Content Area

Reading
Literacy and Learning
Across the Curriculum
E

Richard T. Vacca
Kent State University, emeritus

Jo Anne L. Vacca
Kent State University, emeritus

Boston New York San Francisco

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Vacca, Richard T.
Content area reading : literacy and learning across the curriculum / Richard T. Vacca,
Jo Anne L. Vacca. 8th ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 0-205-41031-6
1. Content area reading. I. Vacca, Jo Anne L. II. Title.
LB1050.455.V33 2005
428.4'3dc22
2004043669

Printed in the United States of America

10

09

08

07

06

05

04

Credits appear on page 472, which constitutes an extension of the copyright page.

We choose friends, not relatives

How blessed we are to have these
special persons who are both
Fred and Pat Vacca
Tony and Chris Vacca
Tom and Patty Schmidt
Gary and Courtney Vierstra

Brief Contents

Detailed Contents
Preface xvii

PART

one:

vii

Content Literacy in a Standards-Based Curriculum

Chapter 1 Reading Matters 1

Chapter 2 Assessing Students and Texts

PART

two:

Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Chapter 6

PART

30

Learners and Texts

Struggling Readers and Writers 68
Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Learners
Learning with Trade Books 154
Learning with Electronic Texts 196

68
104

three:

Instructional Practices and Strategies

Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Chapter 9
Chapter 10
Chapter 11
Chapter 12

Bringing Students and Texts Together 226

Devloping Vocabulary Knowledge and Concepts
Activating Prior Knowledge and Interest 294
Guiding ReaderText Interactions 318
Writing to Learn 352
Studying Texts 390

Appendix A Affixes with Invariant Meanings 430

Appendix B Commonly Used Prefixes with Varying Meanings
Appendix C Graphic Organizers with Text Frames 436

226
264

434

Bibliography 439
Name Index 456
Subject Index 461

Detailed Contents

Preface

PART

one:

chapter

xvii

Content Literacy in a Standards-Based Curriculum

1 Reading Matters

Organizing Principle 1
Chapter Overview 1
Frame of Mind 2
Being an Artful Teacher 3
No Child Left Behind Act 3
Learning with Texts 4
Beyond Assigning and Telling 5
Understanding Literacy 7
Literacy Is Situational 7
Influences on Content Literacy 9
Incorporating Content Standards into Literacy-Based Instruction
Text Comprehension in Content Areas 11
Developing Research-Based Comprehension Strategies 12
Prior Knowledge and Comprehension 14
Reader Response 20
Levels of Comprehension 21
Questioning 24
Scaffolding Instruction 25
Looking Back, Looking Forward 26
Minds On 27
Hands On 28
eResources 29

chapter

2 Assessing Students and Texts

30

Organizing Principle 30
Chapter Overview 31
Frame of Mind 32
High-Stakes Testing and Authentic Approaches to Assessment
High-Stakes Testing: Some Issues and Concerns 33
Standardized Testing: What Teachers Need to Know 37
Authentic Assessment: The Teachers Role 39

32

vii

viii

CONTENTS

Portfolio Assessment 42
Adapting Portfolios to Content Area Classes
BOX 2.1 / Research-Based Best Practices
Checklists and Interviews 45
Rubrics and Self-Assessments 49
Assessing Text Difficulty 50
Content Area Reading Inventories 52
Readability 55
FLIP Strategy 63
Looking Back, Looking Forward 65
Minds On 66
Hands On 66
eResources 67

PART

two:

chapter

43
45

Learners and Texts

3 Struggling Readers and Writers

68

68

Organizing Principle 68
Chapter Overview 69
Frame of Mind 70
The Consequences of Struggling with Text 71
73
BOX 3.1 / WHAT ABOUT English Language Learners?
Low Achievement 74
Learned Helplessness 75
Explicit Instruction in the Use of Strategies 76
Metacognition and Learning 76
Strategy Instruction 78
BOX 3.2 / WHAT ABOUT Content Standards and Assessment?
80
Strategic Reading 83
Using Think-Alouds to Model Comprehension Strategies 83
Using Reciprocal Teaching to Model Comprehension Strategies 86
Using QuestionAnswer Relationships (QARs)
to Model Comprehension Strategies 86
BOX 3.3 / Research-Based Best Practices
89
Strategic Writing 90
The Discovery Stage: Generating Ideas, Planning, and Organizing 92
BOX 3.4 / Research-Based Best Practices
94
Drafting 96
Revising 97
Looking Back, Looking Forward 101
Minds On 102
Hands On 102
eResources 103

CONTENTS

chapter

4 Culturally and Linguistically

Diverse Learners

104

Organizing Principle 104

Chapter Overview 105
Frame of Mind 106
Cultural Differences in Todays Schools 107
BOX 4.1 / WHAT ABOUT Content Standards and Assessment?
From Monocultural to Multicultural Classrooms 109
Ways of Knowing 112
Students Funds of Knowledge 113
Linguistic Differences in Todays Schools 114
Dialect Use in the Classroom 114
English Language Learners 116
Vocabulary Strategies 119
Vocabulary Self-Collection Strategy 121
Concept of Definition Word Maps 121
Vocabulary-Building Strategies 124
Comprehension Strategies 133
Questioning the Author (QtA) 134
BOX 4.2 / Research-Based Best Practices
135
Directed ReadingThinking Activity (DRTA) 136
BOX 4.3 / Research-Based Best Practices
138
Talking and Working Together 142
Scaffolding Student Talk 142
Purposes and Types of Discussions 147
Creating an Environment for Discussion 148
Looking Back, Looking Forward 151
Minds On 152
Hands On 152
eResources 153

chapter

5 Learning with Trade Books

108

154

Contributed by Barbara Moss, San Diego State University

Organizing Principle 154
Chapter Overview 155
Frame of Mind 156
BOX 5.1 / WHAT ABOUT Content Standards and Assessment?
Textbook Use in Todays Classrooms 157
Reasons Teachers Use Textbooks 158
Problems with Using Textbooks 158
Rationale for Using Trade Books 161

157

ix

CONTENTS

Learning through Literature 163

Nonfiction Books 163
BOX 5.2 / Research-Based Best Practices
169
Picture Books 169
Fiction Books 171
Multicultural Books 174
BOX 5.3 / Research-Based Best Practices
175
Books for Struggling Readers 176
Using Trade Books in the Classroom 177
Creating Classroom Libraries and Text Sets 177
Student Self-Selected Reading 178
Teacher Read-Alouds 180
Literature Study in Content Areas 182
BOX 5.4 / Research-Based Best Practices
183
Promoting Response to Literature 184
Making Connections: Text-to-Self, Text-to-Text, Text-to-World
Process Drama as a Heuristic Response 188
Readers Theatre 190
Idea Circles 191
Looking Back, Looking Forward 193
Minds On 193
Hands On 194
eResources 195

chapter

6 Learning with Electronic Texts

185

196

Organizing Principle 196

Chapter Overview 197
Frame of Mind 198
BOX 6.1 / WHAT ABOUT Content Standards and Assessment?
Rationale for Electronic Texts 200
Interactivity 201
Communication and Information Search/Retrieval 201
Multimedia Environments 202
Socially Mediated Learning 202
Electronic Texts in the Classroom 203
Learning with Hypertext and Hypermedia 203
Learning with Software Programs 205
Learning with Electronic Books 207
Learning with Word Processors and Authoring Systems 208
Learning with the Internet 209
Strategies for Online Learning 214
Internet Workshops 214
Internet Inquiries 217

199

CONTENTS

Internet Projects 219

WebQuests 220
Looking Back, Looking Forward
Minds On 224
Hands On 225
eResources 225

PART

three:

chapter

224

Instructional Practices and Strategies

7 Bringing Students and Texts Together

Organizing Principle 226
Chapter Overview 227
Frame of Mind 228
Sociocultural Context for Reading Comprehension 229
The ReaderTextActivity Dynamic 229
Collaborative Interactions 231
Engaged Minds 231
Designing and Planning Text Lessons 231
BDA Lesson Structure 232
Some Examples of Text Lessons 236
BOX 7.1 / Research-Based Best Practices
238
BOX 7.2 / Research-Based Best Practices
240
Designing and Planning Units of Study 243
Components of a Well-Designed Unit 243
An Inquiry/Research Emphasis in Units of Study 247
BOX 7.3 / Research-Based Best Practices
248
A Multiple Text Emphasis in Units of Study 250
Designing and Planning Collaborative Interactions 252
Cooperative Learning Groups 252
Small-Group Processes Underlying Cooperative Learning 255
Looking Back, Looking Forward 260
Minds On 260
Hands On 261
eResources 263

chapter

8 Developing Vocabulary Knowledge

and Concepts

264

Organizing Principle 264

Chapter Overview 265
Frame of Mind 266

xi

226

226

xii

CONTENTS

Experiences, Concepts, and Words 267

What are Concepts? 267
Concept Relationships: An Example 267
BOX 8.1 / WHAT ABOUT Content Standards and Assessment?
268
Using Graphic Organizers to Make Connections
among Key Concepts 271
BOX 8.2 / Research-Based Best Practices
272
A Graphic Organizer Walk-Through 272
Showing Students How to Make Their Own Connections 275
Activating What Students Know about Words 276
Word Exploration 277
Brainstorming 277
ListGroupLabel 278
Semantic Word Maps 279
Word Sorts 279
Reinforcing and Extending Vocabulary Knowledge and Concepts 281
Semantic Feature Analysis (SFA) 282
Categorization Activities 283
Concept Circles 283
Context- and Definition-Related Activities 284
BOX 8.3 / WHAT ABOUT ELL and Struggling Readers?
286
Magic Squares 287
Looking Back, Looking Forward 290
Minds On 291
Hands On 291
eResources 293

chapter

9 Activating Prior Knowledge

and Interest

294

Organizing Principle 294

Chapter Overview 295
Frame of Mind 296
Self-Efficacy and Motivation 297
BOX 9.1 / WHAT ABOUT Content Standards and Assessment?
Arousing Curiosity 300
Creating Story Impressions 300
302
BOX 9.2 / Research-Based Best Practices
Establishing Problematic Perspectives 302
Guided Imagery 306
Making Predictions 307
Anticipation Guides 307
Adapting Anticipation Guides in Content Areas 308

298

CONTENTS

Question Generation 311

Active Comprehension 311
ReQuest 311
BOX 9.3 / WHAT ABOUT ELL and Struggling Readers?
Expectation Outlines 313
Your Own Questions 314
Looking Back, Looking Forward 314
Minds On 315
Hands On 316
eResources 317

chapter

312

10 Guiding ReaderText Interactions

318

Organizing Principle 318

Chapter Overview 319
Frame of Mind 320
BOX 10.1 / WHAT ABOUT Content Standards and Assessment?
Instructional Strategies 322
The KWL Strategy 322
Discussion Webs 328
Guided Reading Procedure (GRP) 331
Intra-Act 335
Reading Guides 339
Three-Level Reading Guides 339
Selective Reading Guides 345
Looking Back, Looking Forward 346
Minds On 349
Hands On 350
eResources 351

chapter

11 Writing to Learn

321

352

Organizing Principle 352

Chapter Overview 353
Frame of Mind 354
Integrating Reading and Writing 356
Reading and Writing as Composing Processes 356
Reading and Writing as Exploration and Clarification 357
BOX 11.1 / WHAT ABOUT Content Standards and Assessment?
Exploratory Writing Activities 361
Unsent Letters 361
Biopoems 362
Dialogues 364

358

xiii

xiv

CONTENTS

Admit Slips and Exit Slips 365

Brainstorming and Clustering 366
Journal Writing 368
Response Journals 371
Double-Entry Journals (DEJs) 378
Learning Logs 382
RAFTing Activities 384
Establish a Context for Writing 384
Use Discourse Forms in RAFTing Activities
Looking Back, Looking Forward 385
Minds On 387
Hands On 388
eResources 389

chapter

12 Studying Texts

385

390

Organizing Principle 390

Chapter Overview 391
Frame of Mind 392
Searching for and Using Text Structure 393
External Text Structure 393
BOX 12.1 / WHAT ABOUT Content Standards and Assessment?
Internal Text Structure 396
Signal Words in Text Structure 398
Graphic Organizers 399
BOX 12.2 / Research-Based Best Practices
401
Using Graphic Organizers to Reflect Text Patterns 402
Using Questions with Graphic Organizers 407
Semantic (Cognitive) Mapping 409
Study Guides Based on Text Patterns 411
Classroom Examples 412
Writing Summaries 414
Using GRASP to Write a Summary 416
BOX 12.3 / Research-Based Best Practices
417
Polishing a Summary 419
Making Notes, Taking Notes 420
Text Annotations 420
A Note-Taking Procedure 424
Looking Back, Looking Forward 425
Minds On 427
Hands On 428
eResources 429

394

CONTENTS

Appendix A: Affixes with Invariant Meanings

Appendix B: Commonly Used Prefixes
with Varying Meanings 434
Appendix C: Graphic Organizers with
Text Frames 436
Bibliography 439
Name Index 456
Subject Index 461

430

xv

Preface

hen we began writing Content

Area Reading more than twenty-five years ago, we decided to set the tone of the
first edition in the opening chapter by quoting a line from Simon and Garfunkels
Kodachrome. Although we run the risk of dating ourselves, we are reminded of
the provocative line because it captures the disconnect that many students have
felt in their school experience, then as well as now. The opening lyrics to Kodachrome are a songwriters personal reflection on educationnothing more, nothing less. Yet the juxtaposition of having learned crap in school with the inability
to think critically represents an ongoing dilemma faced by content area teachers who are wedded to an academic discipline.
We have never met a teacher who didnt believe that the essence of artful
teaching is in showing students how to think deeply and critically about the content underlying an academic discipline. Yet, when content is taught in a vacuum
without attention to the process by which it is learned, students are apt to make
few connections between the powerful ideas underlying an academic discipline
and the prior knowledge and experience that they bring to classroom learning situations. In this book, we explore the relationships between content and process
by critically examining the literacy processes and strategies that students use to
think and learn with texts.

Major Themes in the Eighth Edition

Influenced by the role of language, cognition, culture, and social context in
learning, our goal for this edition is to inspire teachers, whether novice or veteran, to examine what it means to connect literacy and learning in a standardsbased curriculum. The eighth edition continues the ambitious exploration of
content literacythe ability to use reading, writing, talking, listening, and viewing processes to learn subject matter across the curriculum. The major themes
underlying content literacy and learning are reflected in the organizing principles described at the beginning of every chapter:

All teachers play a critical role in helping studens comprehend and respond
to information and ideas in the text.

Instructional assessment is a process of gathering and using multiple sources

of relevant information about students for instructional purposes.

xvii

xviii

www.ablongman.com/vacca8e

PREFACE

Teachers respond to the literacy needs of struggling readers and writers by

scaffolding instruction so that students become confident and competent in
the use of strategies that support learning.

Teachers respond to linguistic and cultural differences in their classrooms by

scaffolding instruction in the use of vocabulary and comprehension strategies
and by creating classroom environments that encourage talking and working
together.

Instructional practices involving the use of informational and literary trade

books in content areas help to extend and enrich the curriculum.

Electronic texts, like trade books, extend and enrich the curriculum.

Bringing students and texts together involves instructional plans and activities that result in active student engagement and collaboration.

Teaching words well means giving students multiple opportunities to develop vocabulary knowledge and to learn how words are conceptually related
to one another in the texts that they study.

Activating prior knowledge and generating interest create an instructional

context in which students will approach reading with purpose and anticipation.

Teachers guide readertext interactions through the instructional strategies

and practices that they use and the reading support that they provide.

Writing facilitates learning by helping students to explore, clarify, and think

deeply about the ideas they encounter in reading.

Looking for and using text structure in everything they read helps students
to study texts more effectively.

Underlying these themes is our belief that students learn with texts, not necessarily from texts. Learning from texts suggests that a text is a body of information to be mastered by learners rather than a tool by which they construct
meaning and knowledge. Learning with a text, on the other hand, implies that students have much to contribute to their own learning as they interact with texts to
make meaning and construct knowledge.

Organization of the Eighth Edition

The knowledge base related to content literacy and learning has changed dramatically in the past twenty-five years, and so has thinking about what constitutes
best practice. Nevertheless, in making decisions related to changes in this edition, we ask the same question that guided the writing of the first edition twentyfive years ago: How can teachers make content literacy a visible part of their
instructional routines without sacrificing high standards for content learning?

PREFACE

Answers to this guiding question led us to reorganize the eighth edition into
three parts: Part One: Content Literacy in a Standards-Based Curriculum, Part
Two: Learners and Texts, and Part Three: Instructional Strategies and Practices.
Part One situates issues and problems related to content literacy within the
context of the standards-based movement and accountability systems that are
changing the face of education in todays U.S. schools. Although the pressure to
ensure that students meet content standards weighs heavily on instructional decisions, a teacher can make a difference in students literacy development and
knowledge acquisition by showing them how to use literacy processes and strategies to meet high standards for learning. Ongoing, authentic assessment in the
classroomwhen coupled with high-stakes proficiency assessmentprovides
the information that teachers need to inform their day-by-day instructional decisions about content literacy and learning.
In Parts Two and Three of this edition, we build an instructional framework
for content literacy and learning across the curriculum. In Part Two, Learners and
Texts, our emphasis is on the exploration and clarification of issues related to
struggling readers and writers, culturally and linguistically diverse learners, and
the use of trade books and electronic texts to extend and enrich the curriculum.
Students who continually struggle with text in reading and writing situations need
to build strategic knowledge, skills, and insights related to literacy and learning.
Moreover, culturally and linguistically diverse students present a unique challenge to content area teachers, especially in light of the influx of immigrant students in todays classrooms. We also examine the limitations of textbooks and
explain how to use trade books and information and communication technologies
such as the Internet to extend and enrich a standards-based curriculum.
In Part Three, Instructional Strategies and Practices, we flesh out the instructional framework by explaining how to create active learning environments
in which all studentsalone and in collaboration with one anotherknow how
to use content literacy strategies to learn with texts. To this end, Part Three offers
a multitude of instructional strategies and practices that allow teachers to scaffold instruction in ways that support the following:

development of vocabulary knowledge and concepts;

activation of prior knowledge before, during, and after reading;

comprehension and critical analysis of text through readertext interactions;

use of various writing activities to facilitate learning; and

development of study strategies based on a search for text structure in everything that students read.

These instructional strategies and practices are designed to engage students in

their strategic interactions with text and other learners. Rather than left to sink or
swim with a text assignment, students will be more likely to know how to search
for meaning in everything they talk about, listen to, and read, view, and write.

xix

xx

www.ablongman.com/vacca8e

PREFACE

Features in the Eighth Edition

The eighth edition retains all of the features of the previous edition, while improving its overall coverage of content literacy topics and instructional strategies
and practices.

New and Expanded Chapters

The text continues to emphasize a contemporary, functional approach to content
literacy instruction. In a functional approach, content area teachers learn how to
integrate literacy-related strategies into instructional routines without sacrificing
the teaching of content. Our intent is not to morph a content teacher into a reading specialist or writing instructor. As a result, we expanded our discussions of
topics in the previous edition by creating separate, new chapters for the following:

Chapter 3: Struggling Readers and Writers (with a renewed emphasis on writing strategies for students who struggle with the writing process);

Chapter 4: Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Learners (with emphasis on

students whose first language is other than English);

Chapter 5: Learning with Trade Books (written by Professor Barbara Moss

from San Diego State University, a leading expert in the field of informational
literature for children and adolescents); and

Chapter 6: Learning with Electronic Texts (with emphasis on learning with

the Internet).
Overview

Chapter 1: Reading Matters (with an emphasis on the impact of teaching to

content standards);

Chapter

t e r
c h a p

y and
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a
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t
is
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GUISTICAL

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COMPRE
HENSIO
STRATEGIE N
S
Questioning
the Auth
or (QtA)
Directed
Reading
Thinking
Activitie
s (DRTA)

A new design makes the text visually appealing and easy to use.
Through this new, attractive design,
the main features are easily identified, making the text user-friendly.
Each chapter opens with a quotation to help readers reflect on the underlying theme of each chapter. The
Organizing Principle gives readers a
heads-up by introducing the rationale for each chapter and highlighting
its underlying theme. A Chapter Overview depicts the relationships that exist

ESL Prog
rams
What Mak
es Content
Literacy
Difficult?
Sheltere
d Instruct
ion

TALKING
AND WOR
TOGHETHER KING
Scaffolding
Student Talk
Purposes
and Type
s
of Discussi
on
Creating
an
Environm
ent for Disc
ussion

How can
teachers be
linguistic
responsive
and cultural
to
diversity
classrooms
in their
while mai
ntaining high
dards for
content liter
stanacy and lear
Understand
ning
ing the cult
ural and ling ?
differences
between mai
uist
nonmainstr
nstream and ic
eam learners
tant first step
is an imp
or, as the orga
ple of this
chapter sugg nizing princiests: Teache
respond to
linguistic
rs
and cultura
ferences in
l diftheir clas
sroo
folding inst
ms by scaf
ruction in
the use of
vocabulary
and compreh
strategies
ensi
on
and
environmen by creating classroo
m
ts
and working that encourage talk
ing
together.

Aids to Understanding

xxi

PREFACE

among the important ideas presented in each chapter. A set of

questions at the start of the chapter helps readers approach the
text in a critical Frame of Mind as they analyze and interpret information presented in each chapter.
End-of-chapter features include Minds On and Hands On activities. Minds On activities engage students individually and collaboratively in thinking more deeply about some of the important
ideas that they have studied. Hands On activities engage students
individually and collaboratively in applying some of the important
ideas that they have studied.

Frame of Mind
Why are todays classrooms
more diverse than they were
several decades ago?

2.

What are some of the cultural

and linguistic differences that
students from various racial and
ethnic backgrounds bring to
classroom learning situations?

3.

Why do English language

learners struggle with content
literacy tasks, and how does
sheltered instruction make
content more accessible to
them while providing additional
language support?

4.

How can teachers scaffold

instruction to develop
vocabulary-building strategies
for diverse learners?

5.

How are the questioning the

author (QtA) strategy and the
directed readingthinking
activity (DR-TA) similar? How
are they different?

6.

Why is classroom talk especially

important to English language
learners, and how can teachers
create an environment for
discussion in their classrooms?

New Features
New features to this edition include marginal notations and boxed
text segments that highlight issues related to content standards and
assessment, procedures for research-based best practices, and connections between chapter content and diverse learners.

Research-Based Best Practices. Boxes positioned throughout most of the

chapters relating to instructional
strategies and practices. These
boxes highlight the steps and applications involved in using high-visibility strategies that are supported by
theoretically sound rationales and/or
evidence-based research.

RES

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CH-

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s
ds of
anizer
us kin
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vario
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ts to
Graph
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ay be
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retrieve
information

6: LEAR NIN

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6. 1
BOX

Contentt about . . .
Standard
s and As
Knowing
sessment
how to use
?
information
municati

on technolo
and comgies (ICT),
Internet,
and synthesi
such as the
is integral
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to the strat
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communicate information to crea
egic knowlskills that
te and
knowledg
every stud
content area
e.
ent in ever
will need
y
to develop
State cont
tent literate
ent standard
to be conin the twen
derscore the
s, likewise,
ty-first cent
Practically
ability to
unury.
all of the
put technolo
use
nati
for learning,
associations
onal educatio
gies to
but for the
in the vari
continue
mos
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plines have
t
part, state
to rely on
developed
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paper-and-pe
rather than
content stan
statements
ncil tests,
the
dards or
of principl
to assess stud literacies required
e that imp
plicitly ackn
by ICT,
ents abili
licitly or
owledge the
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standards.
technologies
proficient
t content
Donald Leu
use
for informa
(2002), one
leading scho
cation. Imp
tion and com of
of the
lars associate
licit in two
munieracies, argu
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standards
new lites that prof
n content
of the Ame
iciency asse
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rican Asso
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the use of
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with the cont
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demonstrate
inually chan that keep up
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natu
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that assessm
re of litth informa
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and health
information
tion
promotio
ide
for
useful
planning
n products
services.
out a majo
and
r flaw in state (p. 326). He points
wide prof
Stud
assessments
ents will
iciency
related to
demonstrate
reading and
not a sing
the ability
401use interpersonal com
le reading
writing:
to
assessment
XT S
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munication
to enhance
in the
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the Internet
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and
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onal Council
than pape
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r and penc
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of Teachers
r
il technolo
of
TIC
are explicit
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gies (p. 326)
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in their stan
.
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iciency asse
in your cont
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assessments
ents use a
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and informa
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Differ
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1989)
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ap
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a gr
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ty
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evitable?
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To what exte
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for teaching
tent was each ry to blame? To wha
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exam
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s on the
d mo
s. Searc

What About Struggling Readers and

English Language Learners? Boxes positioned occasionally in several of the
chapters to augment the content presented in separate chapters on struggling
readers and linguistically diverse learners.

What ab
out .

e.

Fin
rce
nation
Resou
Desti
Web
sional
Profes
ing on
ex.
r Ind
ganize

..

Response Journal. The Response Journal marginal icon

signals readers to use a journal while reading to make
personal and professional connections as they react to
ideas presented in each chapter.

y nth
ple, need
modified
nt be dele
cloze pass
ted. The
age will vary
Typically,
in length.
a 200- to
500-word
yields suffi
text segm
cient tech
ent
nica
make the
activity wort l vocabulary to
hwh
ile.
Should you
consider
ified cloz
developing
e passage
a modon a segm
from a read
ent of text
ing
the text pass assignment, make
sure that
age is one
of the mos
tant parts
t imporof the assig
nment. Dep
your obje
ending on
ctives,
missing word students can supp
ly the
s either befo
the entire
re or after
assignme
reading
nt. If they
cloze activ
work on the
ity before
reading, use
quent disc
the subseussion to
build
terms and
to raise expe meaning for key
ctations for
signment
as a whole.
the asIf you assig
passage after
n the cloz
reading, it
e
cepts attai
will reinforce
ned through
conreading.

199

Response
Journal
In what

Wha

8. 3

BOX

1 2 .2

What about Content Standards and Assessment? Boxes positioned throughout most of the chapters. These boxes are
designed to emphasize relationships between chapter content and issues/implications related to academic standards
and high-stakes state proficiency assessments as well as
authentic assessments in the classroom.

e began our teaching careers in the

1960s in a suburban high school just outside of Albany,
New York, during the height of the civil rights movement and the Vietnam War. The times were tumultuous
in the wake of great social change. Practically every
facet of American society was open to critical examination, if not reform, including the nations schools. The
landmark 1954 U.S. Supreme Court case Brown v.
Board of Education of Topeka ruled that separate but
equal schools were unconstitutional and laid the
groundwork for educational reform in the 1960s. The
civil rights movement fueled the legislative agenda of
President Lyndon Johnsons Great Society. The Civil
Rights Act of 1964 prohibited discrimination in public
institutions on the basis of race, color, religion, or national origin. Also in 1964, the Economic Opportunity
Act resulted in educational programs, such as Head
Start and Upward Bound, that are still in existence today. In 1965, the Elementary and Secondary Education
Act (ESEA) established compensatory educational programs (Title 1) to provide educational opportunities for
low-income students from minority backgrounds. In
addition, the Bilingual Education Act of 1967 made it
possible for schools to receive federal funding for minority groups who were non-English speaking.
Despite the social and educational reforms taking
place in the 1960s, it was business as usual at the high
school where we taught. The school seemed impervious
to change. In a student body of more than 1,000 students, no more than 1 or 2 percent of the students were
people of color or immigrants whose first language
was one other than English.
Response Journal
One of our students during
If you currently are
our first year of teaching,
teaching, how would you
Johnny, was the oldest son
describe the cultural and
of Hungarian immigrants.
linguistic differences of
your students? If you are
He worked after school at
studying
to be a teacher,
his uncles garage where he
describe the cultural and
pumped gas and did minor
linguistic differences
repairs on cars. He used to
that existed in your
work on our beat-up, old
school experiences.
Chevy Impala whenever it
broke down and needed repair. Anyone who took the
time to get to know him could tell that Johnny was a
bright young man, but in school he was mostly a quiet

BOX

1.

? Which were
nation at
more
intellectu
al or the emo decisivethe
tional issue
Any cons
s?
ideration
of the (1)
war must
of the
include the
problem of
In his seco
(2).
nd inaugura
Abraham
l
Lincoln said address,
was som
that slave
ehow the
ry
cause of the
The critical
war.
word is (3).
maintain
that the mora Some (4)
be solved,
l issue had
the
to
(5), and the nation had to face
the
slaves had
other grou
to be (6).
Anp of
the war was historians asserts
that
not fought
their view
over (7). In
, slavery serv
focal poin
ed as an (8)
t for more
fundamental
involving
two
(9)
Constitution. different (10) of the
All of thes
merit, but
e views have
no single
view has
unanimou
won
s support.
(Answers
can be foun
d at the end
chapter on
of this
page 292.
)

xxii

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PREFACE

eResources. The eResources marginal icon directs readers to the Companion

Website to search for Web links, Web activities, or suggested readings to engage in further learning about the topics presented in each chapter. There are
also additional eResources at the end of each chapter directing students to the
Companion Website for more activities and suggested readings, as well as articles from the New York Times.

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PREFACE

Professionals in Action: Literacy Video. This 90-minute video consists of 10to 20-minute segments on Phonemic Awareness, Teaching Phonics, Helping
Students Become Strategic Readers, Organizing for Teaching with Literature,
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Acknowledgments
We are grateful to the many individuals who made this edition possible. First, we
would like to thank several of our former doctoral students who came to the rescue of tired and beleaguered mentors by helping us to meet deadline commitments: Dr. Barbara Moss, San Diego State University, for revising Chapter 5,
Learning with Trade Books; Dr. Christine McKeon, Walsh University, for serving
in the role of Webmaster as she updated and redesigned the Companion Website
for this edition; and Dr. Maryann Mraz, University of North Carolina, for revising
and updating the Instructors Resource Manual.
We also wish to acknowledge the thoughtful and thought-provoking professional suggestions of those who responded to questionnaires and reviewed the
text for this edition: Vi Alexander, Stephen F. Austin State University; Mickey
Bogart, Kansas State University; Dr. Deb Carr, Kings College and Hazleton Area
School District; Ann Harvey, Columbia College; Stephenie Hewett, The Citadel;
Lois E. Huffman, North Carolina State University; Luther Kirk, Longwood University; and Joyce Stallworth, The University of Alabama.
This book is only as good as the editors behind it. We owe a debt of gratitude
to our Acquisitions Editor, Aurora Martnez, whose graceful guidance and incisive leadership on this project made us work harder than we wanted to. And special kudos to Tom Jefferies, the finest and steadiest developmental editor with
whom we have had the pleasure to work thus far.
A special thanks to students, colleagues, and teachers in schools throughout the United States and Canada, too numerous to list, who have contributed
immeasurably to our growth as teachers and scholars. This book has been a
marriage-of-sorts for us and its time to celebrate our silver anniversary with
this editions time cycle! Never in our dreams did we think it possible, and we
thank a Power greater than ourselves for making it a reality.
R. T. V.
J. L. V.

xxiii