Rhetoric: persuasive discourse

Types of arguments: Definition, Genus, Classification, Cause-and-effect, Sign,

Likeness and difference, Testimony, Authority

Genus arguments: the audience already accepts the definition of

the class; simply show that an item fits that genus. Corruption

Definition arguments: must define the concept. Liberty or

Democracy might need precise definition before seeing if
something fits that class

Cause-and-effect. Argue for a cause-and-effect relationship between two

items. Example: unjust taxation results in discontent

Sign: Observe one effect and argue to the cause of another effect.
Example: We see ice outside, reason that it is caused by cold weather, and
thus decide to wear warm clothes.

Likeness and Difference

If things are like in many ways, they will probably be alike in other ways

Example: like father, like son

If things are different in many ways, they will probably be different in other
ways

Testimony and Authority

Come from outside an argument: must believe the integrity of the witness

If good or wise men believe this, it must be so

Work to show why the witnesseseven youare to be believed

Five canons of rhetoric:

Discovery of arguments Finding arguments to use

Arrangement: Organizing the order of argument
Style :Choosing words and sentence structure
Memorization: Memorizing the speech for delivery
Delivery :How the speech is given; how an essay is presented

Thesis: Topic and predicate; the main claim of an essay or text

Formulating a Thesis
Subject: the topic, question, problem or issue to be discussed.
Thesis: the topic and a predicate

Subject: Democracy
Thesis: Democracy is A.
The Thesis
State the thesis in one declarative sentence
A thesis provides a clear starting point for your essay.
Even if you develop a thesis after your first draft, use that as the starting
point to revise your draft.
Aristotles three modes:
Ethos, pathos, logos
Logos/logic: definitions, syllogisms, enthymemes
Logic: deductive and inductive
Logic
Rhetoricians assume that people are logical and can be persuaded by logic
Logic can be
Deductive: from principles to conclusions
Inductive: from examples to principles
Definition
The precise definition of terms is important
Essential definition: A definition unique to a term
Genus and differentiating characteristic
Synonyms
Etymology
Description
Example
Rules for definitions
The defining terms must be clearer and more familiar than the term to
be defined
The definition should not repeat the term to be defined or use
synonyms or derivative terms
The definition, whenever possible, should be stated positively.

Syllogism
A syllogism is made of
Two premises
A conclusion
We must agree to the conclusion of a syllogism if
The premises are true
The reasoning is valid
Enthymemes
Enthymemes are like syllogisms, but are missing one of the premises.
More often used because they are shorter

Pathos
Pathos: the emotional state of the audience produced by the speaker or
speech
Speakers try to evoke an emotional response from the audience that will
reinforce the point of the speech.
Ethos
Ethos (Ethical Appeal of Speakers Character)

Fallacies
Fallacies are mistakes in reasoning
An untruth
Invalid, specious, or deceptive reasoning
Examples:
Fallacies of Matter: a false or only partially-true statement that distorts
the true picture
Deductive: Non-sequitur (does not follow; bad logic)
Equivocation, either-or, etc.
Inductive: faulty generalizations or analogies

Fallacies: Fallacies of matter (an untruth or partial truth), Deductive (poor logic or
premises), Inductive (poor generalization). Examples of common fallacies:
Ad personam, Ad populum, Appeal to authority, Appeal to ignorance, Guilt
by association, Post hoc ergo propter hoc (after this, therefore because of
this), Red herring, Slippery slope, Begging the question, Complex question