I.

Definition of Terms

1. CANCER
-Altered cellular mechanism with progressive and uncontrolled multiplication
of cells with selective ability to invade metastasis and cause mechanical
effects of pressure, obstruction and interruption of blood supply.
2. NEOPLASM
- An abnormal tissue that grows by cellular proliferation more rapidly than
normal and continues to grow after the stimuli that initiated the new growth
cease. Neoplasms show partial or complete lack of structural organization
and functional coordination with the normal tissue, and usually form a distinct
mass of tissue which may be either benign (benign tumor) or malignant
(cancer).
3. HYPERPLASIA
-the abnormal multiplication or increase in the number of normal cells in
normal arrangement in a tissue or organ, resulting in a thickening or
enlargement of the tissue or organ.
4. METAPLASIA
-the reversible conversion of normal tissue cells into another, less
differentiated cell type in response to chronic stress or injury. With prolonged
exposure to the inducing stimulus, cancerous transformation can occur.
5. DYSPLASIA
-the abnormal change in size, shape or organization of adult cells.
6. ANAPLASIA
-A state in which a malignant cell or tissue has undergone structural or
functional dedifferentiation to the point where its lineage and/or tissue of
origin cannot be determined with complete certainty. Anaplastic tumours
usually have high mitotic activity and bizarre cellular morphology.
7. ONCOGENE
-a gene found in the chromosomes of tumor cells whose activation is
associated with the initial and continuing conversion of normal cells into
cancer cells.
8. CARCINOGENS
-Substances in the environment that cause cancer, presumably by inducing
mutations, with prolonged exposure.
9. PARANEOPLASTIC SYNDROME
- a symptom complex arising in a cancer-bearing patient that cannot be
explained by local or distant spread of the tumor.

10.CACHEXIA
-A condition of general ill health, malnutrition, undesired weight loss, and
physical weakness, often associated with cancer.
11.SUPERIOR VENA CAVA SYNDROME
-Superior vena cava syndrome: The symptoms that result from
compression of the large vein that carries blood down to the heart and is
commonly caused by cancer.
12.TELETHERAPY
-treatment in which the source of the therapeutic agent (such as radiation) is
at a distance from the body.
13.BRACHYTHERAPY
-Radiotherapy in which the source of irradiation is placed close to the surface
of the body or implanted in the tissues to be treated (e.g., application of
radium to the cervix). Treatment targets specific tissues without harm to the
surrounding normal tissue.
14.CHEMOTHERAPY
-Treatment of disease by means of chemical substances or drugs; usually
used in reference to neoplastic disease.
15.DOSIMETER
-an instrument used to detect and measure exposure to radiation.
16.EXTRAVASATION
-a discharge or escape, as of blood, from a vessel into the tissues
-the inadvertent administration of a vesicant into the tissues; the intensity of
the irritating action is so severe that plasma escapes from the extracellular
space and blisters are formed. Large extravasations of some medications
may lead to contractures, with the need for dbridement and grafting and in
severe cases amputation.
17.IMMUNOTHERAPY
-Immunotherapy is treatment that uses certain parts of a persons immune
system to fight diseases such as cancer.
18.NADIR
-The lowest value of blood counts after chemotherapy.
19.CHRYPTORCHIDISM
-Undescended testicles A condition in which one or both testicles fail to move
from the abdomen, where they develop before birth, into the scrotum.
20.METASTASIS
-The spread of disease from one part of the body to another, as when cancer
cells appear in parts of the body remote from the site of the primary tumor.

II.

PHASES OF CELL CYCLE

INTERPHASE
G1 phase. Metabolic changes prepare the cell for division. At a certain point - the restriction
point - the cell is committed to division and moves into the S phase.
S phase. DNA synthesis replicates the genetic material. Each chromosome now consists of
two sister chromatids.
G2 phase. Metabolic changes assemble the cytoplasmic materials necessary for mitosis and
cytokinesis.
M phase. A nuclear division (mitosis) followed by a cell division (cytokinesis).

MITOSIS

Prophase
Prophase occupies over half of mitosis. The nuclear membrane breaks down to form a number of small
vesicles and the nucleolus disintegrates. A structure known as the centrosomeduplicates itself to form
two daughter centrosomes that migrate to opposite ends of the cell. The centrosomes organise the
production of microtubules that form the spindle fibres that constitute the mitotic spindle. The

chromosomes condense into compact structures. Each replicated chromosome can now be seen to
consist of two identical chromatids (or sister chromatids) held together by a structure known as
the centromere.

Metaphase
The chromosomes align themselves along the metaphase plate of the spindle apparatus.

Anaphase
The shortest stage of mitosis. The centromeres divide, and the sister chromatids of each chromosome
are pulled apart - or 'disjoin' - and move to the opposite ends of the cell, pulled by spindle fibres attached
to the kinetochore regions. The separated sister chromatids are now referred to as daughter
chromosomes. (It is the alignment and separation in metaphase and anaphase that is important in
ensuring that each daughter cell receives a copy of every chromosome.)

Telophase
The final stage of mitosis, and a reversal of many of the processes observed during prophase. The
nuclear membrane reforms around the chromosomes grouped at either pole of the cell, the chromosomes
uncoil and become diffuse, and the spindle fibres disappear.

Cytokinesis
The final cellular division to form two new cells. In plants a cell plate forms along the line of the
metaphase plate; in animals there is a constriction of the cytoplasm. The cell then enters interphase - the
interval between mitotic divisions.

III.

DIFFERENCE OF MALIGNANT AND BENIGN TUMORS

IV.
Calcitonin

Cancer type: Medullary thyroid cancer

Tissue analyzed: Blood

How used: To aid in diagnosis, check whether treatment is working, and assess recurrence

Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA)

Cancer types: Colorectal cancer and breast cancer

Tissue analyzed: Blood

How used: To check whether colorectal cancer has spread; to look for breast cancer
recurrence and assess response to treatment

CD20

Cancer type: Non-Hodgkin lymphoma

Tissue analyzed: Blood

How used: To determine whether treatment with a targeted therapy is appropriate

Chromogranin A (CgA)

Cancer type: Neuroendocrine tumors

Tissue analyzed: Blood

How used: To help in diagnosis, assessment of treatment response, and evaluation of

recurrence

Prostate-specific antigen (PSA)

Cancer type: Prostate cancer

Tissue analyzed: Blood

How used: To help in diagnosis, assess response to treatment, and look for recurrence

IV.

WARNING SIGNS OF CANCER (C.A.U.T.I.O.N U.S)

C change in bowel or bladder habits

Appears in clients with COLON CANCER and RECTAL CANCER, also to

those with bladder and prostate cancer

A a sore that does not heal

It is due to tumor that causes impaired circulation and oxygenation in

the area leading to tissue necrosis, ulceration

U unusual bleeding or discharges

Also caused by impaired circulation and oxygenation in the affected

area leading to necrosis, bleeding and infection. Infection causes
unusual discharge.

T thickening or lump in the breast or elsewhere

Signifies abnormal cellular growth as to breast cancer

I indigestion or difficulty in swallowing

One of the most common sign of gastric cancer

O Obvious change in wart or mole

Signifies transformation into cancerous lesion like skin cancers

N Nagging cough or hoarseness of voice

Signifies cancer of laryngeal and lung cancer

U Unexplained anemia

Caused by cancer cells taking up iron faster than normal cells,

bleeding, and tendency of cancer to destroy normal red blood cells

S Sudden loss of weight

Due to excessive rapid metabolism caused by cancer cells and

deprivation of nutrients among normal cells by the cancer cells.