UNIT 2: PRINCIPLES OF LIMIT STATE DESIGN AND ULTIMATE

STRENGTH OF R.C. SECTION

2.1 DESIGN STRESS STRAIN CURVE FOR CONCRETE AND STEEL
2.1.1 Concrete
The idealised stress-strain curve for concrete is shown in Fig. 2.1. The compressive
strength of concrete in the actual structure is assumed to be 0.67fck (curve 2). The factor
0.67 is introduced to account in for the size effect based on the assumption that the
concrete in the structure develops strength of 0.67 times the strength of the cube. The
partial safety factor m =1.5 shall be applied in addition to this. Thus, the design curve
(curve 3) is obtained by using a partial safety factor of m =1.5. Thus the maximum
compressive stress in concrete for design purpose is equal to 0.67fck/m = 0.67fck/1.5 =
0.446fck 0.45fck. It is to be noted that each curve is parabolic in the initial portion upto a
strain of 0.002. At a strain of 0.002 (0.2% strain), the stress remains constant with the
increasing load, until a strain of 0.0035 (0.35%) is reached, when the concrete is said to
have failed.

Fig. 2.1: Characteristic and design stress-strain curves for concrete in flexural
compression
For the purpose of limit states design, the appropriate partial safety factor c has to be
applied, and c is equal to 1.5 for the consideration of ultimate limit states. Thus, the
design curve is obtained by simply scaling down the ordinates of the characteristic
curve, i.e., dividing by c (Fig. 2.1). Accordingly, the maximum design stress becomes
equal to 0.447fck, and the formula for the design compressive stress fc corresponding to
any strain 0.0035 is given by:

Page 1

< 0.002
0.002
0.002
0.447 0.002 0.0035

0.447 2

When concrete is subjected to uniform compression, as in the case of a concentrically

loaded short column, the ultimate strain is limited to 0.002, and the corresponding
maximum design stress is 0.447fck. The stressstrain curve has no relevance in the limit
state of collapse by (pure) compression of concrete, and hence is not given by the Code.
2.1.2 Steel
The stress-strain curve for steel according to IS 456: clause 37.1 is assumed to depend on
the type of steel. Mild steel bar (fy= 250) is assumed to have a stress-strain curve as
shown in Fig. 2.2 and cold worked deformed bar (Fe 415) a stress-strain curve as shown
in Fig. 2.3 (Fig. 22 of IS 456).

Fig. 2.2: Characteristic and design stress-strain curves for Fe 250 grade mild steel

Fig. 2.3: Characteristic and design stress-strain curves for Fe 415 grade cold-worked
steel
Page 2

The stress-strain curves for steel, both in tension and compression in the structure, are
assumed to be the same as obtained in the tension test. As the yield strength of IS grade
steel has a minimum guaranteed yield strength, the partial safety factor to be used for
steel strength need not be as large as that for concrete. The partial safety factor
recommended for steel is 1.15, and this is to be applied to the stress-strain curve as shown
in Figs. 2.2 and 2.3 (IS: 456-2000, Fig. 22). It should be noted that for cold worked
deformed bars the factor 1.15 is applied to points on the stress-strain curve from 0.87fy to
fy only. The strain corresponding to 0.87fy stress is,
0.87
=
+ 0.002

2.2 LIMIT STATES

A limit state is a state of impending failure, beyond which a structure ceases to perform
its intended function satisfactorily, in terms of either safety or serviceability; i.e., it either
collapses or becomes unserviceable.
There are two types of limit states:
1. Ultimate limit states (or limit states of collapse), which deal with strength,
overturning, sliding, buckling, fatigue fracture, etc.
2. Serviceability limit states, which deal with discomfort to occupancy and/or
malfunction, caused by excessive deflection, crack-width, vibration, leakage, etc., and
also loss of durability, etc.
2.2.1 Limit state of collapse (Safety requirements)
The limit state of collapse of the structure or part of the structure could be assessed from
rupture of one or more critical sections and from buckling due to elastic or plastic
instability or overturning. The resistance to bending, shear, torsion and axial loads at
every section shall not be less than the appropriate value at that section produced by the
probable most unfavourable combinations of loads on the structure using the appropriate
partial factors.
The following limit states of collapse are considered in design:
a. Limit state of collapse in compression.
b. Limit state of collapse in shear.
c. Limit state of collapse in torsion.
2.2.2 Limit state of serviceability
The limit state of serviceability consists of
a. Excessive deflection.
b. Premature or excessive cracking.
c. Corrosion.
d. Excessive vibrations.

Page 3

Out of these, the important limit states of serviceability are excessive deflection and
cracking. The deflection of a structure or part thereof shall not adversely affect the
appearance or efficiency of the structure or finishes or partitions. Cracking of concrete
should not adversely affect the appearance or durability of the structure. Generally crack
widths at surface shall not exceed 0.3 mm. The limit state of excessive deflection and
crack width is applicable at service loads and is estimated on the basis of elastic analysis
(working stress method). The limit state of collapse (or failure), however, depends upon
ultimate strength.
2.3 ASSUMPTIONS MADE IN LIMIT STATE OF COLLAPSE IN FLEXURE
The following assumptions are relevant in the computations of ultimate flexural strength
of reinforced concrete sections as specified in IS: 456-2000 clause 38.1.
1. Plane sections normal to the axis remain plane after bending. It means the strain
diagram across the depth of the cross section is linear as shown in Fig. 2.4.

Fig. 2.4: Strain and Stress blocks

2. The maximum strain in concrete at the extreme compression fibre is assumed as
0.0035 in flexure.
3. The stress strain curve for concrete is having parabolic shape up to 0.002 strain and
then constant up to limit state of 0.0035. However, IS code do not prevent using other
shapes like rectangle, trapezoidal which result in prediction of strength in substantial
agreement with the result of the tests.
For design purpose, the compressive strength in the structure (size effect) may be
assumed to be 0.67 times the characteristic strength. In addition to this the partial
safety factor m may be taken as 1.5. It means the maximum compressive strength in
the extreme fibre of the section will be (0.67/1.5)fck = 0.446fck or it may be taken as
0.45fck also. The stress diagram assumed in the beam is as shown in Fig. 2.5.
4. The tensile strength of concrete is ignored.
5. The stresses in the reinforcement are obtained from the stress-strain curves shown in
Figs. 2.3 and 2.4. For design purposes the partial safety factor m, equal to 1.15 is
Page 4

applied to compute the design strength. Hence, the maximum stress in steel is limited
to fy/1.15 = 0.87fy.
6. The maximum strain in the tension reinforcement in the section at the failure shall not
be less than

Where, fy is characteristic strength of steel.

Es is modulus of elasticity of steel.
Actually, this value corresponds to the beginning of the flat portion in design stress strain
diagram for steel as shown in Fig. 2.5.

Fig. 2.5: Design stress train curve for steel

2.4 STRESS BLOCK PARAMETERS
The diagram showing the distribution of compressive stress in concrete across the depth
xu of the section is termed as stress block. Since the strain diagram is linear over this
depth xu, the shape of stress block is the same as the idealized stress-strain curve of
concrete. It has zero stress at neutral axis. It varies parabolically upto a height of
i.e.,
the

0.002
x
0.0035 u
3
x i.e.,
7 u

and has constant value equal to design stress of 0.446fck i.e.,

0.0035 0.002
0.0035

x
7 u

0.67

f
1.5 ck

for

xu . The shape of stress block is shown in Fig. 2.6 below.

Area of stress block: It may be found as explained below,

Area A of stress block = Area of rectangular portion + area of parabolic portion
3
2
4
= 0.446 xu + 0.446fck xu
7
3
7
= 0.361xu fck
0.36xu fck
Page 5

Fig. 2.6: Stress block parameters

Now we look at 0.36fck as the average stress over the depth xu as shown in figure above.
Area of stress block = fav*xu
Then the compressive force on the section, C = b*xu*fav = 0.36fck*xu*b=k1fckxub
Where k1 is called as stress block parameter and is equal to 0.36.
The distance of compressive force from the extreme compression fibre can be calculated
as 0.42xu = k2xu
Where k2 is another important parameter of the stress block and is equal to 0.42.
2.5 BALANCED, UNDER REINFORCED AND OVER REINFORCED SECTIONS
In bending, strain varies linearly across the depth of cross section of the member. Once
edge of the beam is in maximum compression and the other edge is in maximum tension.
Hence, somewhere across the depth, there is an axis where strain is zero. This axis is
called neutral axis. Depth of the axis from the maximum compression fibre is called depth
of neutral axis and is denoted by xu (Fig. 2.7). In limiting case maximum compressive
strain in concrete 0.0035 corresponding strain in steel is,

=
0.0035

From the stress strain curve we find that when this value exceeds

0.87

+ 0.002 the stress

in steel is yield stress fy.

A section is called balanced section if for the same applied moment the strain in concrete
and the strain in steel reach their limiting values simultaneously. In other words, in
balanced sections maximum compressive strain c in concrete is reached 0.0035 when the
tensile strain in steel is reached its limiting value of
=

0.87
+ 0.002

Page 6

Fig. 2.7 Different beam sections

Sections in which tensile strain reaches yield strain of

0.87

+ 0.002 earlier to

compressive strain in concrete reaching the limiting value of 0.0035, are called under
reinforced section. In these cases as moment increases, first steel reaches yield strain.
The stress in steel remains same (fy) but strain goes on increasing. When the moment
corresponding to 0.0035 strain in concrete is reached, concrete is crushed and failure
takes place. The excess strain in steel beyond

0.87

+ 0.002 amounts to considerable

cracks in concrete. The deflection will increase. They serve as a warning to the user and
one can take precautions to avoid disaster. Hence, IS code specifies that the maximum
strain in tension reinforced shall not be less than

0.87

+ 0.002. In other words, IS code

prefers design of under reinforced sections and at the most it can be balanced section.
This type of failure in under reinforced section is called primary tensile failure.
RC sections in which the limiting strain in concrete is reached earlier than the yield strain
of steel are called over reinforced sections. At failure steel is not yet yielded and
concrete bursts out. As there are no warning of failure in such sections, IS code
recommends avoiding such designs. Hence, a designer should not provide extra steel to
get the feeling of making design safer. No doubt, providing extra steel increases the load
carrying capacity of the section, but in case of over loading, it results into sudden
collapse.
If xulim is the value of depth of neutral axis in balanced section, it may be noted that
xu<xulim in under reinforced sections and xu>xulim in over reinforced sections. These
sections are shown in Fig. 2.7.
2.6 DEPTH OF NEUTRAL AXIS
Beams are assumed to fail in bending when the strain in concrete reaches limiting
compression strain of cu = 0.0035. But in all cases of design tensile strain in steel need
not be equal to limiting strain =

0.87

+ 0.002. It can be less or more than it.

Page 7

Fig. 2.8: Neutral axis

However, designs with s < su (over reinforced sections) are to be avoided. Hence, for all
cases
Total compression, C = 0.36*fck*b*xu
Total tension, T = fs*Ast
Where fs is the stress in steel corresponding to a strain of 0.0035 in concrete [Note:
Maximum design value, fs = 0.87fy]
Equilibrium requirement in horizontal direction gives, C = T
i.e., 0.36fckbxu = fsAst

0.36
Where, Ast = area of tension steel
xu = depth of neutral axis from top compression fibre
b, d = width and effective depth of the beam.
Case 1: Balanced section:
From strain diagram of Fig. 2.8 (d),

0.0035
=

Rearranging,

0.0035
=

0.0035
=

+ 0.0035

Page 8

To avoid compression failure, IS: 456-2000 recommends minimum strain in steel

corresponding to 0.0035 strain in concrete as,
0.87
=
+ 0.002

Therefore, limiting value of xu is given by,

0.0035
=
0.87

+ 0.002 + 0.0035

0.0035
=
0.87

+ 0.0055
Since, E = 2*105 N/mm2 for all types of steels,

values for various types of steel are

as shown in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1: Limiting values of depth of neutral axis
Type of steel
Mild steel (Fe250)
Fe 415
Fe500

fy in N/mm2
250
415
500

xulim/d
0.53
0.48
0.46

Case 2: Under reinforced section:

For under reinforced sections, strain in steel is greater than its limiting value (s > slim).
Hence, from idealized stress strain curve, we get fs = 0.87fy. Substituting this we get,
0.87
=

0.36
Case 3: Over reinforced section:
For over reinforced section, s < slim. Hence, the actual strain in steel at failure es is to be
found from the equation,

0.0035
=

Then using stress strain diagram of steel, corresponding stress is to be found. Since, s
and xu are independent; it is not possible to get one value from the other. Trial and error
method is to be used.

Page 9

2.7 STRENGTH OF RECTANGULAR SECTIONS IN FLEXURE

The flexural strength of RC section is also known as moment carrying capacity of the
section. The compressive force C in concrete and tensile force T in steel are equal and
opposite and are separated by distance (d-0.42xu) (Fig. 2.8), which is called as lever arm
LA. Hence, they form a couple. The couple moment is the moment of resistance and it is
called moment carrying capacity when c = 0.0035. Thus moment carrying capacity is
given by,
=
= 0.36 ( 0.42 )
= 0.36

1 0.42
2

Mu is called as the strength of section in flexure.

For limiting case of balanced section,
= 0.36

1 0.42
2

= 2
Where,
= 0.36

1 0.42

Substituting the values of (xulim/d) for different grades of steel, we get the values of k for
finding Mulim for different grade of steel as shown in Table 2.2 below.
Table 2.2: Limiting moment carrying capacity for different grade of steels
Type of steel
Fe250
Fe415
Fe500

xulim/d
0.53
0.48
0.46

Mulim
0.148fckbd2
0.138fckbd2
0.133fckbd2

Approximate expression for moment of resistance:

In case of under reinforced and balanced sections, x u < xulim, the stress in steel reaches the
limiting value of 0.87fy earlier. Hence, the equilibrium equation for horizontal forces
gives,
=
0.36 = 0.87
Page 10

 0.87
=

0.36
Moment equilibrium equation gives,
= = 0.87 0.42
= 0.87 0.42

0.87
0.36

= 0.87 1 1.015

Approximating 1.015 1.0, we get,

= 0.87 1

In case of over reinforced sections (xu> xulim), the actual moment of resistance of the
section may be obtained by usual formula C x LA or T x LA. However, to avoid
compression failure, the strength of such sections to be considered as that of balanced
sections only, i.e.,

= = 0.36
1 0.42
2

2.8 FLANGED SECTIONS IN FLEXURE

In case of flanged sections (Tee and L-sections), the ultimate flexural strength is
influenced by the position of neutral axis which may lie in the flange or outside the flange
depending upon the area of the reinforcement on the tension face. The IS code specifies
equations for computing the moment of resistance of flanged sections by assuming the
stress block and the following parameters.
Let, bw = width of the rib or web.
xu = neutral axis depth
bf = width of the flange.
Ast = area of tension reinforcement
D = effective depth.
Df = depth of flange.

Fig. 2.9: Stress diagram for Tee beam.

Page 11

The effective width of flange may be taken as the following but in no case greater than
the breadth of web plus half the sum of the clear distance to the adjacent beams on either
side.
(a) For T-beams

= + + 6
6
(b) For L-beams

=
+ + 3
12
For continuous beams and frames lo may be assumed as 0.7 times the effective span.
The following cases are considered.
(a) Neutral axis lies within the flange
In this case since, xu < Df, the section can be considered as rectangular with the width of
compression flange as the width of the section.
i.e., b = bf
The moment of resistance of under reinforced section is computed by the relation:

= 0.87 1

In the case of over reinforced sections, xu > xulim, the moment of resistance is computed
by,

= 0.36
1 0.42
2

(b) Neutral axis lies outside the flange and (Df/d) 0.2
When the neutral axis falls outside the flange (xu > Df) and the ration (Df/d) 0.2 and
(Df/xu) < 0.43, the flexural strength can be computed by using the stress block parameters
shown in figure above. The stress blocks are considered separately for the web portion
and the flanges. Considering the tensile and compressive forces shown in figure above,
the moment of resistance of the flanged section is expresses as,
= 1 0.42 + 2 ( 0.5 )
Where,
1 = 0.36
2 = 0.45 ( )
The final expression being,

= 0.36
2 1 0.42
+ 0.45 0.5

The above equation is valid for the case (Df/d) < 0.2 and (Df/xu) < 0.43
Page 12

(c) Neutral axis lies outside the flange and (Df/d) > 0.2
When the ratio (Df/d) > 0.2, the moment equation is modified by substituting yf for Df in
above equation where,
= 0.15 + 0.65
The modified equation for moment of resistance is expressed as,
= 0.36

2 1 0.42
+ 0.45 0.5

The Indian standard further states that for xumax > xu > Df, the moment of resistance may
be calculated by using (b) condition when (Df/xu) does not exceed 0.43 and when (Df/xu)
exceeds 0.43, the moment of resistance is computed by the condition (c) by substituting
xumax by xu.
(d) Computation of tension steel in tee beam
(i) When xu < Df, the tee beam is considered as rectangular and the area of reinforcement
is computed by the following equation for a known value of Mu.
= 0.87 1

(ii) When xu > Df, (Df/d) 0.2 and (Df/xu) 0.43, the area of tension reinforcement is
computed by the following equation,
Force equilibrium,

T1 = C1
0.87 fy Astw = 0.36 fck bw xu
=

Also,

0.36
0.87

T2 = C2
0.87 fy Astf = 0.45 fck (bf-bw) Df
=

0.45 ( )
0.87

Therefore,
=

0.45
0.36
+
0.87
0.87

Page 13

(iii) When xu > Df, (Df/d) 0.2 and (Df/xu) > 0.43, the area of tension reinforcement is
computed by the following equation,
Replace Df by yf,
=

0.45
0.36
+
0.87
0.87

(iv) When xu > Df, (Df/d) < 0.2 and (Df/xu) > 0.43, this is similar to case iii.
2.9 DOUBLY REINFORCED SECTIONS IN FLEXURE
Doubly reinforced sections are required in beams of restricted depth due to head room
requirements. When the singly reinforced section is insufficient to resist the bending
moment on the section, additional tension and compression reinforcements are designed
based on steel beam theory.
There are several reasons to add compression steel. Keep in mind, supported steel
(meaning it can't buckle) resists compression as well.

Compression steel helps reduce long term deflections. Concrete creeps under
sustained loads. Steel lessens the compression, meaning less sustained compressive
stress to cause creep deflection.

It makes members more ductile. Since the steel takes some of the compressive
stress, the compression block depth is reduced, increasing the strain in the tension
steel at failure, resulting in more ductile behaviour (the moment at first yield
remains largely the same with compression steel added, but the increase in capacity
after yield is significant).

Compression steel insures that the tension steel yields before the concrete crushes,
meaning it helps change the failure mode to tension controlled.

It makes beams easier to construct. With bars in the top and bottom, you have
longitudinal reinforcement in all 4 corners of the shear stirrups to keep them in
place when pouring the concrete. Also, for continuous members, its often easier to
run your negative moment steel the full length of the beam rather than trying to cut
it off in the positive moment regions.

Serviceability concerns. You're going to end up putting steel in that region anyway
to for temperature and shrinkage.

Page 14

Fig. 2.10: Doubly reinforced section

The design equation is obtained as follows,
Let,

Mu = ultimate flexural strength of the doubly reinforced section

Mu1 = Mulim = Limiting or maximum moment of resistance of the singly reinforced
section.
Mu2 = moment of resistance of the steel beam neglecting the effect of concrete
= fsc Asc (d-d`)
fsc = the stress in compression steel corresponding to the strain reached by it
when the extreme concrete fibre reaches a strain of 0.0035.
Asc = area of compressive reinforcement
d = effective depth of tension steel
d` = depth of compression reinforcement from compressive face
Ast1 = area of tensile reinforcement for a singly reinforced section
Ast2 = area of tensile reinforcement required to balance the compression
reinforcement
Ast = Ast1 + Ast2

The following procedure is used to compute the ultimate flexural strength of doubly
reinforced section.
1. Computing the limiting moment Mulim of the singly reinforced section as,
= 0.36

1 0.42
2

0.36f ck bx u lim
2. Calculate A st1

0.87f y

3. Compute A st 2 A st A st1

Page 15

 0.87f y A st 2
4. Calculate A sc

f sc

Where, f sc sc E s
5. The ultimate moment capacity of the section is given by,
= + `

0.0035x u max d`
The strain, sc

x u max

For Fe 250 grade steel, Es = 2*105 N/mm2

For Fe 415 and Fe 500 grade steel refer the Table 2.3 (Table A of SP-16) to get the stress
value for the calculated strain value.
Table 2.3: Salient points on the design stress strain curve

2.10 ULTIMATE
SECTIONS

SHEAR

STRENGTH

OF

REINFORCED

CONCRETE

Reinforced concrete members are generally subjected to maximum shear forces normally
near the support sections of simply supported flexural members. The shear stress
developed is accompanied by diagonal tension as shown in Fig. 2.11. In continuous
beams the support sections are subjected to shear coupled with moments. In the case of
corbels and brackets, large shear forces develop at the junction of the corbel and column.

Fig. 2.11: Diagonal tension in beams

Page 16

The prominent types of shear failures observed in reinforced concrete members can be
categorized under the following types:
(a) Shear-tension or diagonal tension failure.
(b) Flexure-shear failure.
(c) Shear-compression failure.
(d) Shear-bond failure.

(a) Diagonal tension failure

(b) Flexure-shear failure

(c) Shear-compression failure

(d) Shear-bond failure

The shear stress distribution in a reinforced concrete beam is influenced by the shear
force acting on the section and the shape of cross section in the elastic stage. At the
ultimate stage, concrete below the neutral axis is ineffective due to cracking. Hence, for
simplicity the nominal shear stress across the section is computed as average shear stress
and is expressed as,
=

Where, Vu = ultimate shear force at the section.

v = nominal shear stress
b = breadth (width of rib in flanged sections)
d = effective depth
The design shear strength in beams without shear reinforcement depends upon the grade
of concrete and the percentage of tension reinforcement in the section. The permissible
design shear strength (c) of concrete in beams without shear reinforcement is complied in
Table 2.4 (Table 19 of IS: 456-2000). The values given in the table are applicable for
beams. In the case of slabs having an overall thickness less than 300mm, the shear
strength being higher, the IS code suggests an enhanced shear strength computed as kc
Page 17

where k is a multiplying factor depending upon the overall depth of slab as shown in
clause 40.2.1.1 (Table 2.5).
The code also specifies an upper limit for the design of shear strength of concrete
strengthened by shear reinforcements. Accordingly the maximum shear stress in concrete
(cmax) should not exceed the values specified in Table 2.6 (Table 20 of IS: 456-2000). If
the values of nominal shear stress (v) exceeds the value of cmax, the section should be
redesigned with increased cross sectional dimensions.
Table 2.4: Design shear strength of concrete (c) N/mm2

Table 2.5: shear strength factor k for slabs

Table 2.6: Maximum shear stress (cmax) N/mm2

Page 18

Design of shear reinforcements

In case of reinforced concrete sections where the nominal shear stress (v) exceeds the
design shear strength of concrete (c), shear reinforcements are to be designed comprising
of,
1. Vertical stirrups.
2. Tension reinforcement bent up near supports to resist the shear forces.
The typical arrangement of these types is shown in Fig. 2.12. At the limit state of collapse
in shear, the forces are resisted by the combined action of concrete and steel.
Let,

Then,

If,

Vu = total design shear force

Vc = shear resisted by concrete
Vus = shear resisted by reinforcements in the form of links or bent up bars.
Vus = Vu Vc
= (v c) b d
Sv = spacing of stirrups
Asv = total area of the legs of shear reinforcements
d = effective depth of section

0.87f y A sv d

Then, S v
Vus

The shear resisted by the bent up bars inclined at an angle to the horizontal is given
by,
Vus 0.87f y A sv sin
These equations are recommended for the design of shear reinforcements in IS: 456-2000,
clause 40.4.

(a) Vertical stirrups

(b) Bent up bars

Fig. 2.12: Types of shear reinforcements

Page 19

In designing reinforced concrete beams, the IS code stipulates that minimum shear
reinforcements are to be designed even if the design shear strength of concrete (c)
exceeds the nominal shear stress (v) to safeguard against local cracking and nominal
safety requirements.
The minimum shear reinforcements to be designed using the relation,

0.4

0.87
Provision of nominal shear reinforcement is equivalent to designing the shear
reinforcement for a shear stress of (v c) = 0.4 N/mm2 and it safeguards against spalling
of concrete cover and bond failures.
2.11 ULTIMATE TORSIONAL STRENGTH OF REINFORCED CONCRETE
SECTIONS
Design of reinforced concrete structures subjected to torsion requires a proper
understanding of the torsional strength of reinforced concrete sections. Pure torsion is
exceptional in reinforced concrete. Normally torsion associated with flexure and shear
develops in reinforced concrete structures such as L-beams, circular girders, corner lintels
where the loading is eccentric to the line of reaction at supports. Primary torsion is
generally induced by eccentric loading and equilibrium conditions are sufficient to
evaluate the torsional moments acting at critical sections.
The effect of torsion is to induce shear stresses and causes warping of non-circular
sections. The failure of plain concrete members in torsion is due to diagonal tensile cracks
since concrete is weak in tension. Hence, the IS code provides a method of designing
suitable reinforcements in concrete sections subjected to combined effects of torsion,
flexure and shear by introducing the concept of enhanced equivalent bending moment,
shear and torsion.
The design rules specified in IS code applies to beams of solid rectangular section and
flanged sections in which the width of rib is considered for computations. Sections
subjected to torsion and shear are to be designed for an equivalent shear force computed
as,
Ve = Vu + 1.6 (Tu/b)
Where,

Ve = equivalent shear
Vu = transverse shear
Tu = torsional moment
b = breadth of beam
Page 20

The equivalent nominal shear stress is expresses as,

+ 1.6
=

The values of ve should lie between c, the permissible shear stress compiled in Table 19
of IS code and the maximum shear stress cmax given in Table 20 of IS code.
In cases where ve > cmax, the section has to be suitably redesigned by increasing the
cross-sectional area and/or increasing the grade of concrete.
In ve < c, minimum shear reinforcements are designed. Longitudinal reinforcements are
designed to resist an equivalent bending moment expressed as,
Me = Mu + Mt
Where,

Me = equivalent bending moment

Mu = design bending moment
Mt = bending moment developed due to torsion and expressed as,

Where,

1+
1.7

Tu = torsional moment
D = overall depth
b = breadth of section

In cases where the numerical value of Mt exceeds the numerical value of Mu, longitudinal
reinforcement should be provided on flexural compression face such that the beam can
also withstand an equivalent moment Me computed as Me2 = (Mt Mu), the moment Me2
being taken as acting in the opposite sense to the moment Mu.
Transverse reinforcements comprising of two legged closed hoops enclosing the corner
longitudinal bars should have the area given by,
=

+
1 1 (0.87 ) 2.51 (0.87 )

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However, the total transverse reinforcement should not be less than the values computed
as,

0.87
Where,

Tu = torsional moment
Vu = transverse shear force
sv = spacing of vertical links
b1 = centre to centre distance between corner bars in the direction of width
d1 = centre to centre distance between corner bars in the direction of depth
fy = characteristic strength of stirrup reinforcement
ve = equivalent shear stress
c = shear strength of concrete

2.12 CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENT LENGTH AND ANCHORAGE

The bond between steel and concrete is very important and essential so that they can act
together without any slip in a loaded structure. With the perfect bond between them, the
plane section of a beam remains plane even after bending. The length of a member
required to develop the full bond is called the anchorage length. The bond is measured by
bond stress. The local bond stress varies along a member with the variation of bending
moment. The average value throughout its anchorage length is designated as the average
bond stress. In our calculation, the average bond stress will be used.
Thus, a tensile member has to be anchored properly by providing additional length on
either side of the point of maximum tension, which is known as Development length in
tension. Similarly, for compression members also, we have Development length Ld in
compression.
It is worth mentioning that the deformed bars are known to be superior to the smooth mild
steel bars due to the presence of ribs. In such a case, it is needed to check for the
sufficient development length Ld only rather than checking both for the local bond stress
and development length as required for the smooth mild steel bars. Accordingly, IS 456,
clause 26.2 stipulates the requirements of proper anchorage of reinforcement in terms of
development length Ld only employing design bond stress bd.
Design Bond Stress (bd)
The design bond stress bd is defined as the shear force per unit nominal surface area of
reinforcing bar. The stress is acting on the interface between bars and surrounding
concrete and along the direction parallel to the bars. This concept of design bond stress
finally results in additional length of a bar of specified diameter to be provided beyond a
Page 22

given critical section. Though, the overall bond failure may be avoided by this provision
of additional development length Ld, slippage of a bar may not always result in overall
failure of a beam. It is, thus, desirable to provide end anchorages also to maintain the
integrity of the structure and thereby, to enable it carrying the loads. Clause 26.2 of IS
456 stipulates, The calculated tension or compression in any bar at any section shall be
developed on each side of the section by an appropriate development length or end
anchorage or by a combination thereof.
The local bond stress varies along the length of the reinforcement while the average bond
stress gives the average value throughout its development length. This average bond
stress is still used in the working stress method and IS 456 has mentioned about it in cl.
B-2.1.2. However, in the limit state method of design, the average bond stress has been
designated as design bond stress bd and the values are given in cl. 26.2.1.1. The same is
given below as Table 2.7.

Table 2.7: Design bond stress in limit state method for plain bars in tension

For deformed bars conforming to IS 1786, these values shall be increased by 60 percent.
For bars in compression, the values of bond stress in tension shall be increased by 25
percent.
2.12.1 Development Length

Fig. 2.13: Development length of bar

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(a) A single bar

Fig. 2.13(a) shows a simply supported beam subjected to uniformly distributed load.
Because of the maximum moment, the Ast required is the maximum at x = L/2. For any
section 1-1 at a distance x < L/2, some of the tensile bars can be curtailed. Let us then
assume that section 1-1 is the theoretical cut-off point of one bar. However, it is necessary
to extend the bar for a length Ld as explained earlier. Let us derive the expression to
determine Ld of this bar.
Fig. 2.13(b) shows the free body diagram of the segment AB of the bar. At B, the tensile
force T trying to pull out the bar is of the value T = ( 2s /4), where is the nominal
diameter of the bar and s is the tensile stress in bar at the section considered at design
loads. It is necessary to have the resistance force to be developed by bd for the length Ld
to overcome the tensile force. The resistance force = (Ld) (bd). Equating the two, we
get
2
=
4

=
4
The above equation is given in cl. 26.2.1 of IS 456 to determine the development length
of bars.
The example taken above considers round bar in tension. Similarly, other sections of the
bar should have the required Ld as determined for such sections. For bars in compression,
the development length is reduced by 25 percent as the design bond stress in compression
bd is 25% more than that in tension (see the last lines below Table 2.7). Following the
same logic, the development length of deformed bars is reduced by 60 percent of that
needed for the plain round bars. Tables 64 to 66 of SP-16 present the development lengths
of fully stressed plain and deformed bars (when fs = 0.87fy) both under tension and
compression. It is to be noted that the consequence of stress concentration at the lugs of
deformed bars has not been taken into consideration.
(b) Bars bundled in contact
The respective development lengths of each of the bars for two, three or four bars in
contact are determined following the same principle. However, cl. 26.2.1.2 of IS 456
stipulates a simpler approach to determine the development length directly under such
cases and the same is given below:
The development length of each bar of bundled bars shall be that for the individual bar,
increased by 10 percent for two bars in contact, 20 percent for three bars in contact and 33
per cent for four bars in contact.
Page 24

However, while using bundled bars the provision of cl. 26.1.1 of IS 456 must be satisfied.
According to this clause:
In addition to single bar, bars may be arranged in pairs in contact or in groups of
three or four bars bundled in contact.
Bundled bars shall be enclosed within stirrups or ties to ensure the bars remaining
together.
Bars larger than 32 mm diameter shall not be bundled, except in columns.
Curtailment of bundled bars should be done by terminating at different points spaced
apart by not less than 40 times the bar diameter except for bundles stopping at support (cl.
26.2.3.5 of IS 456).
Checking of Development Lengths of Bars in Tension

The following are the stipulation of cl. 26.2.3.3 of IS 456.

(i) At least one-third of the positive moment reinforcement in simple members and
one-fourth of the positive moment reinforcement in continuous members shall be
extended along the same face of the member into the support, to a length equal to
Ld/3.
(ii) Such reinforcements of (i) above shall also be anchored to develop its design stress
in tension at the face of the support, when such member is part of the primary lateral
load resisting system.
(iii)The diameter of the positive moment reinforcement shall be limited to a diameter
such that the Ld computed for fs = fd does not exceed the following:

1
+

where M1 = moment of resistance of the section assuming all reinforcement at the

section to be stressed to fd,
fd = 0.87fy,
V = shear force at the section due to design loads,
Lo = sum of the anchorage beyond the centre of the support and the equivalent
anchorage value of any hook or mechanical anchorage at simple support.
At a point of inflection, Lo is limited to the effective depth of the member
or 12, whichever is greater, and
= diameter of bar.
It has been further stipulated that M1/V in the above expression may be increased by 30
percent when the ends of the reinforcement are confined by a compressive reaction.

Page 25

2.12.2. Anchoring Reinforcing Bars

The bars may be anchored in combination of providing development length to maintain
the integrity of the structure. Such anchoring is discussed below under three sub-sections
for bars in tension, compression and shear respectively, as stipulated in cl. 26.2.2 of IS
456.
Bars in tension (Clause 26.2.2.1 of IS 456)
The salient points are:
Derformed bars may not need end anchorages if the development length
requirement is satisfied.
Hooks should normally be provided for plain bars in tension.
Standard hooks and bends should be as per IS 2502 or as given in Table 67 of SP16, which are shown in Figs. 2.14 (a) and (b).
The anchorage value of standard bend shall be considered as 4 times the diameter
of the bar for each 45o bend subject to a maximum value of 16 times the diameter
of the bar.
The anchorage value of standard U-type hook shall be 16 times the diameter of the
bar.

Fig. 2.14: Standard hook and bend

Bars in compression (cl. 26.2.2.2 of IS 456)
Here, the salient points are:

The anchorage length of straight compression bars shall be equal to its development
length as mentioned in pervious section.

The development length shall include the projected length of hooks, bends and
straight lengths beyond bends, if provided.

Page 26

Bars in shear (cl. 26.2.2.4 of IS 456)

The salient points are:

Inclined bars in tension zone will have the development length equal to that of bars
in tension and this length shall be measured from the end of sloping or inclined
portion of the bar.

Inclined bars in compression zone will have the development length equal to that of
bars in tension and this length shall be measured from the mid-depth of the beam.

For stirrups, transverse ties and other secondary reinforcement, complete

development length and anchorage are considered to be satisfied if prepared as
shown in Figs. 2.15.

Fig. 2.15: Anchorage of stirrups

Bearing Stresses at Bends (cl. 26.2.2.5 of IS 456)
The bearing stress inside a bend is to be calculated from the expression:
=

where Fbt = tensile force due to design loads in a bar or group of bars,
r = internal radius of the bend, and
= size of the bar or bar of equivalent area in bundled bars
Page 27

The calculated bearing stress shall not exceed the following:

1.5
1 + 2

where fck = characteristic cube strength of concrete

a = center to center distance between bars or groups of bars perpendicular to the
plane of the bend. For bars adjacent to the face of the member, a shall be
taken as cover plus size of the bar .
Splicing of reinforcement: Splices are required when bars placed short of their required
length (due to non-availability of longer bars) need to be extended. Splices are also
required when the bar diameter has to be changed along the length (as is sometimes done
in columns). The purpose of splicing is to transfer effectively the axial force from the
terminating bar to the connecting (continuing) bar with the same line of action at the
junction. This invariably introduces stress concentrations in the surrounding concrete.
These effects should be minimised by:
using proper splicing techniques;
keeping the splice locations away from sections with high flexural/shear stresses; and
staggering the locations of splicing in the individual bars of a group (as, typically in a
column).
The Code recommends that splices in flexural members should not be at sections where
the bending moment is more than 50 percent of the moment of resistance; and not more
than half the bars shall be spliced at a section (Cl. 26.2.5).

Page 28