone Models
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Assessment 1
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
Software support
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
More sophisticated energy balance models

Assume uniform temperatures
p
in each zone
Normally computer based
S
Severall commercial
i l codes
d available
il bl eg.
Ozone, CFast
Similar drawbacks and benefits to parametric
curves
Conclusions
Notes
21
Objectives
Repetition
Fire behaviour
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Nominal fire curves
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Fire behaviour
Parametric curves
Assessment 1
Zone models
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
CFD
Protected steel
Software support
Assessment 2
Thermal response
Fire tests
in Cardington
Conclusions
Notes
St t l response
Structural
22
Objectives
Repetition
Zone Models
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Assessment 1
Thermal response
Based on partial differential equations:

Mass balance
the air (oxygen) entering the fire compartment is used for burning of the
fuel, the amount of the incoming air and the gases created as result of
the burning is equal to the amount of gas escaping through the openings
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
Software support
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
Energy balance
the energy released from the burning is used to heat the gas in the fire
compartment, the walls, floor and ceiling, some energy is lost as the
gas exits the compartment through the openings
Conclusions
Notes
Two zone model

One zone model
23
Objectives
Repetition
Fire behaviour
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Nominal fire curves
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Fire behaviour
Parametric curves
Assessment 1
Zone models
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
CFD
Protected steel
Software support
Assessment 2
Thermal response
Fire tests
in Cardington
Conclusions
Notes
St t l response
Structural
24
Objectives
Repetition
CFD Modelling
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Assessment 1
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
Software support
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington

Can p
predict huge
g range
g of p
phenomena
Difficult to use
due to many uncertainties in input variables
Still more a research method
E
Example
l off CFD simulation
i l ti
the influence of the ceiling surface on the temperature development during the
seventh Cardington large fire test
Conclusions
Notes
25
Objectives
Repetition
Software support
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Assessment 1
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
Software support
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
Conclusions
The simple tools are developped for

Parametric fire curves
eg. DIFISEK-EN 1991-1-2 Annex A
Zone models
eg. Ozone programme
The description of tools advantages are

summarised in
DIFISEK+ database
Notes
26
Objectives
Repetition
Formative assessment question 1
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Assessment 1
Are there some advantages of nominal fire curves?
What are the advantages of parametric fire curves?
What determine the maximal temperature of the parametric

fire curve?
H
How
iis simulated
i l t d cooling
li b
by parametric
t i fi
fire curve?
?
Describe the principles of zone models?
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
Software support
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
Conclusions
Notes
27
Objectives
Repetition
Thermal response
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Assessment 1
Fire behaviour
Test data
(based on Standard fire curve)
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
Software support
Assessment 2
Thermal response
Fire tests
in Cardington
Conclusions
Notes
Structural response
Simple heat
transfer models
(step by step procedure)
Advanced heat
transfer models
(Finite Elemet Methods)
28
Objectives
Principles of step by step procedure
Repetition
for the fire unprotected steel element
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Assessment 1
Thermal response
One-dimensional heat transfer
Equilibrium of increase of temperature of structural element

and heat received on surface of the element in time period t
Increase
of en element
temperature
a V c a a,t = Am hnet,d t
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
Software support
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
Conclusions
Notes
The heat
received
on surface
where
V
volume of the element [m3] per unit length
Am
surface area of the element [m2] per unit length
ca
specific heat of steel [simplified ca = 650 J/kgK]
density of steel [a = 7850 kg/m3 ]
hnet,d net heat flux received by the surface of the element [W/m2 ]
ti
time
period
i d [tmax = 5 s]]
29
Objectives
Repetition
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Assessment 1

for the fire unprotected steel element in EN 1993-1-2
Assuming uniform temperature distribution over the cross
cross-section,
section
the temperature increase in time period t is
a,t =
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
Software support
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
Am / V
hnet,d t
ca a
where Am /V is the section factor [m-1]

cannot be used for Am /V smaller than 10 m-1
when
h Am /V is
i llarger th
than about
b t 200 m-11,
the computation gives a,t g,t
the time period t should not be longer than 5 s
Conclusions
Notes
The temperature increase depends on the section factor Am /V
30
Objectives
Repetition
Nominal fire
curves
Thermal properties
of carbon steel at elevated temperatures
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
Specific heat
Thermal conductivity
Software support
Assessment 1
ca [J/kgK]
1600
a [W/mK]
60
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
50
1200
40
Software support
Assessment 2
800
Fire tests
in Cardington
Conclusions
30
735oC
20 C
20 C
400
20
200
400
Notes
600
800
1000 1200
o
a [ C]
200
400
600
800
1000 1200
o
a [ C]
31
Objectives
Repetition
Nominal fire
curves
Section factor Am/V
f the
for
th fire
fi unprotected
t t d steel
t l element
l
t
b
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Assessment 1
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
Software support
Assessment 2
Perimeter
Area
Exposed
p
p
perimeter
Area
2(b+h)
(
)
Area
Fire tests
in Cardington
Conclusions
Notes
The surface area of the element per unit length of the member
devided
by the volume of the member per unit length .
The figure I. Burgess, STESSA project
32
Objectives
Repetition
Shadow effect
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
For nominal standard fire curve
Advanced fire
models
a,,t = ksh
Software support
Assessment 1
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
is applied for the total heat flux
ksh = 1
ksh = 0,9 (Am/V)b/ (Am/V) for I sections
ksh = (Am/V)b/ (Am/V) for other sections
Protected steel
Software support
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
Conclusions
Notes
Am / V
hnet,,d t
ca a
for hollow sections of convex shape
For I sections may be simplified
a,t = k sh
(
Am / V )b Am / V
Am / V
hnet,d t = 0,9
hnet,d t
ca a
Am / V ca a
33
Objectives
Repetition
Nominal fire
curves
Section factor (Am/V)b
f shadow
for
h d
effect,
ff t unprotected
t t d steel
t l element
l
t
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Assessment 1
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
Software support
Assessment 2
Perimeter
Area
Exposed perimeter
Area
2(b+h)
Area
Fire tests
in Cardington
Conclusions
Notes
The box value of the the surface area of the element per unit
length of the member
devided by the volume of the member per unit length.
34
Objectives
Repetition
Heat
eat flux
u
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
The net heat flux hnet is given as sum of effect of
Advanced fire
models
convection and
radiation
Software support
Assessment 1
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
The design value is given by
Protected steel
hnet,t d = hnet,t c + hnet,t r
Software support
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
Conclusions
Notes
where
hnet,c is effect off convection, heat flux from convection [W/m2]
hnet,r
is effect off radiation, heat flux from radiation [W/m2]
35
Objectives
Repetition
Convective heat flux
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
The convective heat flux [W/m2] is given by
hnet,c = c (g m )
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Assessment 1
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
where
Protected steel
c = 25 W/m2K for standard curve
Software support
c = 35 W/m2K for parametric curve
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
c = 50 W/m2K for hydrocarbon curve

c = 35 W/m2K for zone models and localized fires
Conclusions
Notes
i heat
is
h t transfer
t
f coefficient
ffi i t
is gas temperature in proximity of the element [C]
is surface temperature of the element [C]
36
Objectives
Repetition
Radiative heat flux
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
Software support
The radiative heat flux [W/m2] is given by
hnet,,r = res 5,67 10 8 ( r + 273 ) (m + 273 )

4
Assessment 1
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
Software support
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
Conclusions
Notes
where
is configuration factor, usually = 1,0
res
is resulting emissivity, see next page
is radiating temperature [C ]
can be taken equal to the gas
temperature g
is surface temperature of steel element [C ]
5,6710
5
6710-88 is Stefan-Boltzmann
Stefan Boltzmann constant [W/(m2K4)]
37
Objectives
Repetition
Resulting
esu t g emissivity
e ss ty
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Assessment 1
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
Software support
Assessment 2
The emissivity is changing during the fire, is influenced

by amount of carbon particles and dust in the smoke,
and the colour and temperature of the surface.
The value has significant effect on accuracy of the solution
res = f m
where
h
f is emissivity of fire, usually f = 1,0

m is emisivity of material surface for
Fire tests
in Cardington
carbon steel element
m = 0,7
Conclusions
stainless steel element
m = 0,4
aluminum alloys not painted
m = 0,3
aluminum alloys painted
m = 0,7
Notes
38
Objectives
Repetition
Technique
q of step
p by
y step
p precedure
p
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Assessment 1
Am / V
hnet,d t
ca a
a,t = ksh
Temperature
of the
element
at time t
Gas temperature (according to temperature-time curve)
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Temperature increment
Spreadsheet technique (excel, etc.)
Components
p
of the heat flux
Time
Specific
p
heat
of steel
Protected steel
Software support
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
Conclusions
Notes
t
min
t
sec
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
10
15
20
25
0
0,083
0,167
0,250
0 333
0,333
0,417
20,0
20,0
96,5
147,0
184,6
214 7
214,7
239,7
30
0,500
261,1
min
h net,r
h net,c
h net,d
ca
0
448
937
1435
1928
2412
0
2679
4402
5650
6610
7374
0
3126
5339
7085
8538
9787
J/kg
/ K
440
440
441
442
444
446
2885
7998
10882
449
a,t
0,00
1,18
2,00
2,65
3 18
3,18
3,63
a,t
20 0
20,0
20,0
21,2
23,2
25,8
29 0
29,0
32,6
39
Objectives
Repetition
Result of step
p by
y step
pp
precedure
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Assessment 1
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Temperature
T
t
off uprotected
t t d steel
t l element
l
t
heated by nominal standard curve
Temperature C
Temperature,
C
1000
Gas temperature,
nominal standard
fire curve
800
Protected steel
Software support
Influence of the specific heat leap of steel
600
U
Unprotected
t t d element,
l
t section
ti IPN 240
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
Conclusions
400
Unprotected element, section IPN 400
200
Notes
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Time, min
40
Objectives
Repetition
Result of step
p by
y step
pp
precedure
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Assessment 1
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
Temperature
of the fire
unprotected
steel
t l
a,t
1000
Steel temperature,
p
, C
250
200150
100
900
60
800
40
30 25
700
as function
of time t
600
and
section factor
Am / V
400
20
15
Am / V = 10 m -1
S ti factor
Section
f t
500
Software support
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
Conclusions
Notes
300
200
100
Time, min
0
0
15
30
45
60
75
90
41
Objectives
Repetition
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Assessment 1
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
Software support
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
Conclusions
Notes
Principle of step by step procedure

for the fire protected steel element
The surface temperature
p
of fire p
protection
- the same as the gas temperature g - m << m - a
Heat transfer through the fire protected layer
A (
c V
K
a
where
ins
) t
Insulation
Kins is factor
p
is thermal conductivity
is density
cp
is thermal capacity
dp
is thickness
g
m
g weight
g fire p
protection Kins p / dp
for light
Steel
Temperature
gradient is assumed
linear
42
Objectives
Repetition
Nominal fire
curves

f the
for
th fire
fi protected
t t d steel
t l element
l
t in
i EN 1993-1-2
1993 1 2
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
a,t =
p (Ap / V ) g,t a,t

t e / 10 1 g,t
d p ca a 1 + / 3
Software support
Assessment 1
where
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
cp p
ca a
dp
Ap
a,t 0
is thermal conductivity of the fire protection [W/m K]
Ap / V
is section factor of fire protected element [m-1]
Ap
is area of fire protection material per unit length of the member [m

[m/m];
/m];
dp
is thickness of the fire protection [m]
is density of the fire protection [kg/m3]
Conclusions
i density
is
d
i off steell [a = 7850
8 0 kg/m
k / 3]
Notes
cp
is thermal capacity of the fire protection [J kg K]
ca
is thermal capacity of steel
g,t
is temperature increment in time step t
is the time step in seconds, should not be bigger than 30 sec
Protected steel
Software support
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
43
Objectives
Repetition
Nominal fire
curves
Section factor Ap/V
f the
for
th fire
fi protected
t t d steel
t l element
l
t
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Assessment 1
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
Software support
Perimeter
Area
Assessment 2
Exposed
perimeter
of the boards
2(b+h)
Area
Fire tests
in Cardington
Conclusions
Notes
The appropriate area of fire protection material per unit length

of the member
devided by the volume of the member per unit length .
44
Objectives
Repetition
Result of step
p by
y step
pp
procedure
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Assessment 1
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Temperature
T
t
off the
th fi
fire protected
t t d steel
t l element
l
t
heated by nominal standard curve
Temperature C
Temperature,
C
1000
Gas temperature
nominal standard
fire curve
800
Thickness of fire protection

dp = 5 mm
10 mm
Protected steel
Software support
600
15 mm
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
Conclusions
400
200
Steel temperature of fire protected element IPN240
Notes
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Time, min
45
Objectives
Repetition
Result of step
p by
y step
pp
procedure
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Assessment 1
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
Software support
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
Conclusions
Notes
Temperature
T
t
off the
th fi
fire protected
t t d steel
t l elements
l
t a,t
as function of time t and section factor Ap /V
Temperature, C
800 5000
4500
4000
3500
700
3000
2500
2000
600
1500
1000
800
500
600
400
400
300
300
200
200
100
Section factor
100
Ap l
V dp
-1
-3
[W K m ]
0
0
30
60
90
120
150
Time, min
46
Objectives
Repetition
Software support
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models

Many tools available for free download
Software support
e.g. Heat transfer in steel structures or DIFISEK
Assessment 1
Thermal response
FE modelling
Unprotected steel
The description of tools advantages is summarised in DIFISEK+

database
Protected steel
Software support
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
Conclusions
Notes
Heat transfer
Temperature distribution
FE modelling
Commercial packages
The description of tools advantages is summarised in DIFISEK+
database
Free download tools

e.g. for concrete and composite elements ConTemp
47
Objectives
Repetition
Formative assessment question 2
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Assessment 1
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
What is the principle of step by step procedure of heat

transfer for the fire unprotected steel element?
Describe the major components of heat flux?
What is influencing the emissivity during the fire?
Whatt are the

Wh
th principles
i i l off step
t by
b step
t procedure
d
off heat
h t
transfer for the fire protected steel element?
What is diference in section factor for the fire protected

and unprotected steel elements?
Protected steel
Software support
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
Conclusions
Notes
48
Objectives
Repetition
The BRE Cardington laboratory
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
The basical findings of European fire research 1980 - 2005
Fire safety of composite steel to concrete strutures
Software support
Assessment 1
Outside
Inside
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
54m
Software support
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
The 1920s
Conclusions
Notes
49
Objectives
Repetition
Three multistorey
y buidings
g
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Timber structure
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Assessment 1
Thermal response
Steel to
concrete
composite
building
finished 1994;
plan area 945 m2
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
Software support
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
Conclusions
Notes
Concrete structure
50
Objectives
Repetition
Eight
g floors composite
p
building
g
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
21 m
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Assessment 1
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
33 m
Software support
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
Conclusions
Notes
Sand bags
51
Objectives
Repetition
Floor plan of composite building
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
A
9000
Software support
Assessment 1
Thermal response
9000
9000
9000
9000
356x171x51UB (50)
4
356x171x51UB (50)
6000
305x305x137 UC (50)
Unprotected steel
BRE corner test
BS demonstration office test
Advanced fire
models
305x165x40UB (43)
305x165x40UB (43)
Protected steel
Software support
9000
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
610x228x101UB (43)
2
3000
6000
Conclusions
1
Notes
BS 2-D cross-frame test

BS corner test
BRE large compartment test
BS restrained beam test
CTU edge bay test 2003
52
Objectives
Repetition
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Restrained beam test

1th large
l
scale
l fire
fi experiment
i
t on composite
it frame
f
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Assessment 1
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
Software support
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
Conclusions
Notes
Localised fire
53
Objectives
Repetition
Restrained beam test
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Temperature of unprotected beam
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Assessment 1
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Temperature, C
1200
MAX = 1055 C
1000
800
Nominal
standard fire
curve
528
Protected steel
Software support
600
x
x
x 526
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
Conclusions
Notes
x 525
400
200
x
524
x 398
Gas temperature
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Ti
Time,
min
i
54
Objectives
Repetition
Membrane action of composite

p
slab
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
Software support
One of the developments of the Cardington laboratory was

the development of the models of fire safety of partially
unprotected columns under the composite slab in steel
multistorey buildings
buildings.
Assessment 1
Compressed area
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
Software support
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
Conclusions
Notes
Membrane
55
Objectives
Repetition
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
BRE large compartment test

4th large scale fire experiment on composite frame
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Assessment 1
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
Software support
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
Conclusions
Notes
56
Objectives
Repetition
CTU edge
g bay
y test
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Assessment 1
7th large scale fire experiment on composite frame

Connection temperatures (a widen MS PowerPoint presentation)
Connection forces and behavior
Composite slab
(a widen MS PowerPoint presentation)
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
Software support
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
Conclusions
Notes
57
Objectives
Repetition
Assessment
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Assessment 1
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
Describe the basic models of fire.
What are the major limits of parametric fire curve?
What is the principle of zone models of fire?
Describe the models of transfer of heat.
What is difference of transfer of heat to the fire protected

and fire unprotected steel element?
Which material thermal properties of fire protection are

taken into account in evaluation of transfer of heat to the
fire p
protected elements?
Software support
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
Conclusions
Notes
58
Objectives
Repetition
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
curves
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Assessment 1
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
Software support
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
Conclusions
Simpliest model of fire is a nominal firve curve
Zone model of fire supported
pp
byy software
brings an effective tool for practical design
For worked examples consult AcceesSteel and
DIFISEK+
The accuracy od prediction of gas and steel
temperature is show on a fire test
Conclusions
Notes
59
Objectives
Repetition
Conclusions
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
Nomogram
g
prepared
p
p
based on step
p by
y step
pp
procedure
describes the heating of the fire protected and fire unprotected
steel members exposed to nominal standard fire curve.
Software support
a [C]
Assessment 1
300
200
150
100
75
700
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
600
Protected steel
[ ]
Am 1
m
V
2000
1500
50
500
Software support
25
Assessment 2
400
Fire tests
in Cardington
300
Conclusions
200
Notes
100
Ap p W
1000 V d m3K
p
800
700
600
500
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
unprotected
protected
0
0
15
30
45
60
75
90
105
120
Fire duration [min]
60
Objectives
Repetition
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Conclusions
The lecture introduced the bases of modelling
of the compartment fire and transfer of heat into structure
according
g to the Eurocodes.
Assessment 1
Fire load
Thermal response
Eurocodes
Fire design
Fire behaviour
Unprotected steel
Modelling of the gas temparature

in the fire compartment
Protected steel
EN 1991-1-2
Software support
Assessment 2
Thermal response
Fire tests
in Cardington
Transfer of heat
and development in structure
Conclusions
EN 1991
1991-1-x
1x
EN 199x-1-2
Notes
Mechanical load
Structural response
Design of structure at elevated temparature
61
Thank
Th
k you
for your attention
62
Objectives
Repetition
Notes to users of the lecture
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
This session
Thi
i is
i a basic
b i information
i f
ti about
b t the
th modeling
d li off fifire
and transfer of heat to the structure and requires about 60 min
lecturing.
Further readings on the relevant documents from website of

www.access-steel.com and www.difisek.eu.
The use of relevant standards of national standard institutions

are strongly recommended.
Formative questions should be well answered before the

summative questions completed within the tutorial session.
Keywords for the lecture:
Advanced fire
models
Software support
Assessment 1
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
Software support
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
Conclusions
fire design, fire modelling, fire curve, transfer of heat, fire

protection, Eurocodes.
Notes
63
Objectives
Repetition
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
Software support

Worked examples for heat transfer
Fireresistance of apartially encased composite column
Assessment 1
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
The application of the table is in AccessSteel example

The application of the graph is in AccessSteel example
Fire design of an unprotected beam using graphs
Assessment 2
The description of step by step procedure for heat transfer

is in AccessSteel examples
Fire tests
in Cardington
Fire design of an unprotected IPE section beam exposed to the

standard time temperature curve
Software support
Conclusions
Notes
Fire design of a protected HEB section column exposed to the

standard temperature time curve
64
Objectives
Repetition
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Advanced fire
models
Software support

Worked examples for fire modelling
Assessment 1
Fire design of an unprotected IPE section beam exposed to the

standard time temperature curve
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
Software support
Conclusions
Notes
The description of parametric fire curve is in AccessSteel

example
Parametric fire curve for a fire compartment
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
The application of the nominal fire curve is in AccessSteel

example
l
The application of the zone model is in the DIFISEK+

lecture
WP4 Software for fire design, slide 10
65
Objectives
Repetition
Notes for lecturers
Nominal fire
curves
Parametric fire
c r es
curves
Subject: Fire modelling and transfer of heat to structure

structure.
Advanced fire
models
Lecture duration: 60 min
Keywords: fire design, fire modelling, fire curve, transfer of heat,

fire protection, Eurocodes.
Aspects to be discussed: high advantage of utilisation of

advanced fire models, the simplicity
p y of heat transfer by
y step
p by
y
step procedure and its limits.
Within the lecturing, the procedure of Eurocode fire design is

explained.
p
Further reading: relevant documents from website of

www.access-steel.com and www.difisek.eu.
The reached accuracy in prediction off elemenst temperature is

shown on the prediction of the seveth large scale Cardington fire
test.
Software support
Assessment 1
Thermal response
Unprotected steel
Protected steel
Software support
Assessment 2
Fire tests
in Cardington
Conclusions
Notes
66

Fire Modelling and Transfer of Heat

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Fire Modelling and Transfer of Heat

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9-2.

Czech Technical University

Objectives of the lecture

Example of test on building

Lecture 9-1, V001, April 09

National fire regulations

National fire regulations

Fire safety requirements

Fire test of elements

Fire safety requirements

Step by step procedure

Calcul. of structure temp.

Calcul. of gas temp.

Fire safety of structure

Lecture 9-1, V001, April 09

The major steps of the fire design

Nominal fire curves

Computational Fluid Dynamics

Nominal fire curves

Nominal fire curves

Nominal standard curve

Nominal external curve

g = 20 + 660 1 0,687 e 0,32 t 0,313 e 0,38 t

Nominal hydrocarbon curve

g = 20 + 1080 1 0,325 e 0,167 t 0,675 e 2,5 t

Lecture 9-1, V001, April 09

Nominal standard fire curve

The temperature depends on time only

Nominal hydrocarbon curve

Nominal standard fire curve

Nominal external fire curve

Lecture 9-1, V001, April 09

Pros and Cons

Lecture 9-1, V001, April 09

Nominal fire curves

Computational Fluid Dynamics

Parametric fire curve

Assumptions in parametric fire curve

No heat built-up in pre-flashover phase of fire

Temperature uniform in the compartment

Uniform heat transfer coefficient in compartment

Lecture 9-1, V001, April 09

Limits of parametric fire curve

120 Time, min

Structure of parametric fire curve

qt,d for calculation of ttmax

Number and size of the openings

Geometry of the fire compartment

Thermal properties of boundary of enclosure

Burining and cooling part of curve

Two parts of the parametric fire curve

The curve in the cooling phase (depends on t*max, e.g.)

Lecture 9-1, V001, April 09

120 Time, min

The maximal gas temperature

Fire driven by ventilation

Fire driven by fire load

120 Time, min

total surface area of the enclosure

Lecture 9-1, V001, April 09

Influence of opening factor

Small openings - longer and colder fires

Lecture 9-1, V001, April 09

Influence of fire load density