APPENDICES

CASTING PROCESS
1. Heating the metal
= { ( ) + + ( )}
2. Engineering analysis of pouring
1 12
2 22
+
+ 1 = 2 + +
+ 2
2
2
= 2
= 1 1 = 2 2
1 +

3. Solidification of metal

= ( )

4. Shrinkage
Table 10.1(Groover) Volumetric contraction for different casting metals due to solidification
shrinkage and solid contraction
Metal

Volumetric contraction due to:

Solidification shrinkage (%)
Solid thermal construction (%)
7.0
5.6
7.0
5.0
1.8
3.0
0
3.0
3.0
7.2
4.5
7.5
5.5
6.0

Aluminium
Al alloy (typical)
Gray cast iron
Gray cast iron, high C
Low C cast steel
Copper
Bronze (Cu-Sn)

5. Buoyancy force
=
Table 11.1(Groover) Densities of selected casting alloys
Material

Density
(g/3 )
2.70
2.65
2.81
8.62

Aluminium (99% = pure)

Aluminium silicon alloy
Aluminium copper (92% Al)

Material
Cast iron, gray
Copper (99% = pure)
Lead (pure)
Steel

6. Centrifugal casting

Horizontal centrifugal

Vertical centrifugal

7. Materials physical properties

30

30

2 2

Density
(g/3 )
7.16
8.73
11.30
7.82

Table 4.1
Material

(Groover) Volumetric properties in U.S. customary units for selected engineering materials
Coefficient of thermal
Melting point (C)
Density (g/3 )
expansion ( 1 106 )

Metal
Aluminium
Copper
Iron
Lead
Magnesium
Nickel
Steel
Tin
Tungsten
Zinc
Ceramics
Glass
Alumina
Silica
Polymers
Phenol resins
Nylon
Teflon
Natural rubber
Polyethylene
Low density
High density
Polystyrene

2.70
8.97
7.87
11.35
1.74
8.92
7.87
7.31
19.30
7.15

24
17
12.1
29
26
13.3
12
23
4.0
40

660
1083
1539
327
650
1455
a
232
3410
420

2.5
3.8
2.66

1.8-9.0
9.0
NA

b
NA
b

1.3
1.16
2.2
1.2

60
100
100
80

c
b
b
b

0.92
0.96
1.05

180
120
60

b
b
b

Table 4.2

(Groover) Values of common thermal properties for selected materials. Values are at room
temperature, and these values change for different temperatures
Material
Specific heat
Thermal
Material
Specific heat
Thermal
(Cal/g C) or
conductivity
(Cal/g C) or
conductivity
(Btu/lbm F)
(J/s mm C)
(Btu/lbm F)
(J/s mm C)
Metals
Ceramics
Aluminium
0.21
0.22
Alumina
0.18
0.029
Cast iron
0.11
0.06
Concrete
0.2
0.012
Copper
0.092
0.40
Polymers
Iron
0.11
0.072
Phenolics
0.4
0.00016
Lead
0.031
0.033
Polyethylene
0.5
0.00034
Magnesium
0.25
0.16
Teflon
0.25
0.00020
Nickel
0.105
0.070
Natural rubber
0.48
0.00012
Steel
0.11
0.046
Other
Stainless steel
0.11
0.014
Water (liquid)
1.00
0.0006
Tin
0.054
0.062
Ice
0.46
0.0023
Zinc
0.091
0.112
1 calorie = 4.186 Joule

JOINING PROCESS
= 2

= 3.33 106 , for T in Kelvin

= 1 2 =
= /
=

= 1 2 =

= 2

1
=

For electric welding:

Table 30.1 (Groover) Comparison of several fusion welding processes on the basis of their power densities
Aproximate Power Density
Welding Process
/2
/. 2
Oxyfuel welding
10
6
Arc welding
50
30
Resistance welding
1000
600
Laser beam welding
9000
5000
Electron beam welding
10 000
6000

Table 30.2 (Groover) Melting temperatures on the absolute temperature scale for selected metals
Melting
Metal
Melting temperature
Metal
temperature (K)
(K)
Aluminium alloys
930
Steels
Cast iron
1530
Low carbon
1760
Copper and alloys
Medium carbon
1700
Pure
1350
High carbon
1650
Brass, navy
1160
Low alloy
1700
Bronze (90 Cu-10 Sn)
1120
Stainless steels
Inconel
1660
Austenic
1670
Magnesium
940
Martensitic
1700
Nickel
1720
Titanium
2070

Table 31.2 (Groover) Gases used in oxyfuel welding and/or cutting, with flame temperatures and heats of
combustion
Temperature
Heat of Combustion
Fuel
C
F
/3
/ 3
3087
5589
54.8
1470
Acetylene (2 2 )
2927
5301
91.7
2460
MAPP (3 4 )
2660
4820
12.1
325
Hydrogen (2 )
2900
5250
89.4
2400
Propylene (3 6 )
2526
4579
93.1
2498
Propane (3 8 )
2538
4600
37.3
1000
Natural gas

METAL FORMING

= 1+

v
h

Rolling:

= 0

0 0 0 =

0 0 0 =

= 0

= 1+

= 2

= 0

= (0 )

= 0.5

= 2

Forging:
=

0.4

Table 19.1 Typical Kf value for various part shapes in impression die and flashless forgingx
= 1 +

Part Shape

Kf

Impression- die forging:

Simple shapes with flash

6.0

Complex shapes with flash

8.0

Very complex shapes with flash

10.0

Flashless forging:
Coining (top and bottom surfaces)
Extrusion:

6.0

Complex
= = shapes
0

Reduction ratio = 0

= 1+

8.0

2
= ( + )

= 0.98 + 0.02( )2.25

Indirect extrusion =

Direct extrusion = ( + )
0

Wire and bar drawing:

=

0
0

=
=

0 +
2

= (1 + tan ) 0

= 0.88 + 0.12

= 0 = 1

= 0

= = (1 + tan ) 0

2 sin

METAL MACHINING
Power and energy relationships in machining:

=
Pc=T

= 33000

= =

= =

Turning:
N= v/( D0)

Df= Do-2d

Tm=L/fr

fr=N f

Drilling:
N= v/( D)

fr= Nf

For through hole, Tm= (t + A)/fr

= 0.5 tan(90 2)

For blind hole, Tm= (d+A)/fr

RMR= ( D2 fr)/4

Milling:
N= v/( D)

fr= N nt f

Tm = (L+A) / fr

For slab milling: = ( )

RMR= w d fr

For face milling (2 options, depend on the case):

= 0.5 ( 2 2 )

or

= ( )