1.

LIMITS

LIMITS OF A FUNCTION. If f is a function, then we say that

lim f ( x) L
x a

if the value of f ( x) gets arbitrarily close to L as x gets arbitrarily close to a. For example,
lim x 2 4, since x 2 gets arbitrarily close to 4 as x approaches as close as one wishes to 2.
x 2

Notice the important fact that whether or not lim f ( x) L is true does not depend upon the
x a

value of f ( x) when x a. In fact, f ( x) need not even be defined when x a.

Example 1.1:

x 2 , when x 2
Find lim f ( x) if f ( x)
x 2
0, when x 2
Solution:

lim f ( x) lim x 2 4, even though f (2) 0.

x 2

x 2

Example 1.2:
Even though

x2 9
x 2 9 ( x 3)( x 3)
is not defined when x 3, but

x 3 when x 3.
x 3
x 3
( x 3)

Therefore,
lim
x 3

x2 9
( x 3)( x 3)
lim
lim( x 3) 6.
x 3
x 3 x3
x 3

RIGHT AND LEFT LIMITS. By lim f ( x) L we mean that f is defined in some interval
x a

(c, a) and f ( x) approaches L as x approaches a through values less than a, that is, as x
approaches a from the left.

Similarly, lim f ( x) L means that f is defined in some interval (a, d ) and f ( x) approaches L
x a

as x approaches a from the right.

If f is defined in the interval to the left of a and in an interval to the right of a, then the statement
lim f ( x) L is equivalent to the conjunction of the two statements: lim f ( x) L and
x a

x a

lim f ( x) L.

x a

Page 1 of 8

The existence of the limit from the left does not imply the existence of the limit from the right,
and conversely.
When a function is defined only on one side of a point a, then lim f ( x) L is identical with the
x a

one sided limit, if it exists.

Example 1.3: f ( x) x is defined only at and to the right of zero. Hence,
lim x lim x 0.
x 0

x 0

x is not defined when x 0.

Of course, lim x does not exist, since

x 0

Example 1.4: g ( x) 1/ x is defined only for x 0.

Here, lim 1/ x does not exist, since 1/ x becomes larger and larger without bound as x
x 0

approaches zero from the right. Therefore, lim 1/ x does not exist.
x 0

Example 1.5: h( x) 4 x 2 has the interval 2 x 2 as its domain. If a is any number on

the open interval (2, 2), then lim 4 x 2 exists and is equal to 4 a 2 .
x a

If we consider a 2, and let x approaches 2 from the left, then lim 4 x 2 0.

x 2

4 x 2 is not defined.

For x 2,

Hence, lim 4 x 2 lim 4 x 2 0.

x 2

x 2

Similarly, lim 4 x 2 lim 4 x 2 0.

x 2

x 2

THEOREMS ON LIMITS.
Let a be any real number.
1. lim f ( x) L if and only if () lim f ( x) lim f ( x) L.
x a

x a

x a

2. For any constant c, lim c c.

x a

3. lim x a.
x a

4. If lim f ( x) A and lim g ( x) B, then

x a

x a

Page 2 of 8

(i)

lim [c f ( x)] lim c lim f ( x) c lim f ( x) cA.

(ii)

lim [ f ( x) g ( x)] lim f ( x) lim g ( x) A B.

(iii)

lim [ f ( x) g ( x)] lim f ( x) lim g ( x) A B.

(iv)

lim [

x a

x a

x a

x a

x a

x a

x a

x a

x a

x a

x a

f ( x) A
f ( x) lim
] x a
, if B 0.
g ( x)
lim g ( x) B
x a

(v)

lim n f ( x) n lim f ( x) n A, if n is a positive integer and

x a

A is

x a

defined.
5. For any polynomial p( x), lim p( x) p(a).
x a

6. lim sin x sin a.

x a

7. lim cos x cos a.

x a

8. lim e x ea .
x a

9. lim ln x ln a, if a > 0.
x a

10. Suppose that lim g ( x) L and that lim f ( x) f ( L),

x a

xL

then lim f ( g ( x)) f (lim g ( x)) f ( L).

x a

x a

11. The Squeeze Law (also known as the Sandwich Theorem):

Suppose that f ( x) g ( x) h( x) in some interval (c, d ), except
possibly at the point a (c, d ) and lim f ( x) lim h( x) L, for some
x a

x a

real number L. Then, lim g ( x) L.

x a

Example 1.6:
(a) lim( x2 4 x 1) 32 4(3) 1 9 12 1 2.
x 3

x2 4 4 4 0

0.
x 2 x 2 4
44 8

(b) lim

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(c)
4 x2

lim

lim

4 x2

3 x2 5

3 x 2 5 x 2 3 x 2 5 3 x 2 5
4 x2
lim(
(3 x 2 5)) lim(3 x 2 5) 6.
x 2 4 x 2
x 2
x 2

(d) lim 3 24 x 2 3 lim(24 x 2 ) 3 24 16 3 8 2.

x 4

x 4

Exercise:
x, if x 0,
Let the absolute value function f ( x) x 2
x, if x 0.

Find lim f ( x), and lim f ( x). Does lim f ( x) exist?

x 0

x 0

x 0

INFINITY.
lim f ( x)
x a

means that, as x approaches a, f ( x) eventually becomes and thereafter remains greater than any
pre-assigned positive number, however large. In such a case, we say that f ( x) approaches
or f ( x) approaches as x approaches a.
Similarly, lim f ( x)
x a

means that, as x approaches a, f ( x) eventually becomes and thereafter remains less than any
pre-assigned negative number. In that case, we say that f ( x) approaches as x approaches a.
lim f ( x)
x a

if and only if

lim f ( x) .
x a

These definitions can be extended to one-sided limits in the obvious way.

Example 1.7: (a) lim

1
.
x3

(c) lim

1
.
x

x 0

x 0

1
.
x 1 ( x 1) 4

(b) lim

(d) lim
x 0

1
.
x
Page 4 of 8

The limit concepts already introduced can be extended in an obvious way to the case in which
the variable approaches or .
lim f ( x) A means that f ( x) approaches A as x approaches .

Similar

definitions

can

be

given

for

the

statements lim f ( x) A ,
x

lim f ( x) ,

lim f ( x) , lim f ( x) , and lim f ( x) .

1
0.
x x 3

Example 1.8: (a) lim

(b) lim (2
x

(c) Caution: Even though lim

x 0

1
) 2.
( x 1)4

1
1
, and lim 4 ,
2
x 0 x
x

1/ x 2
lim x 2 0.
x 0 1/ x 4
x 0

but lim

Note: We say that a limit, such as lim f ( x) or lim f ( x) exists when the limit is a real number,
x a

but not when the limit is (or ) or .

1.2

CONTINUITY

Definition: A function f is continuous at x0 if the following three conditions hold:

f ( x0 ) is defined;

(i)
(ii)

lim f ( x) exists;

x x0

(iii)

lim f ( x) f ( x0 ).

x x0

Otherwise, f is said to be discontinuous (or not continuous) at x0 .

Example 1.9:
(a) f ( x)
(b) f ( x)

4 x 2 is not continuous at 3 because f (3) is not defined.

1
is not continuous at 2 because f (2) is not defined. It is also because
x2

lim f ( x) and lim f ( x) (i.e. lim f ( x) does not exist).

x 2

x 2

x 2

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x2 9
Example 1.10: Is f ( x)
continuous at x 3?
x3
Check:

(i) f (3) is not defined.

x2 9
( x 3)( x 3)
lim
lim( x 3) 6.
x3 x 3
x3
x3
x3

(ii) lim f ( x) lim

x3

Solution:

x2 9
is not continuous at x 3.
f ( x)
x3

x 2 if x 2
Example 1.11: Is f ( x)
continuous at x 2?
0 if x 2
Check:

(i) f (2) 0.
(ii) lim f ( x) lim x 4.
2

x2

x2

(iii) lim f ( x) 4 f (2).

x2

Solution:

f is not continuous at 2.
x 2 if x 2

Example 1.12: Let f be defined as f ( x)

4 if x 2

lim f ( x) 4 f (2).

, then f is continuous at 2, because

x2

The discontinuity of f in Example 1.11 at 2 is called removable.

Example 1.13:
Let f ( x)

x
for all x 0. Then,
x

(i)

f is not continuous at 0 because f (0) is not defined.

(ii)

lim f ( x) lim

x 0

x 0

x
x
x
x
= lim =1, and lim f ( x) lim lim
1.
x0
x0 x
x0 x
x x0 x

Thus, lim f ( x) lim f ( x).

x0

x0

Page 6 of 8

Hence, the discontinuity of f at 0 is not removable. It is called a jump discontinuity.

In general, a function f has a jump discontinuity at x0 if lim f ( x) and lim f ( x) both exist,
x x0

but lim f ( x) lim f ( x). Such a discontinuity is not removable.

x x0

x x0

x x0

THEOREMS ON CONTINUITY.
The constant function h( x) c for all x is continuous at every x0 .
Assume f and g are continuous at x0 . Then:
(i)

cf is continuous at x0 , for any constant c.

(ii)

f g is continuous at x0 .

(iii)

f g is continuous at x0 .

(iv)

fg is continuous at x0 .

(v)

f
is continuous at x0 , if g ( x0 ) 0.
g

(vi)

f is continuous at x0 , if

f ( x0 ) is defined.

We say that a function f is continuous on a set A if f is continuous at every point of A.

Theorem 1.1:
Every polynomial function

f ( x) an x n an1x n1

a1x a0 is continuous everywhere.

Theorem 1.2:
Every rational function

H ( x)

f ( x)
,
g ( x)

where f ( x) and g ( x) are polynomial functions, is continuous on the set of all points at which

g ( x) 0.

Page 7 of 8

Example 1.14:
(i)

H ( x)

x
is continuous at all points except x 1 and x 1.
x 1

(ii)

G ( x)

x7
2
is continuous everywhere (since x 1 is never 0).
2
x 1

Definition 1.1:
(i)

f is continuous on the right at a if f (a) is defined and lim f ( x) f (a).

(ii)

f is continuous on the left at b if f (b) is defined and lim f ( x) f (b).

(iii)

f is continuous on [a, b] if f is continuous at each point on the open interval

(a, b), f is continuous on the right at a, and f is continuous on the left at b.

xa

xb

Theorem 1.3 (Intermediate Value Theorem):

If f is continuous on [a, b] and f (a) f (b), then for any number c between f (a) and

f (b), there is at least one number x0 in the open interval (a, b) for which f ( x0 ) c.
Corollary 1.1:
If f is continuous on [a, b] and f (a) and f (b) have opposite signs, then f ( x) 0 has at
least one root in the open interval (a, b), i.e. the graph of f crosses the x- axis at least once
between a and b.
Theorem 1.4 (Extreme Value Theorem):
If f is continuous on [a, b], then f takes on a least value m and a greatest value M on that
interval.

Page 8 of 8