Definition of Locomotion

the act or power of moving from place to place by means of one’s own mechanisms or
power
the result of the action of the body levers propelling the body

Types of Locomotion
on foot: walking, running, ascending or descending ramp or stairs, or jumping
on wheels: bicycling, roller skating, ice skating, or wheelchair propelling
on hands and/or knees or hands and feet: walking on hands, creeping or crawling, crutch
walking, stunts
rotary locomotion: cartwheels, handsprings, or rolls

A Typical Gait Cycle

the duration that occurs from the time when the heel of one leg strikes the ground to the
time at which the same leg contacts the ground again
2 phases
stance phase (62%)
swing phase (38%)
A typical gait cycle lasts 1-2 sec, depending on speed.

Stance Phase (Support Phase)

the duration when the foot in contact with the ground
the duration from heel strike to toe off
3 subphases
initial contact period： from heel strike to foot flat
midstance period： from foot flat to heel off
propulsive period： from heel off to toe off

Swing Phase (Recovery Phase)

the duration when the foot in the air
the duration from toe off to heel strike
3 subphases
acceleration
midswing
deceleration
 back to top

Gait Parameters During Level Walking

Recording the Gait Cycle

pneumatic switch (Marey, 1873)： 1st person to record the duration of sole contact
electric switch (Scherb, 1927)： using 3 separate switches
interrupted-light photography (Murray et al., 1964)
pressure transducer (Andriachi et al., 1977)
motion analysis system

Time Variablesstance time

single support time
double support time
duration： about 22% of the gait cycle totally
decrease when the speed of walking increases
increase in the elderly or patients with balanced disorders
swing time
stride or step time

Distance Variablesstride length

decrease in the elderly and increase as the speed of walking increases
step length
wide of base
degree of toe-out

Velocity Variablescadence： steps per minute

comfortable speed： 80-110 steps/min
slow speed： <70 steps/min
fast speed： >120 steps/min
walking speed： distance/unit of time
increase with increased cadence and stride length simultaneously
decrease with decreased angle of toe out and increased limb length or weight
increased speed results in decrease in duration of all the component phases
walking velocity

Other Kinematic Variablesdisplacement of center of mass

angle change of each joint
linear acceleration
angular acceleration

back to top

Kinematics of Level Walking

Displacement of Body COM

Walking is a translatory motion of the body that is accomplished by the alternating rotary
motions of both lower extremities
COM moves forward Þ COM beyond anterior edge of BOS Þ the other foot moves
forward to BOS

Vertical Displacement of Body COM

path： a sinosoid curve
amplitude： ~2"
highest point: immediately after COM passes over the WB leg
lowest point: at the termination of the swing phase of the other leg

Lateral Displacement of Body COM

path： a sinosoid curve
amplitude： ~2"
to keep the COM over the weight-bearing foot

back to top

Kinetics of Level Walking

Forces That Control Walking

gravity (body weight)
air resistance
internal muscle forces
ground reaction forces
normal component： vertical forces
shear component ： anterior-posterior and medial-lateral friction forces

Ground Reaction Forces

definition： the forces applied to the body by the ground, as opposed to those applied to
the ground, when an individual takes a step

in Cartesian ayatem： Fx, Fy, Fz, Mx, My, Mz

vertical component double peaks
1st peak at heel strike： the action of body momentum
2nd peak at push-off： contraction of calf muscle
peak value = 120% BW
lower than BW during midstance as a result of balancing the upward momentum of the
COM

anterior-posterior component the magnitude and direction of the anterior-posterior shear

force depends on the position of the COM relative to the location of the foot
in the posterior direction at heel strike for slowing the forward progression of the body
in the anterior direction at toe off for propelling the body forward
the larger the step length, the greater the shear forces because of the greater angle of
between the lower extremity and the floor
peak value = 20% BW
sufficient friction force between foot and ground is necessary for preventing slipping
down
the propulsive force of one limb is applied simultaneously to the braking force of the
other limb when the weight is transferred from one limb to the other

medial-lateral the magnitude of the medial-lateral shear force depends on the position of
the COM relative to the foot
in the lateral direction at heel strike
in the medial direction at the rest of stance phase
the larger the step width, the greater the shear forces because of the greater angle of
between the lower extremity and the floor
peak value = ~5% BW
wide variety depending on different foot types

　
Trajectory of Center of Pressure
At heel strike, the COP is located lateral to the midpoint of the heel
At midestance, the COP moves more laterally
From heel off to toe off, the COP moves medially from the metatarsal heads to the bog
toe

Joint MomentAt heel strike, the line of action of the ground reaction forces passes
posterior to the ankle joint, posterior to the knee joint, and anterior to the hip joint,
leading to promote ankle plantarflexion, knee flexion, and hip flexion.
To prevent collapse of the lower extremity, these external moments are counterbalanced
by internal joint reaction moments that are created by ankle dorsiflexors, the knee
extensors, and the hip extensors.
net moment： the summation of the external and internal moments
do NOT indicate the direction of motion
e.g. cocontraction of agonisits and antagonists
e.g. quadriceps avoidance

Joint Power
definition
the rate of work performed by controlling muscles
the product of the net joint moment and the joint angular velocity
significance： indicating the net rate of generating or absorbing energy by all muscles
and other connective tissues crossing the joint
positive value indicates power generation, reflecting a concentric contraction
negative value indicates power absorption, reflecting an eccentric contraction

Ankle Kinetics
definition
the rate of work performed by controlling muscles
the product of the net joint moment and the joint angular velocity
significance： indicating the net rate of generating or absorbing energy by all muscles
and other connective tissues crossing the joint
positive value indicates power generation, reflecting a concentric contraction
negative value indicates power absorption, reflecting an eccentric contractio