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inlet

stator
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impeller

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flange bolt
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ESSENTIALS OF HYDRONICS
FOR GSHP PROFESSIONALS

Manual for ClimateMaster Training Course:

Essentials of Hydronics for GSHP Professionals


Table of Contents
Section 1: What is Hydronic Heating?
Section 2: An Overview of Modern Hydronic Hardware
Section 3: The Relationship between Temperature & Heat
Section 4: Water-to-Water Heat Pumps:
Section 5: Thermal Equilibrium
Section 6: Valve Basics
Section 7: Pipe Sizing and Head Loss
Section 8: Circulators
Section 9: Hydraulic Equilibrium
Section 10: Expansion Tanks
Section 11: Basic Hydronic Controls
Section 12: Hydronic Heat Emitters for GSHP Systems
Section 13: Air Separation and Removal
Section 14: Buffer Tanks for GSHP Systems
Section 15: Sample Schematics for Hydronic Systems Supplied by GSHPs

Appendix A: Piping Schematic Symbol Legend


Appendix B: Heat Emitter Application Range
Appendix C: Head Loss Graphs for Copper Tube abd PEX
Appendix D: Additional Sources of Information on Hydronic System Design

Welcome to the ClimateMaster Essentials of Hydronics for GSHP Professionals course manual.
This course is tailored for those wanting to combine water-to-water GSHP technology with water-based distribution systems for heating and cooling. It will show you how to create reliable and efficient hydronic systems supplied by geothermal heat pumps that will provide years of comfort. The applications shown represent state-of-theart systems for both residential and light commercial buildings.
Given the versatility of hydronics, there is virtually no limit to the unique system piping and control designs possible. This can be both good and bad. Good in the sense that an experienced designer can modify an established
system design concept to the exact requirements of a special needs situation. Bad from the standpoint that
some inexperienced designers might create piping aberrations that do not perform as expected. Its the latter
that must be avoided, and doing so is a major goal of this application manual. Although not every possible piping
schematic can be shown, those that are represent well-established practices to help ensure the systems you create using the information presented will perform as expected.
Topics Covered: This manual addresses the following topics:

The benefits of hydronics


An overview of modern hardware for hydronic systems
The relationship between flow rate, temperature change and heat
The concept of thermal equilibrium
The concept of hydraulic equilibrium
Pipe selection and sizing
Valve selection and sizing
Circulator performance, selection and sizing
Expansion tank selection and sizing
The basics of modern hydronic controllers
An overview of hydronic distribution systems
An overview of hydronic heat emitters
The dos and donts of hydronic radiant panel heating systems
The concept of hydraulic separation and how to achieve it
Filling and purging hydronic systems

Local Code Requirements: It is impossible to present hydronic piping systems that are guaranteed to meet all
applicable codes throughout the U.S. and Canada. It is the responsibility of all those using piping or electrical
schematics shown in this manual to verify that such designs meet or exceed local building or mechanical codes
within the jurisdiction where the system will be installed.
In some cases, local codes may require differences in design or additional safety components relative to those
shown on the application drawings.

Section 1: What is Hydronic Heating?


The best way to describe a hydronic heating system is a conveyor belt for heat. This concept is shown in figure
1-1. Heat is loaded onto the water stream at the heat source, carried to where its needed by the water flowing through piping, and then unloaded at one or more heat emitters. Within this simplified general concept are
thousands of options that allow hydronic heating systems to be tailored to the exact needs of the building and its
owner.
heat released

circulator

water flow

heat emitter

heat
source

heat emitter

A very basic hydronic heating system: A conveyor belt for heat.

When water absorbs heat within the heat source, its temperature increases. In the systems we will discuss, the
water doesnt change from liquid to vapor as it does in a steam heating system.
As warm water travels through the distribution system, a small portion of the heat it carries is released from piping
and other components. As the water passes through a heat emitter, more heat is released. The rate at which heat
is released from the heat emitter depends on several things, including the water temperature, the room temperature, the size of the heat emitter and the water flow rate.
The vast majority of residential and light commercial hydronic heating systems are classified as closed-loop systems. The water they contain is sealed in and maintained under slight pressure. Ideally, the same water recirculates through the system over and over, year after year. Very small amounts of fresh water are added only when
necessary. This reduces the potential for corrosion and allows the system to last for decades.
A hydronic heating system might be as simple as a water heater connected to a loop of flexible plastic tubing that
warms a bathroom floor. More sophisticated systems might use multiple boilers or heat pumps along with a wide
assortment of heat emitters specifically selected to match the thermal, aesthetic and budget constraints of a particular building. Those same heat sources can also provide the buildings domestic hot water, heat the swimming
pool, and even melt snow on the driveway. The versatility of hydronics makes such options available in both new
construction and retrofit situations.
When properly planned and installed, modern hydronic heating provides years of unsurpassed comfort in nearly
all types of homes and commercial buildings comfort so good that the occupants might literally forget it is winter as they walk in the door.
Why Use a Hydronic System?
Hydronic heating and cooling systems offer many benefits not available with forced-air systems. These include:
Superior Comfort:
Hydronic heating has long been respected for providing excellent thermal comfort. The better systems achieve
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this by not only maintaining the desired air temperature in each room, but by warming objects in the room and the
room surfaces themselves. Comfort has become the preeminent reason discriminating owners select hydronic
heating.

Warm surfaces are a major benefit of hydronic radiant heating.

Unobtrusive Installation:
Hydronic systems can be installed without having to drill, saw or otherwise hack out major pieces of the homes
structure.
A given volume of water can absorb almost 3,500 times more heat than the same volume of air. This means that
small tubing can replace large, cumbersome ducting. For example, a 3/4-diameter flexible tube can deliver the
same amount of heat as a 14 x 8 rigid metal duct when both systems are operated under typical conditions.
These two heat delivery systems are shown to scale and side by side in figure 1-3.

2 x 12 joist

this cut would destroy the load-carrying


ability of the floor joists

14" x 8" duct


3/4" tube
A 3/4-diameter tube carrying water can convey the same heat as a 14 x 8 duct carrying heated air.

When necessary, a tube of this size is easily routed through floor framing without drilling large holes that significantly weaken the structure. This allows the entire piping distribution system to be easily routed through and
concealed within the structure of a typical wood-frame building.
Accommodating ducting sized for the same heat delivery capability in the same manner, is virtually impossible.
With the possible exception of wooden I-joist framing, or specially designed floor trusses, most ducting is simply

too large to be routed through holes in floor framing. These force compromises, such as suspending the ducting from the bottom of framing, as shown in figure 1-4, or concealing it behind valences or soffits that are visible
within living spaces.

Duct systems require more headroom than hydronic piping.

Should the aesthetics of an otherwise meticulously planned building be compromised to shoe-horn in a heating or cooling system? The obvious answer to this question is no, but in reality this is done quite often. In some
cases, the inability to accommodate properly sized ducting leads to inadequate heating or cooling of the building.
The latter is one of the chief complaints from owners of improperly sized or installed forced-air heating and cooling
systems.
Design Flexibility:
Hydronic distribution systems offer virtually unlimited options to accommodate the comfort needs, usage, aesthetic tastes and budget constraints of just about any building.
A single hydronic heat source can supply heated water to several different kinds of heat emitters, provide the
building with domestic hot water, and supply specialty loads such as a swimming pool or snow-melting system.
When a heat pump serves as that heat source, its possible to provide both heating and cooling. The latter is
supplied using a chilled-water distribution system. A simplified schematic of this concept is shown in figure 1-5.
These systems will be discussed in more detail later in this publication.

air handler
(for chilled water cooling)

compressor

WATER-TO-WATER
HEAT PUMP

purge
valve

zoned hydronic
space heating
distribution system
diverter
valve

reversing
valve

air
separator

buffer
tank

thermal
expansion
valve

condenser

expansion
tank

evaporator

refrigerant piping

purge
valves

variable speed circulator

purge
valve

expansion
tank

to ground loop

from ground loop

make-up water assembly

horizontal earth loop


configuration shown
high density polyethylene tubing

Concept for a heating/cooling system supplied by GSHP.

Clean Operation:
Another common complaint from owners of forced-air heating systems is the amount of dust and other airborne
pollutants their systems distribute throughout the building. Although often the result of poorly maintained filters,
this complaint demonstrates one of the pitfalls of whole-house air circulation.

Dust and allergen dispersal are characteristic of poorly maintained forced-air systems.

In contrast, most hydronic heat emitters induce very gentle air circulation relative to that created by a central
forced-air system. The hydronic heat emitters that do use fans or blowers typically create room air circulation
rather than whole-house air circulation. People with allergies often appreciate the reduced symptoms experi-

enced in building with hydronic radiant heating systems. Its a tangible benefit that is virtually priceless to those
who benefit from it.
Quiet Operation:
Many owners view their home as a sanctuary against the noise of the outside world. Quiet indoor environments
have a matchless value of their own. They offer a place to relax, read, write or enjoy quality music. Why should
any heating or cooling system compromise this enjoyment?

Owners want quiet spaces in their homes hydronics can provide this.

A properly designed and installed hydronic system produces virtually undetectable sound levels within the occupied areas of a home. The loudest device in the system is typically the heat source, and with proper installation
its sound output can be isolated to the mechanical room.
Zonability:
The purpose of any heating or cooling system is to provide comfort in all areas of a building throughout the year.
Doing so requires a system that can adapt to the lifestyle of the occupants, as well as constantly changing thermal
conditions inside and outside of a building.
A heating system that attempts to maintain all parts of a building at the same temperature, at the same time,
seldom accomplishes its goal, nor does it give its owner much flexibility. In most buildings its better to divide the
heating and cooling system in smaller, independently controlled areas called zones. A separate thermostat or
other room temperature-sensing device controls the temperature within each zone.
Zoned systems provide the potential for reduced energy consumption by allowing for lower air temperatures in
unoccupied areas. They also allow the comfort level of rooms to be adjusted to suit individual tastes and activity
levels.
Imagine a heating system that can automatically adjust itself as sunlight pours into some windows but not others.
A system that automatically reduces heat output when several people gather in a game room or home theater,
but at the same time maintains a toasty warm bathroom in which another person is taking a shower. This type
of room-by-room zoning is easily accomplished using hydronic distribution systems, and it can be done without elaborate or expensive hardware. In some systems, room-by-room zoning can be provided by non-electric
thermostatic devices fitted to individual panel radiators, as shown in figure 1-8. Such systems are also discussed
later in the manual.

TRV

TRV

thermostatic
radiator valves
(TRV) on each
radiator

TRV

TRV

TRV
TRV

flexible PEX tubing


variable-speed
circulator
manifold station

Example of a homerun hydronic distribution system.

Energy Efficiency:
Hydronic systems reduce energy consumption in several ways:
The small size of hydronic tubing compared to equivalent forced-air ducting greatly reduces undesirable heat
loss from the heat distribution system. For example, the previously mentioned 14 x 8 duct has approximately
16 times more surface area than its hydronic equivalent: a 3/4-diameter tube. This implies the ducts heat loss
will be about 16 times greater than that of the tube when operated at the same surface temperature and surrounding conditions. This is especially important in situations where the ducting or tubing must pass through
semi-conditioned space. Even in situations where the tubing and ducting are covered with the same insulation,
the larger surface area of the ducting results in significantly greater heat loss.
The electrical energy required to circulate water through a well-designed hydronic system is typically a fraction
of that used to move air in a similarly sized forced-air system. Using state-of-the-art circulators, its possible
to distribute sufficient water flow to a typical 2,500-square-foot house using no more than 25 watts of electrical power. A blower providing an equivalent rate of heat delivery could use several hundred watts of electrical
power.
Hydronic systems also lower energy use by discouraging or even eliminating room air stratification (e.g., the
tendency of warm air to rise to the ceiling while cool air settles to the floor). Warm air pooled against a ceiling
increases heat loss to the attic. It also enhances the air leakage of the room. Both effects can significantly
increase energy use during the heating season.
Hydronic systems that heat the floors in a room with high ceilings can eliminate room air stratification. At the
same time, they maintain warmth in the lower occupied areas of the room. Such conditions are highly conducive to thermal comfort. In many cases, occupants can lower thermostat settings in buildings with floor heating
while still maintaining very suitable comfort levels.
Hydronic systems are highly adaptable to renewable energy sources such as heat pumps, solar thermal systems, waste heat recovery devices and biomass burning boilers. Equipping buildings with a well-designed and
durable hydronic distribution system holds open the possibility of supplying that building from a wide variety of

heat sources, including some that have not yet been invented.
Finally, as previously mentioned, zoned hydronic systems also provide the potential for unoccupied rooms to be
kept at lower temperatures, which lowers heat loss and reduces fuel consumption.
GeoDesigner system simulation software, by ClimateMaster, allows simulation of all types of residential heating,
cooling, and domestic hot water systems including geothermal, furnaces, boilers, air conditioners, and air-to-air
heat pumps. GeoDesigner provides estimated annual energy consumption (and costs) of the various systems
and assists in the design of ground loops for geothermal systems. GeoDesigner generates written reports showing each systems cost of operation and operating statistics from simple inputs including heating and cooling
loads, geographical location, utility costs, thermostat set point, etc.

Section 2: An Overview of Modern Hydronic Hardware


Those who want to design quality hydronic heating systems must be committed to ongoing learning. New products and design concepts will vie for their attention as the market grows and more people demand the benefits
that hydronic heating and cooling offer.
Learning starts with the fundamentals. What are the basics components found in almost every type of hydronic
heating system, and what are their functions?
This section gives you a basic understanding of the building blocks used in almost every residential and light
commercial hydronic system. Later sections will demonstrate the repeated usage of these components in a wide
variety of systems.
Figure 2-1 shows the fundamental components of a single circuit hydronic system.
heat released to building
circulator

air
separator

flow
check

room
thermostat

heat emitter
pressure
relief
valve
heat source

make-up water
assembly
backflow preventer
pressure reducing valve
expansion
tank

purging
valve

The basic components in a hydronic system.

Heat Source:
The starting point in a hydronic system is getting heat into the water. While it can be said that any device that
heats water is a potential hydronic heat source, some options are clearly more practical than others.
Boilers supplied with natural gas, propane and fuel oil arguably are the most traditional heat sources used in
many residential and commercial hydronic systems. However, the versatility of hydronics allows many other possibilities, including geothermal water-to-water heat pumps, biomass-fuel boilers and solar collector arrays.
Each of these options has strengths and limitations. Some constrain the system design in terms of operating temperature or flow rates. Some can only be used with specific types of heat emitters. The cost and local availability
of certain fuels obviously has a big impact on heat source selection.
In this publication we will focus on geothermal water-to-water heat pumps, such as the unit shown in figure 2-2, as
the heat source for several types of hydronic systems.

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An example of a modern water-to-water heat pump. (ClimateMaster TMW series)

Circulator:
Often referred to as a pump, the circulator is what motivates fluid to flow through the system, in the proper direction, and at a suitable rate. The key component within a circulator is its impeller, which is rotated by an electric
motor. As water flows through the spinning impeller mechanical energy called head is transferred to the fluid.
The evidence of this added mechanical energy is higher pressure at the circulators discharge port compared to
its inlet port.
Water always flows from an area of higher pressure to an area of lower pressure. The higher pressure water leaving a circulator wants to get back to that circulators inlet. It will do so through any available pathway. The fundamental concept in designing a hydronic system is to create piping pathways that allow water carry heat throughout
the building as it flows from the circulators outlet back to its inlet.
Figure 2-3 shows a circulator that would be typical of those used in residential or light commercial hydronic
systems. This type of circulator is more specifically categorized as a wet-rotor circulator. Such circulators are
cooled and lubricated by the fluid passing through, and do not require oiling as do some earlier generation circulators which couple the impeller assembly to a separate air-cooled motor. Wet-rotor circulators have been in use
for more than five decades and have earned a reputation for reliability and quiet operation. They are extensively
used in geothermal heat pump applications for flow in the earth loop, and with water-to-water heat pumps for flow
on the load side of the system.
Many current generation wet-rotor circulators can operate at three different speeds. The circulators speed switch
is set based on the circuit it is installed in, and the desired flow rate in that circuit.
Circulator selection and sizing will be discussed in later portions of this manual.

A modern 3-speed wet-rotor circulator.

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Air Separator:
All closed-loop hydronic systems operate best when free of air. In some cases, flow through the piping system
cannot even be established until the majority of air in the piping and components has been purged.
An air separator is designed to capture air bubbles from the water flowing through it and route these bubbles to a
venting device where they are ejected from the system. Many different types of air separators are currently available. All function by reducing the fluids flow velocity, as well as providing surfaces that air bubbles can cling to as
they rise toward a venting device. Air separators function best when located near the outlet of the heat source,
where the hottest water will flow through them. This is where molecules of oxygen, nitrogen and other gases are
most likely to coalesce into bubbles that can be captured and ejected. An example of a high-performance air
separator is shown in figure 2-4. You will see several schematics throughout this publication that show proper usage of air separators.

A high-performance air separator.

Flow-check Valve:
An often overlooked characteristic of hydronic heating systems is that hot water wants to move upward in the
system, while cool water wants to move downward. This movement is caused by slight differences in the density of hot vs. cool water (the higher the waters temperature, the lower its density).
If an unblocked flow path exists between an area of heated water and an area of cool water, a slow but persistent
flow will be established in an attempt to equalize these temperatures. Such a flow is often called thermal migration, and can occur even when all circulators in the system are off. If allowed to occur, heat migration can lead to
aggravating problems by allowing heat into portions of the system where or when it is not needed. Think of this
phenomenon as a thermal leak in the system.
A flow-check valve or spring-load check valve can prevent such a situation. These valves contain a weighted
metal plug or spring that holds the valve closed until a slight forward opening pressure (typically 1/4 psi) is present. This forward opening resistance is sufficient to stop heat migration, but still allows the valve to instantly open
as soon as the circulator in the associated portion of the system turns on. These valves will also prevent reverse
flow.
Many current generation hydronic circulators are now supplied with internal spring-loaded check valves. These
circulators eliminate the need to install a separate flow-check or spring-loaded valve in each circuit, and they
generally reduce installation cost.

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Example of a flow-check valve.

Expansion Tank:
All fluids expand when heated. If a closed-loop hydronic system were completely filled with water, the pressure
in that system would rise rapidly as the water is heated. Dangerously high pressures that could rupture piping
components would quickly develop.
To prevent this, all closed-loop hydronic systems must have an expansion tank. This tank contains a sealed
internal chamber filled with pressurized air. This air is separated from the system water by a flexible rubber diaphragm. As the water expands, the sealed air volume behind the diaphragm is partially compressed, and system
pressure increases slightly. When turned off, the pressurized air volume expands as the water shrinks back to its
original volume.

Example of a diaphragm-type expansion tank.

Pressure Relief Valve:


The forces that expanding water can generate are extremely powerful. To prevent dangerously high pressures
from occurring, every closed-loop hydronic system must be equipped with a pressure relief valve. Most systems
used in residential or light commercial buildings have pressure relief valves rated at 30 pounds per square inch
(psi). If the pressure at the relief valve location reaches this pressure, fluid is immediately released to lower system pressure.

13

Pressure relief valves should always be installed with their stem in a vertical upright position, as shown in figure
2-7. Most pressure relief valves are installed on or close to the heat source. They should always be equipped
with a discharge pipe that ends near a floor drain. This pipe cannot contain any type of valve or flow-restricting
device, and should have minimal fittings. The lever at the top of a pressure relief valve should be periodically lifted
to verify that the valve is ready for operation. This is normally done during annual maintenance checks.

A pressure relief valve.

Control System:
An ideal hydronic heating system would always deliver heat to the building at exactly the same rate the building
loses heat to the outdoors. Such a system would be called fully modulating because it could vary heat output
from zero to full capacity as necessary.
Unfortunately, fully modulating heat sources such as boiler or water-to-water heat pumps are not yet available.
In lieu of modulation, many hydronic control systems regulate heat output from the heat source to the building
by turning the heat source and circulator(s) on and off. Heat is delivered to the building in intervals, the length
of which depends on how large the load is. For example, on a very cold day, a properly sized heat source would
remain on most of the time. However, during a milder day that same heat source may only be operated 10-25%of
the elapsed time. The length of the on-cycle and off-cycle determines the total heat delivered to the load over a
given elapsed time. A room thermostat similar to that used in other heating systems controls this on/off cycling.
Hydronic heating systems also have controls that regulate the water temperature delivered to different parts of the
system. For example, its not uncommon for a boiler to deliver 170F water to fin-tube baseboard heat emitters
while at the same time delivering 110F water to a radiant floor slab in a different part of the building. Multiple
water temperature distribution systems are also possible when geothermal water-to-water heat pumps serve as
the heat source.
Still other controls provide safety against excessive high temperatures or water loss in the system. In some (but
not all) situations, these controls are required by code. A specific type of safety control called a manual reset
high limit shown in figure 2-8 turns off the heat source and prevents it from automatically restarting if water
leaving the heat source ever reaches a preset temperature. Think of this device as a circuit breaker for water
temperature.

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A manual-reset temperature limit control.

There are also many electronic controllers available to handle specific tasks within hydronic systems. They
include controllers to manage a multiple heat source system, operate mixing devices or oversee operation of
several zones. Some of these controllers can communicate with similar devices and thus share certain devices,
such as an outdoor temperature sensor. Some can even be monitored and adjusted over the Internet. Several of
these more sophisticated controllers will be discussed in later sections of this manual.

A controller that adjusts boiler temperature based on outdoor temperature.

Make-up Water Assembly:


All hydronic systems experience minor pressure drops over time. Sometimes its caused by air being expelled
from vents. Other times its the result of evaporation from valve packing or circulator flange gaskets.
An automatic make-up water assembly feeds new water into the system whenever the systems pressure drops
below a preset value, typically in the range of 10 to 20 psi. Hence, this assembly makes up for minor water
losses.
A typical make-up water assembly consists of a backflow preventer, pressure reducing valve and shut off valve.
The backflow preventer does just what its name suggests: It prevents any fluid in the hydronic system from
migrating back into the buildings potable water piping. Most plumbing and mechanical codes mandate a backflow
preventer on any hydronic system connected to a buildings potable water system.
The pressure reducing valve in the make-up water assembly detects when the systems pressure drops below a

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set lower limit and responds by allowing water in to restore system pressure.
Its important to understand that following their initial filling and air purging, properly functioning closed-loop
hydronic systems require only minor amounts of make-up water. Large amounts of fresh water are NOT good for
closed-loop systems containing iron or steel components. The dissolved oxygen in fresh water encourages corrosion and sludge formation.

An automatic make-up water assembly that maintains system pressure. (Courtesy of Caleffi North America).

Purging Valves:
When a hydronic system is put in service, it must be filled with water and cleared of air. A specialized valve called
a purging valve is used in combination with the makeup water assembly to establish a rapid water flow through
the system as it is filled. The rapid flow displaces air bubbles and pulls them along with the water. The mixture of
water and air eventually exits the piping through a side port on the purging valve (see figure 2-11). This process
is called purging.

Modern hydronic purging valve. (Courtesy of Webstone, Inc.)

When this exiting stream is free of air bubbles, the purging process is complete, and the side port of the purging
valve is closed. The use and correct placement of purging valves is essential to properly filling the system and
preparing it for operation.
Heat Emitters:
All hydronic heat emitters absorb heat from water flowing through them, and deliver that heat to the building space
in which they are located. However, various types of heat emitters use different forms of heat transfer to accomplish this task.
Some devices, like the fin-tube baseboard (see figure 2-12) and fan-coils, rely on convective heat transfer. They

16

add heat directly to room air as it passes through them. The heated air then flows into and around the room.

An example of a fin-tube baseboard convector. (Courtesy of Weil-McLain)

Other hydronic heat emitters rely on thermal radiation to deliver most of their heat output into the room. One
example of such a heat emitter is a concrete slab with embedded tubing. Figure 2-13 shows tubing installed over
polystyrene insulation awaiting the concrete slab.

Flexible hydronic tubing that will be embedded in a concrete floor.

Although the term thermal radiation sounds ominous, it refers to something thats natural and not harmful in any
way. Thermal radiation is simply infrared light. It behaves similar to visible light, but our eyes cant see it. It travels out from the heat emitter and is quickly absorbed by objects and surfaces within the room. The instant thermal
radiation strikes these surfaces it becomes heat, warming the object that absorbed it. Warm objects and surfaces
within a room significantly improve comfort.
Tubing Options:
There is a wide variety of tubing materials and joining systems now available for use in hydronic heating and cooling systems. The most commonly used piping materials include:
Rigid copper water tubing (usually type M thinner wall)
Crosslinked polyethylene tubing (PEX)
Multi-layer composite tubing (PEX-AL-PEX)

17

Multi-layer composite tubing (polypropylene and fiberglass)


Black iron or steel tubing (typically schedule 40 wall thickness)
Copper Tubing:
Many residential and light commercial hydronic systems use copper water tubing for at least some portion of the
system. Rigid, type M (thinner wall) copper tubing is often used within the mechanical room to maintain a neat
appearance and keep the other components supported. In some systems, it is also used to construct some or all
of the distribution system through the remainder of the building.
In hydronic systems, copper water tubing can be joined by traditional soft soldering using a 95/5 tin/lead solder. It
may also be joined using one of several press fit fittings systems now on the market. The latter use a specialized fitting with o-rings that is mechanically compressed to create a pressure-tight joint. An example of copper
tubing joined by pressed fittings is shown in figure 2-14.

Most residential and light commercial hydronic systems can be constructed using copper water tube in sizes from
1/2 up to 3 nominal inside diameter. Larger sizes of copper water tube are available, but may not be economically competitive with other piping options now available.
PEX Tubing:
In the early 1980s a new type of tubing, developed in Europe, entered the North American hydronic market.
Crosslinked polyethylene tubing (a.k.a. PEX) is now a staple of hydronic heating worldwide. Billions of feet of this
tubing has been installed in hydronic systems. When properly applied, it has proven to be extremely durable.
Most of the PEX tubing used in hydronic applications is manufactured with a special layer called an oxygen diffusion barrier. This layer prevents oxygen molecules from diffusing through the tube wall and reaching the water
within the system. This in turn greatly reduces the potential for oxidation corrosion. PEX that meets the ASME
F876 standard and that is equipped with an oxygen diffusion barrier meeting the DIN 4726 standard is commonly
used in hydronic heating systems. It can withstand temperatures as high as 200F with simultaneous pressures
up to 80 psi. These temperature and pressure numbers are much higher than what would be found in hydronic
systems supplied by geothermal heat pumps.
PEX tubing is currently available in sizes from 5/16 to 2 nominal inside diameter. Samples in sizes from 3/8 to

18

3/4 are shown in figure 2-15. The smaller sizes are often used to construct radiant floor, wall or ceiling panels, as
well as other types of manifold-based distribution systems (which will be discussed latter). Larger sizes of PEX
tubing can be used to supply manifold stations or convey liquids over long distances at high flow rates.

PEX tubing with oxygen barrier in sizes of 3/8, 1/2, 5/8 and 3/4

PEX-AL-PEX Tubing:
Developed as a composite of both PEX and aluminum, PEX-AL-PEX tubing is also widely used in hydronic systems. It consists of an inner layer of crosslinked polyethylene, a center layer of welded aluminum, and an outer
layer of crosslinked polyethylene (see figure 2-16). These layers are bonded together using special adhesives.

PEX-AL-PEX tubing consists of an inner and outer layer of PEX with a center layer of aluminum.

In North America, it is currently available in sizes form 3/8 to 1. Tubing that meets the ASTM F1281 standard
has a temperature rating of 210F with a corresponding pressure limit of 115 psi. These ratings are slightly higher
than PEX tubing, and are also much higher than would be required in a hydronic system using a geothermal heat
pump as the heat source. The aluminum core layer of PEX-AL-PEX tubing provides an excellent oxygen diffusion
barrier. It also allows the tubing to retain its shape when bent, as shown in figure 2-17. In addition, the aluminum
layer reduces expansion movement relative to standard PEX tubing.

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PEX-AL-PEX tubing is easily bent by hand and retains its shape.

PEX-AL-PEX tubing is currently available in sizes larger than 1 in Europe, but not in North America. Its likely this
will change in the near future. Like PEX, PEX-AL-PEX tubing is a thermoset polymer and cannot be joined by fusion techniques. There are several types of compression and press fittings available for joining PEX-AL-PEX.
Polypropylene Composite Pipe:
Another piping option of European origin now available in North America is polypropylene composite tubing.
Available in a variety of sizes from 3/8 to 6, the tubing features a fiberglass core that, in combination with the
polypropylene inner and outer layers, allows operating temperatures up to 185F.
Polypropylene composite tubing is joined by socket fusion, a process in which the mating surfaces of the tube and
fittings are simultaneous heated using special tools, and then immediately forced together while held in alignment.
Figure 2-18 shows a segment of 4 polypropylene composite pipe and a matching coupling being simultaneous
heated in this fixture.

A 4 polypropylene composite tube and fitting being joined.

20

Once the mating surfaces of the tube and fitting reach the proper temperature, the heating element is removed,
and the components are forced together while held by the fixture. The resulting joint is extremely strong and irreversible. Examples of polypropylene composite tube and fittings joined by socket fusion are shown in figure 2-19.

Example of polypropylene composite tube and fittings joined by socket fusion.

The relatively low thermal conductivity of this piping material (relative to metal) and its wall thickness make the
piping more resistant to surface condensation when carrying chilled water.
Piping Supports:
All piping used in hydronic systems should be properly supported. The support method must support the weight
of the pipe and its contents, and allow the pipe to expand and contract as its temperature changes.
The support requirements will vary depending on the piping material. In some cases, mechanical or plumbing
codes mandate specific support-spacing and weight-bearing requirements. In the absence of specific code requirements, the following guidelines are suggested for supporting rigid copper tubing:

1/2 and 3/4 tubing maximum support spacing = 5 feet


1 and 1.25 tubing maximum support spacing = 6 feet
1.5 and 2 tubing maximum support spacing = 8 feet
Vertical piping maximum support spacing is every floor level or 10 feet, whichever is less.

The following support guidelines are suggested for PEX and PEX-AL-PEX tubing carrying heated fluids:

5/16 through 1/2 tubing maximum support spacing = 2 feet


3/4 and 1 tubing maximum support spacing = 2.5 feet
1.25 and 1.5 tubing maximum support spacing = 3 feet
2 tubing maximum support spacing = 4 feet

The following support guidelines are suggested for polypropylene composite tubing carrying heated fluids:
1/2 tubing maximum support spacing = 2 feet
3/4 tubing maximum support spacing = 2.5 feet
1 tubing maximum support spacing = 3 feet
1.25 tubing maximum support spacing = 3.3 feet
1.5 tubing maximum support spacing = 3.9 feet
2 tubing maximum support spacing = 4.6 feet
2.5 tubing maximum support spacing = 4.9 feet
3 tubing maximum support spacing = 5.2 feet
4 tubing maximum support spacing = 6.6 feet
One of the most popular methods of supporting rigid tubing in mechanical rooms is with a strut/clamp system,

21

such as the one shown in figure 2-20. In this case, the strut rails are supported from the ceiling by threaded steel
rod. Notice that this system used rubber-lined clamps to prevent metal-to-metal contact between the copper and
steel, as well as to attenuate vibration along the pipe. This method of support is highly versatile. It can accommodate a wide range of pipe sizes, as well as serve to support electrical conduit.

Rigid piping support with strut/clamp system.

Other piping support methods include:


Wire hangers: Typically used to suspend small piping from wooden floor framing.
Clevis hangers: Used to support horizontal pipe from ceiling via threaded steel rods.
Polymer clips: Typically screws to a support surface. Tubing is then clamped into support.
Its important to allow for thermal expansion when supporting piping. This is especially true for polymer tubing,
which can expand 7 to 10 times as much as metal piping as it warms. In general, its best to allow the PEX, PEXAL-PEX or polypropylene tubing to move through support points rather than rigidly fix the tubing in place. The
relatively short, straight tubing runs in mechanical rooms, in combination with elbow fittings, help absorb expansion movement. However, long, straight runs of tubing should have either flexible supports or an inline expansion
compensator to absorb tubing movement.
When installing flexible PEX tubing from coils, be sure to size holes through framing at least 1/4 greater than the
outside diameter of the tubing. Also try not to create situations where the tubing will rub against surfaces such as
framing or subflooring.

22

Section 3: The Relationship Between Temperature & Heat


Sensible Heat:
Energy exists in many formselectrical, chemical, mechanical and thermal. Energy in thermal form is what we
call heat. This energy causes the molecules of the material in which it is present to vibrate back and forth. The
more heat the material contains, the more vigorous these vibrations.
We cant see molecules vibrate, even under a powerful microscope. But we can detect the relative amount of
heat in an object by measuring its temperature. Simply put: Temperature is how we sense the amount of heat
present in an object.
Although its possible for a material to absorb heat without changing temperature, the material has to change
phase (solid to liquid, or liquid to vapor) for that to happen. The hydronic systems we will discuss do not involve
materials changing phase; therefore the only type of heat well examine is sensible heat. The word sensible
implies that the heat is able to be sensed (detected) by a change in temperature.
Heat Transfer and Flowing Water:
In heating system design, were often more interested in the rate of heat transfer rather than the amount of heat.
A heat pump rating of 48,000 Btu/hr describes the rate heat can be created and delivered to a stream of water. It
certainly doesnt mean the heat pump will produce 48,000 Btus and then die like a worn-out battery.
The rate of heat transfer into or out of a stream of water is easy to calculate if you know both the flow rate and
temperature change of the water as it flows through something. Formula 3-1 can be used for this calculation.
Formula 3-1:

Where:
Q = rate of heat transfer into or out of a stream of water (Btu/hr)
f = flow rate of water (gallons/minute, abbreviated gpm)
T = the temperature change of water as it passes through the heat exchanging device (F)
k = a constant based on the fluid and its approximate temperature (see table).
Temperature
of fluid (F)

Water

30% propylene
glycol solution

50

k=500

k=475

100

k=496

k=479

150

k=489

k=476

200

k=481

k=476

Its important to understand that the rate of heat transfer into or out of a stream of fluid depends on both the temperature change and the flow rate. It doesnt, for example, depend only on how hot a pipe feels at some point in
the system.
Many people assume that a pipe that feels hot is moving a large quantity of heat through the system, and a pipe
that feels cool or luke warm isnt carrying much heat. Dont make such assumptions. Look at the following
examples.

23

90 F
heat
pump

9 gpm
78 F

heat
emitter

9 gpm
Heat transfer from source to load.

Example 1: Water flows out of the return manifold of a radiant floor system at 78F through a heat pump where
it picks up heat. It leaves the heat pump at 90F. The flow rate through the circuit is 9 gpm. What is the rate of
heat transfer to the water stream?
Solution: Since the water averages about 84, the value of the constant k will be just a bit less than 496 (say 495).
Putting this and the other data into formula 1-1 yields:

This is a substantial rate of heat transfer enough to heat an average-size house and yet the piping and other
components in this circuit would not feel hot to the touch. Thats because skin temperature is usually in the mid80F range.
Example 2: Water flows from a boiler into a panel radiator at 180F and exits at 165F. The flow rate through the
radiator is 0.5 gpm. What is the rate of heat transfer from the water to the radiator?

Tin = 180 F

Tout = 165 F

water @ 0.5 gpm


Water flow and temperature drop across a panel radiator.

Just use formula 3-1 again, this time with the constant k having a value around 485:

Compared to the first example, this is a much smaller rate of heat transfer, even though the water involved is substantially hotter, and the piping both into and out of the radiator would feel very hot to the touch.
Formula 3-1 applies regardless of whether heat is moving into or out of the stream of water. Its a formula that
can be universally applied in hydronic heating.
The essential point of these examples is you should not judge the rate of heat transfer based on temperature only.
Always feel (or measure) the temperature change of the water as it flows through a component and factor in the
flow rate.
Theres more to heat transfer than meets the finger tips!

24

Section 4: Water-to-Water Heat Pumps


All heat pumps move heat from an area of lower temperature to one at a higher temperature. The source from
which the lower temperature heat is being taken can be just about anything. Many heat pumps extract heat from
outside air. They are appropriately called air-source heat pumps. Geothermal heat pumps extract heat from the
ground or water in contact with the ground. They are likewise referred to as ground source heat pumps.
The heat pumps discussed in this manual use a standard vapor-compression cycle of R-22 or R-410a refrigerant.
As the refrigerant moves around the cycle, it changes from vapor to liquid and vice versa in a continuous process.
When liquid refrigerant evaporates, it absorbs heat from its surroundings. Conversely, when a vaporous refrigerant condenses back to a liquid, it releases heat to its surroundings.
The basic components used in a water-to-water (heating only) heat pump are shown in figure 4-1.
electrical
energy
input

cool gas

hot gas
refrigerant piping
compressor
to
ground
loop

evaporator

condenser
to load
3

heat output

heat input
4

from
ground
loop

from load

thermal
warm liquid
expansion
valve
Basic refrigeration components in a heating only water-to-water heat pump.
cold liquid

Lets exam the refrigerant cycle, beginning in the evaporator. Refrigerant enters the evaporator as a low-temperature, low-pressure liquid. It passes across the surface of copper or steel tubing through which water or a
mixture of water and antifreeze is flowing. Because the liquid refrigerant is several degrees colder than the water,
heat moves from the water through the copper or steel tubing wall, and is absorbed by the refrigerant. As heat
is absorbed, the cold liquid refrigerant vaporizes or evaporates. The vapor collects at the top of the evaporator
(shown as bubbles in figure 4-1). The cool refrigerant vapor then passes to the compressor. Here the vapor is
compressed, and its temperature immediately increases. The hot gas line leaving the compressor can be quite
hot (140170F). The hot gas then flows to the condenser. Here it passes across another coil of copper or steel
tubing carrying water that flows through a hydronic distribution system. Because the hot refrigerant gas is warmer
than the water, heat moves from the gas to the water. This causes the refrigerant gas to condense back to a liquid, but still remain at a relative high pressure. Finally, the liquid refrigerant goes from the condenser to the thermal expansion valve (TXV). Here its pressure is reduced, and its temperature immediately drops. The refrigerant
is now back to the same condition at which we began examining the cycle, and it is ready to enter the evaporator
to begin the same process again.
The materials and shapes used to construct the evaporator and condenser of a water-to-water heat pump vary
from one manufacturer to another. However, the goal is always the same: To move heat from the low-temperature source to the higher temperature sink using as little electrical energy as possible to operate the compressor.
Reversible Water-To-Water Heat Pumps:
As with air-source heat pumps, a reversing valve can be added to water-to-water heat pumps. This allows them
to provide heated water or chilled water. The latter can be used for building cooling or for other chilled water
25

industrial applications. The basic internal design of a reversible water-to-water heat pump (in the heating mode)
is shown in figure 4-2.
cool gas

compressor

electrical
energy
input

hot gas
refrigerant piping

reversing
valve
to
ground
loop

evaporator

condenser
to load

heat input

heat output

thermal
expansion
valve

from
ground
loop

from load

cold liquid
A reversible water-to-water heat pump (operating in heating mode).

warm liquid

When the reversing valve is activated by a 24VAC signal, refrigerant flow is reversed through the evaporator and
condenser. The heat absorbed from the buildings hydronic distribution system is added to the heat generated by
the compressor. The combined heat is then transferred to the water stream flowing through the condenser. In a
ground source system, this heat is then carried to and dissipated into the earth or directly to ground water. The
flow of refrigerant in a reversible water-to-water heat pump operating in the cooling mode is shown in figure 4-3.
cool gas

compressor

electrical
energy
input

hot gas
refrigerant piping

reversing
valve
to
ground
loop

evaporator

condenser

to load

heat output
from
ground
loop

thermal
expansion
valve

warm liquid

heat input
from load

cold liquid

A reversible water-to-water heat pump (operating in cooling mode).

Dedicated Domestic Hot water Mode:


The THW heat pump includes a dedicated domestic hot water mode. Its domestic hot water mode is a fullcondensing mode providing approximately three tons of domestic water heating capacity. The THW includes two
degrees of internal separation between the refrigerant and the potable water, as well as a bronze internal potable
water circulator. This mode can provide up to 145F domestic water.

26

Water-to-Water Heat Pump Performance (Heating Mode):


In hydronic heating system applications, there are two performance characteristics that are particularly important:
Heating Capacity
Coefficient of Performance
These performance indices both vary based on the operating conditions of the heat pump. Both are affected by
the distribution system the heat pump is coupled to.
The heating capacity is very dependent on the temperature of the fluid entering the evaporator, and the temperature of the water returning to the condenser from the hydronic distribution system. A graph showing the variation
in capacity is shown in figure 4-4.
ClimateMaster TMW036 W/W

45

ELWT = 80F

Heating capacity (Btu/hr)

ELWT = 100F
ELWT = 120F

40
35
30
25

20

20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
Entering source water temperature (F)
(source water flow rate = 9 gpm)

Heating capacity of water-to-water heat pump vs. entering source water temperature.

The flow rate through the evaporator and condenser also affect the heat pumps heating capacity. Figure 4-5
shows this effect for a ClimateMaster TMW036 unit operating with a source water flow rate of 9 gpm and 5 gpm.
45

ClimateMaster TMW036 W/W

ELWT = 80F

Heating capacity (Btu/hr)

ELWT = 100F
ELWT = 120F

40
35
30

ELWT = 80F
ELWT = 100F
ELWT = 120F

source
flow rate
= 9 gpm

source
flow rate
= 5 gpm

25

20

20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70

Entering source water temperature (F)


(SOLID LINES: source water flow rate = 9 gpm)
(DASHED LINES: source water flow rate = 5 gpm)

Heating capacity vs. source water temperature at different flow rates.

Notice that the heating capacity decreases slightly as the flow rate through the evaporator decreases. This is
also true for flow rate through the condenser. Lower flow rates reduce convection heat transfer on the water side
of these heat exchangers (e.g., the evaporator and condenser). This in turn reduces the rate of heat transfer
through them, and hence lowers their heating capacity.
27

Coefficient of Performance:
The thermal performance of many hydronic heat sources is expressed as an efficiency. It is a means of indicating the ratio of a desired output divided by the necessary input.

When the units in the top and bottom of the fraction are the same, the efficiency is simply a decimal percentage.
For example: Consider a boiler in constant operation that consumes 9/10 of a therm of natural gas in an hour.
During that hour, the boiler delivers 78,000 Btu of heat. Its thermal efficiency could be calculated as:

A similar definition applies to the efficiency of a heat pump (e.g., the ratio of the desired output to the necessary
input). The desired output is the heating capacity. The necessary input is the electrical power needed to operate
the heat pump. This ratio is called the coefficient of performance of the heat pump, and is abbreviated as COP.
Since the electrical power to operate the heat pump is usually expressed as wattage, the convenient form of the
COP formula is:

For example: Assume the input power to operate a heat pump was 2,000 watts. The heat pumps heating capacity under this condition was 24,000 Btu/hr. Its COP would be:

Notice that the units of watt and Btu/hr both cancel out in this formula. This means the COP is just a number with
no units. The best way to think of COP is the number of units of heat output the heat pump provides per unit of
electrical input energy. If the COP of a heat pump is 3.5, it provides 3.5 units of heat output per unit of electrical
energy input.
One could also think of COP as the number of times better the heat pump is at producing heat relative to an
electrical resistance heating device. The COP of an electrical resistance heating device will always by 1.00.
Another way to think of COP is to multiply it by 100 and use that number as a comparison to the efficiency of electric resistance heat. For example, if electrical resistance heat is 100% efficient, then by comparison, a heat pump
with a COP of 3.5 would be 350% efficient.
The quantities that go into making up the COP of a heat pump are shown in figure 4-6.

28

Qe=3500 watt = 11,946 Btu/hr

Qoutput = Qground + Qelectrical

to
ground
loop

to load

Qg=36,054 Btu/hr heat input

Qo=48,000 Btu/hr

heat output

from
ground
loop

from load

heat output rate(Btu/hr)


electrical input (watt)  3.413
ground heat input rate + electrical heat input rate (Btu/hr)
COP =
electrical input (watt)  3.413
heat output rate(Btu/hr)
48,000
COP =
=
= 4.0
electrical input (watt)  3.413 3500  3.413
COP =

Calculating the COP of a water-to-water heat pump.

The heating capacity or COP of a water-to-water heat pump is very dependent on the operating conditions (e.g.,
the entering source water temperature and its flow rates, as well as the entering load water temperature and its
flow rate). A graph showing how the COP of a ClimateMaster TMW036 heat pump varies as a function of entering
source water temperature and entering load water temperature is shown in figure 4-7.
ClimateMaster TMW036 W/W

ELWT = 80F

6.5
6
Heating COP

5.5
ELWT = 100F

5
4.5
4

ELWT = 120F

3.5
3
2.5
2

20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Entering source water temperature (F)
(source water flow rate = 9 gpm)

COP for water-to-water heat pump vs. entering source water temperature.

This graph shows that the heat pumps COP improves with warmer source water temperatures as well as cooler
load water temperatures. This means its best to keep the water temperature from the ground source as high as
possible, while at the same time keeping the required operating temperature of the hydronic distribution system as
low as possible. High source and low load operating temperatures also improve heating capacity. These are both
key issues when interfacing a water-to-water heat pump with a hydronic distribution system.
The relationship between the heating COP, source water temperature and load water temperature can also be ex-

29

pressed as shown in figure 4-8. Here, heating COP is plotted as a function of the difference between the entering
source water temperature and leaving load water temperature.
10
9
8

Heating COP

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Dierence between entering source
and leaving load water temperature

COP vs. difference between leaving load and entering source water temperature.

Cooling Performance:
A unique benefit of many water-to-water heat pumps is that they are reversible, and thus able to operate as chillers. The cold water they produce can be used for cooling and dehumidifying both residential and commercial
buildings.
Designing a chilled-water cooling system involves knowledge of how choices in the hydronic distribution system
will affect operation of the heat pump. To that end, we will look at the cooling performance of water-to-water heat
pumps in a manner similar to that just discussed for heating performance.
The cooling performance of a water-to-water heat pump can be categorized as follows:
Cooling Capacity
Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER)
Cooling capacity represents the total cooling effect (sensible cooling and latent cooling) that a given heat pump
can produce while operating at specific conditions. As with heating, the cooling ability of a heat pump is affected
by the temperature of the fluid streams passing through the evaporator and condenser. To a lesser extent, its
also affected by the flow rates of these two fluid streams.
The cooling capacity of a ClimateMaster TMW036 water-to-water heat pump is shown graphically in figure 4-9.

30

total cooling capacity (Btu/hr)

45

ClimateMaster TMW036 W/W


ESWT = 50F
ESWT = 70F
ESWT = 90F

40
35
30
25

20

50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
Entering load water temperature (F)

Cooling capacity vs.. entering load water temperature.

As the temperature of the entering load water goes up, so does the cooling capacity. Keep in mind that lower
entering load water temperature will produce better sensible and latent cooling effect. It can also be seen that
increasing temperature from the earth loop decreases the cooling capacity of the heat pump.
The common way to express the cooling efficiency of a water-to-water heat pump is an index called EER (Energy
Efficiency Ratio), which is defined as follows:

Where:
EER = Energy Efficiency Ratio
Qc = cooling capacity (Btu/hr)
We = electrical input wattage to heat pump
The higher the EER of a heat pump, the lower the amount of electrical power being used to produce a given rate
of cooling.

EER (Energy Eciency Ratio) Btu/hr/watt

Like COP, the EER of a water-to-water heat pump is a function of the source and load water temperature, as well
as the source and load water flow rate. This variation is shown in figure 4-10.
35
30
25
20

ClimateMaster TMW036 W/W


ESWT = 50F

ESWT = 70F
ESWT = 90F

15
10
5
0

50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
Entering load water temperature (F)
EER (Energy Efficiency Ratio) vs. entering load water temperature.

31

This plot shows that EER increases as the temperature of the entering load water increases. Keep in mind that
lower entering load water temperatures are better for cooling capacity.
It can also be seen that the cooler the source water (such as supplied from an earth loop heat exchanger), the
higher the EER. Thus, cooling performance will generally be better at the beginning of a cooling season when
earth temperatures are still relatively low, compared to late summer when the earth has warmed.
As was the case with heating, design decisions that reduce the difference between the source water and load
water temperatures will improve the cooling capacity and efficiency (as measured by EER) of the heat pump.
Water-to-water heat pumps are typically coupled with an air handler to provide cooling. The power of the air handler and any additional circulators must also be considered when determining overall system efficiency.
The latter sections of this manual will show you how to combine water-to-water heat pumps with a variety of other
hydronic heating hardware to produce systems for both heating and cooling.

32

Section 5: Thermal Equilibrium


All hydronic systems exhibit certain behaviors regardless of the type of heat source used. One of the most important and universal behaviors is the concept of thermal equilibrium. This section describes this, as well as ways to
use it for both design and troubleshooting.
Once turned on, every hydronic system attempts to establish operating conditions such that the rate of heat input
from the heat sources is exactly the same as the rate of heat released at the heat emitters.
This condition, when achieved, is called thermal equilibrium. If not for the intervention of temperature-limiting controls, every hydronic system would eventually stabilize at a supply water temperature where this thermal equilibrium exists. This temperature may or may not provide proper heat input to the building. Likewise, it may or may
not be conducive to safe and efficient operation or long system life.
By adjusting the size, number or other characteristics of heat emitters in the system, the designer can manipulate the steady state supply water temperature at which the system wants to operate. When properly done, this
allows both the heat source and distribution system to operate at conditions that are safe, efficient, comfortable
and conducive to long system life. If the principle of thermal equilibrium is disregarded, the resulting system may
attempt to stabilize at a supply temperature that is either unsafe, inefficient or shortens the life of the heat source.
In decades past, when fuel was cheap, the North American hydronics industry favored use of high water temperatures, which reduced the required surface area of heat emitters. The reasoning was simple: Why pay for 10 feet
of fin-tube baseboard in a room if 6 feet could do the job using a higher water temperature? This is why youll find
thermal output ratings for fin-tube baseboard that go up to at least 220F. This made sense in a pre-OPEC, preAFUE, pre-EPA era.
Today the picture is very different, and the trend is clear: The future of North American hydronics is reduced operating temperature. This is necessary to allow boilers to operate with sustained flue gas condensation, which in
turn boosts thermal efficiency from the mid-80% to mid-90% range.
Low system operating temperatures are also ideal for geothermal water-to-water heat pumps. The lower the systems operating temperature, the higher the heat output and Coefficient of Performance of the heat pump.
Where Will Thermal Equilibrium Occur? A fundamental principal in sizing any type of hydronic heat emitter is that
heat output is approximately proportional to the difference between supply water temperature and room air temperature. This can be written mathematically as formula 5-1:
Formula 5-1

Where:
Qoutput = heat output of the heat emitter (Btu/hr)
c = a number dependent on the type and size of the heat emitter (Btu/hr/F)
Ts = water temperature supplied to the heat emitter (F)
Tr = room air temperature (F)
This relationship is true for a single heat emitter, as well as a group of heat emitters operating as an overall distribution system.
For example, imagine a building where all the heat emitters (operating as a group) release 100,000 Btu/hr into a
70F space when the distribution system is supplied with water at 170F. The value of the c in formula 5-1 can
be found as follows:

33

This mean that this distribution system releases 1,000 Btu/hr into the space for each F the water supply temperature exceeds the room air temperature. Thus, if the water temperature supplied was 130F, and the space air
temperature was 68F, this distribution system would release:

The term (Ts-Tr) in formula 5-1 is called the driving delta T. It determines the rate that a given distribution system releases heat into the space being heating.
Anything that makes the driving delta T larger (i.e., increasing supply temperature and/or decreasing space air
temperature) increases the rate of heat transfer into the space and vice versa.
Formula 5-1 can also be represented by a graph. Figure 5-1 shows this for the same numbers used in the previous example.

Heat output (Btu/hr)

100000
80000
60000
40000
20000

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
(Ts -Tr) (F)

Heat output vs. driving delta-T for a hydronic distribution system

To construct this graph for a given hydronic distribution system, you need the heat output rate of the distribution
system at one supply water temperature and the associated indoor air temperature. Subtract the indoor air temperature from the supply temperature to get the value of the driving delta T, (Ts-Tr), then plot that point along with
the associated heat output rate. Draw a straight line from this point back to the point (0,0) on the graph. Extend
the straight line in the other direction of high driving delta-T if necessary.
The slope of the line is determined by the number and size of the heat emitters that make up the distribution system. The larger the surface area of the heat emitters, the steeper the slope of the graph (see figure 5-2).

34

Heat output (Btu/hr)

100000
80000

INCREASING thesurface area


of heat emitters lowers
driving delta T for given 
rate of heat delivery

60000
40000
20000

DECREASING surface area


of heat emitters requires higher
driving delta T for given 
rate of heat delivery

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
(Ts -Tr) (F)

Steeper lines indicate distribution systems with greater heat emitter surface area.

Steeper lines mean that a given rate of heat release occurs at lower values of the driving delta T. For a given
room temperature, steeper lines favor lower supply water temperature. This in turn improves the efficiency of
ground source water-to-water heat pumps.
For spaces heated by radiant panels, steeper lines are achieved by closer tube spacing, as shown in figure 5-3.
This lowers the supply temperature at which the floor will deliver a given rate of heat output. Again, this improves
both the heating capacity and COP of ground source water-to-water heat pumps. Radiant heating design software can be used to determine the supply temperature needed for a given rate of heat output from a panel of
specific construction.
Upward heat output (Btu/hr/sq ft)

35
6-inch spacing

30

9-inch spacing
12-inch spacing

25

18-inch spacing

20
15
10
5
0

1/2" PEX-AL-PEX tubing


in 4-inch bare concrete
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

(Ts-Tr) (F)
Heat output vs. driving delta T for a heated floor slab using different tube spacing.

Adding the desired room temperature to the numbers along the bottom axis makes another useful variant of this
graph. The graph now shows heat delivery vs. supply water temperature, and is called a system heat output
graph. Figure 5-4 is an example. Here, the desired indoor air temperature of 70F has been added to the numbers on the horizontal axis of figure 5-1.

35

Heat output (Btu/hr)

100000
80000
60000
40000
20000

70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160170

Supply water temperature (F)


(based on space temperature of 70 F)
Heat output vs. supply water temperature for a specific hydronic distribution system.

You can use a system heat output graph for a given distribution system to find the supply temperature at which
that system will achieve thermal equilibrium with a heat source having a given heat output rate.
First, locate the output rate of the heat source on the vertical axis. Then draw a horizontal line to the right until it
intersects the sloping line. Finally, draw a line straight down to the horizontal axis to read the water supply temperature at which the system wants to operate.
For example: If a water-to-water heat pump having an output rate of 60,000 Btu/hr was coupled to the distribution
system represented by figure 5-4, that system would seek to operate at a supply water temperature of 130F.
This supply water temperature is higher than recommended for some water-to-water heat pumps. To correct for
this, the heat dissipation ability of the distribution system should be increased. If the system used radiant floor
heating, this could be done through closer tube spacing or a floor covering with less thermal resistance. If the
distribution system used radiators, their size could be increased or the number of radiators could be increased.
The Effect of Controls:
Temperature-limiting controls sometimes interfere with a system as it attempts to natural find thermal equilibrium.
Heres how that works.
If the temperature limiting control of the heat source is set below the thermal equilibrium temperature, the heat
emitters in the distribution system will not get hot enough to dissipate the full (steady state) output of the heat
source. The temperature of the water leaving the heat source will climb as the system operates, eventually
reaching the temperature setting of the limit control. At that point, the heat source (burner, compressor, etc.) is
turned off. The water temperature leaving the heat source begins to decrease as heat continues to be dissipated
by the distribution system. Eventually, the temperature drops to the point where the heat source is turned back
on, and the cycle repeats. This is a very common operating mode in many hydronic heating systems that use a
heat source with a fixed rate of heat output. It can even occur under design load conditions in systems having an
oversized heat source.
If the temperature limiting control on the heat source is set above the temperature at which thermal equilibrium
occurs, the water leaving the heat source will not be able to achieve that temperature setting unless the load is reduced or turned off. This explains why some systems never reach the set point of the heat sources limit control,
even after hours of operation. In simple terms, the distribution system doesnt need to climb to the boiler limit con-

36

trol setting to dissipate all the heat the boiler can throw at it. It only climbs as high as necessary so that all boiler
heat input can be released. This is generally OK, provided that the heat source is delivering sufficient heat output
to maintain comfort, and that the heat source is not damaged by operating at lower water temperatures. The latter is not a concern with water-to-water heat pumps.
Trend Toward Lower Temperatures:
Its certain that hydronic heating systems in North America will be designed with increasingly lower supply water
temperatures. This makes sense from the standpoint of efficiency and environment. It also makes sense from
the standpoint of comfort. Large surface area heat emitters improve comfort by increasing the mean radiant temperature of the room. The lower the supply water temperature to the distribution system, the greater the COP of a
water-to-water heat pump.

37

Section 6: Valve Basics


Many types of valves are used in hydronic heating systems. Some are the same as those used in plumbing
systems; others are very specialized. This section discusses proper application of the common valves used in
hydronic systems.
Most general purpose valves fit into two categories based to their intended application:
1. Component Isolation
2. Flow Regulation
Valves designed for component isolation should be either fully open (during normal operation) or fully closed (to
isolate a component for servicing). They should not be set in a partially open position within an operating system.
Noise and eventual mechanical damage to the valve will result from improper use.
Valves designed for flow regulation can operate at any position between fully open and fully closed without creating excessive noise or experiencing mechanical damage.
Common Valves Used in Hydronic Systems:
Gate valves are designed for component isolation service. In their fully open position, they yield very low flow
resistance. They should never be operated in a partially open position.

Gate valve with threaded (FPT) connections.

Globe valves are specifically designed to throttle (e.g., regulate) flow rate through a piping path. Their internal design forces fluid through a sinuous path that creates relatively high flow resistance. They should not be
used as isolation valves because such use causes unnecessary head loss in a normally functioning system.
Because they create pressure drop and turbulence, globe valves should never be located near the inlet of
circulators. Globe valves should always be installed with their flow arrow which is cast into the side of the
valve pointing in the direction of flow.

38

Globe valve cross-section.

Ball valves come in both standard port and full port varieties. The full port version creates slightly less flow
resistance than the standard port version. Both types are designed primarily for component isolation and
create minimal flow resistance in their open position. Minor amounts of flow regulation are possible with ball
valves. However, they should not be operated in an almost closed position because of the potential for cavitation noise and eventual erosion of the internal surfaces. Special types of ball valves are available for high
duty cycle (motorized) applications.

Ball valve with soldered connections.

Check valves are designed to block flow in one direction. There are several variations used in hydronic systems. The simplest is the swing-check. It contains a hinged disc that swings up and out of the path of flow
in the forward direction. As soon as the flow stops, or attempts to reverse direction, the disc swings down to
cover the opening through the valve. Swing-checks must be mounted in an upright position in horizontal piping. Be sure the arrow on the body is pointed in the intended direction of flow.

Swing-check valve with soldered connections.

39

Another variety of check valve is called a flow-check. It contains an internal plug that seats over the hole through
the valve. The plug is sufficiently heavy to prevent the buoyancy of hot water from creating flow through the valve
until the circulator turns on. This plug also blocks flow in the reverse direction. Some flow-check valves come
equipped with knobs allowing them to be manually opened.

Flow-check valve with soldered connections.

Finally, theres the spring-check valve. It uses an internal spring to force the disc of the valve to close whenever
there is no flow through the valve. The spring allows the valve to be installed in any orientation. The spring also
prevents buoyancy-induced flow through the valve when the circulator is off. Spring-checks should be installed
with at least 10 diameters of straight pipe upstream of the valve to minimize turbulence that otherwise can cause
the disc to rattle.

Spring-loaded check valve.

Pressure relief valves Any closed piping loop containing a heat source (be it a boiler, heat exchanger,
electric element or other) must be equipped with a pressure relief valve. These spring-loaded valves are designed to open at a specific rated pressure to prevent higher pressures from developing in the piping circuits
they serve. Pressure relief valves are usually located on or near the heat source. They should be mounted
with their shaft in a vertical position to prevent uneven scale accumulation on their seats. They should always
be equipped with a pipe that directs any discharge toward a drain and away from any occupants. Local
mechanical and plumbing codes should be consulted regarding specific installation requirements of pressure
relief valves.

Pressure relief valve.

40

Pressure-reducing valves, also known as feedwater valves, are part of the make-up water assembly. They
reduce the pressure in the cold-water service pipe to a predetermined pressure before allowing it into the
hydronic system. A typical setting is around 12 psi. It can be adjusted up or down by turning the valves
stem. Whenever the pressure on the downstream (heating system) side of the valve drops below this setting, water is allowed into the system. Some pressure-reducing valves are equipped with a built-in strainer to
prevent particulates from entering the system. Some are also equipped with a low inlet pressure check valve
to prevent reverse flow.

Combination of a backflow preventer and pressure-reducing valve. (Courtesy of Caleffi)

Zone valves are electrically operated valves used to permit or prevent flow through piping circuits serving different parts of a building. The most common zone valves use a 24VAC motor to move the shaft of the valve. Some
use a plug assembly that moves up and down. Others use a ball that rotates on a shaft.

Cross-section of a 2-way zone valve. (Courtesy of Caleffi)

Some zone valves use a thermal motor that requires about 3 minutes to reach the fully open position after power
is applied. Other zone valves use a geared motor and can fully open in only two or three seconds after power is
applied. Because of the relatively slow response of most heating systems, either type of motor works fine.
Many zone valves come equipped with an end switch. It is simply an isolated normally open switch that closes
when the valve stem reaches its fully open position. The closed end switch signals the other parts of the control
system that a zone is calling for heat.

41

Thermostatic Radiator Valves (TRVs) can be installed on heat emitters like baseboard and panel radiators.
They have a thermostatic knob that can be set for a specific temperature. The knob senses the air temperature around it. A fluid-filled internal bellows assembly then moves the stem of the valve as necessary to try to
maintain this temperature. If the thermostatic knob senses an increase in room temperature, it begins closing
the valve to reduce the flow of heated water through the heat emitter, and vice versa.

Thermostatic radiator valve (valve body at bottom, thermostatic operator at top).

All motor force required to operate the TRV comes from the internal bellows. Because they are non-electric, they
cannot signal other parts of the control system that heat is needed at their heat emitter. Instead, they count on
constant flow of heated water through the distribution system. TRVs mounted on individual heat emitters are an
excellent way to zone hydronic systems on a room-by-room basis.

42

Section 7: Pipe Sizing and Head Loss


Most residential and light commercial hydronic systems use smooth tubing. Materials include:

Copper:
PEX
PEX-AL-PEX
Fused Polypropylene
Fused Polyethylene

Selecting a Pipe Size:


In hydronic systems, tubing should be sized so that the flow velocity through it will be in the range of 2 to 4 feet
per second. The flow rate (in gallons per minute) that corresponds to these flow velocities is given in figure 7-1.
Tubing size/
type

Minimum Flow
rate (based on 2
ft/sec) (gpm)

Maximum Flow
rate (based on 4 ft/
sec) (gpm)

3/8 copper

1.0

2.0

1/2 copper

1.6

3.2

3/4 copper

3.2

6.5

1 copper

5.5

10.9

1.25 copper

8.2

16.3

1.5 copper

11.4

22.9

2 copper

19.8

39.6

2.5 copper

30.5

61.1

3 copper

43.6

87.1

3/8 PEX

0.6

1.3

1/2 PEX

1.2

2.3

5/8 PEX

1.7

3.3

3/4 PEX

2.3

4.6

1 PEX

3.8

7.5

1.25 PEX

5.6

11.2

1.5 PEX

7.8

15.6

2 PEX

13.4

26.8

3/8 PEX-AL-PEX

0.6

1.2

1/2 PEX-AL-PEX

1.2

2.5

5/8 PEX-AL-PEX

4.0

3/4 PEX-AL-PEX

3.2

6.4

1 PEX-AL-PEX

5.2

10.4

Minimum and maximum recommended flow rates through tubing.

Flow velocities of 2 feet per second or higher allow water to entrain air bubbles and carry them along. This is
essential in helping purge the piping system of air upon initial start up.
Flow velocities of over 4 feet per second tend to create higher levels of noise. Velocities in excess of 6 feet per
second can cause erosion of the copper tube wall, especially at tight turns in elbows or tees, and thus should be
avoided.
Friction and Head Loss:
All fluids experience flow resistance as they move though piping components. Fluids with greater viscosities (like
glycol antifreeze solutions) experience more flow resistance than pure water.
43

The friction between a fluid and the objects it flows past dissipates mechanical energy from the fluid. This energy
is called head. Every piping component causes some loss of head from the fluid flowing through it. The only
exception is an operating circulator, which adds head energy back into the fluid.
The standard units for expressing head energy are feet of head. It results from dividing another unit of energy
called a foot-pound by a unit of weight (pound). One Btu equals 778 foot-pounds. When you divide foot-pound
by pound, you get just plain foot. Head expressed in feet is therefore the amount of mechanical energy each
pound of fluid contains.

The hydronics industry has typically used 2.31 feet of head = 1 psi as a conversion factor. This is the conversion
for water at 60F. The actual conversion will depend on the temperature and type of fluid used. For example, the
conversion for water at 130F is 2.34 feet of head = 1 psi, whereas, the conversion for 50% propylene glycol in
water at 90F is 2.23 feet of head = 1 psi.

Head and Pressure Drop Are NOT the Same Thing:


The evidence that head has been removed from a fluid flowing through a piping component is a pressure drop
across that component.
For example, the farther a fluid flows along a horizontal pipe, the lower its pressure becomes. Its possible to
convert a loss of head energy into an associated pressure drop, or vice versa. For horizontal piping (so theres no
change in pressure due to changes in elevation), the following formula is used:
Formula 7-1:

Where:
Hloss = head loss between two points on a pipe (feet of head)
P = pressure drop between the two points on the pipe (psi)
D = density of the fluid flowing through the pipe (lb/ft3)
144 = a number based on units used
The head loss a pipe creates depends strongly on the flow rate through it. The relationship, for circuits constructed of smooth tubing, such as copper, PEX and PEX-AL-PEX, can be calculated using formula 7-2:
Formula 7-2

Where:
Hloss = head loss of the pipe (feet of head)
R = the hydraulic resistance of the pipe

44

f = flow rate through the pipe (gpm)


1.75 = the exponent of the flow rate
The hydraulic resistance (R) of a pipe (or other component) depends on several characteristics, including its size
and length as well as the density and viscosity of the fluid flowing through it. It can be calculated using formula
7-3.
Formula 7-3

Where:
a = fluid properties factor (for water see figure 7-2)
c = pipe size factor for tubing used (see figure 7-3)
L = total equivalent length of circuit (feet)
0.065

Value of (a)

0.06
0.055
0.05
0.045

0.04

50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250


Water temperature (F)

Value of a for formula 7-3 (for water).

Tube (size & type)

C value

3/8 type M copper

1.016

1/2 type M copper

0.3335

3/4 type M copper

0.06196

1 type M copper

0.01776

1.25 type M copper

0.006808

1.5 type M copper

0.0030668

2 type M copper

0.00083317

2.5 type M copper

0.0002977

3 type M copper

0.0001278

3/8 PEX (I.D. = 0.36)

2.9336

1/2 PEX (I.D. = 0.475)

0.7862

5/8 PEX (I.D. = 0.584)

0.2947

3/4 PEX (I.D. = 0.670)

0.1535

1 PEX (I.D. = 0.86)

0.04688

3/8 PEX-AL-PEX (I.D. = 0.35)

3.354

1/2 PEX-AL-PEX (I.D. = 0.47)

0.8267

5/8 PEX-AL-PEX (I.D. = 0.63)

0.2056

3/4 PEX-AL-PEX (I.D. = 0.79)

0.07016

1 PEX-AL-PEX (I.D. = 0.98)

0.0252

Value of c for formula 7-3.

45

Piping components such as fittings and valves also have a hydraulic resistance. They can be treated as pipes
with equivalent lengths that would create the same head loss as the component itself. This allows the entire piping
circuit to be considered as a single pipe equal in length to the total length of the piping, plus the total equivalent
lengths of all the piping components.
The equivalent length of several common fittings and valves can be read from the table in figure 7-4.

Equivalent length of fittings and valves.

Once the hydraulic resistance of a piping circuit is known, the head loss of that circuit at different flow rates can be
calculated using formula 7-2.
If the head loss is calculated at several different flow rates, and the resulting numbers are plotted, the result would
be a graph like that shown in figure 7-5.

head loss (feet)

15
10
5

4
6
8
flow rate (gpm)

10

Example of a system head loss curve,

This graph is called the system head loss curve for that piping system. Every closed-loop piping system has a
system curve; its just a matter of calculating its exact appearance.
Heres an example: The piping circuit shown in figure 7-6 is constructed of 3/4 copper tube. It operated with water at an average temperature of 140F. Using the previously discussed formulas and data, determine the hydraulic resistance of this circuit and plot its system curve.
10 ft.

3 ft.
globe
valve

2 ft.
8 ft.

all tube & fitting are 3/4" copper

5 ft.
8 ft.

gauge
2 ft.

ball
valve

ball
valve

2 ft.
2 ft.
Piping circuit for example calculation.

46

16 ft.

2 ft.

2 ft.

Solution: The total equivalent length of this circuit is the sum of the tubing lengths plus the equivalent lengths of all
fittings and valves in the flow path:
L = 62 + 6x2 + 2x3 + 1x0.4 + 1x20 + 2x2.2 = 104.8 = 105 ft.
The value of (a) for water at 140F (from figure 7-2) is 0.0476.
The value of c for 3/4-inch copper (from figure 7-3) is 0.061957.
Putting these together in formula 7-3 determines the hydraulic resistance of the circuit:

Formula 7-2 can then be used to determine the head loss of this circuit at a given flow rate:

Figure 7-7 shows the results of substituting a few random flow rates into formula 7-2 and plotting the results.

HL = 0.3097  f

1.75

flow rate 
(US gpm)

head loss 
(feet)

0
3
6
9
12

0
2.11
7.12
14.48
23.96

head loss (feet)

25
20
15
10
5

10

12

flow rate (gpm)


Calculating values of head loss and plotting the system head loss curve.

Appendix C contains pressure drop graphs for copper tube and PEX pipe.

47

Section 8: Circulators
The circulator is the heart of a hydronic circuit. It adds head to the fluid, which creates the pressure differential
forcing fluid to move through the circuit. The circulators used in hydronic systems are classified as centrifugal
pumps. Figure 8-1 shows a cross-section of such a pump.
discharge port

inlet
stator
rotor

flange
volute

junction box

impeller

impeller disks (2)


impeller

volute
impeller vanes

flange bolt
flange

"eye" of impeller

rotor can
ceramic bushing
outlet

inlet port
Components of a wet-rotor circulator.

After flowing through the inlet port, fluid is channeled through the intake volute to the eye of the spinning impeller. Curved vanes on the impeller push the fluid outward between two disks. This is where mechanical energy
called head is transferred to the fluid. The fluid discharges from the perimeter of the impeller and is gathered up
by the outlet volute (the chamber in which the impeller spins). The fluid is then routed to the discharge port, its
pressure having been raised. Its flow rate, however, is still the same as when it entered.
When the inlet and discharge ports are aligned along a common centerline, the circulator is called an inline circulator. Some circulators have their intakes parallel to the impeller shaft and are called end suction circulators.
Most circulators used in residential and light commercial systems use the inline configuration. The end suction
configuration is more common in larger floor-mounted circulators.
Circulator Performance:
The ability of a circulator to move fluid cannot be expressed by a single number. Instead, its given as a graph
called a pump curve. An example is shown in figure 8-2.
25

head (feet)

20

15

10

0
0

10

12

flow rate (gpm)


Example of a pump curve for a small wet-rotor circulator.

48

Pump curves show how much head the circulator adds to the fluid as it flows through at a specific flow rate. For
example, the circulator represented by the pump curve in figure 9-2 adds 12 feet of head to a fluid flowing through
it at 8 gpm. A circulator always operates at some point on its pump curve.
The head added to a fluid by a given circulator operating at a specific flow rate does NOT, for all practical purposes, depend on the fluid itself. For example, a circulator pumping a 50% glycol solution at 8 gpm would add
the same amount of head as it would pumping pure water at 8 gpm. However, the pressure increase of the glycol
solution as it flows through the circulator will not be the same as for water. The pressure increase for either fluid
can be calculated using formula 8-1:
Formula 8-1

Where:
Prise = pressure increase due to head added by circulator (psi)
Hadded = head added by circulator (feet of head)
D = density of fluid (lb/ft3)
The densities of water and a 30% solution of propylene glycol/water are shown in figure 8-3.
30% propylene glycol
water

65

Density (lb/ft3)

64
63
62
61
60
59
58

30

80

130

180

230

280

Temperature (F)
The density of water and a 30% solution of propylene glycol.

Because the density of a glycol solution is slightly greater than that of pure water, the pressure increase across
the circulator would be slightly higher for the glycol solution than for pure water.
To find the flow rate a circulator would produce in a specific pipe system, the system curve is overlaid on (drawn
over) the pump curve. The intersection of the curves is where the head supplied by the circulator exactly equals
the head removed by fluid friction. Its called the operating point. The flow rate at the operating point is found
by dropping straight down to the horizontal axis, as shown in figure 8-4. Using this method, the system curve of
any piping circuit can be overlaid on the pump curve of any circulator to find what the flow rate would be if such a
combination were to be used. Its a powerful design tool that eliminates a lot of guess work.

49

25
system curve
20

head (feet)

pump curve
15
operating point
10

0
0

10

12

flow rate (gpm)


Intersection of the pump curve and system curve.

Measuring the Flow Rate through a Circulator:


Because a circulator always operates along its pump curve, its possible to determine the flow rate through it without using a flowmeter. All thats required is an accurate measurement of the pressure gain across the circulator,
and a copy of the circulators pump curve.
The pressure gain across the circulator can be measured by installing accurate pressure gauges near (or directly
into) the inlet and outlet flanges of the circulator, as shown in figure 8-5. The differential pressure can also be
determined using a single differential pressure gauge connected to both these locations.

10 psi

differential
pressure
across circulator

14 psi

Differential pressure measured across an operating circulator.

The procedure is as follows:


1. Measure the pressure increase across the circulator using gauges on, or very close to, the inlet and outlet
flanges. Some larger circulators come with their flanges already drilled and tapped for these gauges. Another option is to install a single pressure gauge on a tee between two ball valves. The other sides of the ball valves are
teed into the piping adjacent to the inlet and outlet flanges. Open one ball valve to read inlet pressure. Close it.
Then open the other valve to read outlet pressure.
2. Convert this pressure increase to an equivalent amount of head gain.

Where:
Hadded = head added by circulator (feet of head)
Prise = pressure increase due to head added by circulator (psi)
D = density of fluid (lb/ft3)
144 = a constant required for the units used
To use this formula, you need to estimate the density of the fluid being pumped. A graph of the density of water

50

at various temperatures is given in appendix B. You can look up the density of antifreeze solutions on technical
specification sheets supplied by the manufacturer.
3. Find the calculated value of head on the vertical axis of the pump curve graph, then draw a horizontal line from
that value over to the pump curve. The intersection of this line and the curve is the operating point of the circulator.
4. Finally, draw a line straight down from the operating point and read the operating flow rate on the horizontal
axis.
Circulator Efficiency:
The efficiency at which a circulator converts the electrical energy supplied to its motor into head depends on
where it operates along its pump curve. Peak efficiency occurs near the center of the pump curve (see figure
8-6). When selecting a circulator for a piping circuit, the operating point should fall within the center third of the
pump curve to achieve reasonably good efficiency.
pump curve
efficiency
maximum efficiency

0.2

16

0.15

12

0.1

0.05

H =head added (feet)

circulator (wire-to-water) efficiency

0.25

0
0

10 12 14 16 18

flow rate (gpm)


The efficiency of a small wet-rotor circulator.

Cavitation:
One thing hydronic circulators dont handle well is when the fluid theyre trying to move flashes into a vapor as it
enters their impellers. This can happen at fluid temperatures above and below 212F, depending on the pressure
in the system. Water boils whenever its drops below its vapor pressure. The vapor pockets formed when the
water boils at the eye of the impeller collapse as they flow out through the impeller vanes. This collapse happens
with incredible speed and can actually erode hardened metal surfaces if it persists. A pump thats operating with
severe cavitation will make rumbling and popping sounds. If left unchecked, severe cavitation can destroy the
impeller and parts of the volute in a short period of time. The performance of a cavitating circulator will also be a
fraction of its normal performance. Cavitation simply must be avoided in all hydronic systems.
Guidelines for avoiding cavitation:
Dont allow the system to operate with abnormally low pressure upstream of the circulator. At any given
temperature, the lower the pressure, the closer the water is to boiling as it enters the circulator. Most systems
should be fine if kept within the normal 10 to 20 psi (boiler pressure) operating range. Slightly higher pressures are fine as long as the relief valve doesnt prematurely open.
Mount the circulator so it pumps away from the expansion tank connection point. This allows the pressure

51

differential created by the circulator to be added to the static pressure in the system. If the circulator pumps
toward the expansion tank, its pressure differential will show up as a decrease in pressure at the worst possible spot the eye of the impeller. This is a very cordial invitation for cavitation.
Dont operate the system at excessively high temperatures. Personally, I seldom find any reason to operate
a residential or light commercial hydronic heating system with supply temperatures in excess of 200F. The
higher the water temperature, the closer the water is to its boiling point, and hence to cavitation.
Always install the circulator with a minimum of 10 pipe diameters of straight pipe on its inlet side. This reduces turbulence entering the impeller. Never install a throttling valve or other piping component with high flow
resistance near the inlet of a circulator.
All other factors being equal, lower RPM circulators are less prone to cavitation than higher RPM circulators.
Circulators with steep pump curves that are improperly applied are also more susceptible to cavitation than
circulators with relatively flat pump curves.

52

Section 9: Hydraulic Equilibrium


As is the case with thermal equilibrium, every hydronic system always seeks to operate at a condition called hydraulic equilibrium. This is a condition in which the mechanical energy imparted to the fluid by the circulator(s) is
exactly balanced with the mechanical energy dissipated from the fluid due to flow resistance of the piping, fittings,
valves and any other components the fluid flows through.
Recall from previous sections that the mechanical energy imparted to the fluid by the circulator is called head.
The evidence that head energy has been added to a fluid as it moves through a circulator is an increase in pressure, as shown in figure 9-1. This increase in pressure is often called the P (pronounced delta-P). The fluid flow
rate does not increase across the circulator, and neither do the flow velocity or temperature.
differential
pressure
across circulator

10 psi

14 psi

An increase in pressure across the operating circulator is the evidence that head energy has been added to the water.

The exact head energy imparted to a fluid by a circulator depends on the pump curve for the circulator. An example of pump curves is shown in figure 9-2
40
"steep" pump curve
(high head circulator)

head added (feet)

35
30
25
20

"flat" pump curve

15
10
5
0
0

10

12

14

16

flow rate (gpm)


Example of pump curves for different circulators.

Note that the curves start high and descend as the flow rate increases. Thus a circulator imparts maximum head
energy to a fluid when the fluid is not actually flowing (i.e., perhaps a valve is closed elsewhere in the circuit). Although such a dead head condition is possible, it is not normal. As the flow rate through the circulator increases,
the head energy added to each pound of fluid decreases.
Every hydronic circulator has a pump curve. Its typically shown in literature or found in the specifications at the
manufacturers website.
Also recall from previous sections that every piping system has a head loss curve such as the one shown in
figure 9-3.

53

25

head (feet)

20

15

10

0
0

10

12

flow rate (gpm)


Example of system head loss curve.

Hydraulic equilibrium occurs when the head energy added by the circulator exactly matches the head energy dissipation by the other components in the system. This condition, illustrated in figure 9-4, typically occurs within a
few seconds after the circulator is turned on.

head energy DISSIPATION


due to fluid friction in
piping components

head energy INPUT


from circulator

The circulator adds head energy to fluid. All other piping components (with flow through them) dissipate head energy.

The flow rate at which a given piping circuit with a given circulator will operate at, when it achieves hydraulic
equilibrium, is easy to find. Just draw the system head loss curve on the same graph as the pump curve for the
circulator, and find where the curves cross (see figure 9-5).

54

25
system curve
20

head (feet)

pump curve
15
operating point
10

0
0

10

12

flow rate (gpm)


Hydraulic equilibrium occurs where the pump curve crosses the system head loss curve.

The point where the curves cross is called the systems operating point. A line drawn straight down from this
point to the horizontal axis will give the flow rate where the head energy input from the circulator exactly balances
the head energy dissipation by the piping circuit (e.g., the flow rate at hydraulic equilibrium).
Remember, EVERY hydronic system will always achieve hydraulic equilibrium once the circulator is operating.
There is no guarantee that this condition will deliver the correct amount of heat to the spaces, or that the operating
condition is efficient or even safe. Nature doesnt care about the same concerns as the hydronic system designer.
It only cares that hydraulic equilibrium is achieved.
A well-designed hydronic system will deliver the proper amount of heat to each space, operate with minimal
sound, minimize the required pumping input power and do all these things while operating under hydraulic equilibrium.

55

Section 10: Expansion Tanks


All closed-loop hydronic heating systems require an expansion tank to accommodate the increased volume of the
heated fluid. Modern systems use a diaphragm-type expansion tank. Such tanks are pre-charged with air. The
air is trapped between the steel shell of the tank and a flexible polymer diaphragm, which moves back and forth
as water moves into and out of the tank, as depicted in figure 10-1. A Schrader valve at the bottom of the tank
allows the air pressure within the tank to be adjusted.

water
water

air
diaphragm

air
diaphragm
air is compressed
as expanding water
pushes into tank

compressed air
pushes contracting
water back into system

air valve

air valve

Movement of the diaphragm as heated water enters the expansion tank.

Locating the Expansion Tank:


The point where the expansion tank connects to the system piping is called the point of no pressure change
(PONPC). Ideally, this point should be close to the inlet side of the circulator(s) in the system. Such placement
allows the differential pressure developed by the circulator to add to the static pressure in the system. This condition helps prevent circulator cavitation and helps in air elimination. You will see this detail shown on nearly all the
piping schematics in this publication.
Sizing Diaphragm-type Expansion Tanks:
Modern hydronic systems typically have expansion tanks in which the system fluid is separated from the enclosed air by a flexible diaphragm. When the system is installed, the pressure in the air side of the expansion
tank should be adjusted to equal the static pressure of the fluid at that location in the system. This ensures the
diaphragm is fully expanded against the tanks shell before the water begins expanding due to heating (see figure
10-2).

56

cold water

diaphragm
(expanded against
tank shell)
PRESSURIZED
AIR
steel tank shell

air valve
The diaphragm is fully expanded against the upper portion of the tank shell when the water is cold, and the air side of the tank is
properly pressurized.

Sizing Step 1: The proper air-side pressure can be calculated with the formula 10-1:
Formula 10-1

Where:
Pair = the proper air-side pressure (before adding water to the system) (psi)
H = the height of liquid in the system above the inlet to the expansion tank (feet)
Dc = the density of the system fluid at its initial (cold) fill temperature (lb/cubic foot)
5 = an allowance for 5 psi static pressure at the top of the system.
This formula can be used for systems containing either water or antifreeze solutions. It requires the density of
the cold fluid used to fill the system. For water, use a value of 62.4 lbs/cubic foot. For other fluids, look up their
density at 60F in the manufacturers literature.
The number 5 at the end of the formula assumes 5 psi of static pressure is desired at the top of the piping system
to help push air out through vents, as well as to suppress vapor pocket formation in high-temperature systems.
This number can be adjusted up or down. Higher values will result in larger expansion tank sizes and vice versa.
The value H in the formula is the vertical distance from the inlet of the expansion tank to the top of the piping
system (in feet). The greater this height is, the greater the static pressure on the tank, and thus the higher the airside pressurization required to ensure the diaphragm remains fully expanded when the system is filled.
Its important to calculate the air-side pressure and adjust it as necessary using the Schrader valve on the tank
before adding fluid to the system. This ensures that the diaphragm will not be partially compressed when the
system is filled.
Sizing Step 2: Estimate the volume of liquid in the system (excluding the expansion tank). The volume of tubing
can be estimated using the data in figure 10-3. The volume of the boiler and other components is typically listed
on the manufacturers specification sheets. Add these component volumes together to get the total estimated
system volume.

57

Tube type / size

Gallons/foot

3/8" type M copper

0.008272

1/2" type M copper

0.0132

3/4" type M copper

0.0269

1" type M copper

0.0454

1.25" type M copper

0.068

1.5" type M copper

0.095

2" type M copper

0.165

2.5" type M copper

0.2543

3" type M copper

0.3630

3/8" PEX

0.005294

1/2" PEX

0.009609

5/8" PEX

0.01393

3/4" PEX

0.01894

1" PEX

0.03128

1.25" PEX

0.04668

1.5" PEX

0.06516

2" PEX

0.1116

3/8" PEX-AL-PEX

0.00489

1/2" PEX-AL-PEX

0.01038

5/8" PEX-AL-PEX

0.01658

3/4" PEX-AL-PEX

0.02654

1" PEX-AL-PEX

0.04351

Volume data for different types of tubing.

Sizing Step 3: Calculate the required minimum expansion tank volume using formula 10-2:
Formula 10-2:

Where:
Vt = the required minimum volume of the expansion tank (gallons)
Vs = the system volume (gallons)
PRV = the pressure at which the pressure relief valve opens (psi)
Pa = the correct air-side pressure (psi)
Dh = the density of the system fluid at its final (hot) temperature (lb/cubic foot)
Dc = the density of the system fluid at its initial (cold) fill temperature (lb/cubic foot)
The volume of the system (Vs) was estimated in step 2. The air-side pressurization (Pa) was determined in step
1, as was the density of the fluid when the system will filled (Dc). The pressure relief valve setting (PRV) on most
residential and light commercial systems is 30 psi.
What remains is to look up the density of the fluid when the system is at maximum temperature. For water or
30% propylene glycol, use the graph shown in figure 10-4. For other fluids, look up the density in the manufacturers literature for the concentration being used.

58

30% propylene glycol


water

65

Density (lb/ft3)

64
63
62
61
60
59
58

30

80

130

180

230

280

Temperature (F)
Density of water and 30% solution of propylene glycol.

Example: The top of a hydronic distribution system is 20 feet above the expansion tank connection. The system
is filled with 60F water. Based on the amount of piping and boiler volume, its estimated that the system contains
22 gallons of water. The boiler is equipped with a 30-psi relief valve. The maximum operating temperature of the
system will be 200F. Whats the minimum expansion tank volume required?
Step 1: Calculate the air-side pressurization using formula 1:

From figure 29, the density of water at 200F is 59.9 lb/cubic foot. Putting the numbers in formula 2 yields:

This is the minimum expansion tank volume required for this system. Using a larger volume tank is fine. An
oversized expansion tank reduces variations in system pressure between its temperature extremes, but also adds
to cost.

59

Section 11: Basic Hydronic Controls


There are a wide variety of controls for modern hydronic systems. They range from standard room thermostats to
a sophisticated multi-stage heat source controller to mixing devices.
This section will look at the controllers and concepts most often used in residential and light commercial systems,
and focus specifically on those most useful for hydronic systems using ground source heat pumps.
Zoning:
One of the most common control requirements for hydronics is zoning. Two common methods for zoning are:
Multiple zone circulators
Multiple zone valves
Zoning with Circulators:
An example of a multiple zone circulator system is shown in figure 11-1.

zone
circulators
(w/ checks)

temperature
controller

supply
header
sensor
in well

purge
valves

T&P
ports
return header

earth loop
circulator

GSHP
purging
valves

earth loop circuits

Zoning using circulators.

60

Buffer tank

In this system, each zone of heat distribution has its own circulator. Each circulator is equipped with an integral
(or external) check valve to prevent reverse flow through inactive zones when other zones are operating. All zone
circulators draw heated water from a common supply header, and return cooler water to a common return header.
A purging valve is located at the end of each zone circuit to expedite air removal at start-up or after servicing.
Heated water is constantly available from the buffer tank. The temperature within the buffer tank is maintained by
operating the GSHP. We will discuss buffer tanks in more detail later in this section.
There are several ways to operate the zone circulators. One would be to use line voltage thermostats wired
directly to each circulator. This is simple and its efficient because there is no need for a low-voltage control circuit and its associated transformer. However, the selection of line voltage thermostats is much more limited than
thermostats that operate on 24 VAC power.
Another common method of controlling zone circulators is via a multi-zone relay center as shown in figure 11-2.
120 VAC
L1 N

normally-closed priority contact


DHW tank
aquastat
(A1)

L1

room
thermostat
(T2)

T1

T1

T2

C1

C1 C2

T2

room
thermostat
(T3)

room
thermostat
(T4)

room
thermostat
(T5)

room
thermostat
(T6)

T3

T3

T4

T4

T5

T5

T6

T6

C2 C3

C3

C4

C4 C5

C5

C6

C6

to boiler
high limit control

C1

C2

C3

C4

C5
C6
zone circulators

Internal and external views of a multi-zone relay center.

The multi-zone relay center combines all the electrical devices necessary to operate several zone circulators using 24 VAC thermostats. This includes a 24 VAC power supply for the thermostats. Multi-zone relay centers also

61

have an isolated relay contact that closes whenever any one or more of the zones is active. The X X terminals
within the relay center connect to this contact, which can be used to signal other control devices within the overall
control circuit that at least one zone is active. The X X terminals are commonly used to signal the heat source to
operate.
Most multi-zone relay centers now include a priority zone. When enabled, this function allows one zone (usually
zone #1) to take priority over all remaining zones. If the priority zone is active, all other zones are temporarily prevented from operating. A common application for this is turning off space heating during a call for domestic water
heating. Priority control usually includes a time out feature that allows the other zones to continue operating if
the priority zone has been on for a set period of time (30 minutes is common).
Most currently available multi-zone relay centers are available with connections for 3, 4 or 6 zones. If more than 6
zones are needed, the system can be expanded by daisy-chaining additional zone relay centers together. Such
systems still retain the ability to provide priority zone control.
Zoning with Valves:
Zoning with electrically operated zone valves is also common. This method of zone control is currently growing
in popularity because of the availability of variable-speed, pressure-regulated circulators, which are ideal for such
systems.
An example of the same system shown in figure 11-1, only using zone valves rather than zone circulators, is
shown in figure 11-3.

zone
valves

temperature
controller

sensor
in well

variable speed
pressure-regulated
circulator
purge
valves

T&P
ports

return header

earth loop
circulator

GSHP

Buffer tank

purging
valves

earth loop circuits

Zoning with a zone valve and variable speed circulator.

The only difference is that the zone circulators have been replaced with electrically operated zone valves, and a
single variable-speed circulator is used to create flow.

62

Zoning with valves and a variable-speed, pressure-regulated circulator will generally use significantly less electrical energy to operate the distribution system over the course of a heating season. This is due to the circulator
automatically reducing speed as zone valves close, and vice versa. In this way, the pumping power is always
matched to the load. Some examples of these circulators are shown in figure 11-4.

Two examples of variable-speed, pressure-regulated circulators using electronically commutated motors.

Multi-zone relay panels are also available for systems using zone valves. They offer similar priority zoning and
zone expansion options to those used with zone circulators.
Outdoor Reset Control:
A perfect heating system would constantly adjust its rate of heat delivery to match the heat loss of a building. This
would allow the indoor air temperature to remain perfectly stable regardless of outside conditions.
With hydronic heating, this condition can be closely approximated using a technique called outdoor reset control
(ORC).
The control process thats continually operating in an outdoor reset controller is as follows:
1. Measure outdoor temperature.
2. Calculate the ideal target supply water temperature for the distribution system.
3. Operate one or more devices in the system to steer the systems supply temperature toward the target value.
When properly configured, outdoor reset control is like cruise control for a hydronic heating system, allowing it to
deliver just the right amount of heat so room air temperature doesnt overshoot or undershoot the desired setting.
In addition to stable room temperature, outdoor reset control provides the following benefits:
Improved heat source efficiency: ORC allows the water temperature supplied by the heat source to reach a
temperature just hot enough to supply the current heating load. This, in turn, allows a GSHP system to operate at the minimum condenser operating temperature commensurate with the load. Doing so maximizes both
COP and heating capacity of the GSHP.
Quasi-continuous circulation: Because the water is just warm enough to meet the current heating load, the
distribution circulator is almost always operating. This allows heat to be continually stirred within the distribution system. In the case of a heated concrete slab, floor areas covered with low-resistance floor coverings
tend to cool faster than areas covered by carpets. If circulation stops when the thermostat is satisfied, owners will notice differences in floor surface temperatures. However, with constant circulation, heat from warmer
floor areas can be moved to cooler floor areas to minimize these differences. Continuous circulation also
minimizes expansion sounds because materials within the heating system warm up and cool down at much
slower rates than with on/off circulation.

63

Indoor temperature limiting: In systems not using outdoor reset control, its common to supply water to the
heating system at a temperature high enough to meet the heating load requirement on the coldest day of the
year. This allows the heating system to deliver heat much faster than necessary during partial load conditions. Occupants can set the thermostat to a high setting and simply open a window or door to control overheating. Although this sounds like a foolish practice, its often done in rental properties where tenants dont
pay for their utilities. However, when outdoor reset control is used, the water is just hot enough to meet the
prevailing load with the windows and doors closed.
Reduced energy use: One of the most attractive features of outdoor reset control is its demonstrated ability to
reduce fuel consumption in both residential and commercial buildings. Although exact savings vary from one
project to another, conservative estimates of 10-15% are common.
The common method for expressing what an outdoor reset control does is a graph like the one shown in figure
10-4.

Example of a reset line.

The line on the graph is called a reset line. It indicates the ideal target supply water temperature to the distribution system for a corresponding outdoor temperature. For example, using the reset line shown in figure 11-4, the
target supply temperature when its 0F outside is approximately 114F. When its 40F outside, the target temperature is only 88F.
The slope of the reset line is called the reset ratio. This slope is an adjustable setting on an outdoor reset controller. Steeper slopes are appropriate for higher temperature distribution systems, such as those used for fin-tube
baseboard. Shallow slopes are appropriate for lower temperature systems, such as slab-type radiant floor heating.
Figure 11-5 shows some representative reset lines for different types of distribution systems.

64

f lo
or

180 F

ra

di
a

nt

170

sp
en
de
d

tu
be

150
130

e
at

ra

a
di

nt

or
f lo

t
ia n
ad

150 F

or
f lo 130 F

pl
&
br
e
oor 110 F
b
s la
t fl
tu hin
ia n
t
d
a
br
s la

su

Water supply temperature (F)

190

110
90

70
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 -10
Outdoortemperature
temperature (F)(F)
Outdoor

Examples of reset lines for different hydronic heat emitters.

The appropriate reset line for a given system depends upon the heat loss characteristics of the building, as well
as the heat output characteristics of the hydronic distribution system.
To determine the appropriate reset line, one needs to know the supply water temperature requirement of the distribution system at design load, as well as the corresponding outdoor temperature at design load.
For example, imagine a radiant panel heating system has been designed to provide a design heating load of
50,000 Btu/hr when the outdoor temperature is 0F. To release 50,000 Btu/hr, the distribution system must be
supplied with 110F water. The reset line for this system can be determined by plotting this condition as shown in
figure 11-6.
design heating load condition

105
100

lin

95

se
t

90

re

supply water temperature (F)

110

85
80
75
70
70

no heat load condition


60

50 40 30 20 10
outdoor temperature (F)

The reset line goes between design load condition and no-load condition.

The reset line connects the design heating load condition (upper right) to the point 70,70 (lower left). The latter
represents a no-heating load condition (e.g., when the outdoor temperature is 70F, and the supply water temperature is also 70F, there will be no heat transfer from the distribution system.)
The reset ratio for a reset line is the overall difference in supply water temperature divided by the overall difference in outdoor temperature. In the case of the reset line in figure 11-6:

65

Many outdoor reset controllers need to be set to the systems proper reset ratio when the system is commissioned.
When a GSHP is used as the heat source, the upper supply water temperature will typically be 120F for Genesis
(R-22-based) systems and 140F for specifically engineered R-410a systems, such as the ClimateMaster THW
series. Thus, distribution systems that require higher temperatures are likely not satisfactory for use in GSHP
systems.

Implementing Outdoor Reset Control:


There are two ways to implement outdoor reset control in hydronic heating systems:
1. Turning the heat source on and off to maintain an average supply water temperature close to the target
temperature represented by the reset line.
2. Using a mixing device to control the target temperature to the distribution system.
The second method assumes the heat source can produce water temperatures higher than required by the distribution system. Although this is possible when a GSHP serves as the heat source, it is not necessarily the most
efficient approach because the heat pumps COP is lowered by operating at temperatures higher than necessary.
Thus, the first method of turning the heat pump on and off to maintain an average supply water temperature close
to the target temperature is generally used in such systems.

Supply water temperature (F)

The variance between actual supply temperature and calculated target temperature is due to a required temperature differential between compressor on and compressor off states. Without this differential, short cycling
would occur. This differential is illustrated in figure 11-7.

130
120
differential
110
contacts on reset control open 
(@ 1/2 differential above 
target temperature)
to turn off heat pump
calculated target temperature

100
90
80
70
70 60 50 40 30 20 10

contacts on reset control close 


(@ 1/2 differential below 
target temperature)
to enable heat pump
-10 -20

Outdoor temperature (F)


The reset line along with upper and lower differential lines.

An example of an outdoor reset controller is shown in figure 11-8. Notice the dials for setting the steepness of the
reset line (reset ratio), the maximum allowed supply temperature, and the differential between compressor on
and compressor off (differential centered on the target temperature).

66

Example of an outdoor reset controller.

The ClimateMaster THW series heat pump has a built-in outdoor reset control. With this control the installer
simply needs to input four variables to establish the outdoor reset line. The four variables are the outdoor design
temperature, the maximum buffer tank temperature, the building balance point temperature (the outdoor temperature at which heating is no longer needed), and the minimum buffer tank temperature.
The water temperature supplied to a distribution system can also be adjusted based on outdoor reset control using a motorized mixing valve or injection-mixing controller. This action is called mixing reset control. The mixing
device allows the water temperature supplied to a portion of the distribution system to be reduced below that of
the other portion.
An example of such a system would be a building with two different types of radiant panel heating. One of the
radiant panel subsystems requires 120F water at design load, and the other requires 105F at design load.
In this case, the buffer tank would be maintained to supply the higher of these temperatures, and the lower temperature system would be supplied through the mixing device (see figure 11-9).

67

higher 
temperature
load
(120F @ design)

lower 
temperature
load
(105F @ design)

outdoor
temperature
sensors

integral
check
valve

supply temperature sensor

zone
circulators

3-way motorized mixing valve


temperature
controller
supply
header

120 F water
temperature
@ design load
sensor
in well

T&P
ports

check
valve

purge
valves

return header

earth loop
circulator

GSHP

Buffer tank

purging
valves

earth loop circuits

The 3-way motorized mixing valve can operate with outdoor reset control logic.

It is possible, although not always necessary, to use both on/off heat source reset and mixing reset in the same
system. In such cases, the reset control results in decreased fuel use, while mixing reset control optimizes comfort.
Multi-stage Heat Source Control
In large residential and commercial buildings, it is common to use two or more heat sources operated in stages to
better match heat output to building heating load. This staging control has been used for several decades with
boilers and is equally applicable to GSHP systems.

heating load (Btu/hr)

Consider the load profile shown in figure 11-10a. The load begins at zero, increases steadily for several hours
until reaching full design load, remains at design load for several hours, and finally decreases to half load and
remains there.

design load

one stage

time (hr)
24 hr

A hypothetical heating load profile.

68

heating load (Btu/hr)

Figure 11-10b shows how a single stage heat source (boiler, heat pump or other on/off heat source) would operate in an attempt to match the load. Notice there is considerable excess heat output whenever the load is less
than design load. The heat source is on for a time, and then coasts through an off period in an attempt to balance heat supply with heat loss.

design load

one stage

time (hr)
24 hr

A match between the heating load profile and a single stage heat source.

heating load (Btu/hr)

Figure 11-10c shows the same load with two equal stages of on/off heat source control. Although there is still
some overshoot of heat production relative to the load, as well as some coasting time, the overall match is definitely an improvement relative to a single stage heat source.

design load

two stages

cycling of stage 2

stage 2 on 
continuously
stage 1 on continuously
time (hr)
cycling of stage 1

24 hr

A match between the heating load profile and a two-stage heat source.

heating load (Btu/hr)

Figure 11-10d shows the same load with four equal stages of heat source output. This results in further refinement of the output relative to the load.
stage 4

design load

four stages

stage 3
stage 2
stage 1

time (hr)
24 hr

A match between the heating load profile and a four-stage heat source.

In theory, additional stages of heat output would further improve the match. However, the cost of adding stages
doesnt always provide a reasonable return on investment relative to the benefit. Systems with 2, 3, 4 and possibly 8 stages of on/off heat output are the most common.
Figure 11-11 shows an example of a 4-stage controller. Note that dry contact outputs are used, enabling the controller to operate any on/off heat source.

69

Example of a 4-stage heat source controller. (Courtesy of tekmar)

Its also possible to use multi-unit staging control in combination with 2-stage heat pumps. A 2-stage heat pump
has two compressors that can be independently operated. In such cases, the operating order would typically be:
a. heat pump #1/compressor 1
b. heat pump #1/compressor 2
c. heat pump #2/compressor 1
d. heat pump #2/compressor 2
etc.
An example of a system using two 2-stage water-to-water heat pumps to supply a common buffer tank is shown in
figure 11-11.

70

zone
valves
2-stage
w/w heat
pumps

zone
valves

zone
valves

pressure-regulated
variable-speed
ECM circulator

zone
valves
(1 / stage)

zone
valves
(1 / stage)

cold water
DHW
electic
booster 
heater

variable speed
pressure-regulated
circulator

pressure-regulated
variable-speed
ECM circulator

to/from
earth loop

to/from
auxiliary boiler

PRV

make-up water assembly

pressure-regulated
variable-speed
ECM circulator

buffer tank w/ large interior


coils for DHW preheating

expansion
tank

Example of a system using two 2-stage water-to-water heat pumps to supply a buffer tank.

Staging controllers can be configured for this type of paired compressor staging.
Staging controllers can also be configured to rotate the operating order of the heat sources so that each unit
accumulates approximately the same number of run time hours. This prevents one unit from wearing out much
soon than another.
The ClimateMaster THW series heat pump has the capability to control a second-stage boiler or water-to-water
heat pump. When a backup boiler or heat pump is used to supplement the heating capacity of the THW, a 24VAC
output from the THW unit can be used to energize the boiler. The boiler control box simply needs a relay that can
be used to interface with the THW unit.

71

Section 12: Hydronic Heat Emitters for GSHP Systems


As discussed in section 4, the heating efficiency (e.g., COP) and heating capacity of a water-to-water GSHP system is very dependent on the water temperature at which the distribution system operates. The lower this temperature, the better the GSHP performs. This implies that low temperature hydronic heat emitters are essential
if the system is to perform well. This section discusses several heat emitter systems that can perform well when
supplied by a GSHP.
What NOT to Use:
Fin-tube baseboard is one of the most common hydronic heat emitters in the North American market. This hydronic heat emitter was designed around boilers in an era when water temperatures of 180F or higher were commonly used, and thermal efficiency was not of paramount importance. Such water temperatures are much higher
than can be attained with current-generation ground source heat pump systems.
Fin-tube baseboard releases less heat at lower water temperatures. However, the heat output at 120F water
temperature is only about 28% of that at 180F water temperature. Thus, about 3.5 times as much linear footage
of baseboard would be required at 120F water temperature to produce equivalent heat output of baseboard operated at 180F water temperature. This is clearly impractical from both a space and aesthetic standpoint. Thus,
the combination of fin-tube baseboard and a GSHP is NOT recommended.

Fin-tube baseboard typically requires higher water temperatures than can be generated with a geothermal heat pump.

A similar argument can be made for plateless staple-up radiant floor heating (see figure 12-2). Such an installation is very limited in its heat output, especially at the lower water temperatures supplied by a GSHP.

Never install floor-heating tubing like this! The required operating water temperature would be very high.

A suggested guideline is that space-heating distribution systems used with GSHPs should provide design heating
load output using supply water temperatures no higher than 120F (other than the THW series which can operate
with temperatures up to 140F).

72

Distribution systems that supply each heat emitter using parallel piping branches rather than series configurations
are also preferred because they provide the same supply water temperature to each heat emitter.
Examples of space-heating systems that allow the GSHP to provide good performance include:
Heated floor slabs with low-resistance coverings
Heated thin-slabs over framed floors with low-resistance floor coverings
Generously sized panel radiator systems with parallel piping

Slab-on-grade Radiant Floor:


One of the most common types of radiant panel is a heated floor slab, as shown in figure 12-3. This type of radiant panel has one of the lowest supply water temperature requirements of any hydronic heat emitter, and thus will
perform well with a GSHP.
edge insulation (extruded polystyrene)
underslab insulation (extruded polystyrene)
steel reinforcing
concrete slab
embedded tubing
finish flooring

compacted soil
polyethylene vapor barrier
foundation

Cross-section of a heating slab-on-grade floor.

To keep the supply water temperature low, its important to:


a. Keep tube spacing relatively close.
b. Keep the thermal resistance of the finish floor as low as possible.
The graph in figure 12-4 shows upward heat output from a heated slab based on tube spacing of 6 inches and 12
inches, and for finish floor resistances ranging from 0 to 2.0F hr ft2/Btu. The steeper the line, the better the
distribution system is suited for use with a GSHP.

73

upward heat output


(Btu/hr/ft^2)

12" tube spacing


6" tube spacing
60

Rff=0

Rff=0.5
Rff=1.0

40

Rff=1.5
Rff=2.0

20
0

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Twater - Troom (F)
Rff = resistance of finish flooring (F/hr/ft^2/Btu)

The effect of finish floor resistance on upward heat output of a heated slab floor.

Achieving an upward heat output of 25 Btu/hr/ft2 from a slab with no covering (e.g., Rff = 0) and 6 tube spacing
requires the driving T (e.g., the difference between average water temperature in tubing and room air temperature) to be about 22F. Thus, in a room maintained at 70F, the average water temperature in the circuit needs to
be 92F. The supply water temperature to the circuit would likely be in the range of 102F. This is a relatively low
supply water temperature, and should allow the GSHP to operate at good efficiency.
However, if this same heat output is required from a slab with 12 tube spacing and a finish floor resistance of
1.0F hr ft2/Btu. The driving T must be 53F. The average circuit water temperature required to maintain a
room temperature of 70F would be 123F, and the supply temperature likely in the range of 133F. This supply
temperature is higher than recommended for some heat pumps, although units such as the THW are capable of
reaching this supply temperature.
The following guidelines are suggested in applications where a heated floor slab will be used to deliver heat derived from a solar collector array:
Tube spacing within the slab should not exceed 12 inches.
Slab should have a minimum of R-10 insulation on its underside.
Tubing should be placed at approximately 1/2 the slab depth below the surface, as shown in figure 12-5.
Leaving the tube at the bottom of the slab can increase the required supply water temperature several degrees Fahrenheit. This will decrease the heating capacity and COP of the heat pump.
Bare, painted or stained slab surfaces are ideal because the finish floor resistance is essentially zero.
Other floor finishes should have a Total R-value of 1.0 or less.

PEX-AL-PEX tubing and reinforcing mesh being lifted as concrete is placed for a heated slab-on-grade floor.

74

Summary of heated slab-on-grade floors:


Typical water supply temperature at design load = 95 to 120F
Strengths:
Most economical installation (slab is already part of building)
Operates on low water temperatures (good match to GSHP)
Very durable
High thermal storage responds well to cold air influx
Limitations:
Slow thermal response (best when loads are slow to change)
Quality control dependent on masons
Always
Verify proper preparation of subgrade
Insulate edge and underside of slab
Lift welded wire reinforcing with tubing during pour
Use proper detailing at control joints
Pressure-test circuits prior to placing concrete
Make tubing layout drawing prior to placing tubing
Never
Drive power buggies or trucks over tubing
Pressure-test with water
Cover with flooring having total R-value over 2.0F hr/ft2/Btu

Thin-slab (Concrete) Radiant Floor:


Another method of constructing a heated floor is called a thin-slab. It is created by placing a thin (1.5 to 2
thick) layer of concrete over tubing that has been fastened to a wooden subfloor as shown in figure 12-6.
sleeper
finish flooring
tubing secured to subfloor
concrete thin-slab
6-mill polyethylene bond breaker
anti-fracture membrane (for tile flooring)
walls framed after
thin-slab is installed

slight separation occurs as concrete cures


coat edges of sleepers with mineral oil
to prevent concrete bonding
6-mill polyethylene bond breaker sheet
crack forms above control joint strip
1"x1" PVC drywall trim angle
stapled to subfloor serves as
control joint strip

sleeper

underside insulation
subfloor

plywood subfloor

concrete thin-slab

Cross-section of a concrete thin-slab heated floor.

Figure 12-7 shows tubing installed over a layer of 6-mil polyethylene sheeting. The latter serves to prevent bonding between the underside of the concrete and the wooden subfloor. This, in turn, helps reduce tensile stress in
the concrete as the slab cures. The concrete will be placed to a depth of 1.5 inches above the subfloor. Slab
thickness is controlled by screeded level with the top of the 2x4 and 2x6 wall plates seen in figure 12-7.

75

Tubing being placed over polyethylene sheeting awaiting placement of concrete thin-slab.

Summary of thin-slab (concrete) heated floors:


Typical water supply temperature at design load = 95 to 120F
Strengths:
Usually lower installed cost relative to poured gypsum thin-slab
Operate on low water temperatures (good match to GSHP)
Very durable, waterproof
Medium thermal storage tends to smooth heat delivery
Limitations:
Slower thermal response (best when loads are slow to change)
Adds about 18 pounds/square foot to floor loading @ 1.5 thickness
Always
Verify load carrying ability of floor framing
Account for added 1.5 inches in floor height
Install control joints and release oil on adjacent framing
Install polyethylene bond breaker layer between subfloor and slab
Pressure-test circuits prior to placing concrete
Make tubing layout drawing prior to placing tubing
Install R-11 to R-30 underside insulation
Never
Allow concrete to freeze prior to curing
Pressure-test with water
Place tubing closer than 9 inches to toilet flanges
Cover with flooring having total R-value over 2.0F hr/ft2/Btu
Use asphalt-saturated roofing felt for bond breaker layer
Exceed 12 tube spacing

Thin-slab (Poured Gypsum Underlayment) Radiant Floor:


Another type of thin-slab is created using poured gypsum underlayment rather than concrete. A cross-section of
this floor is shown in figure 12-8.

76

poured gypsum seals at base of walls


drywall installed prior to gypsum slab
finish flooring
tubing secured to subfloor
poured gypsum underlayment thin-slab
spray applied sealant
putty holes in subfloor
prior to pouring slab

underside insulation
subfloor

Cross-section of a poured gypsum underlayment heated floor.

As in the case of concrete, the slab thickness is typically 1.5 inches. The difference is that the poured gypsum
material has a much greater flow characteristic than concrete. It is pumped into the building through a hose and
is largely self-leveling as it is placed on the subfloor (see figure 12-9). No polyethylene sheet is used to break the
bond between the poured underlayment and the subfloor.

Poured gypsum underlayment being placed over hydronic tubing fastened to wood subfloor.

Summary of thin-slab (poured gypsum underlayment) heated floor:


Typical water supply temperature at design load = 95 to 120F
Strengths:
Faster installation than concrete thin-slab
Operates on low water temperatures (good match to GSHP)
Excellent air sealing at wall/floor intersection
Medium thermal storage tends to smooth heat delivery
No control joints required
Limitations:
Slower thermal response (best when loads are slow to change)
Adds about 14.5 pounds/square foot to floor loading @ 1.5 thickness
Not waterproof
Always
Verify load-carrying ability of floor framing

77

Account for added 1.5 inches in floor height


Pressure-test circuits prior to placing gypsum underlayment
Make tubing layout drawing prior to placing tubing
Install R-11 to R-30 underside insulation
Use proper surface preparations prior to finish flooring

Never
Allow gypsum to freeze prior to curing
Pressure-test with water
Place tubing closer than 9 inches to toilet flanges
Cover with flooring having total R-value over 2.0F hr/ft2/Btu
Exceed 12 tube spacing
Install in locations that could be flooded

Above Floor Tube & Plate Radiant Floor:


One final radiant floor panel that would be compatible with GSHPs (under specific circumstances) is shown in
figure 12-10. This system is known as an above floor tube and plate system. Rather than concrete or poured
gypsum underlayment, this system uses thin aluminum plates to conduct heat away from the tubing and spread it
out across the floor surface.

hardwood floor nailed directly over plates

carpet, tile, or vinyl flooring


3/8" cover sheet (plywood / cement brd.)
aluminum heat transfer plate
staples, one side only
tube
slight gap (side opposite staples)
plywood sleeper
construction adhesive
subfloor

construction adhesive
sleeper
heat transfer plate
tube

Cross-section of an above floor tube and plate system.

An example of an above floor tube and plate system being covered with nail-down hardwood flooring is shown in
figure 12-11.

78

Hardwood flooring being nailed down over an above floor tube and plate radiant panel.

Its important to realize that the supply water temperature to this type of system is often higher than that of slabtype systems. When used with a GSHP, the lower end of this temperature range will provide the best efficiency.
Typical water supply temperature at design load = 120 to 145F
Strengths:
Adds very little weight to floor
Operates on medium water temperatures (some potential for GSHP)
Minimizes resistance between plates and top of floor
Relatively low thermal mass for fast response
Excellent for use with nailed-down wood flooring
Doesnt require tubing to run parallel with floor joists
Limitations:
Potential to cause expansion sounds if not properly installed
Requires several passes over floor during installation; labor intensive
Requires considerable amount of wood fabrication
Always
Staple only one side of plate to sleeper allow for expansion
Account for added 3/4 in floor height
Pressure-test circuits prior to covering
Make tubing layout drawing prior to placing tubing
Install R-11 to R-30 underside insulation
Never

Place in an area where nails might penetrate tubing


Pressure-test with water
Place tubing closer than 9 inches to toilet flanges
Cover with flooring having total R-value over 2.0F hr/ft2/Btu
Exceed 12 tube spacing

Floor Warming:
In some systems, a heated floor may only provide part of the total heating load. This may be due to high loads
(those in excess of 40 Btu/hr/ft2). In such cases, some other type of heat emitter, hydronic or otherwise, is used
to supplement the heat output of the floor so that the space remains comfortable.

79

Floor warming is also used in combination with hydronic air handlers. The heated floor may operate with surface
temperatures in the range of 73 to 80F to cover the base load of the space. The air handlers then add any additional heat necessary to maintain room temperature.
This approach is well suited to situations where unpredictable internal heat gains from sunlight, occupants, equipment or other sources are likely. It allows the system to adapt to these gains rapidly, and thus minimizes the
potential temperature overshoot that could occur if a high-mass heated floor was the only heat emitter present.
Floor warming also allows the heat pump to operate at relatively low supply water temperatures, and thus at high
COPs.
Radiant Wall Panels:
Radiant panels can be integrated into walls and ceilings as well as floors. Two configurations that would be well
suited for GSHPs both use the same aluminum plate system just described. An example of a radiant wall constructed using aluminum plates is shown in figure 12-12 and figure 12-13.
crossection

wooden nailer (@ end of wall)

7/16" oriented strand board


3/4" foil-faced polyisocyanurate insulation
2.5" drywall screws
6"x24" aluminum heat transfer plates
1/2" PEX-AL-PEX tubing
1/2" drywall

fiberglass insulation

1/2" PEX-AL-PEX tubing (8-inch spacing)


6" x 24" aluminum heat transfer plates
3/4" foil-faced polyisocyanurate foam strips
7/16" oriented strand board

Elevation and cross-section of a radiant wall.

A radiant wall panel during construction.

80

The radiant wall design shown has very low thermal mass relative to the floor-heating panels previous described.
This makes it very responsive to changes in internal heat gains or thermostat settings. Such a characteristic is
very desirable in buildings with significant solar heat gain, or situations where temperature setback schedules are
used.
Radiant walls can also be incorporated in areas such as stair walls (see figure 12-14), or walls under a kitchen
island.

The wall around these stairs is a radiant panel with embedded tubing and aluminum plates.

The heat output of a radiant wall constructed as shown can be estimated using the following formula.

Where:
Q = heat output of wall (Btu/hr/ft2)
Twater = average water temperature in panel (F)
Troom = room air temperature (F)

Radiant Ceiling Panels:


The same type of construction shown for radiant walls can also be incorporated into ceilings, as shown in figure
12-15 and 12-16. Like the radiant wall design, this radiant ceiling panel can respond very quickly. Radiant ceilings also have the advantage of not being blocked by furniture or covered with other materials that reduce heat
transfer.
top side insulation

ceiling framing

tube
7/16" oriented strand board
aluminum heat transfer plate
3/4" foil-faced polyisocyanurate foam strips
1/2" drywall

Cross-section of a low thermal mass radiant ceiling panel using aluminum plates.

81

A radiant ceiling prior to installation of drywall.

The heat output of a radiant ceiling constructed as shown can be estimated using the following formula.

Where:
q = heat output of wall (Btu/hr/ft2)
Twater = average water temperature in panel (F)
Troom = room air temperature (F)

Panel Radiators:
Extensively used in European systems, panel radiators are becoming increasingly popular in North America.
Base-model panel radiators are built of pressed steel plates, and come in a wide variety of shapes and sizes.
With proper sizing (for low supply water temperatures), they can be used in combination with water-to-water
GSHPs.
An example of a typical panel installation is shown in figure 12-17.

A typical panel radiator installation.

The heat output of a panel radiator is very dependent on its size as well as its supply water temperature. The table in figure 2-18 lists the reference heat output of several common-size panels. This output is based on 180F
average water temperature in the panel, and 68F room temperature. The water temperature is much higher

82

than what can be attained with a GSHP. However, the reference heat output can be corrected for differences in
average water temperature, as well as different room air temperatures. Use the curve or formula shown in figure
12-19 to determine a multiplier for the reference heat output to correct it for different operating conditions.
length

Heat output ratings (Btu/hr)


at reference conditions:
Average water temperature in panel = 180F
Room temperature = 68F
temperature drop across panel = 20F

height

1 water plate

1 water plate panel thickness


16" long

24" long

36" long

48" long

64" long

72" long

24" high

1870

2817

4222

5630

7509

8447

20" high

1607

2421

3632

4842

6455

7260

16" high

1352

2032

3046

4060

5415

6091

2 water plates

2 water plate panel thickness


16" long

24" long

36" long

48" long

64" long

72" long

24" high

3153

4750

7127

9500

12668

14254

20" high

2733

4123

6186

8245

10994

12368

16" high

2301

3455

5180

6907

9212

10363

10" high

1491

2247

3373

4498

5995

6745

72" long

3 water plates

3 water plate panel thickness


16" long

24" long

36" long

48" long

64" long

24" high

4531

6830

10247

13664

18216

20494

20" high

3934

5937

9586

11870

15829

17807

16" high

3320

4978

7469

9957

13277

14938

10" high

2191

3304

4958

6609

8811

9913

Reference heat output ratings for panel radiators.


1
1.33

CF = 0.001882 ( T )

0.8
0.7
reference condition

Correction factor (CF)

0.9

0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0

T=112 F

20

40

60

80

100

120

T (ave water temp - room air temp) (F)


Reference condition:
Ave water temp. in panel = 180F
Room air temperature = 68F

Correction factor for adjusting the reference heat output to other operating conditions.

For example: Figure 12-18 indicates that a panel with a single water plate, measuring 24 inches high and 72
inches long, has a heat output of 8,447 Btu/hr based on the reference conditions of 180 F average water temperature and 68F room air temperature. Using the formula in figure 12-19, the correction factor with an average
panel water temperature of 110F and room temperature of 68F is:

83

The estimated heat output at the lower water temperature is thus:

This demonstrates that systems limiting the supply water temperature to 120F to retain good performance of the
GSHP often require substantially larger panel radiators compared to systems with conventional heat sources that
often supply much higher water temperatures.

84

Section 13: Air Separation and Removal


The vast majority of hydronic heating systems are designed to operate without air in the piping. Thus, its essential to provide the means of separating air from the water when the system is filled (e.g., purging) and preserving
this deareated state throughout the life of the system.
Air in hydronic systems can lead to the following problems:

Noises in the piping and heat emitters


Inadequate circulator performance
Inadequate heat output from the heat emitters
Accelerated corrosion due to oxygen in contact with ferrous metals
Circulator noise or failure due to improper lubrication
Poor performance of balancing valves
Complete loss of flow and heat output due to large air pockets

Air exists in three forms within hydronic systems:


Stationary air pockets
Entrained air bubbles
Gases dissolved within water
A well-planned air separation strategy must address all three forms.
Stationary Air Pockets:
Stationary air pockets are created from air thats not expelled when the system is filled and purged. Since air is
lighter than water, it migrates to high points in the system. Such points are not necessarily just at the top of the
piping circuit. They can form at the top of heat emitters, even those located low in the building. Air pockets can
also form in horizontal piping that eventually turns downward or piping routed up, over, down and around obstacles.
Stationary air pockets can also form as air bubbles not removed during system purging merge together and migrate toward high points. This is especially likely in components with low flow velocities, where slow-moving fluid
cannot push or drag the air along with it.
Proper purging at startup can usually dislodge stationary air pockets to the extent that the circulator can maintain
flow in the system. Further removal of air pockets can be done through a combination of air vents at system high
points and microbubble absorption.
Entrained Air:
A moving fluid may be able to carry air bubbles along (entrain them) through a hydronic piping system. This can
be beneficial when the entrainment carries the air bubble from remote parts of the system back to a central airseparating device, which can then capture and expel the air.
However, if the fluids flow velocity through the air-separating device is too high, the entrained air cannot be efficiently separated and could end up recirculating through the system many times. The ability of a fluid to entrain
air is based largely on its velocity. A minimum flow velocity of 2 feet per second is needed to entrain air bubbles
within downward-flowing pipes.
Microbubbles:
Water has the ability to absorb the gas molecules that make up air. These molecules are interspersed with water
molecules, and thus are said to be dissolved into the water. The cooler the water, and the greater the pressure on
the water, the more dissolved gases it can contain. Conversely, the hotter the water, and the lower its pressure,
the less dissolved gases it can contain.
85

The decreasing ability of the water to retain gas molecules in solution as the water is heated forces the excess
molecules out of solution in the form of microbubbles. The latter are so small they cannot be seen as individual
bubbles. Instead, they typically appear as a cloud in otherwise clear water. Microbubbles have very low rise
velocities and are easily entrained with water flowing through a hydronic system at normal flow velocities. This
makes it difficult to collect them based on the premise they will simply gather at high points where vents are located.
Efficient collection of microbubbles requires a coalescing media in combination with a low-velocity chamber. The
coalescing media provides a high amount of surface area with solid edges that create very localized low-pressure
areas due to vortex formation. Microbubbles flowing past the coalescing media tend to cling to these edges.
From there, the coalescing media provides pathways along which the microbubbles can slowly rise through the
active flow zone of the separator without being pulled away from the media. Figure 13-1 shows an example of a
coalescing media used in a hydronic air separator.

Coalescing media used in a microbubble air separator. (Courtesy of Caleffi North America)

Most microbubble air separators have a vertically oriented cylindrical chamber to house the coalescing media and
create acceptably low flow velocities so that bubbles can rise above the active flow zone of the separator. Once
above this zone, the bubbles collect at the top of the air separator, and eventually leave through a float-operated
vent at the top. They are driven out of the vent by positive system pressure. An example of a modern microbubble air separator is shown in figure 13-2.

Example of a microbubble air separator.

Microbubble air separators are best placed where water is hottest and where the pressure is reasonably low. In
heating systems, the preferred placement is near the outlet of the heat source. The flow velocity in the piping
leading into the air separator should not exceed 4 feet per second (see figure 7-1).

86

The ability of a microbubble air separator to lower the air content of hot water as it passes through allows the
water to be in an unsaturated state as it cools while passing through the hydronic distribution system. When the
unsaturated water comes into contact with air molecules in the distribution system, it will absorb them and carry
them back to the heat source. When the water is reheated, the gathered air is released and quickly captured by
the air separator waiting downstream. Eventually, a microbubble air separator can lower the air content of the
water to about 0.4%. At that point, the system is, for all intents and purposes, air free.

Filling & Purging Hydronic Systems


All hydronic systems must be filled and purged of bulk air when put into service. Beyond initial purging, they need
a means to gather and expel any air bubbles that form as the water is heated. This section describes procedures
and hardware for this purpose.
Make-up Water Assembly:
Although much of the bulk air in a hydronic system can be expelled when the system is first filled, it may take
several days of operation to effectively separate the dissolved air molecules and rid this air from the system. During this time, its necessary to replace the ejected air with an equivalent volume of water. In most systems, this
is done using an automatic make-up water assembly consisting of a backflow preventer, pressure-reducing valve
and some ball valves, as shown in figure 13-3.
connection
to system
tank isolation valve
connection
to cold water
source

backflow preventer
fast fill (ball) valve
pressure reducing valve
expansion tank
air pressure adjustment valve

Components used in an automatic make-up water system.

This assembly is connected to the cold water piping in the building. Whenever the pressure on the system side of
the assembly drops below the setting of the pressure-reducing valve, water flows into the system. This typically
occurs at the same time air is being ejected by the air separator.
Forced Water Purging:
The process of forcing air out of a hydronic system as water enters that system is called purging. Every hydronic
system must be purged when its commissioned. In some cases, air rises upward within the piping as water is
introduced lower in the system. In other cases, air is forced along the piping by a fast-moving water stream, and
eventually exits through a valve.
Purging is a coordinated process between the make-up water assembly and one or more purging valves. The
latter is a combination of a ball valve and drain valve sharing a common body. An example of a modern purging
valve is shown in figure 13-4.

87

A modern hydronic purging valve. (Courtesy of Webstone, Inc.)

Figure 13-5 shows both the make-up water system and purging valve within a typical distribution system.
alternative placement of 
make-up water assembly

air release

heat
source
(off)

make-up
water
assembly

distribution
piping
system

inline valve
closed
during purging

outlet valve open


during purging

air & water


exit system
through hose

5 gallon bucket
or drain

The typical relationship between the make-up water assembly and purging hardware.

Begin the purging process by opening the side port valve that connects to a drain hose. The automatic feed valve
is then manually opened to allow rapid water flow into the system. The fast fill valve in parallel with the automatic
feed valve should also be opened to maximize the rate of water flow to the system.
Because the ball valve on the heat source inlet pipe is closed, the entering water begins filling the heat source.
Air within the heat source is displaced as the water enters. It migrates up to the central air separator and exits.
When the heat source is full, water flows out into the distribution system, pushing air ahead of it. The air and
some water exits through the drain port of the purging valve. A hose fastened to the purge valve leads this mixture to a pail or floor drain. Purging continues until the discharge stream is running free of visible air bubbles. At
this point, most of the bulk air will have been purged from the circuit. The bypass valve in the make-up assembly
is closed, and the fast fill function of the automatic feed valve is turned off.
Systems with two or more branch circuits should have a purge valve in each circuit. This allows each circuit to
be individually purged. When the flow exiting the purge valve on a given circuit is running free of air bubbles, the
next branch circuit is opened and the previous one is closed. This allows the maximum possible flow rate through
each branch circuit to dislodge and entrain as much air as possible.

88

Section 14: Buffer Tanks for GSHP Systems


Most current-generation water-to-water heat pumps are simple on/off devices. When operating, they deliver the
maximum amount of heating or cooling capacity possible based on their current entering source and entering load
water temperatures. When such heat sources serve a zoned distribution system, there will be many times when
their instantaneous heat output significantly exceeds the current heat load of the distribution system.
In hydronic systems that have significant thermal mass in the heat source, this difference between heat production and heat release can be temporarily absorbed by the thermal mass. However, most GSHPs have relatively
low thermal mass, and thus a very limited ability to temporarily absorb this surplus heat production.
The end result will be short cycling of the heat source. In the case of a GSHP, the compressor will turn on for
short periods of time perhaps even less than one minute, and then turn off. This cycle will be repeated, perhaps
thousands of times over the course of a heating season. Such operation strains components such as the compressor, and the compressor contactor, and therefore should be avoided.
All ClimateMaster water-to-water heat pumps include a 5-minute minimum off-cycle control function. However,
this does not preclude the need for a properly sized buffer tank in a zoned system.
In larger systems, multi-stage heat production as discussed in section 11 can be used to improve the balance
between heat production and heating load. The greater the number of stages, the better the potential match.
Unfortunately, many residential systems do not have sufficient load to justify a multi-stage heat source subsystem. In these systems, the currently appropriate solution is to provide additional thermal mass between the heat
pump and the distribution system. This mass typically takes the form of a buffer tank. A simple concept for such
a system is shown in figure 14-1.

to / from
other zones

zone
valves

temperature
controller

sensor
in well

purge
valves

T&P
ports
earth loop
circulator

variable speed
pressure-regulated
circulator

GSHP

Buffer tank

purging
valves

earth loop circuits

A buffer tank installed near a GSHP and zoned distribution system.

89

The heat pumps responsibility in this system is to simply keep the temperature in the buffer tank within a set
temperature range so that sufficient heat can be supplied to any zone circuit that might happen to come on. This
is accomplished by using a controller to monitor the temperature of the tank and turn the heat pump on and off as
necessary to maintain this operating temperature range.
ClimateMaster THW heat pumps include this control logic and the necessary sensors to control buffer tank temperature.
The controller may be a simple set point device with a user-set target temperature and differential. For example,
the controller might be set to a target temperature of 105F with a differential of 10F. In this case, the set point
controller would turn on the heat pump when the buffer tank temperature dropped to 105-10/2=100F. The heat
pump would continue to operate until the tanks temperature climbed to 105+10/2 = 110F, at which point it would
shut off.
Another possibility, one that will increase the overall efficiency of the system, is to use an outdoor reset controller
(as described in section 10) to operate the heat pump. Like the set point controller, the ORC has a target temperature and operating differential. The difference is that the target temperature can change in response to outdoor
temperature. This allows the target temperature to drop as outdoor temperature rises. Lower load temperatures
increase both the COP and heating capacity of the heat pump.
Unlike more traditional zoned hydronic systems, there is no direct call from the room thermostats to the heat
source. The load circuits only see the heated buffer tank as their source as needed. The heat pump only sees
the buffer tank as its load.
Sizing a Buffer Tank:
The required volume of a buffer tank depends on the rates of heat input and release, as well as the allowed temperature rise of the tank from when the heat source is turned on, to when it is turned off. The greater the tanks
volume, and the wider the operating temperature differential, the longer the heat source cycle length.
Formula 14-1 can be used to calculate the volume necessary when given a specified minimum heat source ontime, tank operating differential and rate of heat transfer:
Formula 14-1

Where:
v = required volume of the buffer tank (gallons)
t = desired duration of the heat sources on cycle (minutes)
Qheat source = heat output rate of the heat source (Btu/hr)
qload = rate of heat extraction from the tank (Btu/hr)
T = temperature rise of the tank from when the heat source is turned on to when it is turned off (F)
For example, assume its desired that a heat pump operate with a minimum compressor on-cycle duration of 10
minutes. The heat pump, when on, supplies 60,000 Btu/hr. The compressor turns on when the buffer tank temperature drops to 100F, and off when the tank reaches 120F. What is the necessary tank buffer tank volume to
accomplish this?
Solution: Substituting the numbers into Formula 14-1 yields:

90

If a tank larger than the minimum required volume is used, the on-cycle length could be increased, or the temperature differential through which the tank cycles could be reduced.
The wider the temperature differential, and the greater the volume of the tank, the longer the heat source on-cycle
will be.
Buffer Tank Simulator:
The cycling time of hydronic heating supplying a load through a buffer tank can also be simulated in software.
The Buffer Tank Simulator module of the Hydronics Design Toolkit program can simulate the performance of a
system containing up to 24 independently controlled loads supplied through a buffer tank. The buffer tank is located between the heat source and the loads. The user specifies the volume of the tank, the operating temperature range of the tank and the R-value of the tanks insulation. The user also specifies the size and on/off status
of each load. The module calculates the on-time and off-time of the heat source based on the specified buffer
tank and current load configuration. It also calculates thermal losses from the buffer tank. A screen shot is shown
in figure 14-2.

Buffer Tank Simulator software module.

Figure 14-3 shows an example of a commercially available buffer tank. This product is currently available in 30and 80-gallon sizes. This tank has 2 inches of polyurethane insulation, 4 large connection ports, an air vent at the
top, and a drain valve at the bottom.

91

Example of a 30-gallon buffer tank. (Courtesy of Hot Water Products, Inc.)

When placed between the heat pump and loads, a buffer tank of this design also provides hydraulic separation
between the heat pump condenser circulator and the circulator(s) used in the distribution system. This is especially beneficial when the distribution system uses a variable-speed circulator.

Combined Buffer/DHW Tanks

reverse return piping shown

Another way to achieve the benefits of a buffering thermal mass is to use an indirect water heater as a buffer tank.
The concept is shown in figure 14-4.
zone
valves

cold water
DHW

pressure-regulated
variable-speed
ECM circulator

very low flow resistance


allows for hydraulic separation
of circulators

booster 
heater

PRV

T&P
ports

buffer tank w/ large interior


coils for DHW preheating

earth loop
circulator

GSHP
purging
valves

earth loop circuits

The buffer tank also serves to heat domestic water.

92

Section 15: Sample Schematics for Hydronic Systems


Supplied by GSHPs
This section pulls together many of the principles discussed in earlier sections. It shows several ways to combine
modern hydronic principles into systems supplied by GSHPs.
The following system schematics are shown:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Single zone radiant floor heating


Single zone radiant floor heating with domestic water preheating
Multi-zone radiant panel heating using zone valves
Homerun distribution system supplying panel radiators
Multiple water-to-water heat pump system supplying zoned distribution
Multiple water temperature distribution system
Heating using radiant panel with single zone chilled-water cooling
Heating using radiant panel with multi-zone chilled-water cooling

#1. Single zone radiant floor heating: This system uses a single GSHP to supply a single radiant panel manifold station. There is no need for a buffer tank since the entire distribution system operates as a single zone. The
heat pump, earth loop circulator and distribution circulator would all operate together. THIS PIPING IS ONLY APPROPRIATE FOR SINGLE ZONE SYSTEMS.

PRV

T&P
ports
earth loop
circulator

air
separator

purging
valves

GSHP
purging
valves

single zone radiant panel


manifold station
distribution
circulator

make-up water assembly

expansion
tank

earth loop circuits

Single zone space heating. Buffer tank is not required.

93

#2. Single zone radiant floor heating with domestic water preheating: This system adds a flat-plate heat exchanger as a second load to the radiant manifold station. When there is a call for domestic water heating, space
heat is temporarily suspended. This allows the full output of the heat pump to be directed to domestic water heating. The heat exchanger circulator and bronze DHW tank circulator operate. Heat is transferred from the system
water to potable water through a generously sized flat-plate heat exchanger. When the DHW load is satisfied, or
has been active for a set period of time (i.e., 30 minutes), the space-heating load is allowed to operate. THIS PIPING IS ONLY APPROPRIATE FOR SINGLE ZONE SYSTEMS.
CW
DHW

anti-scald
tempering
valve

P&TRV

check
valves

electric
heating
element

electric
water heater

flat plate
heat exchanger

bronze or
stainless
circulator

DHW HX
circulator
(w/ check)

PRV

T&P
ports
earth loop
circulator

purging
valves

GSHP
purging
valves

single zone radiant panel


manifold station
distribution
circulator
(w/ check)

make-up water assembly


expansion
tank

earth loop circuits

Single zone space heating plus DHW preheating via an external flat-plate heat exchanger. Buffer tank is not required.

94

Another possibility is a GSHP equipped with a desuperheater. In this case, heat is extracted directly from the hot
compressor discharge gas and used to heat domestic water being circulated from the DHW storage tank. A piping schematic for this option is shown in figure 15-3. THIS PIPING IS ONLY APPROPRIATE FOR SINGLE ZONE
SYSTEMS.
CW
DHW

anti-scald
tempering
valve

P&TRV

check
valves

electric
heating
element

bronze or
stainless
circulator
electric
water heater
desuperheater HX
PRV

T&P
ports
earth loop
circulator

air
separator

purging
valves

GSHP

purging
valves

single zone radiant panel


manifold station
distribution
circulator

make-up water assembly

expansion
tank

earth loop circuits

Single zone space heating plus DHW preheating via a desuperheater. Buffer tank is not required.

95

#3. Multi-zone radiant panel heating using zone valves: This system addresses one of the major benefits of
hydronics: Zoning. It uses a high-efficiency variable-speed circulator to control flow through zone circuits that
are in turn controlled by zone valves. The GSHP is operated by an outdoor reset controller, which maintains the
target temperature of the buffer tank based on the current outdoor temperature. The reset controller is adjusted
based on the supply temperature requirement of the radiant panel zones. DHW preheating is provided by a desuperheater in the heat pump, and boosted, if necessary, by the heating element in the water heater. All ClimateMaster THW series water-to-water heat pumps include this outdoor reset capability.
CW
DHW

anti-scald
tempering
valve

P&TRV

check
valves

outdoor
temperature
sensor

electric
heating
element

bronze or
stainless
circulator

outdoor reset
controller

electric
water heater

to / from
other zones
zone
valves
supply
header

desuperheater HX
variable speed
pressure-regulated
circulator
temperature
sensor
T&P
ports

purge
valves

purging
valves
return header

earth loop
circulator

GSHP

purging
valves

Buffer tank

make-up water assembly

expansion
tank

earth loop circuits

A multi-zone system supplies DHW preheating and zoned space heating via zone valves and a variable-speed circulator.

96

#4. Homerun distribution system supplying panel radiators: The system shown in figure 15.5 is very similar
to that shown in figure 15.4. The difference is in the distribution system on the right side of the buffer tank. The
system in figure 15-5 uses a homerun distribution system, which consists of a manifold station and individual
supply/return piping to each panel radiator. This piping is flexible 1/2 PEX or PEX-AL-PEX tubing. Such tubing
is easy to route through framing cavities in either new construction or retrofit applications. The heat emitters are
panel radiators with individual thermostatic radiator valves the allow room-by-room temperature control. To keep
the GSHP within its normal operating range, these radiators have been sized to provide design heat output at a
supply water temperature of 120F. If a ClimateMaster THW series heat pump is used, the supply water temperature can be as high as 140F. Increasing the supply water temperature will decrease the size of the panel radiator
needed for a given heat output The variable- speed, pressure-regulated circulator continually monitors the differential pressure between the supply and return side of the distribution system, and adjusts its speed as necessary
to maintain a set differential pressure.
NOTE: Radiators sized for design load output using 120 F water
TRV

TRV

thermostatic
radiator valves
(TRV) on each
radiator

CW
DHW

anti-scald
tempering
valve

P&TRV

check
valves

TRV

outdoor
temperature
sensor

TRV

TRV
TRV

electric
heating
element

bronze or
stainless
circulator

outdoor reset
controller

1/2" PEX or


PEX-AL-PEX
tubing

electric
water heater
desuperheater HX

variable speed
pressure-regulated
circulator
temperature
sensor
T&P
ports
earth loop
circulator

purging
valves

GSHP

purging
valves

Buffer tank

manifold station
PRV

make-up water assembly

expansion
tank

earth loop circuits

Multi-zone system supplies DHW preheating and zoned space heating via panel radiators, thermostat valves and a variable-speed
circulator.

97

#5. Multiple water-to-water heat pump system supplying zoned distribution: This system uses multiple
water-to-water heat pumps, operated by a staging controller, to maintain a specific target temperature in the buffer
tank. This target temperature may be a fixed set point, or it may be based on outdoor reset control.
The 3-way motorized mixing valve may or may not be needed, depending on the temperature the tank is maintained at for DHW purposes relative to the supply water temperature of the space-heating distribution system.
Zone valves are used to control flow through both sides of each heat pump. They are open only when the heat
pump operates. The variable speed circulator maintains a constant differential pressure across the headers serving each side of the heat pump array. This reduces pumping power when some heat pumps are not operating.
The buffer tank allows for extensive zoning of the distribution systems without creating short cycling of the heat
pumps. The internal copper coils in the buffer tank allow for domestic water preheating.
zone
valve
reverse return piping shown

zone
valve

low flow resistance headers (IMPORTANT!)

low flow resistance headers (IMPORTANT!)

pressure-regulated
variable-speed
ECM circulator

flexible reinforced hose

cold water
DHW
booster 
heater

isolation valve

on/off zone valve

isolation & purge valve

very low flow resistance


allows for hydraulic separation
of circulators

pressure-regulated
variable-speed
ECM circulator

pressure-regulated
variable-speed
ECM circulator

earth loop circuits

PRV

buffer tank w/ large interior


coils for DHW preheating

make-up water assembly

expansion
tank

Multi-stage water-to-water heat pumps supply the zoned distribution system through a buffer tank. The tank also preheats domestic
water.

98

#6. Multiple water temperature distribution system: This system supplies two loads that require different water temperatures. The outdoor reset controller maintains the buffer tank close to the target temperature required
by the higher temperature load. Water flows directly from the buffer tank to this load (no mixing). The lower
temperature load is supplied through a 3-way motorized mixing valve, which blends in some cooler return water to
achieve the lower supply temperature. The heat pump operates to maintain the tank temperature suitable for the
higher temperature load. This temperature could be based on a set point or outdoor reset control. Similarly, the
3-way mixing valve operates to maintain the supply temperature needed by the lower temperature load. Again,
this could be based on a set point or outdoor reset control.
CW
DHW

anti-scald
tempering
valve

P&TRV

check
valves

outdoor
temperature
sensor

electric
heating
element

bronze or
stainless
circulator

3-way
motorized
mixing 
valve
lower temperature
manifold station
(through mixing valve)

outdoor reset
controller

electric
water heater
desuperheater HX

circulator
w/ integral
check valve
check
valve

temperature
sensor
T&P
ports
earth loop
circulator

purging
valves

GSHP

purging
valves

PRV

Buffer tank

purge
valves

higher temperature
manifold station
(no mixing)

make-up water assembly

expansion
tank

earth loop circuits

A two-temperature distribution system. The mixing valve is used to create a lower supply water temperature.

99

#7. Heating using radiant panel with single zone chilled-water cooling: This system provides zoned heating
using a variable-speed circulator and zone valves. It also provides single zone cooling using a chilled-water air
handler. In the cooling mode, an electrically operated 3-way diverter valve directs the flow of chilled water, leaving the heat pump to the air handler. At the same time, it isolates flow from passing through the buffer tank. Here,
the water-to-water heat pump and chilled water air handlers capacities must be matched.
chilled water air handler

insulate all chilled water piping


CW
DHW

anti-scald
tempering
valve

P&TRV

check
valves
3-way
diverter
valve

electric
heating
element

to / from
other zones

outdoor reset controller

zone
valves

electric
water heater

supply
header

desuperheater HX
variable speed
pressure-regulated
circulator
temperature
sensor
T&P
ports

purging
valves

purge
valves
return header

earth loop
circulator

GSHP

purging
valves

Buffer tank
make-up water assembly

expansion
tank

earth loop circuits

Multiple heating zones with a single chilled-water cooling zone.

100

PRV

#8. Multi-zone heating with radiant panel and multi-zone chilled-water cooling: This system provides zoned
heating using a variable-speed circulator and zone valves. It also provides multiple zone cooling using chilled-water air handlers. In the cooling mode, an electrically operated 3-way diverter valve directs the flow of chilled water
leaving the buffer tank to the active air handlers. At the same time, it isolates flow from passing through the buffer
tank. In some systems, the same variable-speed circulator that supplies the heating zones may also be used to
supply the cooling zones. However, if the hydraulic characteristics of these two subsystems differ significantly, if
may be necessary to select a separate circulator for each.
chilled water air handler

insulate all chilled water piping


to prevent condensation

CW
DHW

anti-scald
tempering
valve

P&TRV

check
valves

electric
heating
element

outdoor
reset
controller

electric
water heater

variable speed
pressure-regulated
circulator

to / from
other zones
zone
valves

desuperheater HX

temperature
sensor
T&P
ports

purging
valves

PRV

purge
valves
return header

earth loop
circulator

GSHP

purging
valves

Buffer tank
make-up water assembly

expansion
tank

earth loop circuits

Multiple heating and multiple cooling zones.

101

Appendix A: Piping Schematic Symbol Legend

cast-iron circulator 
w/ isolation flanges 

3-way motorized 
mixing valve

cast-iron circulator 
w/ isolation flange 
and integral check
valve

4-way motorized 
mixing valve

bronze or stainless
circulator w/
isolation flanges

microbubble
air separator

pressure regulated
circulator w/
isolation flanges

zone valve
(2 way)

swing check valve

finned-tube baseboard

spring-load
check valve

panel radiator with


thermostatic valve

purging valve

manifold station
serving radiant panel circuits

diverter valve

air handler
w/ water coil
hydraulic
separator

gate valve

globe valves

ball valve

thermostatic
radiator valve
(straight pattern)
thermostatic
radiator valve
(angle pattern)
Y-strainer

hose bib
drain valve

pressure 
relief valve

P&T
relief valve

3-way 
thermostatic
mixing valve
backflow
preventer
pressure
reducing
valve

brazed plate
stainless steel
heat exchanger

manifold station
w/ electric valve actuators
and bypass valve

balancing
valve

thermometer

pressure gauge

cap
union
closely spaced tees
(or P/S fitting)

diaphragm-type
expanion tank
float -type
air vent
indirect water heater 
(with safety trim)

NOTES:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

102

hot water storage tank 


(with safety trim)

Installer is responsible for all equipment selection & detailing as required by local codes
All piping should be sized for a maximum flow velocity of 4 feet/second
Install a minimum of 12 diameters of straight pipe upstream of all circulators and check valves
Install isolating flanges or isolating valves on all circulators
An anti-scald mixing valve is recommended if the DHW temperature is set above the 115F

Appendix B: Heat Emitters


Suggested application range of hydronic heat emitters
(based on supply water temperature at design load)
90 F

100 F

110 F

120 F

130 F

140 F

150 F

160 F

170 F

180 F

190 F

200 F

180 F

190 F

200 F

heated floor slab


heated floor thin slab
heated floor top side tube& plate
radiant walls
radiant ceilings
panel radiators
fan-coils
fin-tube baseboard

90 F

100 F

110 F

120 F

130 F

140 F

150 F

160 F

170 F

suggested range (R-22 heat pumps)

suggested range (R-410a THW heat pump)

left end REQUIRES:


larger surface areas
minimal if any coverings 
on radiant panels
closer tube spacing in radiant panels
lower heat loss buildings

right end ALLOWS:


smaller surface areas
higher resistance surface 
coverings on radiant panels
wider tube spacing in radiant panels
higher heat loss from building

103

Appendix C: Heat Loss

Head loss (feet of head) versus flow rate (gpm) for


copper tube and PEX tube operating with 120 F water
(curves end at nominal 4 ft/sec flow velocity limit)
3/8" copper
1/2" copper

head loss (ft head loss / 100' pipe)

10

3/4" copper

9
8

1" copper

7
6

1.25" copper

1.5" copper

2" copper

3
2
1
0

head loss (ft head loss / 100' pipe)

10 15 20 25 30 35 40
flow rate (gpm)
3/8" PEX
1/2" PEX
5/8" PEX

16
14

3/4" PEX

12
10

Head loss (per 100 ft of pipe)


ASTM F876 PEX tube
operating with 120F water

1" PEX

1.25" PEX

1.5" PEX

2" PEX

2
0

104

Head loss (per 100 ft of pipe)


Type M copper water tube
operating with 120F water

10
15
20
flow rate (gpm)

25

30

Appendix D: Additional Sources of Information on Hydronic System


Design
1. Publications:
a. Plumbing & Mechanical magazine (www.pmmag.com)
b. PM Engineer magazine (www.pmengineer.com)
c. Contractor magazine (www.contractormag.com)
d. Radiant Living magazine (www.radiantlivingmag.com)
2. Associations:
a. Radiant Panel Association (www.radiantpanelassociation.com)
b. Hydronics Industry Alliance (www.myhomeheating.com)
c. Hydronic Heating Association (www.comfortableheat.net)
3. Other hydronic heating Web sites:
a. www.hydronicpros.com
b. www.heatinghelp.com
c. www.healthyheating.com
d. www.radiantandhydronics.com
4. Technical Reference Books:
a. Modern Hydronic Heating: For Residential & Light Commercial Buildings, 2nd Edition, ISBN 0-7668-1637-0.
b. Radiant Basics: A Basic Course for Radiant Panel Heating Systems, ISBN 1-932137-00-9. Published by the
Radiant Panel Association.
c. Radiant Precision: Advanced Design and Control of Hydronic Radiant Panel Heating Systems, 2nd Edition.
Published by the Radiant Panel Association.
d. Guide 2000 Residential Hydronic Heating Installation and Design Training Manual, published by the Gas
Appliance Manufacturers Association.
5. Hydronics Design Software:
a. Hydronics Design Studio Professional Edition (www.hydronicpros.com)
b. LoopCAD: (www.loopcad.com)
c. Wright-Suite (www.wrightsoft.com)

105

106

7300 S.W. 44th Street


Oklahoma City, OK 73179
Phone: 405-745-6000
Fax: 405-745-6058
climatemaster.com cmdealernet.com
RP878

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