Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research

62

J SCI IND RES VOL 72 JANUARY 2013

Vol. 72, January 2013, pp. 62-69

Bio-Fuel Agro-Forestry Industrial Production System of Mahula

(Madhuca latifolia L.): Process Development and Future Perspectives
Shuvashish Behera 1, Ramesh C Ray2 and Rama C Mohanty3*
1

Department of Botany, Utkal University, Vanivihar, Bhubaneswar -751004, Orissa, India

Microbiology Laboratory, Central Tuber Crops Research Institute (Regional Centre), bhubaneswar-751019, Orissa.
*3 Department of Botany, Utkal University, Vanivihar, Bhubaneswar -751004, Orissa, India.
Received:22 February 2012 ; revised: 07 August 2012 ; accepted:15 November 2012

Mahula (Madhuca latifolia L.) is a deciduous tree commonly found in the tropical rain forests of Asian and Australian
continent. The tree species, however, has been domesticated by tribal people in India for use as food (flowers), feed (leaves and
flowers), wood (timber), oil (seeds) and beverage (flowers) locally called mahuli. The flowers of this tree are a rich source (4060% on dry weight basis) of fermentable sugars (glucose and fructose). The tribals in India produce traditional country liquor
called mahuli by mixed culture of yeast fermentation of mahula flowers at home and semi- commercial levels for their own
consumption. The flowers and seeds of mahula tree can be employed to produce bio-ethanol (from flowers) and bio-diesel (from
seeds). Therefore, this review summarizes the progress made on agro-industrial technology for production of bio-fuels from
mahula plants (flowers and seeds) and further its future perspectives.
Keywords: Bio-ethanol, Bio-diesel, Mahula.

Introduction
Biofuels are important because they replace
petroleum fuels. A number of environmental and
economic benefits are claimed for biofuels. Bioethanol
and biodiesel are by far the most widely used biofuels
for transportation worldwide. Production of biofuels from
biomass is one way to reduce both consumption of crude
oil and environmental pollution. Using bioethanol blended
gasoline fuel for automobiles can significantly reduce
petroleum use and exhaust greenhouse gas emission.
Bioethanol can be produced from different kinds of raw
materials. These raw materials mostly derived from
agricultural produces such as sugar cane, maize, cassava,
etc and wastes such as molasses and bagasse, are
classified into three categories: simple sugars, starch and
lignocelluloses. However, very little information is
available on forest produce as feedstock for bio-ethanol
production. Similarly, biodiesel has been receiving
increasing attention due to its less polluting nature and
because it is a renewable energy resource as against the
conventional diesel, which is a fossil fuel leading to a
potential exhaustion. Mostly, biodiesel is prepared from
*Author for correspondence
E-mail: rc_mohanty@sify.com

oils like soybean, rapeseed, sunflower, etc. throughout

the world 1 . These oils are essentially edible in nature.
Few attempts have been made for producing biodiesel
with non-edible oils like karanja (Pongamia pinnata L.)
and jatropha (Jatropha curcas L.), especially in India 2 .
However, there remain a number of other tree based
oilseeds like sal (Shorea robust L.), neem (Azadirachta
indica L.), undi (Calophyllum inophyllum L.) and
mahula (Madhuca latifolia L.) with an estimated annual
production potential of more than 20 Mt of which mahula
contributes 181 kt2 . These oils have great potential to
make biodiesel for supplementing other conventional
sources.
Mahula is a deciduous tree found in abundance in
the tropical rain forests of Asian and Australian
Continents3 . The tree species, however, has been
domesticated by tribal people in India for use as food
(flowers), feed (leaves and flowers), wood (timber), oil
(seeds) and beverage (flowers) locally called mahuli.
The flowers and seeds of this tree have been very useful
in Indian Sub-Continental economy and can be employed
to produce biofuels such as ethanol (from flowers) and
bio-diesel (from seeds). The annual production of mahula
flowers in India during 2000-2001 was about 45,000
Mtonnes (www.iied.org/pubs/pdfs/G02279.pdf), which

MOHANTY ET AL: BIO-FUEL AGRO-FORESTRY INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION SYSTEM OF MAHULA

63

Table1Characteristic features of mahula (M. latifolia L.)

seed oil*
Sl. No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Fig. 1Mahula (Madhuca latifolia L.) flowers production with
the age of the tree *Source: www.iied.org/pubs/pdfs/Go2279.pdf

has remained more or less constant during 2004-20054 .

The oil content of mature seeds of mahula plants collected
in Sri Lanka varied from 480 g/kg to 570 g/kg, with an
average of 510 g/kg5 . This overview summarizes the
progress made on agro-industrial technology for
production of biofuels from mahula plants (flowers and
seeds) and future perspectives.
Agro forestry of mahula
Mahula grows on rocky and sandy soil. The tree is
planted in most part of Asia-pacific, propagating either
by natural or seeds sown by Forest Department, tribal
community or by local administration. Natural
reproduction takes place by seeds which germinate early
in the rainy season (July-Aug) soon after falling from
tree. Artificial propagation is done by tribal people through
sowing or by transplanting nursery raised seedlings. The
seeds which get covered under the soil germinate better
and give rise to the seedlings while those lying exposed
are attacked by either insects or fungus.
Mahula is a fast growing tree that grows to
approximately 20 meters in height (http:/
Journal.library.iisc.ernet.in/archives/iiscjournal/p81118.pdf) in 8-15 years. The tree matures and starts
bearing 8 to 15 years, and fruits up to 60 years. The
flowering season extends from February to April (Four
to six weeks). However, the collection period is for 1520 days, when maximum flowering takes place. Mahula
flowers yield increases with the girth and age of the tree
(Fig. 1). It is rich in sugar (40-60 %, on dry weight basis)
and can serve as an important raw material for alcohol
production. The fruits fall on the ground in May and July
in the North and August and September in the South in
India 34 . The orange brown ripe fleshy berry is 2.5 to 5 cm

Properties
Refractive index
Saponification value
Iodine value
Unsaponifiable matter (%)
Palmitic C16:0 (%)
Stearic acid C18:0 (%)
Oleic Acid C18:0 (%)
Linolic Acid C18:2 (%)

Value
1.452-1.462
187-197
55-70
1-3
24.5
22.7
37.0
14.3

*Source: Bhatt et al.(6)

long and contains one to four shining seeds. The kernels

are 70% of seed by weight and the seed contains two
kernels, having 2.5 cm x 1.75 cm size. In seed, oil content
is 35% and protein is 16%. Oil is extracted from the
mahula seeds by using traditional oil extracting units.
Fresh oil is yellow in color. While commercial oils are
generally greenish yellow with a disagreeable odors and
taste. The characteristics of mahula seed oil are given
below (Table 1) 6 . Fungi like Aspergillus flavus, A. niger
and Penicillium sp. causes deterioration in seeds and
fruits. Defoliation and flower drop are common insect
pests problem associated with mahula both in nursery
and plantation. When the tree is 8-15 years old,
intercropping with vegetable (French bean) and root
(cassava and sweet potato) crops are grown by tribal
farmers in India. Besides, other tree crops such as
mango, guava and pine-apple are also inter-cultured along
with mahula tree. Mahula has the high potential in
production of biofuel and has many features and therefore
it is the most suitable plant than the other crops.
Carbohydrate profile of mahula flowers
The edible part of the mahula plant is its flower. The
mahula flowers are rich source of sugar and identified
mainly as sucrose, maltose, glucose, fructose, arabinose
and rhamnose7 . The total sugar content of the flowers is
maximum when the flowers are mature and ready to
fall. In the growing stage, fructose is present in a greater
amount than glucose and in the ripe stage, the quantities
are almost equal. The sucrose increases in amount up to
the shedding of the flower and later converted in to invert
sugar. Behera et al8 reported 46-48 g/100 g total sugar
(glucose, fructose, sucrose and maltose) in sun-dried
flowers. Swain et al4 analyzed various fermentable

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J SCI IND RES VOL 72 JANUARY 2013

Fig. 2Fermentable sugars of Mahula (Madhuca latifolia L.)

flower by TLC. Standard markers were as follows: lane (1)
glucose, (2) fructose, (3) maltose, (46) ethanol extracts of
mahula flower samples.*Source: Swain et al.(4)

sugars (glucose, fructose and maltose) in ethanol extract

of mahula flowers by Thin Layer Chromatography (silica
gel plates of 0.25 mm thick and 20x20 cm in size) and
found the main fermentable sugar components of mahula
flowers were fructose and glucose (Fig. 2).
Ethanol production from mahula flowers
Country/Tribal process of fermentation in India
Small scale production

Tribal people in Orissa state, India ferment mahula

flowers openly in their locality, and fermented mahula
flowers are distilled for production of mahuli. Usually,
the flowers are thoroughly washed in water and
submerged in plastic drums or tanks for a period of 4
days with the addition of starter culture, locally called
as bakhar (syn. ranu), prepared using a mixture of
yeast species (i.e., Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
Torulopsis, etc,), different parts of medicinal plants [root
of Cissampelos pareira (Akanbindi), Diospyros
melanoxylon (Kendu), Lygodium flexuosum (fern),
Orthosiphon rubicundus (Chandua), Ruellia
tuberose (Chaulia) and bark of Terminalia alata
(Asan)] and rice powder9 . Fermented mahula flower
mass is distilled in a metallic (aluminum) container by
keeping another earthen pot on the top of the first
container in a reverse manner. The joints of two vessels
are sealed by using sticky pond mud. A metallic pipe is
connected to the upper earthen vessel which passes
through water and opens to a collecting vessel. The lower
metallic container containing fermented mahula flower
mass was heated at low temperature with wood fire.
Use of fire wood for heating purpose during the distillation

Fig. 3Small scale traditional mahuli distillation process from

fermented mahua flower : (1) heat energy provided by burning fire
wood, (2) fermentation vessel, (3) lid, (4) ethanol delivery pipe,
(5) mud water for condensation of ethanol vapour, and (6)
collecting vessel

is eco-friendly in nature. Finally steam is condensed in

metallic pipe and collected in collecting vessel. The
traditional distillation process is described graphically in
the Figure 3. The alcohol (ethanol) concentration in the
distilleries varies between from 30 - 40%. The distillate
produced from mahula flowers alone (10 kg) and mahula
+ sugar cane molasses (4 kg mahula flowers and 6 kg
molasses) are 6.5 and 9 liter/batch respectively 8 . The
distillate is diluted to approximately 10-15% alcohol
(ethanol) and consumed as country liquor.
Large scale production

Some private organizations in India are producing

mahuli in large scale (80-100 liter/day) taking legal
permission from the authority (Fig. 4). They usually use
larger plastic drums or jar for fermenting mahula flowers.
The fermentation on distillation process are almost same
as described for the small scale process. In the common
process 50 kg mahula flowers and 50 kg sugar cane
molasses fermented together. The final distillate comes
around 80 liter/batch. The ethanol concentration varies
between 35 - 40%. Finally distillate is diluted to various
concentrations ranging from 10 to 18% alcohol (ethanol)
depending on the market demand. The drawbacks of
the above production processes are: (1) pure culture of
S. cerevisiae is not used, the starter culture bakhar
contains several contaminated microorganisms such as
Bacillus spp, Torulopsis etc, (2) distillation process is

MOHANTY ET AL: BIO-FUEL AGRO-FORESTRY INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION SYSTEM OF MAHULA

65

(4)

(3)
(5)

(6)

(2)

(1)
(7)

Fig. 4Large scale traditional mahuli distillation plant (b) Outer sketch of large scale distillation plant: (1) heat energy provided by
burning fire wood, (2) fermentation vessel, (3) lid, (4) vessel containing water for condensation of ethanol vapour, (5) removal of excess
water after ethanol condensation ,(6) ethanol delivery pipe ,and (7) collecting vessel

not perfect, as the percentage of ethanol in the distillate

ranges between 30 -40%, (3) proper hygienic conditions
are not maintained, (4) firewood is used for heating during
the process of distillation, the practice is not eco- friendly,
etc.
Scientific process of fermentation
The scientific process of fermenting mahula flowers
for ethanol production is i) Crushing ii) Gelatinization iii)
Fermentation and iv) Distillation. 8 Crushing of mahula
flowers is carried out by the wet milling process. In this
process flowers are crushed (flower: water ratio 1:5) in
mechanical crusher or grinder to make slurry. The slurry
is made into mash by steam cooking at 120-1220 C for
15-20 min (Gelatinization). The process is marked by
loss of birefringence, and sugar solubilization. Granules
absorb large amount of water, swell to many times their
original size, and open up enough to use directly by the
microorganisms.
Fermentation
Microorganisms
Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Traditionally, the yeast, S. cerevisiae has been used

all over the world as the major ethanol producing
microorganism. The sugars that are metabolizable by this

organism include glucose, fructose, mannose, galactose,

sucrose, maltose, and maltotriose. Ethanol production by
S. cerevisiae is carried out via the glycolytic pathway
(also known as the Embden-Myerhof-Parnas or EMP
pathway). S. cerevisiae strain CTCRI was used as free
and immobilized cells for production of ethanol from
mahula flowers in submerged fermentation4,8 . Batch
fermentation of fresh and 12-month-stored flowers with
free (whole cells) and immobilized cells of
Saccharomyces cerevisiae (strain CTCRI) was carried
out in 2-l Erlenmeyer flasks. The ethanol yields were
193 and 148 g kg-1 (using free cells) and 205 and 152 g kg-1
(using immobilized cells) from fresh and 12-month-stored
mahula flowers, respectively 4 . However, ethanol yield
with the free cell of Saccharomyces cerevisiae with
the same substrate was 149.1 g kg -1 flowers 8
(Table 2).
Zymomonas mobilis

Although it is not used commercially, in recent years,

however, research is focused on processes involving the
gram-negative anaerobic bacterium, Z. mobilis, because
of several better fermentation attributes such as it
converts glucose almost stoichiometrically to ethanol and
CO2 , grows more rapidly and demonstrates highest

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J SCI IND RES VOL 72 JANUARY 2013

ethanol productivity during continuous fermentation.

Zymomonas spp. grow anaerobically and unlike yeasts
do not require the controlled addition of oxygen to maintain
viability at high cell concentrations 10 . It can produce
ethanol at much faster rates than S. cerevisiae and
produce s less by-products11 . Batch fermentation of
mahula flowers with free (whole cells) of Zymomonas
mobilis MTCC 92 was carried out in 2-l Erlenmeyer
flasks. The ethanol yield was 122.9 g/kg -1flowers after
96 h of fermentation12 .

Cell viability for several cycles of operations.

Among the different immobilization technologies,
entrapment of microbial cells within the polymeric
matrices such as agar agar, calcium alginate, gelatin, kcarrageenan, luffa, etc. have been studied widely 15 .
Three most suitable carriers for cell immobilization are
entrapment in calcium alginate bead16 and agar agar
cubes 15 , and luffa sponge discs 17 , because these
techniques are simple, cost effective and non-toxic.
Calcium alginate

Fermentation Conditions

Large volumes of the cooked slurry are fed into

fermentation vessels and inoculated with yeast S.
cerevisiae or bacteria Z. mobilis. The yeast/bacterial
inoculation is usually 5 to 10% of the total volume and is
growing aerobically in stages, from a laboratory pure
culture. The optimum concentration of sugars for ethanol
fermentation is 12 to 18% 13 . The pH of the mash for
fermentation is optimally 5.5 and 6.5 for fermentation by
yeast and bacteria, respectively and the temperature of
fermentation is 28 to 320 C. Sugar is converted to ethanol,
carbon dioxide and yeast/bacterial biomass as well as
much smaller quantities of minor end products such as
glycerol, fusel oils, aldehydes and ketones14 .
Distillation

Alcohol is recovered from the fermented mash after

72 to 96 h. at the end of fermentation; the yeast is
separated from the mash by centrifugation or
sedimentation and used for the next batch of
fermentation. The resulting liquid is distilled for the
recovery of ethanol. Alcohol distilled from fermented mash
is concentrated up to 95% v/v. This is further
concentrated to produce ethanol with 99.6% v/v
(minimum) concentration.
Cell immobilization
Cell immobilization is the technique for the physical
or chemical fixation of cells, onto a solid support, into a
solid matrix or retained by a matrix in order to increase
their stability and make possible their repeated or
continued use. Bio-ethanol can be produced using either
free or immobilized cells. Using immobilized cells is
advantageous over free cell due to:
Enhanced yield,
Ease to separate cell mass from the bulk liquid,
Reduced risk of contamination,
Better operational stability, and

Common immobilization matrices include naturally

occurring alginates. Alginates are produced by some
strains of seaweed and are a variety of polysaccharide.
Alginates are formed by converting mannuronic and
guluronic acid into their salt forms of mannuronate (M)
and guluronate (G). They are copolymers consisting of
(1-4) linked -D-mannuronic acid and -L-guluronic
acid 18 . Alginates are linear polymers comprised of blocks
of M and G, or alternating GM blocks. Ethanol production
from mahula flowers in submerged fermentation (SmF)
using immobilized cells of S. cerevisiae and Z. Mobilis
MTCC 92 in calcium alginate beads was studied. The
maximum ethanol concentration was 154.5 g kg -1 flowers
using yeast cells which was more effective (14.83%)
than the bacterial cell (134.6 g kg-1 flowers)19 (Table 2).
However, Swain et al4 reported 6.7% increase in ethanol
yield from mahula flowers fermented with calcium
alginate entrapped yeast cells over free cells.
Agar agar

Agar or agar-agar is a gelling agent which is an

unbranched polysaccharide obtained from the cell walls
of some species of red algae, primarily from the genera
Gelidium and Gracilaria or seaweed (Sphaerococcus
euchema). Commercially it is derived primarily from
Gelidium amansii. Agar-agar can be used as a suitable
carrier for yeast cell immobilization due to non-toxic
nature and it is simple and cost-effective 8 . Batch
fermentation of mahula flowers with S. cerevisiae was
carried out using agar-agar as the immobilizing material.
The ethanol yield was 151.2 g kg-1 flowers after 96 h of
fermentation. Further, the immobilized cells were
physiologically active at least for three cycles (150.6,
148.5 and 146.5 g kg -1) of fermentation. However,
ethanol yield with the agar-agar immobilized cells of Z.
mobilis with the same substrate was 130.8 g kg- 1
flowers19 (Table 2).

MOHANTY ET AL: BIO-FUEL AGRO-FORESTRY INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION SYSTEM OF MAHULA

67

Table 2Ethanol production (g/kg flowers) from mahula (Madhuca latifolia L.) using free and immobilized cells of Saccharomyces
cerevisiae and Zymomonas mobilis*

Organism
Saccharomyces
cerevisiae
Zymomonas mobilis

Free cells
148-225(4,12,22)

Immobilized cells
Ca-alginate
152-205(4,8)

122.9(10,19)

134.55(10)

Agar agar
151.2(4)

Luffa sponge
223.2(21,23)

251.1(31)

*Sources: Swain et al.(4), Behera et al.(10,19,21,23,31), and Mohanty et al.(22)

Luffa sponge discs

Luffa (Luffa cylindrica L.; Family: Cucurbitaceae)

is a common cucurbitaceous vegetable crop grown
abundantly in tropical and sub-tropical countries20 . The
plant is a climber with fruits, which are berry, elongated
and cylindrical. The fibrous vascular network of the dried
fruits of luffa is used as a bath sponge and for the
manufacture of table, door and bath mats. Due to the
spongy nature of the dried fruits, these have been found
as suitable carrier matrix for microbial cell
immobilization20 . Because, the immobilization technique
employing luffa sponge is cheap and easy to handle, the
material is highly porous, resistant to autoclaving, pH and
temperature variations and above all, is an ideal material
for use in industrial fermentation in developing countries.
A study on ethanol production was undertaken from
mahula flowers using luffa immobilized cells of S.
cerevisiae. The ethanol production by immobilized cells
(223.2 g ethanol/kg flowers) was 8.96% higher than the
free cells (203.2 g ethanol/kg flowers)21 (Table 2). In
this study, the cells not only survived but also were
physiologically active in three more cycles of fermentation
without any significant reduction (< 5%) in ethanol
production. On the other hand, luffa sponge was
demonstrated as an excellent cell carrier for ethanol
fermentation by flocculating cells (S. cerevisiae) and
non-flocculating cells (Candida brassicae)17 . Ogbonna
et al17 further confirmed that luffa sponge alone can be
used to achieve 99% immobilization of flocculating yeasts
(S. cerevisiae) cells for ethanol production in a column
bioreactor. Further, its strength, abundance, low cost,
biodegradability and natural origin of luffa have become
the main source of interest for cell immobilization.
However, Z. mobilis resulted in less ethanol production
in comparison with S. cerevisiae, as evident from the
summarized data in Table 2.

Solid state fermentation (SSF)

SSF for production of ethanol from mahula flowers
has been studied22 . The moisture level of 70%, pH of
6.0 and temperature of 300 C were found optimum for
maximum ethanol concentration (225.0 4.0 g/kg flower)
after 72 h of fermentation (Table 2). Concomitant with
highest ethanol concentration, the maximum ethanol
productivity (3.13 g/kg flower/h), yeast biomass (18.5 x
108 CFU/g flower), the ethanol yield (58.44 g/100 g sugar
consumed) and the fermentation efficiency (77.1%) were
also obtained at these parametric levels.
Comparison with other bioethanol crops
Bioethanol production from mahula flowers, a
renewable forest product with no extra cost for cultivation
(except collection, transportation and storage) has an
advantage over other sugar crops, such as sugar cane
and sugar beet, as these crops are cultivated in fertile
agricultural land with substantial input of fertilizers,
pesticides and provision for irrigation, which together
account for higher cost of ethanol production23 . Similarly,
the conversion of starchy biomass from maize, cassava 24
and sweet potato25 involves complicated steps such as
liquefaction (conversion of starch to dextrin units) and
saccharification (conversion of dextrin units to sugars)
before fermentation by alcohol-producing bacterial or
yeast strains; these steps enhance production cost of
ethanol (in terms of energy consumed and extra time
period taken) in comparison to ethanol production from
sugar crops. Bioconversion of ligno-cellulosic biomass
to sugars is a much more complicated process that
requires break-down of lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose
fractions by application of a variety of physical and
chemical methods that include acid or alkali treatment,
ammonia and urea, physical grinding and milling, steam
explosion and combined alkali and heat treatment26 and/
or by biological means, such as fermenting by a

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J SCI IND RES VOL 72 JANUARY 2013

consortium of microorganisms or by applying multienzyme (cellulase, ligninase, glucosidase) complex using

a series of bio-reactors27 . Steam explosion is the most
commonly used method for pretreatment of lignocellulosic
materials. For production of ethanol from mahula flower,
no harsh pre-treatment, i.e. physical and chemical method
is necessary, as it contains very little polymeric sugars.
Unlike food crops like maize and sugarcane, mahula is a
forest product that can grow on marginal land, does not
have much pest and disease problems, flower yield
increases with growth of the tree year after year;
therefore is a best alternative source for bioethanol.
Bio-diesel from mahula seeds
Mostly, bio-diesel is prepared from oils like soybean,
rapeseed, sunflower, etc. throughout the world 1 .
Depending on climate and soil conditions, different nations
are looking into different vegetable oils for diesel fuels
substitutes; soybean oil in the USA, rapeseed and
sunflower oils in Europe, palm oil in Malaysia and coconut
oil in The Philippines are being considered as substitutes
for diesel fuels 28 . Since edible oil demand is higher than
its domestic production in countries like India and
Pakistan, there is little possibility of diverting these oils
for production of biodiesel. Few attempts have been made
for producing biodiesel with non-edible oils like karanja,
jatropha and mahula 2,28,29. A technique to produce
biodiesel from mahula oil having high free fatty acids
(19% FFA) has been developed. The high FFA level of
mahula oil was reduced to less than 1% by a two-step
pretreatment process. Each step was carried out with
0.30-0.35 v/v methanol-to-oil ratio in the presence of 1%
v/v H2 SO4 as an acid catalyst in 1h reaction at 600 C.
After the reaction, the mixture was allowed to settle for
an hour and methanol water mixture that separated at
the top was removed. The second step product at the
bottom was transesterified using 0.25 v/v methanol and
0.7% w/v KOH as alkaline catalyst to produce biodiesel.
The fuel properties of mahula biodiesel were found to be
comparable to those of diesel and conforming to both
the American and European standards 30 .
In another study, mahula oil methyl, ethyl and butyl
esters were prepared and studied in a 4- stroke, direct
injection diesel engine for their performance and
emissions 29,31,32. The engine test results showed high
thermal efficiency in case of methyl ester compared to
all other esters and diesel fuel. Different emissions such
as carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen (NOx),
hydrocarbons (HC) are low for alkyl esters compared to

diesel. Among alkyl esters except NOx all tail pipe

emissions are lower in case of methyl ester compared to
other esters. The ethyl ester shows lower NOx emission
compared to other esters. Based on this study, mahua oil
methyl ester performs well compared to other esters on
the basis of performance and emissions 29,31. In yet another
study, the results of the performance of a compression
ignition engine (direct injected, 4-stroke 2-cylinder engine)
by using mahula methyl ester from non-edible mahula oil
and its blends with diesel fuel have been studied. Shortterm engine performance tests were conducted using
four different blends of mahula methyl ester oil with diesel
fuel from 20% to 100% by volume at three fuel
temperatures (30, 50 and 700 C) and at two injection
pressures (17640 kPa and 24010 kPa). The engine
performance parameters studied were power output,
brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC), brake thermal
efficiency (BThE) and exhaust gas temperature (ExGT)
by using diesel fuel alone and the above mentioned blend
fuels. The performance of engine with blend fuel (20%
mahua methyl ester and 80% diesel) was found to be
better than the other blend fuels. But the values of power
output, BSFC, BThE and ExGT in case of blend fuel
B20 (20% mahua methyl ester and 80% diesel) were
observed to be respectively 3% more, 9% more,
12%more and 0.5% less than the diesel fuel at 700 C
temperature and 24010 kPa pressure. The mahua methyl
ester (blends of B20) can be used as an alternative diesel
fuel replacement with little sacrifice in brake specific
fuel consumption32,33. Similar results were obtained by
Bhatt et al6 .
Conclusions
The potential of mahula tree in production of
bioethanol and biodiesel in Asian and Australian continents
has a big scope in view of the demand of both in the
present context. As this tree grows mainly in forest area
and also in waste and fallow land, its plantation for biofuel
purpose will not have any hindrance on overall agriculture
and food production but will in long way improve the
environmental condition by massive aforestation. Unlike
agriculture-based biofuel crops, which are largely
affected by climatic change such as high temperature
(<450 C) and irregular rainfall as observed in tropical
countries, it has little impact on growth and flower yield
of mahula tree. In this context, consolidative efforts are
required to develop high- flower yielding varieties,
improved nursery practices and massive plantation
programmes in forest and non- agricultural soils to
increase biofuel production from this crop.

MOHANTY ET AL: BIO-FUEL AGRO-FORESTRY INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION SYSTEM OF MAHULA

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