Thermodynamics II

THERMODYNAMICS
Author: Pranjal K. Bharti (B. Tech., IIT Kharagpur)
www.vidyadrishti.org
Notes for School Exams

Target IIT-JEE 2015
Physics
Thermodynamics
H. O. D. Physics, Concept Bokaro Centre
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2007 P. K. Bharti
All rights reserved.
2013-2015
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CONCEPT: JB 20, 3rd Floor, Near Jitendra Cinema, City Centre, Bokaro
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THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics: Thermodynamics
is the science
of energy conversion involving heat and other forms of
energy, most notably mechanical work. It studies and
interrelates
the macroscopic variables,
such
as
temperature, volume and pressure,
which
describe
physical, thermodynamic systems.
Zeroth law of Thermodynamics
Heat: Heat always refers to the transfer of energy between

systems (or bodies), not to energy contained within the
systems (or bodies).
Heat is energy in transit.
Heat of a body or heat contained in a body is a
meaningless statement.
S.I. unit of heat: J (joules)
Temperature: Loosely speaking, temperature is the degree of

hotness or coldness of a body or environment.
A body that feels hot usually has a higher temperature

than a similar body that feels cold.
On the microscopic scale, temperature is defined as the
average kinetic energy of microscopic motions of a single
particle in the system per degree of freedom. We will
learn about temperature at microscopic level in the
chapter Kinetic Theory of Gases.
On the macroscopic scale, temperature is the unique
physical property that determines the direction of heat
flow between two objects placed in thermal contact. If no
heat flow occurs, the two objects have the same
temperature; otherwise heat flows from the hotter object
to the colder object.
NOTE:
Heat & temperature are two different physical

quantities. Heat is a form of energy which flows from a
body at higher temperature to the body at lower
temperature. Temperature is a measure of the internal
energy of the system, while heat is a measure of how
energy is transferred from one system (or body) to
another.
THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM: Two bodies are said to be in
thermal equilibrium if no transfer of takes place when they are
placed in contact.
Thus, two objects are in thermal equilibrium with each
other when they are at the same temperature.
If objects A and B are separately in thermal

equilibrium with a third object C, then objects A and
B are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
In other words, states that if two bodies A and C have
same temperature and B and C have also same
temperature then A and B have also same temperature.
We can think of temperature as the property that
determines whether an object is in thermal equilibrium
with other objects.
TEMPERATURE SCALE & THERMOMETERS

There are three temperature scales in use today:
Celsius Scale
Fahrenheit Scale
Kelvin Scale
Celsius Scale
Some important temperatures on Fahrenheit Scale:
Freezing point of water: 0 C
Boiling point of water: 100 C
Human body temperature: 32 C
Room Temperature: 25 C
Absolute Zero : 273.15 C
o
o
o
o
o
Absolute Zero
Absolute Zero is the lowest possible temperature, at which
point the atoms of a substance transmit no thermal energy
they are completely at rest. It is 0 degrees on the Kelvin scale,
o
which translates to -273.15
C (or -459.67 degrees
Fahrenheit).
Fahrenheit Scale
Freezing point of water: 32 F
Boiling point of water: 212 F
Human body temperature: 98.6 F
Room Temperature: 77 F
Absolute Zero: 459 F

NOTE: Fahrenheit Scale is used by doctors.
o
o
Answer the following question:

Q1. All objects sitting in a room should reach the same
temperature. Yet if you pick up a cup made of glass, it feels
cooler than a cup made of plastic.
Many people
unconsciously recognize plastic by its relative "warm feel."
How can two objects be the same temperature and yet one
feels cooler? What mistaken assumption are we making?
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THERMODYNAMICS
Answer the following questions:
Kelvin Scale
An absolute temperature scale is based on the definition that
the volume of a gas at constant (low) pressure is directly
proportional to temperature and that 100 degrees separates the
freezing and boiling points of water.
Freezing point of water: 273.15 K
Boiling point of water: 373.15 K
Human body temperature: 402.15 K
Room Temperature: 298.15 K
Absolute Zero: 0 K
NOTE:
o
We dont use degree K ( K) to denote temperature on

Kelvin scale.
There are no negative Kelvin temperatures.
Kelvin is used as S.I. unit of temperature.
Relation between Kelvin, Celsius and Fahrenheit scales:

Kelvin
Scale
Celsius
Scale
100 C
212 F
273.15 K
0 C
32 F
Q3. Convert 32 F into Celsius and Kelvin scale.

o
Q4. Convert 100 C into Fahrenheit and Kelvin scale.

Q5. Is it correct to say that temperature of a body is 459 K ?
Q6. Consider the following pairs of materials. Which pair
represents two materials, one of which is twice as hot as the
other?
(a) boiling water at 100C, a glass of water at 50C
(b) boiling water at 100C, frozen methane at -50C
(c) an ice cube at -20C, flames from a circus fire-eater at
233C
(d) No pair represents materials one of which is twice as hot as
the other
Answers:
2. K
o
Point of
interest
4. 100 C = 212 F = 373.15 K (Use formulae)

5. No, because there are no negative Kelvin temperatures.
6. (c) The phrase twice as hot refers to a ratio of
temperatures in Kelvin scale. When the given temperatures
are converted to Kelvins, only those in part (c) are in the
correct ratio.
Thermal expansion
Point of interest Freezing point
Boiling Point Freezing point Kelvin Scale

=
Boiling Point Freezing point Celcius Scale

=
Boiling Point Freezing point Fahrenheit Scale
K 273.15
C 0
F 32
= =
373.15 273.15 100 0
212 32
K 273.15
C
F 32
=
=
100
100
180
Hence, we have
9
F=
C + 32
5
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& K =+
273.15 C
(Use formulae)
Freezing
point
We can write
3. 32 F = 0 C = 273.15 K
Boiling
point
Q2. What is the S.I. unit of temperature?
Fahrenheit
Scale
373.15 K
Most materials expand when their temperatures increase.

When an objects temperature is raised, every linear
dimension increases in size. This phenomenon is known
as thermal expansion.
The term thermal expansion refers to the increase in size
of an object as that object is heated. With relatively few
exceptions, all objects expand when they are heated and
contract when they are cooled.
Perhaps the most important exception to this rule is water.
Water contracts as it cools from its boiling point to about
4C (39.2F). At that point, it begins to expand as it cools
further to its freezing point. This unusual effect explains
the fact that ice is less dense than water.
When an object is heated or cooled, it expands or
contracts in all dimensions. However, for practical
reasons, scientists and engineers often focus on two
different kinds of expansion: linear expansion
(expansion in one direction only) and volume expansion
(expansion in all three dimensions). There is also third
kind of expansion known as area expansion (expansion
in two dimensions only).
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THERMODYNAMICS
Q7. Do holes become larger or smaller when heated?

Answer: When an objects temperature is
raised, every linear dimension increases in
size. This includes any holes in the material,
which expand in the same way as if the hole
were filled with the material. Keep in mind
the notion of thermal expansion as being similar to a
photographic enlargement.
Hence,
L
LT
L=' L (1 + T )
Area expansion
dL = LdT
(Average coefficient of linear expansion)
Let the new length of rod after expansion or contraction

becomes L. Clearly, L = L + L. Hence, new length L
of rod becomes
Linear expansion
A good example of linear expansion (expansion in one
direction only) railroad tracks distorted because of
thermal expansion on a very hot July day.
Most materials expand as they are heated and contract if
they are cooled. Thus their length is a function of
temperature. If the length of an object is L and the
temperature changes by a differential amount dT, then the
differential change in the length dL is given by:
If the area of an object is A and the temperature changes

by a differential amount dT, then the differential change
in the area dA is given by:
dA = AdT
(Volume expansion)
where is a constant known as the coefficient of area

expansion.
(linear expansion)
where is a constant known as the coefficient of linear
A+ dA
expansion.
L
Clearly,
T+dT
L+dL
Clearly,
dL
LdT
T+dT
(Coefficient of linear expansion)
dA
AdT
(Coefficient of area expansion)
Thus we can define coefficient of linear expansion as

change in length per unit length of a solid when
temperature changes by 1 K or 1 C at constant
pressure.
Thus we can define coefficient of area expansion as

change in area per unit area of a solid when
pressure.
Sometimes we are interested in average area expansion.
Sometimes we are interested in average linear expansion.
Suppose a rod of material has a length L at some initial

temperature T. When the temperature changes by T, the
length changes by L. Experiments show that if T is not
too large, L is directly proportional to T.
If two rods made of the same material have the same
temperature change, but one is twice as long as the other,
then the change in its length is also twice as great.
Therefore L must also be proportional to L.
Thus average thermal expansion is given by:
Suppose area of material is A at some initial temperature

T. When the temperature changes by T, the area changes
by . Experiments show that if T is not too large, A
is directly proportional to T.
L = LT
(Average linear thermal expansion)
A
AT
(Average coefficient of area expansion)
Let the new area of the material after expansion or

contraction becomes A. Clearly, A = A + A. Hence,
new area A becomes
A=' A (1 + T )
T
L
T+T
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L=L+L
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THERMODYNAMICS
Relation between and
Volume expansion
If the volume of an object is V and the temperature

changes by a differential amount dT, then the differential
change in the volume dV is given by:
Therefore, area of the square at temperature
dV = VdT
A = L2
(Volume expansion)
Let us consider a square sheet of side L at temperature T.
(i)
where is a constant known as the coefficient of volume
L+L
L
expansion.
A+ dA
V+dV
T
T+dT
T+dT
Clearly,
dV
VdT
When the temperature changes by T, the edge changes by

(Coefficient of volume expansion)
L.
Therefore,
A + A=
new
( L + L ) =
area
of
square
L2 + L2 + 2 L L
becomes
Thus we can define coefficient of volume expansion as

change in volume per unit volume of a solid when
pressure.
As change in length L is very small, its square L2 must be
Sometimes we are interested in average volume

expansion.
A + A= L2 + 2 L L
Suppose volume of material is V at some initial

temperature T. When the temperature changes by T, the
volume changes by V. Experiments show that if T is
not too large, V is directly proportional to T.
V
V T
(Average coefficient of volume expansion)
Let the new volume of the material after expansion or

contraction becomes V. Clearly, V = V + V. Hence,
new area V becomes
V=' V (1 + T )
(ii)
negligible. Therefore, neglecting L2 from (ii) we get,

(iii)
Subtracting (i) from (iii), we get change in area A of the

square plate, which is
A
= 2 L L
(iv).
Now, using definition of coefficient of area expansion we get,
A
AT
2 L L
=2
L T
L
=
2
LT
(using (i) and (iv))

...(v)
From definition of coefficient of linear expansion we get,
L
LT
(vi)
Using (v) and (vi), we get
= 2
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(Relation between and )
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THERMODYNAMICS
Relation between and
Relation between , and
Let us consider a cubical body of edge L at temperature T.

Therefore, volume of the cube at temperature
V = L3
We have seen from last page that
= 2
(i)
When the temperature changes by T, the edge changes by
V + V=
new
( L + L )
volume
= 3
=
2 3
(Relation between , and )
Thermal stress and strain
T+dT
Therefore,
and
Combining these two expressions, we get
L+L
L.
of
cube
becomes
V + V= L3 + 3L2 L + 3L L2 + L3 (ii)
Do you know we can use concept of linear expansion to

find out strain developed in a rod? Using concept of
Youngs modulus we can also find out stress. How?
Suppose a uniform rod of natural length L is held fixed by
clamping its two ends at temperature T. Clearly the
tension is zero at this temperature T.
Suppose we temperature is increased by T. Thus, rod
will also try to expand. But, as the rod is fixed at the
clamps, its length remains the same as the length at T.
Hence, strain develops in the rod.
As change in length L is very small, its square L2 and cube

L3 must be negligible. Therefore, neglecting L2 and L3
from (ii) we get,
V + V= L3 + 3L L
(iii)
Subtracting (i) from (iii), we get change in volume V of the

cube, which is
V= 3L L
L
LT
Change in length L
=
Initial length
L
Hence from (i), we have
(using (i) and (iv))

...(v)
(vi)
Using (v) and (vi), we get
= 3
(i)
Hence strain developed in the rod is
=
Strain
Strain=
(Relation between and )
L LT
=
= T
L
L
Hence, thermal strain is given by
Thermal strain= T
From definition of coefficient of linear expansion we get,
Suppose the rod length is increased by L when

temperature is increased by temperature T in the case
when rod is not clamped at the ends.
Assuming coefficient of linear expansion a to be constant
over T, we have
L = LT
(iv).
Using definition of coefficient of volume expansion we get,
V
=
V T
3L L
=3
L T
L
=
3
LT
If Y is the Youngs modulus of the material, we can find

thermal stress as
Stress = (Youngs Modulus) x Strain
Thermal stress =
Y T
Note: Here stress & strain are longitudinal stress &
longitudinal strain respectively.
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THERMODYNAMICS
Specific heat capacity
Water equivalent
The specific heat capacity (or specific heat) of a

substance may be defined as the amount of heat required
to raise the temperature of unit mass of the substance
through one degree Celsius. It depends on the nature of
the substance and its temperature.
If an amount of heat Q is needed to raise the temperature
of m mass of a substance through T, then specific heat is
given by
The water equivalent of a body is defined as the mass of

water which requires the same amount heat as is required
by the given body for the same rise of temperature.
Water equivalent = Mass Specific heat
c=
Q
m T
(Specific heat capacity)
Calorimetry
1
The SI unit of specific heat is J kg K which is same as

J kg1 0C1 and CGS unit is cal g1 oC1.
Clearly, the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of m mass of a substance through T is
Q = mc T
Molar specific heat
The molar specific heat of a substance is defined as the
amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one
mole of the substance through one degree. It depends on
the nature of the substance and its temperature.
If an amount of heat Q is required to raise the
temperature of n moles of a substance through T, then
molar specific heat is given by
Q
(Molar Specific heat)
C=
nT
The SI unit of molar specific heat is J mol1 K1 which is
same as J mol1 0C1 and CGS unit is cal mol1 oC1.
Therefore, the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of n moles of a substance through T is
Q = nC T.
Heat capacity or thermal capacity
The heat capacity of a body is defined as the amount of
heat required to raise its temperature through one degree.
temperature of a substance through T, then molar
specific heat is given by
Q
S=
(Heat capacity)
T
By definition, heat capacity = mass specific heat
S = mc
The SI unit of heat capacity is JK1 and the CGS unit is

JoC1.
Therefore, the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of a substance through T is
Q = S T
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w = mc
The SI unit of water equivalent is kg and the CGS unit is
g.
The branch of physics that deals with the measurement of

heat is called calorimetry.
Principle of calorimetry or the law of mixtures
The principle of calorimetry states that the heat gained by
the cold body must be equal to the heat lost by the hot
body, provided there is no exchange of heat with the
surroundings.
Heat gained = Heat lost
This principle is a consequence of the law of conservation
of energy and useful for solving problems relating to
calorimetry.
Few Definitions
Melting point: The temperature at which the solid and
the liquid states of a substance coexist in thermal
equilibrium with each other is called its melting point.
Boiling point: The temperature at which the liquid and
vapour states of a substance coexist in thermal
equilibrium with each other is called its boiling point. The
boiling point of a substance at standard atmospheric
pressure is called its normal boiling point.
Sublimation: The process of transition of a substance
from the solid state to the vapour state without passing
through the liquid state is called sublimation, and the
substance is said to sublime.
Substances like dry ice (solid CO2), iodine, naphthalene
and camphor undergo sublimation when heated. During
the sublimation process, the solid and vapour states of a
substance coexist in thermal equilibrium with each other.
Note: The melting point of those substances which
expand on melting (e.g., paraffin wax, phosphorus,
sulphur, etc.) increases with the increase in pressure while
the melting point of those substances which contract on
melting (e.g., ice, cast iron, bismuth etc.) decreases with
increase in pressure.
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THERMODYNAMICS
Regelation: The phenomenon in which ice melts when

pressure is increased and again freezes when pressure is
removed is called regelation (re = again; gelare = freeze):
This phenomenon of freezing is called regelation.
Practical applications of regelation:
(a) By pressing snow in our hand, we can transform it into a
snow-ball. When snow is pressed, its crystals melt. As the
pressure is released, water refreezes forming a snow-ball.
(b) Skating is possible due to the formation of water layer
below the skates. Water is formed due to the increase of
pressure and it acts as a lubricant.
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

Assumptions of Kinetic Theory of gases
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Latent Heat
The amount of heat required to change the state of unit mass
of a substance at constant temperature and pressure is called
latent heat of the substance.
If m mass of a substance undergoes a change from one state to
another, then the amount of heat required for the process is
6.
7.
Q = mL
where L is the latent heat of the substance and is a
characteristic of the substance. Its value also depends on the
pressure. Clearly,
Q
(Latent heat)
L=
m
SI unit of latent heat is J kg1 and CGS unit of latent heat is
cal g1.
8.
All gases consists of molecules. The molecules of a gas

are all alike and differ from those of other gases.
The molecules of a gas are very small in size as compared
to the distance between them.
The molecules of a gas behave as perfectly elastic
spheres.
The molecules are always in random motion.
During their random motion, the molecules collide against
one another and the walls of the containing vessel. The
collisions of the molecules with one another and with the
walls of the vessel are perfectly elastic. This implies that
total kinetic energy is conserved. The total momentum is
conserved as usual.
Between two collisions, a molecule moves along a
straight line and the distance covered between two
successive collisions is called the free path of the
molecule.
The collisions are almost instantaneous i.e. the time
during which a collision takes place is negligible as
compared to the time taken by the molecule to cover the
free path.
The molecules do not exert any force on each other except
during collisions.
Notations used in this chapter:
Avogadro number
=
N A 6.02 1023 mol1
Universal gas constant
R = 8.314 J/K-mol
Boltzmann constant
=
k 1.38 1023 J/K
No. of moles
n
Total number of molecules N
Mass of each molecule
m
Total mass of molecules
M
Molecular mass
M0
Density
Average speed
v
Root mean square speed
vrms
Most probable speed
vp
Latent heat of fusion: The amount of heat required to change

the state of unit mass of a substance from solid to liquid at its
melting point is called latent heat of fusion or latent heat of
melting. It is denoted by Lf.
Latent heat of vaporization: The amount of heat required to
change the state of unit mass of a substance from liquid to
vapour at its boiling point is called latent heat of vaporization
or latent heat of boiling. It is denoted by Lv.
No. of moles (n)

total mass
M
n
=
=
n
molecular mass
M0
=
n
total no. of molecules

N
=
n
NA
Avogadro number
Some useful relations

=
M nM
=
Nm (total mass)
0
M 0 = mN A
=
( molecular mass )
M
N
=
V
NA
(density)
R = N Ak
Root mean square speed
=
vrms
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v2
=
N
v2
&=
vrms 2 v 2
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THERMODYNAMICS
Pressure of an ideal gas

1
1 2
p =
=
vrms 2
v
3
3
Kinetic energy of an ideal gas

1
3
Mvrms 2
nRT
Total KE of the=
gas K =
2
2
1
3
Average KE of each molecule = mvrms 2 = kT
2
2
In thermal equilibrium KE of all molecules are equal
1
1
m1vrms ,12 = m2 vrms ,2 2
2
2
Important proportionality relations

K vrms 2 (KE)
T vrms 2 (Absolute temperature)
Relation between KE and pressure of an ideal gas

2
pV = KE
3
Speeds in terms of temperatures
=
vrms
v
=
=
vp
3kT
=
m
8kT
=
m
2kT
=
m
3RT
M0
8 RT
M0
2 RT
M0
(rms speed)
(average or mean speed)
(most probable speed)
expression for px; it is reasonable to replace vx2 by vx2 , where
Grahams law of diffusion

Rate of diffusion, r vrms
r1
=
r2
1
2 :
3
Consider a gas contained
in a vessel. Let n be the
number of gas molecules
per unit volume inside
the vessel and m be the
mass of each molecule.
Let v be the velocity of
any gas molecule at any
instant. Let v x, v y and v z
are components of the
velocity v along X, Y and
Z-axis respectively.
The molecule moves with momentum mvx along X-axis and
strikes against the right face. Since the collision is perfectly
elastic in nature, the molecule rebounds back with same speed
vx. Therefore, change in momentum of the molecule along Xaxis = 2mvx.
Now, in time t, all those molecules will hit area A,
therefore, such molecules lie in volume A vx t. Since the
number of molecules per unit volume is n, the number of such
molecules is nAvx t. In fact, on the average, half of this
number is expected to move along negative X-axis and the
other half along positive X-axis. Therefore,
The number of molecules hitting area A in time t along
1
positive X-axis = nAvx t
2
And the total change in momentum of molecules in time t
along X-axis,
1
px =( 2mvx ) nAvx t =mnAvx2 t
2
Since different molecules or even the same molecule at
different times may possess different speeds, in the above
Derivation of P =
Pressure exerted by a gas
Equation of state of an ideal gas
PV = nRT
2
1
vx2 , is mean square component of speeds of the molecules

along X-axis. Therefore,
px =
mnAvx2 t
Therefore, force exerted by walls of the vessel on the gas
molecules along X-axis is given by
px
Fx =
= mnAvx2
t
If px is pressure exerted by gas molecules along X-axis, then
Daltons law of partial pressures

p = p1 + p2 + ... + pn
Equation of state of a real gas (van der Waals

equation)
a
nRT
p + 2 (V b ) =
V
Fx mnAvx2
=
= mnvx2
A
A
If Py and Pz are pressures along Y-and Z-axis respectively, then
Mean free path:

kT
=
2 d 2 P
STP (standard temperature and pressure)

T = 273 K and P = 1 atm
Pressure exerted by gas molecules must be same in all

direction i.e. Px = Py = Pz = P (say)
1
In other words, P=
( Px + Py + Pz )
3
1
1
2
=
P
mnvx2 + mnv y2 + mnv
=
mn vx2 + v y2 + vz2
z
3
3
1
2
P =mnv
3
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P
=
x
Py = mnv y2 and Pz = mnvz2
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THERMODYNAMICS
where v 2 = vx2 + v y2 + vz2 is mean square velocity of the gas

molecules.
Now, m n = , density of the gas. Therefore,
1
P = v2
3
LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics: Thermodynamics is the branch of science
that deals with the concepts of heat and temperature and the
inter-conversion of heat and other forms of energy.
Mean free path

The mean free path ( )of a gas may be defined as the average
distance travelled by the gas molecule in two successive
collisions.
kT
2 d 2 P
(mean free path)
where,
= mean free path

k = Boltzmann constant
T = absolute temperature of the gas
d = molecular diameter
P = pressure of the gas
Heat
Heat always refers to the transfer of energy between systems
(or bodies), not to energy contained within the systems (or
bodies).
Heat is energy in transit.
Heat of a body or heat contained in a body is a
meaningless statement.
S.I. unit of heat: J (joules)
It is represented by Q, Q or dQ
Sign conventions used:

Heat absorbed by a system is positive. Heat given out by a
system is negative.
Equation of state of an ideal gas

The mathematical relation between the pressure, volume and
temperature of a thermodynamics system is called its equation
of state. For example, the equation of state for n moles of an
ideal gas can be written as
PV = nRT
(Equation of state of an ideal gas)
where,
P = pressure
V = volume
n = number of moles
R = universal gas constant
T = temperature
Thermodynamics equilibrium: A system is said to be in the
state of thermodynamic equilibrium if the macroscopic
variables describing the thermodynamics state of the system
do not change with time.
Thermal equilibrium: Two systems are said to be in thermal
equilibrium with each other if they have the same temperature.
Zeroth law of thermodynamics. It states that if two systems
A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third
system C, then A and B are also in thermal equilibrium with
each other.
Concept of temperature: Zeroth law of thermodynamics
implies that temperature is a physical quantity which has the
same value for all systems which are in thermal equilibrium
with each other.
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THERMODYNAMICS

Work done by a gas
To prove W =
Work done for small change in volume: dW = pdV
Total work done

W=
V2
pdV :
V1
Consider a gas contained in a cylinder of cross-sectional

area A and provided with a frictionless movable piston.
Let P be the pressure of the gas.
Force exerted by the gas on the piston,
F = PA
V2
pdV
V1
area of the region between PV curve and V axis
dx
C
A
PA
Gas
B
V1
D
V2
Suppose the gas expands a little and pushes out the piston
through a small distance dx. The work done by the gas is
dW = Fdx = PA dx
dW = P dV
Sign Convention for work
Compression (volume decreases): ve work
Expansion (volume increases): + ve work
where dV = Adx,
is the change in volume of the gas.
The total work done by the gas when its volume increase
from V1 to V2 will be
(i)
=
W
dW
=
V2
PdV .
V1
Internal energy
V
V
Expansion: + ve work
Compression: ve work
Work done for a cyclic process

Any process in which the system returns to its initial state
after undergoing a series of changes in known as a cyclic
process.
p
The internal energy of a system is the sum of molecular

kinetic and potential energies in the frame of reference relative
to which the centre of mass of the system is at rest.
Important points about internal energy:
1. Internal energy of an ideal gas is purely kinetic in nature.
In an ideal gas, there are no molecular forces of attraction.
2. Internal energy of an ideal gas is a function of
temperature.
U = f(T)
3. Change in internal energy U is zero in two cases
a) Isothermal process: U = 0
b) Cyclic process: U = 0
First law of thermodynamics
V
+ ve work (how?)
V
ve work (how?)
Work done = area of shaded region (how?)
Note:
Change in internal energy in a cyclic process = zero
(We will study about internal energy later)
P a g e | 11
According to the First Law of Thermodynamics, if some

heat is supplied to a system which is capable of doing
work, the heat energy (Q) supplied to the system goes in
partly to increase the internal energy of the system (U)
and the rest in work done on the environment (W).
U = Q W
(1st law of thermodynamics)
where,
U = change in internal energy
Q = heat given to the system
W = work done by the system
Q
U
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THERMODYNAMICS
First Law of Thermodynamics is simply the general law

of conservation of energy applied to any system in which
the energy transfer from or to the surroundings is taken
into account.
6.
Sign convention:
Isothermal process (temperature constant)

Equation
of
state
for
ideal
p V
p1V1 = P2V2 1 = 2
p2 V1
Change in internal energy: U = 0
Work done by ideal gas in isothermal process:
Heat given to the system = positive

Heat lost by the system = negative
Work done by the system = positive
Work done on the system = negative
Different kind of processes

1.
2.
Quasistatic process
Very slow process
Always in thermodynamic equilibrium
Reversible process
Any process which can be made to proceed in the
reserve direction by variation in its conditions such
that any change occurring in any part of the direct
process is exactly reversed in the corresponding part
of reverse process is called a reversible process.
Necessary conditions for a reversible process:
i.
Quasistatic process
ii.
No dissipation of energy due to dissipative forces
(viscosity, friction, inelasticity, etc.)
Note: Unless otherwise stated all processes at this
level is assumed to be reversible process.
1st law of thermodynamics:

U = Q W
0=QW
Q=W
V
p
=
=
W nRT
ln 2 nRT ln 1
V
1
p2
(Work done by ideal gas in isothermal process)
Proof:
For an ideal gas undergoing isothermal process, we have
nRT
V
Therefore, work done by gas is
pV= nRT p=
=
W
pdV
=
W = nRT
nRT
dV
V
nRT
=
p
1
dV
V
Taking proper limits, we have

V
3.
4.
5.
Cyclic process
Any process in which the system returns to its initial
state after undergoing a series of changes in known as

a cyclic process.
dU = 0 for a cyclic process
2
1
V
=
=
W nRT
[ln V ]V12 nRT ( ln V2 ln V1 )
V V dV nRT=
1
V
V
=
W nRT=
ln 2 2.303log 2
V
1
V1
Isochoric process (volume constant)

p
p
Equation of state for ideal gas: 1 = 2
T1 T2
Also for isotheral process

p1 V2
=
p2 V1 .
Work done: W = 0
Therefore

U = Q W
U = Q
Isobaric process (pressure constant)

V V
Equation of state for ideal gas: 1 = 2
T1 T2
V
p
=
=
W nRT
ln 2 nRT ln 1
p2
V1
7.
Adiabatic process (No heat transfer)
Q=0

U = Q W
U = W
Work done:
=
W
V2
=
pdV
p (V2 V1 )
Work done by an ideal gas (proof is given later)
V1
W
=
W = pV
nR (T1 T2 )
PV
1 1 P2V2
=
1
1
where =
P a g e | 12
gas:
Cp
Cv
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THERMODYNAMICS
Relation between change in internal energy U and Cv
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITIES OF GASES
Molar specific heat
1.
2.
The molar specific heat of a substance is defined as the

amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one
mole of the substance through one degree. It depends on
the nature of the substance and its temperature.
temperature of n moles of a substance through T, then
molar specific heat is given by
Q
(Molar Specific heat)
C=
nT
S.I. Unit: J/mol-K
Specific heat capacity depends on the process of the
system. There can be as many specific heat capacities
as many the number of processes. We are generally
interested in two types of specific heat of gases.
Specific heat capacity at constant volume (CV): The
process is obtained at constant volume.
Specific heat capacity at constant pressure (CP): The
process is obtained at constant pressure.
Cv =
Qv
nT
defined as the amount of heat energy required to raise the

temperature of 1 mol of that substance by 1C when the
process is at constant pressure.
(specific heat capacity at constant pressure)
where
CP = specific heat capacity at constant pressure
QP = heat energy transferred at constant pressure
n = number of moles
T = change in temperature
P a g e | 13
(Relation between dU and CV)
The internal energy of an ideal gas depends only on its

temperature, not on its pressure or volume.
For an ideal gas the change in internal energy in any
process is given by dU = nCvdT , whether the volume is
constant or not.
The internal energy of a non-ideal gas cannot depend only
on temperature; it must depend on pressure as well.
Clearly at change in temperature T = 0 at constant

temperature. Therefore,
Q 1
= =
CT =
nT 0
Specific heat capacity at for adiabatic process, Cadia
Definition: Specific heat capacity at constant pressure C is
QP
nT
At differential level we can write this relation as
Specific heat capacity at constant temperature, CT
(specific heat capacity at constant volume)
Specific heat capacity at constant pressure, Cp
CP =
Therefore, from definition of Cv , we have

Qv
U
=
Cv =
nT nT
Important points about internal energy
where
CV = specific heat capacity at constant volume
QV = heat energy transferred at constant volume
n = number of moles
T = change in temperature
W = 0.
From 1st Law of thermodynamics we know that,
dU = n Cv dT
Specific heat capacity at constant volume, CV

Definition: Specific heat capacity at constant volume CV is
defined as the amount of heat energy required to raise the
temperature of 1 mol of that substance by 1C when the
process is at constant volume.
Let us consider a thermodynamic process at constant

volume such that QV amount of heat energy transferred.
Clearly work done by gas at constant volume,
U = Q W
U = Qv
Clearly Q = 0 for adiabatic process. Therefore,

Q
= 0
C=
adia
nT
Relation between Cp and Cv of an ideal gas
There is an important relationship between Cp and Cv of

an ideal gas :
Cp Cv = R
(Relation between Cp and Cv of an ideal gas)
where R = 8.3I4J/mol K. (universal gas constant )

It is obvious from this relation that C > C for an ideal
p
gas. Difference between C and C is equal to R.
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THERMODYNAMICS
Adiabatic Processes for an Ideal Gas
Proof:
Let us consider an ideal gas undergoing constant-pressure

process. Clearly, the amount of heat dQ given to the gas
is
dQ = n Cp dT
(i)
The work dW done by the gas in this constant-pressure
process is dW = pdV
We can also express dW in terms of the temperature
change dT by using the ideal gas equation, pV = nRT.
Because pressure p is constant, the change in volume V is
proportional to the change in temperature T:
dW = p dV = n R dT
(ii)
Now we substitute eqns. (i) and (ii) into the first law of
thermodynamics,
dU = dQ dW dU = n C dT nRdT
p
Proof of PV = constant
Hence, from the first law of thermodynamics, we have,

dU = dQ dW
n C dT = 0 pdV
v
n C dT = pdV (i)
Taking the total differential of the equation of state of an

ideal gas, PV = nRT, we get
P dV + V dP = nR dT
(iii)
The internal energy depends only on temperature,

therefore, we can use dU = n Cv dT. Thus putting dU = n
Cv dT in equation (iii), we get
PdV + VdP
nR
dT =
Substituting this value of dT in (i), we get,
...(ii)
PdV + VdP
nCv
= PdV
nR
Cv ( PdV + VdP ) =
RPdV
(Dividing each term by the common factor n dT)

Cp Cv = R
The ratio of specific heats,
cp
V2
V1
( C
Cp
Cv
2
dV
dP
=
V
P
P1
( rearranging )
( Integrating )
( ln V2 ln V1 ) =
( ln P2 ln P1 ) = ln P1 ln P2
1
V
P
=
ln 2 ln 1
V1
P2
Value of for different ideal gases:

(Remember these; we will explain these in a later section)
5
Monatomic ideal gas: = = 1.67
3
Very close examples : He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe
7
Diatomic ideal gas with no vibration: = = 1.4
5
Very close examples : H , O , N , CO, HCl
V
P
=
ln 2 ln 1
P2
V1
ln A ln B ln
=
B
=
( A ln B ln B A )
V
P1
2 =
P2
V1
PV
P2V2
1 1 =
PV = constant
9
= 1.29
7
R Cp =
Cv + R )
=
Cv
VdP
PdV =
Diatomic ideal gas with vibration: =
[ ln V ]V2 = [ ln P ]P2
This quantity plays an important role in adiabatic

processes for an ideal gas.
Cv
Since C > C , therefore > 1

p
Cp
PdV =
VdP
(ratio of specific heats)
cv
The ratio of specific heats is denoted by and is equal to

Cp/Cv . Hence,
( rearranging )
( Cv + R ) PdV =
CvVdP
C p PdV =
CvVdP
(Important)
Let us consider n mole of an ideal gas undergoing an

adiabatic, reversible process. When a gas expands
adiabatically, heat transferred to gas
dQ = 0
The change in the internal energy is given by
dU = n C dT
n Cv dT = n Cp dT nRdT
Cv = Cp R
Thus for an ideal gas undergoing adiabatic reversible

process, we have
PV = constant
This equation can also be written in terms of temperature
-1
T V = constant
T
= constant
P 1
P a g e | 14
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THERMODYNAMICS
Relation between V and T for an ideal gas undergoing

adiabatic process:
Since we have to find out relation between V & T,
therefore we have to eliminate P from PV= nRT and PV

= constant.
Since PV = nRT P = nRT/V . Therefore, putting this
Example
Q. Consider the process A and B in figure. It is possible that

(a) Both the process are isothermal
(b) Both the processes are adiabatic
(c) A is isothermal and B is adiabatic
(d) A is adiabatic and B is isothermal
value of P in PV = constant, we have
(nRT/V ) V = constant
nRT V
-1
-1
= constant
TV = constant/nR = another constant

(because n & R are constant)
Hence, T V
-1
= constant
Answer:
1st figure: A is isothermal and B is adiabatic
nd
2 figure: A is adiabatic and B is isothermal
Similarly, it can be proved that
T
= constant
P 1
Work done by an Ideal Gas undergoing adiabatic

process
P-V diagram of an ideal gas undergoing an adiabatic

process and isothermal process
Proof
of W
=
It has been found that adiabatic curve is steeper than

isothermal curve.
Let us consider an ideal gas undergoing an adiabatic

process. Suppose the gas has initial pressure P and initial
1
For an adiabatic process,
pV = constant
ln P + ln V = ln k
volume V . Pressure and volume finally changes to P and

1
V adiabatically.
2
(taking logarithm)
dP dV
+
=
0
(differentiating )
P
V
Therefore, slope of adiabatic curve,
dP
p
=
... ( i )
dV adiabatic
V
For an isothermal process,

T = constant
Therefore, PV = nRT = constant
PV = constant
PdV + VdP = 0 (differentiating)
Therefore, slope of isothermal curve,
dP
P
... ( ii )
dV
isothermal V
Comparing (i) & (ii)
Slope of adiabatic curve = (slope of isothermal curve)

Therefore, adiabatic curve is steeper than isothermal
curve.
As the process is adiabatic, we have PV = constant = K.

We have arbitrarily assumed constant to be K. Hence,
PV = K
P V =PV
1 1
2 2
=K
(1)
Hence, net work done by the gas when volume changes

from V1 to V2 is
W=
V2
PdV =
V1
V2
V1
dV PV 1 = K P = 1
V
V2
V +1
dV K
=
W K V=
+ 1 V1
V1
V2
=
W
(integrating)
K
V2 +1 V1 +1
+ 1
K
1 K
V1 (rearranging)
V2
+ 1 V2
V1
1
[ P2V2 PV
=
W
1 1]
+ 1
K
K
=
( PV
P2V2 =K =
P1 and =
P2 )
1 1
V1
V2
=
W
=
W
P a g e | 15
nR (T1 T2 )
PV
1 1 P2V2
=
1
1
nR (T1 T2 )
PV
1 1 P2V2
=
1
1
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THERMODYNAMICS
Example
Q. Air is kept in a container having walls which are slightly
0
conducting. The initial temperature and volume are 27 C

3
(equal to the temperature of surrounding) and 800 cm

respectively. Find the rise in the temperature if the gas is
3
compressed to 200 cm (a) in a short time (b) in a long

time. Assume air to be an ideal gas and take = 1.4.
SOLUTION:
(a) When the gas is compressed in a short time, the process is

assumed as adiabatic (because there is not enough time so
that heat transfer can take place between system and
surrounding). Thus,
TV
-1
= constant
T2V2
TV
1 1 =
V
T1 1
T2 =
V
HEAT ENGINE
Heat engine. It is a device which converts continuously heat

energy into mechanical energy in a cyclic process.
As shown in figure, a heat engine has the following essential
parts:
(a) Source: It is a heat reservoir at higher temperature T1. It
is supposed to have infinite thermal capacity so that any
amount of heat can be drawn from it without changing its
temperature.
(b) Sink. It is a heat reservoir at a lower temperature T2. It
has also infinite thermal capacity so that any amount of
heat can be added to it without changing its temperature.
(c) Working substance. Working substance is any material
(solid, liquid or gas) which performs mechanical work
when heat is supplied to it.
Hot reservoir
or Source (T1)
1.4
800
T=
(300)
2
200
522 K
T=
= 2490 C
2
Q1
( T=
27 0 C= 300 K )
1
Heat
engine
Therefore, rise in temperature = 249 27 = 222 C .
(b) When the gas is compressed in a long time the process is

very slow. Therefore, the temperature of the system is
always equal to the temperature of the surrounding.
Hence the process is isothermal, i.e. T = constant =
temperature of surrounding = 270C
Thus, rise in temperature = 0.
1.
2.
DISCUSSION:
This example is very important from competition point of
view. From this problem, we have seen that a process can
be assumed
Adiabatic: If the gas is compressed or expanded in a
short time (i.e., change in volume is very rapid)
Isothermal: If the gas is compressed or expanded in a
very long time (i.e., change in volume is very slow) and
gas can exchange heat with the surrounding.
Q2
Cold reservoir or
Sink (T2)
Working. In every cycle of operation, the working substance
absorbs a definite amount of heat Q1 from the source at higher
temperature T1, converts a part of this heat energy into
mechanical work W and rejects the remaining heat Q2 to the
sink at lower temperature environment.
As the working substance returns to its initial state after
completing one cycle, there is no change in its internal energy.
Hence by first law of thermodynamics, net heat absorbed in a
cycle = Work done, i.e.,
Q 1 Q2 = W
Efficiency of a heat engine. The efficiency of a heat engine is
defined as the ratio of the net work done by the engine in one
cycle to the amount of heat absorbed by the working substance
from the source.
The efficiency of heat engine is given by
Work done by engine (output)
=
Heat absorbed from the source (input)
Q
W Q1 Q2
=
=
or = 1 2
Q1
Q1
Q1
Efficiency of a heat engine is always less than unity. The
efficiency of a steam engine varies from 12 to 16%. The
maximum efficiency of a petrol engine is 26% and that of a
diesel engine is 40%.
P a g e | 16
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THERMODYNAMICS

CARNOT ENGINE
Carnot engine. It is an ideal reversible heat engine which

operates between two temperatures T1 (source) and T2
(sink).
It is a device which converts continuously heat energy
into mechanical energy in a cyclic process.
Construction. As Carnot engine has the following main
parts:
(a) Cylinder: It has conducting base and insulating
walls. It is fitted with an insulting and frictionless
piston.
(b) Source: It is a heat reservoir at a higher temperature
T1 from which the engine draws heat.
(c) Sink: It is heat reservoir at a lower temperature T2 to
which any amount of heat can be rejected by the
engine.
(d) Working substance. The working substance is an
ideal gas contained in the cylinder.
Step 3 4: Isothermal compression (at temperature T2)

of the gas taking its state from (P3, V3, T2) to (P4, V4, T2). The
heat released by the gas (Q2) to the reservoir at temperature
T2.
As in step 1 2 we have,
V
V
Q2 =
W34 =
nRT2 ln 4 Q2 =
W34 =
nRT2 ln 3 ...(iii)
V4
V3
Step 4 1: Adiabatic compression of the gas taking its
state from (P4, V4, T2) to (P1, V1, T1). Work done by ideal gas
in this step is given by
W41 =
nR (T2 T1 )
...(iv)
Total work done by the gas in the complete cycle is
W = W12 + W23 + W34 + W41

V nR (T2 T1 )
V nR (T1 T2 )
=
W nRT1 ln 2 +
+ nRT2 ln 4 +
1
1
V1
V3
V
V
=
W nRT1 ln 2 + nRT2 ln 4
...(v)
V1
V3
The efficiency of the Carnot engine is
Q2
W Q Q2
=
=
1
1
= =1
Q1
Q1
Q1
Carnot cycle. The working substance is carried through a

reversible cycle of the following four steps:
V
ln 3
V
T
=1 2 4
T1 V2
ln
V1
V
nRT2 ln 3
V4 (from (i) & (iii))
V
nRT1 ln 2
V1
...(vi)
Now since step 2 3 is an adiabatic process,

1
1
TV 1=constant TV
1 2 = T2V3
1
T V3
1 =

T2 V2
Step 1 2: Isothermal expansion (at temperature T1) of
the gas taking its state from (P1, V1, T1) to (P2, V2, T1). The
heat absorbed by the gas (Q1) from the reservoir at
temperature T1.
Work done by ideal gas in this step is given by
V
W12 = nRT1 ln 2
V1
As the process is isothermal, U = 0, hence from first law of
thermodynamics, we have
V
=
Q1 W=
nRT1 ln 2
12
V1
...(i)
Step 2 3: Adiabatic expansion of the gas taking its state

from (P2, V2, T1) to (P3, V3, T2). Work done by ideal gas in this
step is given by
nR (T1 T2 )
W23 =
...(ii)
1
P a g e | 17
...(vii)
Similarly for step 4 1, we have,
T1
T2
V4
=
V1
...(viii)
From (vii) and (viii), we have,

V2 V3
=
...(ix)
V1 V4
From (vi) and (ix), we have,
V
ln 4
V
T
T
=1 2 3 =1 2
T1 V2
T1
ln
V1
Hence, for a Carnot Engine, we have,
=
1
Q2
T
=
1 2
Q1
T1
(efficiency of the Carnot engine)
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THERMODYNAMICS
Carnots Theorem: All reversible engines operating

between the same two temperatures have equal efficiency
and no engine operating between the same two
temperatures can have an efficiency greater than this.
It is a consequence of the second law of thermodynamics.
SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Kelvin-Planck statement: It is not possible to design a

heat engine which works in a cyclic process and whose
only result is to take heat from a body at a single
temperature and convert it completely into mechanical
work.
Claussius statement: It is not possible to design a

refrigerator which works in a cyclic process and whose
only result is to transfer heat from a body to a hotter body.
REFRIGERATOR
Refrigerator. A refrigerator is a Carnots heat engine

working in the reverse direction.
Thus, when a Carnot engine works in opposite direction
as a refrigerator, it will absorb an amount of heat Q2 from
the sink at lower temperature T2. As heat is to be removed
from the sink at lower temperature, an amount of work
equal to W = Q1 Q2 (using 1st law of Thermodynamics)
is performed by the compressor of the refrigerator to
remove heat from sink and then to reject the total heat Q1
to the source (atmosphere) through the radiator fixed at its
back.
Degrees of freedom
The number of independent terms in the expression of

energy is called degree of freedom.
Monatomic Gas: A monatomic gas (mono means one)

can be assumed of containing only one type of atoms.
Thus every molecule of a monatomic gas behaves as a
particle in space. Hence, molecules of a monatomic gas
has three degrees of freedom.
Diatomic Gas: Every molecule of a diatomic gas behaves

as a two-particle dumbbell-shaped system.
i.
Molecules of a diatomic gas has five degrees of
freedom without considering vibration and potential
energy.
ii.
Molecules of a diatomic gas has seven degrees of
freedom considering vibration and potential energy.
Coefficient of performance: It may be defined as the

ratio of the amount of heat removed (Q2) per cycle to the
mechanical work (W) required to be done on it. It is
denoted by .
Q2
Q2
=
Thus, =
W Q1 Q2
The expression for coefficient of performance can be put
into another form. We have,
Q2
1
=
=
Q1 Q2 Q1
1
Q2
Now, for a Carnots cycle,
Q1 T1
=
Q2 T2
T2
1
=
T1
T1 T2
1
T2
Q2
T2
=
=
Q1 Q2 T1 T2
Equipartition of Energy
(coefficient of performance of a refrigerator)
It may be pointed out that

higher the value , more is the efficiency of a
refrigerator and
as the refrigerator works, T2 goes on decreasing
(without causing any practical change in the value of
T1) and the value of coefficient of performance goes
on decreasing.
The principle of equipartition of energy states that each

degree of freedom has, on average, an associated kinetic
energy per molecule of kT, where k is the Boltzmann
constant and T is the absolute temperature.
Thus, average energy associated with each degree of
freedom = k T
Hence average energy per molecule of a monatomic gas =
3
kT
2
Hence average energy per molecule of a diatomic gas
5
(without vibration) = kT
2
Hence average energy per molecule of a diatomic gas
7
(with vibration) = kT
2
Note: We can find out C & C and hence, using the
p
concept of equipartition of energy.

Monatomic ideal gas:
Cp 5
5
3
C p = R , Cv = R & =
= = 1.67
Cv 3
2
2
Diatomic ideal gas with no vibration:

Cp 7
7
5
C p = R , Cv = R & =
= = 1.4
Cv 5
2
2
P a g e | 18
Diatomic ideal gas with vibration:

Cp 9
9
7
C p = R , Cv = R & =
= = 1.29
Cv 7
2
2
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THERMODYNAMICS
Step by step procedure to find C & C

p
HEAT TRANSFER
STEP I:
Let us consider a sample of amount n moles of an ideal
gas.
Therefore, the total number of molecules = nN where
N is the Avogadro number.

A
STEP II:
Using equipartition of energy, we can find out the
average internal energy per molecule.
STEP III:
Total internal energy
= (total number of molecules)
(average energy per molecule)
STEP IV:
= nCv dT C=
Use dU
v
STEP V:
C C = R to get C
p
1 dU
n dT
Example
To find out C & C of a monatomic gas. Hence, find out
.
Solution:
STEP I:
Let us consider a sample of amount n moles of an ideal
gas.
Therefore, the total number of molecules = nN where
A
N is the Avogadro number.

A
STEP II:
From equipartition of energy we know that average
3
energy per molecule of a monatomic gas = kT
2
(using N k = R )
Using dU= nCv dT C=

v
1 dU 3
=
R
n dT 2
STEP V:
C p Cv = R C p = Cv + R =
3
5
R= R
2
2
P a g e | 19
dQ
T T
=kA 1 2
dt
L
...(i)
The constant of proportionality K is called the thermal

conductivity of the material. The greater the value of K
for a material, the more rapidly will it conduct heat.
Eq. (i) in differential form can be written as

dQ
T
T
= H=
=
...(ii)
dt
L / kA
R
Here, T = temperature difference (TD) and
L
=
R = thermal resistance of the rod.
kA
Just like we solve electric circuit we can solve conduction
problem using the same concept.
General expression for conduction
Therefore, specific heat ratio

Cp
5
=
=
3
Cv
In a similar manner we can find out for diatomic gases.
Thermal Resistance (R)
reservoir
T . The
sides of the rod are

covered with insulating medium, so the transport of heat
is along the rod, not through the sides.
After sometime, a steady state is reached; the
temperature of the bar decreases uniformly with distance
from T1 to T2; (T1 > T2). It is found experimentally that in
this steady state, the rate of flow of heat (or heat current)
H is proportional to the temperature difference (T1 T2)
and the area of cross section A and is inversely
proportional to the length L :
dQ
T T
= kA 2 1
dt
L
STEP III:
U = nN (average energy per molecule)
3
U = nN kT
A
2
3
nRT
U=
2
STEP IV:
Transfer of heat through a substance in which heat is

transported without direct mass transport is called
conduction. This mode of heat transfer is generally seen
in solids.
Consider a metal rod
L
whose ends are in
thermal contact with a
T1
T2
hot
reservoir
at
temperature T and a
cold
temperature
p.
Heat can be transferred from one place to the other by any

of three possible ways : conduction, convection and
radiation. In the first two processes, a medium is
necessary for the heat transfer. Radiation, however, does
no have this restriction. This is also the fastest mode of
heat transfer, in which heat is transferred from one place
to the other in the form of electromagnetic radiation.
Conduction
U = nN (average energy per molecule)
dQ
dT
= kA
dt
dx
dT
is also known as temperature gradient.
dx
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THERMODYNAMICS
Kirchhoffs Law
Radiation
This mode of heat transfer doesnt require any medium,

and is fastest mode of heat transfer. Example the fastest
mode of heat transfer is the radiation received by earth,
coming from sun.
All bodies emit radiant energy at all temperatures in all
direction, which increases with increasing temperature
and is independent of the presence of other bodies.
This radiant energy emitted by bodies is termed as
thermal radiation or simply radiation. When this radiation
falls on a material surface, a part of it can be absorbed and
thermal energy of the receiving surface is increased.
Recent studies show that the thermal radiation is nothing
but the energy of electromagnetic radiation. Every body at
any temperature emits electromagnetic waves.
The rate at which a body radiates energy is dependent on
temperature, its area and nature of surface.
A body is not only radiating the energy but is also
absorbing from the surroundings.
If radiation emitted > radiation absorbed, then body gets
cooled down, while if reverse is the case, the temperature
of the body increases.
When the body is in thermal equilibrium with the
surroundings, then also it radiates energy, but the same
rate as it absorbs.
Rough and dark surface are good absorbers while smooth,
shiny and bright surface are good reflectors.
Stefan-Boltzmanns Law
For a perfect black body, the thermal energy radiated per

unit time is given by,
dQ
= H= AT 4
dt
where A = surface area of body,
T = its absolute temperature
= an universal constant.
When a body having temperature T is placed in a

surrounding of temperature T0 ( < T ) , then the temperature
of the body starts falling down.

Rate at which heat is emitted,
dQ1
= aAT 4
dt
Rate at which heat is absorbed,
dQ2
= aAT0 4
dt
Net rate of heat loss
The figure above shows the experimental curves for

radiation emitted by a black body versus wavelength for
different temperatures.
According to Wiens law,
mT = constant
where m is the wavelength corresponding to maximum
intensity (energy content) of radiation emitted by body at

temperature T.
The most significant feature of the curves obtained is that
they are universal i.e., black-body radiation curves
obtained depend only on the temperature, and not on the
shape.
dQ
For a non-black body, = H= eAT 4 where e is the
dt
emissivity of surface its value depends on the nature of
the material of the black body ( Stefan-Boltzmanns
Law)
For a non-black body, the value of e is less than 1. For a
perfect black body, e = 1.
P a g e | 20
a]
[ e =
H=
eA T 4 T04
Rate of cooling
dT
eA 4
T T04
=
dt
ms
Wiens Displacement Law
A body which absorbs all the radiations incident upon it is

termed as a perfect black body. Such a body will emit
radiation at the fastest rate. the radiations emitted by a
black body are termed as black body radiations.
A perfect black body maintained at a suitable temperature
absorbs all radiations incident on it. A perfect black body
cant be realized in practice.
Kirchhoff explained that a good absorber of thermal

radiation is also a good emitter of it.
He showed that for a body a = e i.e.,
absorptivity = emissivity.
As a perfect black body is a perfect absorber, so it is a
perfect emitter too.
Cooling of a Body Through Radiation
Black body radiations
T1 > T2 >T3
T1
T2
T3
m1
m1
m 3
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THERMODYNAMICS
Newtons Law of Cooling
Newtons law of cooling states that the rate of cooling (or

rate of loss of heat) of a body is directly proportional to
the temperature difference between the body and its
surroundings, provided the temperature difference is
small.
Consider a hot body at temperature T. Let T0 be the
Approximate solution for Newtons law of cooling is,
T1 T2
T + T
=
K 1 2 T0 where t is the time in which
t
2
temperature of body changes from T1 to T2.
temperature of its surroundings. According to Newtons

law of cooling,
Rate of loss of heat Temperature difference
between the body and its surroundings
dQ
or
(T T0 )
dt
dQ
= k (T T0 )
...(1)
dt
where k is proportionality constant depending upon the
area and nature of the surface of the body.
Let m be the mass and c the specific heat of the body at
temperature T. If the temperature of the body falls by
small amount dT in time dt, then the amount of heat lost
is
dQ = mc dT
or
Rate of loss of heat is given by
dQ
dT
= mc
dT
dt
Combining the above equations, we get

dT
mc
=
k (T T0 )
dt
or
dT
k
=
K (T T0 )
(T T0 ) =
dt
mc
...(2)
where K = k/mc is another constant. The negative sign

indicates that as the time passes, the temperature of the body
decreases. The above equation can be written as
dT
= K dt
T T0
On integrating both sides, we get

1
T T0 dT = K dt
or
log e (T T0 ) =
Kt + c
or
T T0 =
e kt + c
or
T T0 + ec e kt
or
T T0 + Ce kt
...(3)
....(4)
where c is a constant of integration and C = ec . Equation (1),

(2), (3) and (4) are the different mathematical representations
for Newtons law of cooling. Using equation (4), one can
calculate the time of cooling of a body through a particular
range of temperature.
P a g e | 21
Mb: 7488044834
THERMODYNAMICS
Physics Classes by Pranjal Sir

(Admission Notice for XI & XII - 2014-15)
Batches for Std XIIth
Batch 1 (Board + JEE Main + Advanced): (Rs. 16000)
Batch 2 (Board + JEE Main): (Rs. 13000)
Batch 3 (Board): (Rs. 10000)
Batch 4 (Doubt Clearing batch): Rs. 8000
About P. K. Bharti Sir (Pranjal Sir)
B. Tech., IIT Kharagpur (2009 Batch)

H.O.D. Physics, Concept Bokaro Centre
Visiting faculty at D. P. S. Bokaro
Produced AIR 113, AIR 475, AIR 1013 in JEE Advanced
Produced AIR 07 in AIEEE (JEE Main)
Address: Concept, JB 20, Near Jitendra Cinema, Sec

4, Bokaro Steel City
Ph: 9798007577, 7488044834
Email: pkbharti.iit@gmail.com
Website: www.vidyadrishti.org
Physics Class Schedule for Std XIIth (Session 2014-15) by Pranjal Sir
Sl.
No.
Main Chapter
Basics from XIth
1.
Electric Charges and

Fields
2.
Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance
PART TEST 1
3.
Current Electricity
SUMMER BREAK
4.
Moving charges and
Magnetism
PART TEST 3
Magnetism and Matter
P a g e | 22
Board level
JEE Main Level
Coulombs Law
Electric Field
Gausss Law
Competition Level
Electric Potential
Capacitors
Competition Level
5th & 6th Apr

10th & 12th Apr
13th & 15th Apr
NA
20th & 22nd Apr
24th & 26th Apr
NA
5th & 6th Apr

10th & 12th Apr
13th & 15th Apr
17th & 19th Apr
20th & 22nd Apr
24th & 26th Apr
27th & 29th Apr
Unit 1 & 2
4th May
NA
6th, 8th, 10th, 13th
May
NA
11th May
6th, 8th, 10th, 13th
May
NA
15th & 16th May
Basic Concepts, Drift speed,

Ohms Law, Cells, Kirchhoffs
Laws, Wheatstone bridge,
Ammeter, Voltmeter, Meter
Bridge, Potentiometer etc.
Competition Level
JEE Adv Level
3rd Mar to 4th Apr 14
Vectors, FBD, Work, Energy,

Rotation, SHM
18th May
NA
21st May 2013 to 30th May 2013
Force on a charged particle
31st May, 1st & 3rd
(Lorentz force), Force on a
Jun
current carrying wire, Cyclotron,
Torque on a current carrying loop
in magnetic field, magnetic
moment
Biot Savart Law, Magnetic field
5th, 7th & 8th Jun
due to a circular wire, Ampere
circuital law, Solenoid, Toroid
NA
Competition Level
Unit 4
15th Jun
NA
17th, 19th & 21st
Jun
Unit 3
PART TEST 2
5.
Topics
NA
20th May
5th & 6th Apr

10th & 12th Apr
13th & 15th Apr
17th & 19th Apr
20th & 22nd Apr
24th & 26th Apr
27th & 29th Apr, 1st, 3rd &
4th May
NA
11th May
6th, 8th, 10th, 13th May
15th, 16th, 17th, 18th &

19th May
NA
20th May
31st May, 1st & 3rd

Jun
31st May, 1st & 3rd Jun
5th, 7th & 8th Jun
5th, 7th & 8th Jun
10th & 12th Jun

NA
22nd Jun
17th, 19th & 21st
Jun
10th, 12th, 14th & 15th Jun

NA
22nd Jun
Not in JEE Advanced
Syllabus
Mb: 7488044834
THERMODYNAMICS
6.
Electromagnetic
Induction
PART TEST 4
7.
Alternating current
Faradays Laws, Lenzs Laws,

A.C. Generator, Motional Emf,
Induced Emf, Eddy Currents, Self
Induction, Mutual Induction
Competition Level
Unit 5 & 6
AC, AC circuit, Phasor,
transformer, resonance,
Competition Level
th
th
th
th
24 , 26 & 28
Jun
24 , 26th & 28th

Jun
24th, 26th & 28th Jun
NA
6th Jul
NA
8th, 10th & 12th Jul
29th Jun & 1st Jul

NA
13th Jul
29th Jun, 1st, 3rd & 5th Jul

NA
13th Jul
NA
19th & 20th July
15th July
19th & 20th July
PART TEST 5
Unit 7 & 8
27th Jul
27th Jul
15th & 17th July

Not in JEE Advanced
Syllabus
27th Jul
Revision Week
Upto unit 8
31st Jul & 2nd Aug
31st Jul & 2nd Aug
31st Jul & 2nd Aug
Grand Test 1
Upto Unit 8
3rd Aug
3rd Aug
3rd Aug
Reflection
Refraction
Prism
Optical Instruments
5th & 7th Aug

9th & 12th Aug
14th Aug
16th Aug
5th & 7th Aug

9th & 12th Aug
14th Aug
16th Aug
Competition Level
Huygens Principle
Interference
Diffraction
Polarization
Competition Level
NA
26th Aug
28th & 30th Aug
31st Aug
2nd Sep
NA
19th & 21st Aug

26th Aug
28th & 30th Aug
31st Aug
2nd Sep
4th & 6th Sep
5th & 7th Aug

9th & 12th Aug
14th Aug
Not in JEE Adv
Syllabus
19th, 21st, 23rd, 24th Aug
26th Aug
28th & 30th Aug
31st Aug
2nd Sep
4th, 6th, 7th, 9th, 11th Sep
8.
Electromagnetic Waves
9.
Ray Optics
10.
Wave Optics
PART TEST 6
Grand Test 2
14th Sep
14th Sep
Unit 9 & 10
REVISION ROUND 1 (For JEE Main & JEE Advanced Level): 13th Sep to 27th Sep
Upto Unit 10
28th Sep
28th Sep
14th Sep
28th Sep
DUSSEHRA & d-ul-Zuha Holidays: 29th Sep to 8th Oct

11. Dual Nature of Radiation
and Matter
Grand Test 3
12.
Photoelectric effect etc
9th & 11th Oct
9th & 11th Oct
9th & 11th Oct
Upto Unit 10
12th Oct
12th Oct
12th Oct
14th & 16th Oct
14th & 16th Oct
14th & 16th Oct
18th & 19th Oct

NA
26th Oct
26th, 28th, 30th Oct
& 1st Nov
2nd & 4th Nov
18th & 19th Oct

21st Oct
NA
26th, 28th, 30th Oct
& 1st Nov
2nd & 4th Nov
18th & 19th Oct

21st & 25th Oct
NA
Not in JEE Adv
Syllabus
Not in JEE Adv
Syllabus
Unit 14 & 15
Competition Level
9th Nov
NA
9th Nov
8th, 9th & 11th Nov
Unit 11, 12, 13, X-Rays

Mind Maps & Back up classes
for late registered students
NA
18th Nov to
Board Exams
16th Nov
18th Nov to Board
Exams
NA
8th, 9th, 11th, 13th & 15th
Nov
16th Nov
18th Nov to Board
Exams
18th Nov to JEE
18th Nov to JEE
18th Nov to JEE
Atoms
13.
Nuclei
X-Rays
PART TEST 7
14.
Semiconductors
Unit 11, 12 & 13

Basic Concepts and Diodes,
transistors, logic gates
15. Communication System
PART TEST 8
Unit 11, 12 & 13
PART TEST 9
Revision Round 2
(Board Level)
Revision Round 3
(XIth portion for JEE)
30 Full Test Series
P a g e | 23
Complete Syllabus
Date will be published after Oct 2014
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THERMODYNAMICS
P a g e | 24
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THERMODYNAMICS
P a g e | 25
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Thermodynamics II

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THERMODYNAMICS

Author: Pranjal K. Bharti (B. Tech., IIT Kharagpur)

Notes for School Exams

Author: Pranjal K. Bharti (B. Tech., IIT Kharagpur)

Zeroth law of Thermodynamics

Heat: Heat always refers to the transfer of energy between

Temperature: Loosely speaking, temperature is the degree of

A body that feels hot usually has a higher temperature

Heat & temperature are two different physical

If objects A and B are separately in thermal

TEMPERATURE SCALE & THERMOMETERS

Some important temperatures on Fahrenheit Scale:

Freezing point of water: 0 C

Boiling point of water: 100 C

Human body temperature: 32 C

Absolute Zero : 273.15 C

which translates to -273.15

C (or -459.67 degrees

Some important temperatures on Fahrenheit Scale:

Freezing point of water: 32 F

Boiling point of water: 212 F

Human body temperature: 98.6 F

Absolute Zero: 459 F

Answer the following question:

Author: Pranjal K. Bharti (B. Tech., IIT Kharagpur)

Answer the following questions:

We dont use degree K ( K) to denote temperature on

Relation between Kelvin, Celsius and Fahrenheit scales:

Q3. Convert 32 F into Celsius and Kelvin scale.

Q4. Convert 100 C into Fahrenheit and Kelvin scale.

4. 100 C = 212 F = 373.15 K (Use formulae)

Point of interest Freezing point

Boiling Point Freezing point Kelvin Scale

Boiling Point Freezing point Celcius Scale

Boiling Point Freezing point Fahrenheit Scale

Q2. What is the S.I. unit of temperature?

Most materials expand when their temperatures increase.

Author: Pranjal K. Bharti (B. Tech., IIT Kharagpur)

Q7. Do holes become larger or smaller when heated?

(Average coefficient of linear expansion)

Let the new length of rod after expansion or contraction

If the area of an object is A and the temperature changes

where is a constant known as the coefficient of area

where is a constant known as the coefficient of linear

(Coefficient of linear expansion)

(Coefficient of area expansion)

Thus we can define coefficient of linear expansion as

Thus we can define coefficient of area expansion as

Sometimes we are interested in average area expansion.

Sometimes we are interested in average linear expansion.

Suppose a rod of material has a length L at some initial

Suppose area of material is A at some initial temperature

(Average linear thermal expansion)

(Average coefficient of area expansion)

Let the new area of the material after expansion or

Author: Pranjal K. Bharti (B. Tech., IIT Kharagpur)

Relation between and

If the volume of an object is V and the temperature

Therefore, area of the square at temperature

Let us consider a square sheet of side L at temperature T.

where is a constant known as the coefficient of volume

When the temperature changes by T, the edge changes by

Thus we can define coefficient of volume expansion as