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VOLUME
II
INTERNATIONAL TABLES
FOR
X-RAY CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
FOR
A*
FOR
SYMMETRY GROUPS
VOL. II. MATHEMATICAL TABLES
VOL. III. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL TABLES
VOL. IV. REVISED AND SUPPLEMENTARY TABLES
VOL.
I.
Published for
THE INTERNATIONAL UNION OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

by
THE KYNOCH PRESS

BIRMINGHAM, ENGLAND
1972
Set
in
'Monotype' Times
Made and
at
New Roman
printed in Great Britain
THE KYNOCH PRESS

Birmingham, England
1st edition
2nd edition, reprinted with

3rd
corrections
edition, reprinted with corrections
1959
1967
1972
\T^\
> YS
1969 International Union of Crystallography.
FOR
Volume II
MATHEMATICAL TABLES
Edited by
JOHN
S.
KASPER
and
KATHLEEN LONSDALE
(General Editor)
EDITORIAL COMMITTEE
OF THE
INTERNATIONAL UNION OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
Martin
J.
Buerger
Caroline H. MacGillavry
Norman
John
S.
F,
U.S.A.
.
M. Henry
The Netherlands
.
Kasper
Kathleen Lonsdale (Chairman)
Gerard D. Rieck
Great Britain
U.S.A,
Great Britain
The Netherlands
The
publication of
Volume
of these Tables was
possible by very generous financial help
from
made
UNESCO
and from the U.S.A. National Research Council. This

aid has indirectly also
the present
made
Volume II. The
possible the publication of
Editorial
Commission wishes
to express its sincere gratitude to both these organizations.
CONTENTS
PAGE
1.
2.
Introduction
(John Kasper)
1.1.
Purpose and Scope of the Tables
1.2.
Arrangement of Tables
1.3.
Acknowledgments,
etc.
Fundamental Mathematics
(A. L. Patterson)
2.0. Introduction
2.1.
Algebra
2.1.1.
6
6
Complex Numbers
Definitions, Algebra, Applications,
Examples
2.1.2. Series
2.1.2.1.
2.1.2.2.
Binomial Theorem
Multinomial Theorem
6
6
..
2.1.2.3. Progressions
Miscellaneous Power Series

2.1.3. Mathematical Constants
2.1.4. Linear and Rational Independence. Definitions
. .
2.1.5. Modular Algebra (Algebra of Congruences)
2.1.6. Simple Continued Fractions
Table 2. 1.6A, Computation Scheme for Expansion ofa x ja 2 as a Simple Continued Fraction
Table 2.1.6B. Expansions in Simple Continued Fractions. Examples
Properties of the Convergents. Examples
Table 2.1.6C. Table of Penultimate and Intermediate Convergents for the Ratios aja (0<a <a <20)
2
1
2
2.1.7. Determinants
2.1.8. Matrices
2.1.2.4.
....
2.1.8.1. Definitions
9
9
10
11
11
11
2.1.8.2.
Basic Operations
2.1 8.3.
Determinants and Rank

Reciprocal Matrices
2.1.8.4.
7
7
7
7
8
..
2.1.8.5. Characteristic Values.
11
12
12
Example
12
Diagonalization of a Quadratic Form. Example

Transformation of Matrices: Elementary Operations Equivalent Matrices and
Canonical Forms
2.1.8.8. Differentiation of Matrices
2.1.8.9. Functions of a Matrix
2.1.8.10. Numerical Calculations with Matrices: Reduction of a Matrix
Table 2. 1.8. 10A. Reduction of a Non-singular Matrix
Table 2.1.8. 10B. Reduction of a Singular Matrix
..
..
2.1.9. Linear Equations
2.1.8.6.
13
2.1.8.7.
2.1.9.1.
2.1.9.2.
Non-homogeneous Systems
Homogeneous Systems
....
14
15
15
15
16
16
16
16
17
Numerical Solution of a System of Linear Equations

Table 2. 1.9 3A. Solution of Linear Simultaneous Equations {Five equations and four unknowns: Solution
17
unique non-zero)
Table 2.L9.3B. Solution of Linear Simultaneous Equations (Variables under-determined)
Table 2.1.9.3C. Solution of Linear Simultaneous Equations (Equations incompatible)
2.1.9.4. Solutions of Homogeneous Systems valid in a Lattice
Table 2. 1.9.4 A. System of Equations valid in a Lattice
Table 2.1. 9 AB. Ditto. Second Example
18
2.1.9.3.
Table 2.1. 9.4C. Ditto. Third Example

2.1.10. Transcendental Equations
18
19
19
20
21
21
22
22
2.1.10.1. Single Variable
vn
CONTENTS
2.1.
PAGE
Algebra (continued)
23
23
24
24
Table 2. 1. 10 .1 A. Example of the Newton-Raphson Method

Table 2. 1.10. IB. Example of the Rule of False Position
Table 2. 1.10.1 C. Examples of the Method of Iteration
Simultaneous Equations in Several Variables

Table 2.1.10.2. Solution of Simultaneous Transcendental Equations ..
2.1.11. Polynomial Equations
2.1.11.1. General Results
2.1.11.2. Location of Roots
2.1.11.3. Special Equations
Table 2.1.11.3. Solution of the Cubic y*+3Hy+G-0
2.1.11.4. Horner's Reduction for a Polynomial Equation
2.1.10.2.
24
Table 2.1.11 AA. Horner's Reduction

Table 2.1J1.4B. Use of Horner's Method in the Solution of a Polynomial Equation
2.1.11.5. Graeffe's Root-squaring Method
2.1.12.
Groups
2.1.12.1.
Group
Postulates
2.1.12.3. Results and Examples of Group Theory
Table 2.1.123. Construction of Group Multiplication Table for the Point Group 23
Notation
..
Space Groups
Table 2.1.12.4. Analysis of General Positions for Space Groups Isomorphous with the Point Group 222
2.1.12.5. Group Considerations and the Derivation of Vector Distance Sets
Table 2.1.12.5. Analysis of Co-ordinates and Vector Distances for the Space Group P2 X2>
2.1.12.4.
2.2.
Trigonometry and Geometry

2.2.1. Properties of Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Functions of Multiple Angles

Addition Formulae and Product Formulae
2.2.1.4. Sums of Trigonometric Functions
2.2.1.5. Miscellaneous Formulae
2.2.1.6. Approximations for Trigonometric Functions
2.2.1.6.1. Least Squares Approximations
Table 2.2. 1.6'A. Ranges of Approximations for Trigonometric Functions
Table 2. 2.1.6B. Series for Linear Interpolation for Cosine
2.2.1.6.2. Approximations for Sketching
2.2.1.2.
2.2.1.3.
2.2.2.
Plane Trigonometry
Notation
2.2.2.1.
2.2 2.2. Basic
Formulae and Properties
Special Properties of the Plane Triangle

2.2.2.4. Regular Convex Polygons, n Sides
2.2.2.3.
Trigonometry
Notation
..
2.2.3. Spherical
2.2.3.1.
2.2.3.2. Basic
..
Formulae
Polar Triangles
Right-angled Spherical Triangles
2.2.3.5. Solid Angle..
2.2.4. Plane Analytic Geometry
Perpendicular
2.2.4.1. Straight Line (Intercept Equation, Slope and Intercept Equation,
Distance
Perpendicular
Equation,
General
Equation, Line through Two Points,
of Given
Triangle
Area
of
a
Lines,
Two
of
Intersection
a
Line,
to
from a Point on
2.2.3.3.
2.2.3.4.
Vertices)
Curves of the Second Degree

Table 2.2.4.2. Reduction of General Quadratic
2.2.4.3. General Properties of Plane Curves
2.2.4.2.
2.2.5. Solid Analytic
Geometry
viu
26
26
26
26
27
28
28
28
29
29
29
29
30
32
33
33
34
35
36
36
36
37
37
37
37
38
38
38
39
39
39
39
39
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
41
41
41
42
42
43
43
CONTENTS
2.2.
Trigonometry and Geometry (continued)
PAGE
2.2.5.1.
The Plane
2.2.5.2.
The Line (Line through Two
(Intercept Equation,
Perpendicular Equation, Plane through Three

Points, the General Equation, Perpendicular Distance from a Point on to a Plane,
Two
Angle between
Planes)
43
One Point in a Given Direction,

the General Equation of a Line, Properties of Two Lines, Volume of a Tetrahedron)'
Points, Line through
of the Second Degree

Table 2.2.5.3. Reduction of General Conicoid
2.2.5 A. General Properties of Surfaces
2.2.5.5. Properties of Regular Solids (in collaboration with P. J. Brown and H. D. Megaw)
Table 2.2.5.5. Dimensions of Regular Solids: (a) Cube, (b) Tetrahedron, (c) Octahedron, (d) Rhombic
Dodecahedron, (e) Regular (pentagonal) Dodecahedron, (f) Isosahedron, (g) Cuboctahedron
2.2.5.3. Surfaces
2.3. Differential
and Integral Calculus
2.3.1. Differential Calculus.
50
51
2.3.2.1. Indefinite Integrals
51
2.3.2.2. Definite Integrals
51
Vector and Tensor Analysis

2.4.1. Definitions
Absolute Vector Analysis

Base Systems and their Reciprocal Systems
2.4.3.1. Summation Convention ..
2.4.3.2. General Base Systems
2.4.3.3. Cartesian Base Systems
2.4.3.4. Cylindrical and Polar Co-ordinates
2.4.3.5. The Physical Dimensions associated with Base Systems
2.4.4. Tensor Analysis
2.4.4. Properties of Base and Reciprocal Systems
2.4.5. Dyadics
2.4.5. Dyadics for the Crystallographic Proper Rotations
2.4.6. Parallelism between Matrix, Tensor and Dyadic Notations for a Second Order Tensor
2.4.6A. Comparison between Tensor, Dyadic and Matrix Notations
2.4.6B. Matrix Transformations for Second Order Tensor
2.4.7. Vector and Tensor Problems in Crystal Analysis
2.4.7.1. Calculations of Bond Lengths and Bond Angles
2.4.7A. Metric Tensors for Crystal Lattices
2 A. 12. Numerical Example of the Calculation of Bond Lengths and Bond Angles
2.4.2.
2.4.3.
Table
Table
Table
Table
Rotations
Table 2A.7B. Cartesian Rotation Matrices for the Crystallographic Axes
52
52
52
53
53
53
53
53
54
54
57
57
58
59
59
59
60
60
60
61
62
2.4.7.3.
2.5.
46
and Notations, Basic Forms, Derivatives of Simple
Functions, Taylor's Series, Differentiation of an Integral

Calculus
Table
46
46
50
Definitions
2.3.2. Integral
2.4.
44
44
44
63
Fourier Theory
65
Orthogonal Functions
2.5.2. The Delta Function
2.5.3. Fourier Transforms
2.5.3.1. Basic Mathematics
65
66
66
66
2.5.1.
2.5.3.2. Evaluation of Fourier Transforms

Table 2.5. 3 A. Properties of Fourier Transforms
Table 2.5 JB. Some Fourier Transforms
2.5.3.3. Fourier Transforms in Two and Three Dimensions
Table 2.5. 3C. Properties of Three-dimensional Transforms ..
Table 2.5.3D.
Some
Three-dimensional Fourier Transforms

2.5.3.4. Evaluation of Three-dimensional Fourier Transforms
2.5.4. Fourier Series
2.5.4.1. Basic Theory
2.5.4.2.
Fourier Transform of a Periodic Function

IX
67
68
69
.
71
71
72
73
73
73
73
..
CONTENTS
2.5.
Fourier Theory (continued)
Table
2. 5.4A.
Properties of Fourier Series

Fourier Series for an Arbitrary Period
2.5.4.3.
Calculation of Fourier Coefficients

2.5.4.5. Numerical Calculations for Fourier Series
Table 2. SAB. Some Fourier Series
2.5.4.4.
Fourier Series in Two Dimensions

Expansion of Two-dimensional Series in Terms of One-dimensional Series
2.5.4.8. Symmetry of the Beevers-Lipson Expansion, with Three Examples
Table 2. 5 AC. Symmetry and Antisymmetry Properties of Beevers-Lipson Summation
2.5.4.9.
Fourier Series in Three Dimensions
2.5.4.10. Properties of Convolutions
Table 2.5 AD. Forms for the Convolution Formulae
2.5.4.6.
2.5.4.7.
Table 2.5.4E. Forms for Auto-convolutions

Table 2.5 AF. Convolutions of "Atomic Functions"
2.6. Statistics (D.
2.6.1.
W.
J.
..
Cruickshank)
Introduction
General Introduction
Fundamental Rules for Combining Probabilities
One-dimensional Probability Distributions
2.6.1.1.
2.6.1.2.
2.6.2.
2.6.2.1.
Discrete and Continuous Distributions
2.6.2.2.
Moments
2.6.2.3.
Measures of Location
Measures of Dispersion
Measures of Skewness
2.6.2.4.
2.6.2.5.
Functions
One-dimensional Distributibns
The Binomial Distribution
2.6.2.6. Characteristic
2.6.3. Particular
2.6.3.1.
2.6.3.2. Poisson's Distribution
The Normal Distribution

The Central Limit Theorem
The x 2 Distribution
The t Distribution, or Student's
The F and z Distributions
2.6.3. 3(a).
2.6.3.3(6).
2.6.3.4.
2.6.3.5.
2.6.3.6.
2.6.4.
Distribution
Multi-dimensional Distributions
2.6.4.1(a).
2.6.4.1(6).
2.6.4.2.
Two-dimensional Probability Distributions

Regression Curves
Multi-dimensional Probability Distributions
Sampling Distributions
2.6.5.1. Large Samples
2.6.5.
2.6.5.2.
2.6.5.3.
Sheppard's Corrections
Small Samples
2.6.6. Statistical Inference
One-dimensional Confidence Intervals

One-parameter Significance Tests
2.6.6.3. Weighted Mean Values and the Detection of Systematic Errors
2.6.6.4. The Method of Least Squares
2.6.6.5. Multi-parameter Confidence Regions and Significance Tests
2
2.6.6.6. x a s a Test of Goodness of Fit
Table 2.6.6A. The Significance Points t9 of the t Distribution
Table 2.6.6 B. The Significance Points x$ 2 of the x 2 Distribution
General References
2.6.6.1.
2.6.6.2.
Special References
3.
Crystal Geometry
3.1.
(J.
D. H.
General Relations, valid for

3.1.1. Definition of Terms
Donnay and
all
Gabrielle
Crystal Systems
Donnay)
..
CONTENTS
3.1.

3.1.2. Direct
3.1.3.
3.1.4.
3.1.5.
all
PAGE
Crystal Systems (continued)
and Reciprocal
Lattices
101
The Row Line

The Net Plane
Fundamental Formula
101
102
between Nets and Rows in One and the Same Space

between Planes in Direct Space and Rows in Reciprocal Space and vice versa
Formulae of Miller
3.1.6. Relations
3.1.7. Relations
3.1.8.
3.1.8.1.
Direct Sine
Formula
3.1.8.2.
Converse Cotangent Formula
3.1.8.3.
Harmonic Case
3.1.9.
103
104
104
104
104
104
104
3.1.9.1. Introduction
Graphical Determination of the Rotations

Determination of the Rotations
3.1.9.4. Choice of Twin Law
3.1.9.5. Twin Obliquity
..
3.1.9.6. Twin Index
Table 3.1.9. Twin Index in Terms of S=\hu+kv+lw\
3.1.9.2.
3.1.9.3. Analytical
105
105
System
106
3.2.1. Cell
3.2.2.
Direct Lattice
106
106
3.2.3.
Reciprocal Lattice
106
Choice of Direct Cell

3.2.5. Interplanar Angle
3.2.6. Quadratic Form Q and Interplanar Distance
3.2.7. Twinning
3.2.7.1. Only One Possible Rotation
3.2.7.2. Perpendicularity Condition
3.2.7.3. Twinning Condition
3.2.4.
3.3.
106
106
106
106
106
106
106
Monoelinic System
As
3.3.1-3.3.7.
3.3.7.1.
107
before.
Two
Possible Rotations
107
Condition
Twinning Condition
3.3.7.2. Perpendicularity
3.3.7.3.
3.4.
103
103
103
Twinning
3.2. Triclinic
102
102
103
107
107
Orthorhombic System
As
3.4.1-3.4.7.
3.4.7.1.
108
before.
Four Possible Rotations
108
108
3.4.7.3.
108
3.5. Tetragonal
..
Condition
Twinning Condition
System
3.5.1-3.5.7.
3.5.7.1.
As
109
before.
Eight Possible Rotations
109
Condition
Table 3.5.5. Interplanar Angles in the Tetragonal Zone. ^=(010): (MO), h<k
Table 3.5.6. Tetragonal Quadratic Forms. Given h 2 +k 2 to find h and k
3.6. Hexagonal System (Sensu lato, including trigonal). Hexagonal Axes xyuz and Bravais-Miller
4-index Symbols hkil, with i=-(h+k)
3.6.1-3.6.5.
As
109
109
109
110
112
before.
Table 3.6.5. Interplanar Angles in the Hexagonal Zone. <f>=(\\.0):(hk.O), h>k

Table 3.6.6. Hexagonal Quadratic Forms. Given h 2 +k 2 +hk, to find h and k
3.6.6. Quadratic Form Q and Interplanar Distance d
Twinning
3.6.7.1. Twelve Possible Rotations
3.6.7.
Condition, with note about

XI
Weber
4-index symbol
112
113
115
115
115
115
115
CONTENTS
PAGE
3.7.
Rhombohedral System {Sensu s trie to, trigonal crystals with rhombohedral

Axes and Miller 3-index Symbols
As
3.7.1-3.7.7.
.
3.7.7.1.
lattice).
Rhombohedral
116
before.
Six Possible Rotations
116
Condition
Table 3.7.6. Rhombohedral Quadratic Forms. Given h 2 +k 2 +l 2 to find hkl and kl+lh+hk
116
116
117
3.8.
116
Cubic System
119
As before.
Table 3.8.5 A. Number of Distinct
Given Form
3.8.1-3.8.5.
Interplanar Angles between any Given Plane and all the Faces of a
119
Table 3.8.5B. Cubic Interplanar Angles

3.8.6. Quadratic Form Q and Interplanar Distance
120
123
Twinning
3.8.7.1. Twenty-four Possible Rotations
123
123
123
123
124
147
147
3.8.7.
3.8.7.2.
Perpendicularity Condition
3.8.7.3.
Twinning Condition
Table 3. 8.6A. Cubic Quadratic Forms. s=h 2 +k 2 +l 2 i y/s and mantissa of log s; hkl
Table 3.8.6B. Space Groups in Each of the 17 Cubic Aspects
Table 3.8.6C. Reflections permitted by Each of the 17 Cubic Aspects
3.9.
150
Hexagonal-rhombohedral Transformations (A. Pabst)

Transformation of Cell Constants
3.9.2. Transformation of Indices. Example
150
150
152
156
3.91.
Table 3.9.1. Hexagonal and Rhombohedral Constants

Table 3.9.2. Hexagonal-to- Rhombohedral Transformation of Indices
General and Special References
Diffraction Geometry
(H. T. Evans,
4.1. Classification of Diffraction
Table 4.1.1. Classification of the
Jr.,
158
and K. Lonsdale)
159
Methods
Main X-ray
161
Diffraction Techniques
161
Methods
Laue Method
4.2. Fixed-crystal
4.2.1.
4.2.1.1. Plane Film: polar stereographic net, Wulff net, gnomonic net, Greninger chart
Table 4.2. 1.1 A. Table for Conversion of Front-reflection Laue Patterns to Stereographic or Gnomonic
164
164
164
165
Projections
Table 4.2.1 IB. Table for Conversion of Back-reflection Laue Patterns to Stereographic or Gnomonic
166
167
168
174
Projections
4.2.1.2. Cylindrical
Film
..
Table 4.2.1.2. Tables for Conversion of Cylindrical Laue Patterns to Stereographic Projections
4.2.2.
4.3.
Divergent-beam Method
Moving Single-crystal Methods

4.3.1. Symbols in Use
Table 4.3.1. Symbols used to specify Quantities on Diffraction Patterns and in Reciprocal Space
4.3.2. Relationships between Cylindrical Co-ordinates <, , I of Reciprocal-lattice Point
the Position of the Corresponding Diffraction Spot
General Case
..
4.3.2.2. Diffraction observed on Sphere
4.3.2.3. Diffraction observed on Plane Film
4.3.2.4. Cylindrical Stationary Film Crystal on Axis Crystal on Circumference
4.3.2.5. Alternative Expressions for I and |
Table 4.3.2. Co-ordinates for Construction of Bernal Chart
4.3.3. Identity Distances on Stationary Films
4.3.4. Indexing of Zero-layer Line
Table 4.3.4. Data for Bunn Chart for Indexing of Rotation Zero Line
4.3.2.1.
xn
175
175
175
P and
175
175
176
177
177
178
180
179
184
182
CONTENTS
PA GE
Weissenberg Method
4.4.1. Experimental Details
4.4.2. Interpretation of Weissenberg Patterns
Table 4.4 .1 A. Equi-inclination Weissenberg Method Setting Constants
Table 4.4.1B. Normal-beam and Flat-cone Weissenberg Methods Setting Constants
Table 4 .4.2A. Data for Nomogram for Conversion of Equi-inclination Weissenberg Film Co-ordinates to
4.4.
Reciprocal-lattice Cylindrical Co-ordinates

Table 4.4.2 B. Data for Row-line Indexing Chart for Weissenberg Equi-inclination Photographs
.
190
..
4.5. Buerger Precession Method

Table 4.5.1. Layer-screen Settings for Zero-level Photographs with the Buerger Precession Camera
*
Table 4.5.2. Data for setting the Buerger Precession Camera for Upper Levels
. .
Table 4.5.3. Reciprocal-lattice Layer Heights from Cone-axis Photographs with the Buerger Precession
Camera
192
[94
[94
[95
197
Table 4.5.4. Data for Construction of Buerger Precession Setting Nomogram

Table 4.5.5. Angular Setting Error in Terms of Displacement of Zero-level Lattice Plane on the Buerger
Precession Photograph
Table 4.5.6. De Jong and Bouman Method Setting Constants
201
Random-orientation Methods
Indexing Powder Patterns, given Lattice Constants
4.6.2. Determining Unknown Lattice Constants
Table 4.6. Quick-reference Table of d (Spacings) vs. Bragg Angle for Various Mean Wavelengths
Table 4. 6.2 A. Data for Construction of Bunn Chart for indexing Tetragonal Powder Patterns
Table 4.6.2B. Similar Data for Hexagonal Powder Patterns
202
202
203
204
207
212
4.6.
4.6.1.
4.7. Precision
A.
J.
Photographic Methods
Debye-Scherrer Method
Table 4.7.2.1. Systematic Errors in the Debye-Scherrer Method
A. 1.2.2. Symmetrical Back-reflection Focusing Method
Table 4.7.2.2. Systematic Errors in the Symmetrical Back-reflection Focusing Method
Table 4.7.2.3. Corrections to Measurements with Flat-plate Back-reflection Camera
4.7.2.
4.7.2.1.
Method
4.7.2.3. Flat-plate Back-reflection

4.7.3. Counter-diffractometer
Table
4.7.3.
Method
Sources of Major Errors
in
Counter Diffractometry
4.1 A, General Problems: extrapolation; thermal expansion; refraction; X-ray wavelengths
r
lt a ? 4 a
Table
4. 7.4A.
i
2
/cos 2 8
-\
vs.
0(1O to 89 by 0-1)
<j>
218
219
219
220
220
221
225
(H. Lipson)
235
Formulae for Scattering by an Electron

Formula for the Atomic Scattering Factor
237
237
237
237
5.1. Basic Definitions
and Formulae
of Symbols
5.1.1. Definitions
Table 5.1.2. Polarization Factor,
p= -?-
as a Function
ofim
238
of Radiation Diffracted by a Crystal

Structure Factor
5.2. Intensity
5.2.1.
218.
230
232
233
Physics of Diffraction Methods
5.1.3.
216
216
216
217
228
vs. 0(O to 90 by 0-01)

Table 4J.4C.
tan
vs. ^(0 to 45 by 0-1)
5.1.2.
200
cos 2
+
\sin0
8
Table 4.7 AB. sin 2 and cos 2
<f>
198
Measurement of Lattice Parameters of PoIycrystalUne Specimens (W. Parrish and
C. Wilson)
4.7.1. Introduction
5.
85
85
85
87
89
Temperature Factor
Table 5.2.2A. exp (-B sin 2 0/A 2 ):
241
241
241
5.2.2.
(sin 8)jX 0-01 to 1-50
xiu
by 0-01,
B 0-1
to 10-0
by
0-1
242
CONTENTS
5.2. Intensity of
PAGE
Radiation Diffracted by a Crystal {continued)
Table 5.2.2 B. Values offtx)--
.ILL
d as a Function of x
264
from a crystal element, (b) from an extended crystal face

Correction of Intensities for Angle Factors
5.2.4.1. Single Crystal: Beam Normal to Rotation Axis
265
265
265
266
266
266
266
266
267
267
267
5.2.3. Integrated Reflection (a)

5.2.4.
5.2.4.2.
Single Crystal: Equi-inclination Weissenberg Photogreaph
5.2.4.3.
Debye-Scherrer Lines on Cylindrical Film
5.2.5.
Lorentz-polarization Factors
5.2.5.1.
Normal-beam Method, /^0
5.2.5.2.
Equi-inclination Method, fi-^-v
5.2.5.3.
The Precession Method (C. E. Nordman)

Other Methods of Recording
General Remarks on the Use of Charts and Tables
5.2.5.4.
5.2.5.5.
2Lp=
Table 5.2.5 A. Lorentz-polarization Factor,
as a Function ofs'm 8
4Lp
Table 5.2.5 C. Correcting Factor
sin 8
sin
4Lp
28
cos 2 20
268
sin
Table 5.2.5B. Correcting Factor
4-
0cos 8
as a Function of sin 8
270
cos 2 28
cos 8 sin 0cos_1
Curves for Rotation and Oscillation Photographs
Table 5.2.5 D. Data for the Construction of Constant ( Lp)
-1
Table 5.2.5 E. Values of i, for a Range of Values ofi, at which (Lp) assumes the Values 0,
., 2-0
1 , 0-2,
1
Table 5.2.5F. Data for the Construction of Constant (Lp)* Curves for Equi-inclination Weissenberg
.
Photographs
-1
Table 5.2.5G. Values of'', for a Range of Values of, at which (Lp)
assumes the Values 0, 0T 0-2, . ., 2-0
a
Table 5.2.5 H. Lorentz-polarization Corrections for the Precession Method, p,=30 (C. E. Nordman)
1
Table 5.2.51. (Lp)- /- Zero-level Precession Photographs, for Odd Values of p, 11 to 29 (/. Kraut)
,
5.3
Absorption Corrections, (a) Small Crystal bathed in Narrow Beam, (b) Large Crystal or Crystalline Powder Block intercepting the Entire Narrow Beam
5.3.1. Reflection of Narrow Beam from Planes Parallel to Extended Face of Crystal: (a) Crystal
of Sufficient Thickness to give Negligible Transmission, (b) Transmission not Negligible,
Crystal Thickness t
to Extended Face of Crystal Block of
5.3.2. Reflection from Crystal Planes inclined at Angle
Negligible Transmission
5.3.3. Transmission when the Reflecting Planes are Perpendicular to-the Surfaces of the Block,
of Thickness t
5.3.4. Transmission when the Reflecting Planes are inclined at an Angle (rt/2) <ft to the Surfaces
of the Block of Thickness /
5.3.5. Cylindrical Crystal of Radius R, bathed in a Uniform Beam of X-rays Normal to its
Axis (W. L. Bond)
5.3.5.1. Method based on Automatic Computation
5.3.5.2. Modification for Large Values of ^R (>8)
5.3.5 A. Calculation of Transmission Factor A for Cylinder, Radius R (W. L. Bond)
5.3.5B. Absorption Correction Factors A* for Successive Values of 8 [W. L. Bond)
5.3.5C. Alternative Method of Calculating Transmission Factor A {W. L. Bond)
5.3.5.3. Upper Levels of Equi-inclination Weissenberg Photographs
5.3.5.4. Optimum Size of a Cylinder
5.3.6. Sphere of Radius R, bathed in a Uniform Incident X-ray Beam (W. L. Bond)
5. 3.6 A. Transmission Factor A for Sphere, Radius R (IV. L. Bond)
5.3.6.1. Optimum Size of Spheres
5.3.7. Crystal of any Shape, bathed in Uniform Beam of X-rays (A. Hargreaves)
5.3.8. Absorption Corrections in X-ray Examinations of Preferred Orientation in Flat Sheet
Specimens (B. F. Decker)
5.3.6B. Absorption Correction Factors A* for Successive Values of 8. Sphere of Radius R (W. L
.
272
274
275
276
277
278
286
291
291
<f>
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Bond)
xiv
291
291
291
291
291
292
292
295
299
299
299
299
300
300
300
301
302
CONTENTS
5.3.
PAGE
Absorption Corrections {continued)
306
306
307
Transmission Case: Flat Sheet Specimen

Reflection Case: Flat Sheet Specimen
Intensity Correction Factors for X-ray Spectrometer
5.3.8.1.
5.3.8.2.
Table 5.3.8.
5.4.
313
313
313
313
313
Mosaic Theory
5.4.1.
Distinction between Perfect
and
Ideally Imperfect Crystals
5.4.2. Primary Extinction

Table 5.4.2. Primary Extinction Correction Factor
5.4.3. Secondary Extinction
5.5.
Summary
of Formulae for Integrated Intensities:
Element, (b) Crystal Face, (c) Crystal Section of Thickness /. (d) Powder Halo.
Lines on Cylindrical Film. (f) Reflection from a Thick Block of Powdered
Debye-Scherrer
(e)
Crystal of Negligible Transmission, (g) Transmission through Block* of Powdered Crystal of
Thickness /. (h) Rotation Photograph of Small Crystal, Volume V
(a) Crystal
315
References
6.
Fourier Synthesis and Structure Factors
(D.
W.
J.
Cruickshank)
6.1. Formulae for Three-dimensional Electron Density and Patterson Functions

G. S. Parry)
6.1.1. Electron Density
317
(
n collaboration with
318
318
318
6.1.2.
6.2.
The Patterson Function
Formulae for Fourier Series, Sections, Lines, Projections and Derivatives

G. S. Parry)
(iin
collaboration with
Density Sections
6.2.1.1. For a Plane parallel to (001)
6.2.1.2. For a Plane parallel to Uhk^)
6.2.2. Electron Density Lines
6.2.2.1. Line parallel to [001]
6.2.2.2. Line parallel to [uvw]
6.2.3. Electron Density Projections
6.2.3.1. Whole Unit Cell projected along [001] on to any Plane not containing [001]
6.2.3.2. Projection along [uvw] of Whole Unit Cell having [uvw] as One Axis
6.2.3.3. Bounded Projection along [001]
6.2.3.4. Projection of a Number of Parallel Sections
6.2.3.5. Projection of Unit Cell in Planes on to a Line not parallel to the Planes
6.2.1. Electron
6.2.4.
314
Differential Syntheses
6.3. Fourier
322
322
322
Transforms
6.3.1.
Radial Electron Densities
6.3.2.
Diffraction Effects
319
319
319
319
319
319
319
319
319
319
320
320
320
320
Table 6.3.2. Values o/2r(sm 8 ma x )j\for the First Four Zeros of the Diffraction Density Functions in
2 and 1 Dimensions corresponding to an Atom having Unit Scattering Factor
.
Various Space Transforms

6.3.3.1
Scattering Factor for a Distribution with Spherical Symmetry
6.3.3.2. Scattering Factor for a Plane Distribution of Circular Symmetry
6.3.3.3. Scattering Factor for a Line Distribution
6.3.3.4. Scattering Function for a Distribution of Cylindrical Symmetry
6.3.3.5. Scattering Function for a Spherical Atom freely rotating Spherically
6.3.3.6. Scattering Function for a Spherical Atom rotating about an Axis
6.3.3.7. Scattering from a Hindered Rotator
6.3.3.8. Scattering Function for an Exponentially Decreasing Density Distribution
6.3.3.9. Scattering Function for a Gaussian Density Distribution
6.3.3.10. Transform of an Infinite Helix
6.3.4. Molecular Transforms
6.3.5. Transforms of Crystal Shapes
Table 6.3.5. Shape Transforms
6.3.3.
xv
322
323
323
323
323
323
323
324
324
324
324
324
324
325
325
CONTENTS
PAGE
6.4.
Refinement of Structure Parameters

6.4.1. Application of the Method of Least Squares
6.4.1.1. Normal Equations..
6.4.1.2. Values of d\F,.(hkl)\l8Uj: Atomic Co-ordinates, Isotropic Thermal Parameters
Anisotropic Thermal Parameters, Scale Factor
6.4.1.3. Choice of Weights.
6.4.1.4. Approximate Equations
6.4.2. Refinement using Observed and Calculated Fourier Syntheses in Conjunction, or by
Difference Syntheses
6.4.2.2.
Introduction
General Co-ordinate Refinement Equations
6.4.2.3.
Approximate Co-ordinate Refinement Equations, Centrosymmetric Space Groups
6.4.2.1.
Booth's Back-shift Method for Finite Series Correction

Approximate Co-ordinate Equations and the "n-Shift Rule," Non-centrosymmetric
Space Groups
6.4.3. Standard Deviations of Structure Parameters
6.4.3.1. Least Squares
6.4.3.2. Fourier Methods
6.4.3.3. Bond Length and Bond Angle Standard Deviations
6.4.4. The Discrepancy Index (or Residual)
6.4.2.4.
6.4.2.5.
6.5.
Practical Evaluation of Fourier Series and Structure Factors (in collaboration with G.
The
....
and P. J. Wheatley)
6.5.1. The Fourier Strip Methods
6.5.1.1. The Beevers-Lipson Strip Method
6.5.1.2. The Patterson-Tunell Strip and Stencil Method
6.5.1.3. Robertson's Modified Strip and Stencil Method
6.5.2. The Bragg- Lipson Charts
6.5.3. Mechanical and Electromechanical Methods
Jeffrey
6.5.3.1.
Fourier Synthesizers
6.5.3.2. Structure
Factor Calculators
Methods
6.5.4.1. The Huggins Masks
6.5.4.2. The v. Eller "Photosommateur"
6.5.4.3. The X-ray Microscope
6.5.4.4. The Analogue Diffraction Spectrometer
6.5.5. Large-scale Computing Equipment
6.5.5.1. Computing Methods
6.5.5.2. Lists of Programs
6.5.4. Optical
6.5.5.3.
Test Calculations
References
7.
Special Topics
7.1.
Close Packing (A. L. Patterson and

Introduction
7.1.2. Close Packing in the Plane
J. S.
Kasper)
7.1.1.
Table 7.1.2.
7.1.3.
Table 7.1.3.
Some Close-packed Plane Arrangements of Circles

Close Packing
in
Space
Some Close-packed Space Arrangements of Spheres

Packing of Spheres
Symmetrical Closest-packed Stacking of Closest-packed Planes
7.1.4. Closest
7.1.5.
Table 7. 1.5 A. Interlayer Translations and Locations of Voids

Table 7.1.5B. Symmetry of Stacked Closest-packed Layers, with Examples
7.1.6. Structures related to Closest Packing
7.1.7. Radial Distribution of Atoms
.
xvi
326
326
326
CONTENTS
7.1.
PAGE
Close Packing (continued)
Table 7.1.7A. Radial Distribution of Atoms

Table 7. MB. Simple Cubic
in the
Three Cubic Lattices
349
350
351
Table 7.1.7C. Body-centred Cubic
Table
7.MD.
Table
7.
ME.
352
353
Face-centred Cubic
Hexagonal Closest Packing
354
References
Symmetry Elements (V. Luzzati)

7.2.1. Determination of the Absolute Scale and of the Thermal Vibration Factor
Table 7.2.1 A. Intensity-distribution Effects of Symmetry Elements not causing Systematic Absences
Table 7.2.1 B. Intensity-distribution Effects of Symmetry Elements causing Systematic Absences.
7.2.2, Detection of a Centre of Symmetry: Variance Test; Zero Moment Test
Table 7.2.2. Theoretical Values of the Function N(z)/V Centrosymmetric and Non-centrosymmefric Case,
7.2.
The Use of
Statistical
Methods
for the Detection of
357
References
7.3. Inequality Relations
between Structure Factors
(J.
Bouman).
358
358
358
358
359
359
Centre of Symmetry ..
Table 7.3.1. Fundamental Set
Table 7.3.2. Derived Inequalities Centre of Symmetry
Table 7.3.3. Non-centrosymmetric Structures: Fundamental Set and Derived Inequalities.
Numerical and Graphical Examples

Values ofS H H and S H _ n
Table 7.3.4.
'
>
360
References
Miscellaneous Exponential and Trigonometric Tables

Table
8.2.
8.
L The
Table 8.2.
Table 8.3.
361
Exponential Function e~ x
362
sin
Four-place Table of
Sherman, assisted by L. Brock way)
(J.
366
sin
Four-place Table of
366
Short Table of sin 2ttx cos 2nx

;
379
380
Table 8.4. Table of Products \r-\ 2*rx r-f-J 2iry

(
(sinj
sin/
Table 8.5. Table of sin 2-nhx; cos 2nhx
382
8.6. Conversion of Degrees to Radians, etc.

Table 8.6. Conversion of Degrees, Minutes and Seconds to Radians, and of Minutes and Seconds to
.
Decimals of a Degree; and
9.1.
Greek Alphabet
9.2.
Russian Alphabet
430
430
vice versa
Dictionary of Crystallographic Terms for Volume
9.3.
355
355
355
356
356
357
433
II
435
.
435
Dictionary of Crystallographic Terms in English, French, German, Russian and Spanish

of Terms in English which are similar (or easily recognizable) in all the Five Languages
9.3.2. List of Terms which are similar (or easily recognizable) in English, French, German and
436
436
Spanish (English and Russian equivalents only are given)

of other English Terms used in Volume II, with Equivalents in French, German,
Russian and Spanish
9.3.1. List
438
439
9.3.3. List
xvn
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 2.2.1.1.
Right-angled triangle: notation
Fig. 2.2.2.1.
Plane triangle
Fig. 2.2.3.4(1). Spherical triangle.
Ca
Fig. 2.2.3.4(2). Spherical triangle,
c a right angle
Fig. 2.5.4. Correlation
right angle (Napier's Rules)
(Napiefs Rules)
between functions related by crystallographic symmetry operations
Continuous distribution exhibiting positive skewness
Fig. 2.6.2.5.
Fig. 3.1.3.
Row
Fig. 3.1.4.
Net
[urn] normal to reciprocal net [uvw)*
{hkl)
and reciprocal row
[hkl]*
normal to
it
and angles of rhombohedral and hexagonal cells

principles
of
the spherical, stereographic, gnomonic and Laue projections
Geometrical
Fig. 3.9.1. Correlation of axial elements

Fig. 4.2.1.1(1).
Fig. 4.2.1.1(2).
Fig. 4.2.1.2(1).
incident
Greninger chart
Geometrical principles of Laue photography on to a cylindrical film with axis normal to the
beam
Fig. 4.2.1.2(2). Stereographic projection of reflecting planes giving

Fig. 4.2.1.2(3).
Laue spot
at angle &,
4>
Chart for Laue photograph on cylindrical film
Geometrical principles of reflection in the reciprocal lattice for the general case of a crystal rotating
about an axis not necessarily normal to the incident beam
Fig. 4.3.2.3(1). Geometrical principles of photography on to plane film normal to trace of incident beam on
Fig. 4.3.2.1.
equatorial plane
makes an angle
a in the equatorial plane with the trace of the incident
Fig. 4.3.2.3(2).
Case where
Fig. 4.3.2.4(1).
Geometrical principles of photography on to a cylindrical film
Fig. 4.3.2.4(2). Crystal
film
beam
on circumference of cylinder (Seemann-Bohlin method)
Fig. 4.3.2.4(3). Bernal chart for cylindrical camera

Fig. 4.3.4.
Bunn chart
Fig, 4.4.2(1).
for indexing an orthogonal net
Nomogram
from the zero row of a rotation photograph
for transforming Weissenberg film co-ordinates to cylindrical reciprocal-lattice co-
ordinates
Fig. 4.4.2(2). Equi-inclination
Fig. 4.5.4.
a given
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
lattice
lattice
rows
of setting constants of the Buerger precession camera for photographing
plane
zero-level lattice plane on Buerger precession orientation photograph

indexing tetragonal powder photographs
Bunn
chart
for
4.6.2(1). Layout of
4.6.2(2). Layout of Bunn chart for indexing hexagonal powder photographs
4.7.1. Percentage precision of d as a function of reflection angles for various errors A2Q
4.7.3(1). Flat specimen aberration shown by change of intensity distribution
Fig. 4.5.5.
Fig.
Weissenberg transform of parallel
Nomogram for determination

Appearance of disoriented
Fig. 4.7.3(2). Shift of centre of gravity
due to flat-specimen aberration
due to specimen-transparency aberration
Fig. 4.7.3(4).
Fig. 5.3.7.
Change
in line profile caused by increasing divergence of
Absorption
in crystal of
beam
in
plane of parallel
any shape
Fig. 5.3.8(1). Flat sheet specimen: transmission case

Fig. 5.3.8(2). Special case for counter technique: transmission case
Fig. 5.3.8(3). Special case for counter technique: reflection case
Fig. 6.3.2.
Curves of density functions
Fig. 7.2.2.
Comparison of centrosymmetric and non-centrosymmetric

Graph to determine signs of U n+U and U\i- n
Fig. 7.3.1.
'
'
xvm
intensity distributions
slits
PREFACE TO THE
1972
EDITION
In this edition the Corrigenda on pages xix and xx of the 1967 Edition have all been
incorporated in the text. In addition, a few other corrections and changes have been
made in the present text and some (un-numbered) new references have been added. It
is intended to publish in Acta Crystallographica a consolidated list of all changes made
in the various editions of the several volumes of the Tables.
Section 6.5.5 on Large-scale Computing Equipment has been entirely replaced by a
summary account with new numbered references and mention has been made of the
new Volume IV which contains some sections relevant to computing problems.
xix
1.
INTRODUCTION
JOHN KASPER
1.1.
Purpose and Scope of the Tables
The present Volume contains information primarily

of a mathematical nature and is characterized by the
absence of physical data, which are compiled in
Volume HI. It comprises tables of functions, formulae
and geometrical diagrams that for the most part are
strictly mathematical, even though they may pertain
to the application of a physical effect (for example, a
table of exp [-5 (sin 0/A) 2 ] is given for applying the
effect of temperature motion on diffracted intensities).
There are included, as well, general relationships

between physical quantities, but essentially none of the
material is of a kind to require revision on the basis of
improved physical measurements.
It is intended that this Volume should be useful in
many
(Section 2) precede all other material. Crystal geometry (Section 3) contains subject matter conventionally associated with the
ratic
title. It includes the quadforms which are required for deducing interplanar
and for indexing powder patterns. The

has been subdivided according to crystal
system, since generally one will wish to consult it in
regard to one particular crystal or substance. Sections
4 and 5 have to do with diffraction methods and effects
Section 4 is principally concerned with the recording
of data Section 5 with the various factors modifying
the intensity of a diffracted beam. The special role of
Fourier methods in crystal-structure problems makes
desirable a separate Section 6 devoted to them. Three
spacings
section
special topics are classified separately in Section 7.
stages of a crystal-structure determination: in
Finally, the extensiveness of the tables of sin 2-rrhx
the recording of X-ray diffraction effects in the indexing of the recorded diffraction data in the correction
and cos lirhx has made it seem worth while to include

them along with other trigonometric and exponential
of intensities for geometrical and physical factors in

the production of vector and electron-density maps;
and in the calculation of structure factors. Appropriate
material is provided also for various other aspects of
tables separately as Section 8, in the convenient loca-
crystallographic research
diffraction effects.
and the
utilization of
X-ray
A special feature is the inclusion of
a comprehensive compilation of basic mathematics.

This should serve a dual purpose: a utilitarian one is
that of providing those simple items of mathematics
which may occur in standard handbooks and texts
but to which the crystallographer needs to make
frequent reference; a second aim is to make available
in a uniform treatment those mathematical topics
that are basic to theoretical structure work but which
occur in a scattered way, often with different notations,
in a very extensive literature.
1.2.
Arrangement of Tables
The decision on the division of the contents into the

various sections and on the placement of the tabular
made on the basis of affording

convenience in the use of the Volume. In
practice, at a given stage of a structure investigation
one usually needs to consult only the material of one
of the sections. The section headings themselves
suggest the nature of their contents and the aspect of
structure work to which they are applicable.
It seemed natural to have the basic mathematics
material has been
maximum
tion of the final pages of the book.
The accuracy and
reliability
of the various tables
is
discussed in the appropriate sections.
Some charts are given for illustrative purposes.

In keeping with the general policy of the Editorial
Commission, no attempt has been made to make them
suitable for direct use. Tables are given for the construction of charts. Many such charts may now be
purchased, and information about those currently
available can be obtained through
Committees or Associations.
some National
separate card gives a
Table of Proportional Parts.

1.3.
Acknowledgments,
etc.
The General Editor acknowledges indebtedness to

the various authors who have contributed to this
Volume, and to proof-readers. Many others have
helped in ways too varied to enumerate; some, but
not all, have received mention at various stages in the
Volume. The staff of The Kynoch Press have taken
the greatest possible trouble to see that this volume is
as well produced as was Volume I and are in no way
responsible for the time that has elapsed between the
publication of the two volumes.
In general, notification of numerical or other errors
should be made to the General Editor, although in
case of doubt direct contact with the author concerned
may be more helpful.
Section 2
FUNDAMENTAL MATHEMATICS
A. L. Patterson
page
2.0.
Introduction
2.1.
Algebra
2.2.
36
2.3.
Differential and Integral Calculus
50
2.4.
52
2.5.
Fourier Theory
65
2.6.
Statistics (D. W.
J.
Cruickshank)
84
2.0. Introduction
The purpose of the present chapter is to provide

a summary of the mathematical techniques which
have been applied to problems of physics and of
crystallography of interest in X-ray crystal structure
analysis.
Some of the formulae included are elementary and

are included because the human memory is very
treacherous as to signs and factors in the results of
elementary algebra and trigonometry. In the more
sophisticated sections no attempt is made to give
proofs, but the results are presented in a more or less
logical sequence to give them some continuity. The
amount of detail provided is intended to be sufficient
main features of a discipline to those who

have at some time been exposed to it. While this
chapter is not intended to replace a series of mathematical textbooks, it may be of service in indicating to
to recall the
the investigator that a particular discipline unfamiliar

to him may have application to the problems on which
he
engaged.
bibliography will be found at the end of the
section. An attempt has been made to include references
in the bibliography to texts in languages other than
that of the writer, but this has been difficult. It is hoped
is
that those
which have been included have
sufficient
international importance to be available in
many
References to the bibliography are given in

the text in square brackets, e.g. [14].
Examples are given in many places to indicate the
application of a given discipline to crystal-analytical
problems. Clearly such indication can only be very
incomplete. It is supplemented wherever possible by
references to examples of applications from the literature. In these cases no attempt has been made towards
completeness, and apology is made in advance to those
authors who feel that their paper would have made the
ideal example for the application of a particular
libraries.
technique.
Detailed acknowledgment of sources for such a

compilation is almost impossible. Many tabulations
are classical and have been handed down through
generations of texts. Each compiler attempts to take
work and to add improvements of his own, it is hoped without the introduction
of errors. Almost all the references given have contributed to the present text, some a great deal and
others only a little, and this help is very gratefully
acknowledged.
the best of his predecessor's
Algebra
2.1.
Complex Numbers
2.1.1.
waves depend on the fact that complicated trigonometric results have a very simple form in complex
Definitions
The quantity z=x+iy
is
a complex number
positive root of the equation

real
numbers
is
the
= 1 and x and y
are
if
called respectively the real part
imaginary part of
z.
and the
The complex number z=xiy
called the conjugate of
notation.
Example
z.
e i(A+B) e iA e iB
corresponds to
Any complex number can be expressed in any of the
cos(A+B)+ism(A+B)=(cosA+ismA)(cosB+is'mB)
forms
=cos A cos B sin A

z=x+/>'=|z|(cos</>+/sin() = |z|e'*
taken as positive. The angle

is called the phase of z
and is the solution of the pair of equations
<f>
any angle
cos
(f>=x/\z\
<j>
satisfies
sin <f>=y/\z\
(2)
(<f>+2k7r)
which
lies in
B+ /(sin A cos J?+cos A sin B)
,iZA
iA\Z
(e
( iA
Y
Example 2
corresponds to
cos 3A + i sin 3
3
==cos 3 A 3 cos A sin 2 A+i(3 cos 2 A sin ,4-sin A)
3
3
=4 cos A 3 cos A+i(3 sin A 4 sin A)
these equations, the angle
them. The value

the range 0<(<j>+2kir)<2ir is
<f>+2kTr (k integral) will also satisfy
of
sin
.(1)
Here \z\=(x 2 +y 2 ) i =(zz) i is called the absolute value

(or magnitude) of the complex number z and is always
If
is
called the principal value of
<f>
and
usually taken as
is
the solution of
(2). It is usual to calculate

solution of the single equation
<f>
as the
2.1.2. Series
2.1.2.1.
The
Binomial Theorem
series
tan <f>=y/x
V+
(l+x)"=l+nx+
(3)
n\
xr +
r\(n-r)\
-(I)
must be noted
It
in the range
of
two roots,
and only one of these
that (3) has
to 2tt
(f>
and $+*,
is
a solution
(2).
The
represents one of the values of (l+x)" whenever
result (1)
and
(13), (14)
depends on the
series
expansions 2.1.2
(a)
When
a positive integer, the series terminates

single value of (l+x) n for all x.
is
and represents the
(15).
(b)
Algebra
The algebra of complex numbers is

same as that of real numbers, with
the additional
is
(c)
If n is
any number and x
is
complex 0< \x\ <
the
converges to that value of (l+x) n which

tends to l when x tends to zero.
series (l)
Special Cases
the imaginary part of the other side.
power of a complex number
If n is any rational number and l < x < l the sum

of the series (l) is the real positive value of
(l+x)\
essentially the
result that in any equation the real part of one side

must equal the real part of the other side, and independently the imaginary part of one side must equal
it is
convergent.
defined by the
(\+x)- 1 =l-x+x 2 -x 3 +.
(2)
.|x|<l
equation
z p z= z \p e i(4>+2kn)p
\
....(4)
(\+x)* = l + lx-]f\x*+
2.4
where k
index
is
if
any integer. This is single-valued if the

an integer (positive, negative or zero). If/?
1.1.3.5
x*+
|x|
number of values for z p
irrational there will be infinitely
many
...(3)
/i
1-3
2.4"
such
1-3.5
1.3.5.7
.|x|<l
2.4.6.8
2.4.6
(4)
values.
For further discussion see textbooks on the calculus,

or on the theory of functions of a complex variable,
or any "Cours d'Analyse." See also [1], [2], [8], [12]
and
[13].
For additional
2.1.2.2.
If
is
applications of complex notation in diffraction
theory and in any discipline which involves sinusoidal
special cases see [6],
[7], [9]
and
[14].
Multinomial Theorem
a positive integer
Applications
The
<1
2.4.6.8
2.4.6
is
is
rational there will be a finite

is
1.1.3
(a 1+ a 2+ a 3+
+a.)"=2(
Vl
"
.
a/*
(5)
2.1.
where the summation
to be taken over all positive
is
integral or zero values of rx , r2 ,

relation r1 +r2 +r3 +
and where
rs
.,
which
2.1.3.
Mathematical Constants
satisfy the
it= 3-14159 26536
+rs =n
)=
ALGEBRA
\rx r % ...r,J
tt
9-86960 44011
l/*r= 0-31830
'
is
rx \r 2 \...rs
a multinomial
98862
y/TT= 1-77245 38509

e= 2-71828 18285
coefficient.
l/e= 0-36787 94412
loge= 0-43429 44819

In 10= 2-30258 50930
Progressions
2.1.2.3.
V2=
V3=
V5=
y7=
Arithmetic Progression
a+(a+d)+(a+2d)+
+ [a+(n-l)d]=$n[2a+(n-
\)d]
(6)
1
Ceometric Progression
a+ar+ar 2 +
+ar"- 1 =a(l-r n )/(l~r)
(7)
Powers of Natural Numbers
1+2+3+
l
+2 +3 +
+2 +3 +
+2 4 +3 4 +
+ =n(w+l)(2+l)
means logarithm
+2 6 +3 5 +
...+77
.
= | 2 (w+l) 2
.(10)
+ 4 =/o("+l)(2+l)(3 2 +3 -1)
and Rational Independence
2.1 A. Linear
Definitions
A set of quantities ./^/a,

if
+n 5 =is n 2 (n+l) 2 (2n 2 +2n-\)
r
^J~ cannot be summed in closed form. For
discussion of these series see [14] and [16].
cos
*=l-* 2 /2!+* 4/4!-* 6 /6!+
|*|<oo
.(14)
sin*=*-* /3!+* /5!-* /7!+

3
|*|
< 00
.(15)
tan*=*+x 3/3+2* 5/15+17* 7 /315+
|*|
<7T/2
.(16)
cosh*=l+* 2 /2!+* 4/4!+* 6 /6!+
|*|<oo
.(17)
sinh
*=*+* 3/3!+* 5/5!+*
/7!+
many
|*| < 00
.,/ is said to
be linearly
relation of the type
+0n/n = O
(1)
in
two-space, there exist

two such
are vectors in w-space,
linearly independent sets of
If the quantities
many
independent sets
of n such quantities. If the quantities ft are functions
of one or more independent variables, there may exist
sets of infinitely many linearly independent functions.
set of quantities flt f2
-,fn are said to be
rationally independent if there exists no relation of the
type (1) in which the a t are integers, positive, negative
or zero, but not all zero.
There exist infinitely many sets of rationally independent real numbers, and, a fortiori, the same is true
for complex numbers, n-vectors, functions, etc.
Any set of quantities which is linearly independent
is of necessity rationally independent.
there exist infinitely
(13)
numbers or vectors
quantities.
|*|<oo
..
which the a, are any constant quantities, real,

imaginary or zero, but not all zero.
If the quantities ft are real numbers, there exist no
linearly independent sets. If the quantities f{ are cominfinitely
Miscellaneous Power Series
no
in
plex
<?*=l+*+* 2 /2!+* 3/3!+
there exists
l/l+ 2/2 +
....(12)
2.1. 2 A.
e.
(9)
The series
to the base
independent
5
13111
76602
V10=
radian =57-29577 95131=57 17' 45"
1= 0-01745 32925 radian
l'= 0-00029 08882 radian
1"= 0-00000 48481 radian
In
..(8)
.(11)
l
08076
79775
1-73205
2-23606
2-64575
3-16227
Note, log means logarithm to the base 10
+n=|n(+l)
...
1-41421 35624
linearly
.(18)
In
(1+x)=jc-^
+^jc
-Jx +
|*|
<1
2.1.5.
.(19)
In
(j~\ =2[*+i* 3 +^+** 7 +
.]
|*|
Modular Algebra (Algebra of Congruences)
When two
quantities a
and b
a-b=p 1 m 1 +p 2 m 2 +
<1
.(20)
where p lf p 2
or zero, and
,
Excellent compilations of useful series

ries are contained in [3], [6], [8], [9], [14], etc.
.,
pn
m m
satisfy the relation

.
+pn mn
(1)
are any integers, positive, negative
., m n is any set of rationally

independent quantities, a and b are said to be congruent
x,
2,
ALGEBRA
2.1.
with respect to the modulus (or modular

relation
is
This
set) /w t-.f
fraction rjsi
a=b(mod
/th quotient is called the ith
m)
(2)
The th convergent
and is read "a is congruent to b modulo /w,-."

The algebra of modular congruences is the same as
that of equalities except that division of the two sides
re
ab
p i}
i.e.
m,
nu
=Pr~l +Pzi +
convergent of the s.c.f.

thus the value of the continued
which
rational.
it is
The procedure for the expansion of a

number aja 2 in an s.c.f. is identical with
rational
that of
determining the greatest common divisor (g.c.d.) of
the numerator a x and the denominator a 2 by the
Euclidean algorithm. This process is illustrated in
column 1 of Table 2.1.6A, and the quotients q t of the
s.c.f. (2) are the quotients of the Euclidean algorithm.
The process ends with q n which is the first quotient to
have a remainder zero. The coefficient of q n i.e.
an+1 is the g.c.d. of a x and a 2 and is unity if the fraction
aja 2 is in its lowest terms, that is if a x and a 2 are
relatively prime.
The z'th convergent, given by rjsi, is computed from
the iterated equations
mn
is
fraction in the case in
of the congruence is not always permitted. Division

can always be carried out by expressing a congruence
such as (2) as an equation such as (1) with arbitrary
coefficients
and the s.c.f. terminates. The rational

formed by terminating the s.c.f. at the
quotients
usually written
+ Pnc
For furthur
details
see
any textbook of higher
algebra, such as [15] and [16].

The procedure for the solution of a general system
of linear congruences with rational coefficients
is
given
in Section 2.1.9.4 (p. 19).
2.1.6.
Simple Continued Fractions
A simple continued fraction
r % a i ri-\r^ r i-1
(s.c.f. )% is
S{
an expression
of the form
....(1)
1
?4 +
(Table 2.1.6A). If qx is zero, the s.c.f. is termed proper;

not, improper.
convenient abbreviation for (1) is
if
(2)
rx =q x ,
t In terms of modular algebra, two points in different cells

which are crystallographically equivalent with respect to the
lattice are congruent with respect to a primitive triplet of translations of the lattice as modulus.
t We are not concerned in this volume with more general
forms of continued fractions. See for example [15] and [16].
?2+ q*+ q*+
number can be expressed as an s.c.f.

number has infinitely many quotients q
number has only a finite number n of
positive real
irrational
rational
=0;
preceding row.
Any convenient scheme for the computation of
g.c.d. can be substituted for that of column 1 of these
tables. Note that if aja 2 is a proper fraction (a 2 >a 1)
the first step may be omitted if ^=0 is substituted in
which the quotients q { are positive integers and
identical with the quotients of the Euclidean algorithm
(3)
- 1 ~r S j _ 2
The computation scheme is exhibited in the last

columns of Table 2.1.6A. The same routine applies to
both r and s. The value in one row is obtained by
multiplying the q of that row by the value in the preceding row and adding the value in the second
?3+
An
sx =\.
? 2 +-
Any
q jJ
for z>2, with the initial values r =l, s
F=q 1+
in
t.
TABLE
2.1.6A
Computation Scheme for Expansion of aja 2 as a Simple Continued Fraction
aja 2 =q1 +
- 1
?2+ #3+
Qi
<*i=a 2 qx +a z
?i
a % =a&i+ai
2
/
ai=a i+1 qi+a i+2

a n - 1 =an q n ^ 1 +a n+1
tfn
= tfn+l9n+0
<ln
'o=l
*o=0
*=1
?2
r\=qi
r2-q%rx +r
9i
r iqi r i-l + r i-2
$i ~qi$i - 1
rn-l~qn-l rn-2~ t~ f'n-3
sn - 1
n-\
<Jn-l
qn
^^^^l^Ô
>
^n
= qn f
'n - 1
'
?n - 2
+ S{ _ g
= qn - l^n - 2 ~r $n - 3
S n z= qn^n-\ r ^n-2
2.1.
Two
the table
ALGEBRA
numerical examples are given in Table
and
in particular, if
2.1.6B.
Exactly the same process
may
be used to expand
irrational fractions as continued fractions
approximations
for
such
irrational
and to obtain
by
The
example the fractions 3, 22/7,

333/106, 355/113, etc., as approximations for v. See
[15] and [16] for further discussion.
ratio r n _ x /s n - x
relatively prime,
n
1 -r n . 1 a i =(-l)
(4b)
called the penultimate convergent.
is
a x and a 2 are not relatively prime, then
If
fractions
rational fractions, for
ax and a 2 are
rnsn . 1 -rn . 1sn =a 1sn .
i^n- 1 -/-n-i2=(-l)" (g-c.d.)

.(Ac)
should be noted that an intermediate convergent
(e.g. those shown in parentheses in Table 2.1.6B)
It
p/ tr =(rn-rn -i)Ksn -sn - 1 )
TABLE
may be
2.1.6B
a x o- P a 2 =(-
Expansions in Simple Continued Fractions
Example
9i
Si
*i
(a)
Two
Dimensions. Consider the transformation

^l=<7ll + ?22
2
6
19
13
323/221 = 19/13=
I+
and assume that ux and u2 are given

integers,
A2
since
<li
Si
10=47.0+10
47=10.4+ 7
10= 7.1+ 3
7=
3=
3.2+
1.3
+(3+5)a 2
A 2 3a +5q2
x
The intermediate convergent 2/3 has been used to

obtain a net of the same "hand" as the original. The
using the penultimate convergent

obtained from the above by setting = 1.
(b)
^2
be
will
^( 1 =(2+3//)a
/
prime
<7i" 2 -?2"i=l
and the general solution
relatively
a primitive translation of the

lattice. Then if the new cell is to be primitive we
must
have the determinant of the transformation
is
Solutions of equations of this type are given in Table

If A x A 2 is a solution of this problem
2.1.6C.
(A x +nA 2), A 2 will also be a solution for n integral.
Numerical Example. Let u x =3, w2 =5. Then from
the table we must have q x =2,
=3, i.e. 2.5-3.3=1,
a 1 /a 2 = 10/47
2.
A 2 =u 1 a 1 +u 2 a 2
g.c.d.=17
Convergents: 1, 3/2, (16/11), 19/13

323 x 2-221 x 3= 646-663 =(-l) 3 xl7
323x 11-221 xl6=3553-3536=(-l) 4 x 17
Example
.... (5b)
Given a primitive translation of any lattice, to

1.
find a primitive cell having this translation as one of
its primitive translations.
323=221.1 + 102
221 = 102.2+17
102=17.6
l)+i (g.c.d.)
Examples
a x /a 2 =323/22l
1.
(5a)
constructed so that
14
10
47
solution
1/2
is
Three Dimensions. Consider the transformation
Ax=
a3
A 2 =b 1 a 1 +b 2 a 2
A 3 =ux a x +u2 a 2 +u3a3
which ux u2 u3 are given, and must be relative prime
is primitive. The general form for
three relative
prime integers is
in
if
Convergents:
Ui
0, 1/4, 1/5, 3/14, (7/33), 10/47
first)
convergent is always less than the value

and each successive convergent is alternately
first
above and below
this value,
and
closer to
it.
The value
of the th convergent of a terminating s.c.f. is of course

the value of the original fraction.
The property of convergents of most universal
application depends
on the
result that
/^ i _ 1 -r l _ 1 5 t
=(- 1)'
ij
ei
.
Properties of the Convergents
of the s.c.f.
= dki d
which dti is the highest common factor of u { and u

t
Thus the sets dtj and e t are each within themselves
pair-wise relative prime, but et may have one factor in
common with du and another (relative prime to the
in
10.14-47.3=140-141=(-l)s
10.33-47.7=330-329=(-l) 6
The
A3
(4a)
in
common
with
djk
Under these conditions one must first find

which are reciprocal to u with
relative
all
vectors
prime com-
ponents satisfying
ux UA + u2 U2 + u 3 U 3 =l
The general solution for this equation can be expressed

as
= rki(qk-u kg k) + djk e h k
= rufat-UtgJ-dHeiht
Uk = Pk+d gk
Vt
Uj
it
ALGEBRA
2.1.
In these expressions g k , h k are arbitrary integers

(positive or negative) or zero.
of integers
and the
p k qk
,
relative
The
The general
solution
prime pair
relative
are a solution of the equation
PkU k +q kdH =l
prime pair of integers rki rkj are a
is
then
A x = SX A x -rtx A
A 2 == S 2A x -\-t2A
sx t 2 s 2 tx =l.
provided that
solution of the equation
Numerical Example. Let u x =2, u 2 =6, u 3 =9. The

only relative prime pair is 2 and 9. Use of Table
2.1.6C then enables us to write
rkiUi + rki ui ~ "a
There are three representations of the same set of

U which may be obtained by cyclic permutation of the subscripts in the above expressions.
In the second stage of the calculation one must
obtain sets of two vectors
vectors
A =
a2
A2= a
+ 5a3
A 3 =2a x +6a 2 +9a 3
x
An
2.
application of continued fractions to the
maxima of Fourier series expansions

made by Hauptman and Karle (Acta Cryst.,
location of the
has been
(with relative prime components aa a i2) whose vector

product generates the vector U. Since the components
Ui of this vector are relative prime, they have the same
,
general form as the ut ,
6, 469, 1953).
Robertson, Acta Cryst., 7, 817, 1954) can be obtained

from the expansions of these quantities in s.c.f. 's.
î= D ki DijEi
A particular solution is
A\- m ki DjkEka -\-m kj D kiEka - Dijak
A' D jkE a -\-D E a
in which m ki Ei+m kj Ej= 1.
i
4.
See also 2.1.9.4 (p. 19) for the reduction of a
system of equations valid in a lattice.
ki
Gear ratios to approximate the actual values of

and cosines used in Fourier synthesis (cf. J. M.
3.
sines
i.e.
TABLE
2.1. 6C
Table of Penultimate and Intermediate Convergents for the Ratios ax ja2 (0<a x <a2 <20)
Each
line
of an entry exhibits x x x 2 a solution of one of the equations a x x 2 a 2 x x =l

,
0,
01
1
1
3
1
1
1
1
1
7
1
1
1
11
12
13
14
7
8
4
9
3 5
3 7
2 3 2 3
4 7
2 5 2 5
1
3
I
4 3
2 7 2
5
1
3 4
'8
2 3 2
5 7
5
3
5
1
1
4
8 9 5
3 10
2
9
17
1
15
2 11
3
13
6 13
3
5
5
8
1
2
7 13
5
7
3
7 10
7,
7
5
10 11
13
11
12
1
12 13
7
8
4 5
9 11
9
10
1
6
2 13
2 11
7
3 10
5
5 12
3 11
5 13
11
5 11
7 12
11
3
17
7 11
5 7
8 11
2
11
6
11
14 15
11
3
16
11
3
4
11 15
16 17
18
9 17
3 5
8 13
15 16
17
8 17
6 17
3 7
5 12
8 15
10 13
1
4
4 15
3
9 14
2 13
1
3
5 16
19
5
3 14
1
1
9
1
16
13 14
15
5
7
7 10
1
14
2 3
9 13
18
7 12
3 4
8 11
12
17
7 15
7 11
4
9
11
16
5 14
3
8
3 13
3 11
3
11
20
19
18
1
5 11
9 10
11
10
10
6 7 4 5
8
16
IS
14
13
1
5 6
7
12
1
4 5
6
10
1
2 3 2 3
8
1
5
14
11
13
8 9
9 10
1
6
11
7
13
17 18
19
18 19
10
ALGEBRA
2.1.
2.1.7.
Determinants
2.1.8.
The determinant which
is
|#n
written
2.1.8.1.
by definition equal to
#is
tf
n tf 22 -a 12 a 21
This definition
generalized for a determinant of the th order

having n rows and n columns) as follows
is
#n
\a,A
#12
#21 #22
a n \ #2
"#n #i
#2n
=[#*,]
....(1)
_#ml
The transposed matrix
=2()(tf ,-1^20*3
"raw
where the sequence of numbers /, j, k,

a
., q is
derangement of the numbers 1, 2, 3,
The sum
., n.
is taken over all such derangements (!), and the sign
of any term is positive if the derangement is even and
negative if the derangement is odd. The parity of the
derangement is that of the number of interchanges of
adjacent numbers required to produce the given
derangement from the standard order. Thus 1234,
3124, 4321, etc., are even derangements for =4, and
1243, 2413, 2341, etc., are odd derangements.
The determinant of (- 1) order obtained by deleting
the row and column which intersect in a u (/'th row and
y'th column) is called the minor (first minor) m
u of a tj
.
#to2
of a
is the matrix which has

rows identical with the columns of a, and vice versa.
When m=n the matrix is a square matrix, and the
elements a H lie in the principal diagonal. The sum of
the elements an of the principal diagonal is called the
trace (German Spur) of the matrix a (tr a). If all the
elements other than an are zero, the matrix is a
diagonal matrix. A unit matrix is a diagonal matrix in
which all the diagonal elements have the value unity.
It is represented by the symbol 1.
When a^Ôji a square matrix is said to be symmetric. If a ij =a ji and a {i =0 a square matrix is said
to be skew symmetric. To save printing, the column
matrix, i.e. one which has m rows and one column, is
represented by the special notation
#n)
....(1)
a9
#91
(i.e.
#m
Definitions
A system of mn quantities arranged in a rectangular

array of m rows and n columns is called a matrix.
|#21 #2i
is
Matrices
a'
The cofactor A u of a tj
is
then defined as
h,
={*i
A determinant of order (n-s) obtained by deleting

rows and s columns is called an sth minor. If the
deleted rows and columns have corresponding numbers,
1.
may
am =
2.1.8.2.
Basic Operations
Equality.
=z 2_a lm Ai m
a
/it imAi m
:
A=B if
Addition.
C=A+B if Cw =y4 w +5
2.
The value of a determinant
unchanged if rows
are taken as columns and columns as rows.
of the same order.
3.
Interchange of two rows or of two columns changes

the sign of the determinant.
are of the
4.
Multiplication of
single
column
is
Subtraction.
the terms of a single row or a

by the same number multiplies the
Note.
is
thus
made
to
and A, B,
is
a scalar,
rA=Ar=C if
matrix equation implies (mxri)
single
#11 #12 #13
^11 ^12 ^13

_t>21
^22 ^23_
implies the six equations a u =b 11 a 12 =b 12

Matrix Multiplication. The product
,
etc.
P=BA
matrices B (the pre-factor) and

the matrix whose elements are
almost any textbook of

-*
e.g.
tf
order.
_#21 #22 #23_
(see 2.1.8.2).
is
C w =y4 w -5
if
C are
scalar equations,
Application of these rules leads to methods for the

evaluation of determinants (see also 2.1.8.10, p. 15).
Rules for the multiplication of determinants form a
special case of those for the multiplication of matrices
Reference
C=A-B
and A, B,
The associative and commutative rules for addition,

subtraction and scalar multiplication hold good.
unchanged by adding
to any one of its rows or columns any linear combination of its other rows or columns.
advanced algebra,
same
Scalar Multiplication. If r
all
The value of a determinant
are of the
C =rA
determinant by that number.

5.
A i5 =B u and A and B
same order.
same number of rows and the same number of columns.
be expanded in terms of the
members of a column and their cofactors or of the

members of a row and their cofactors: i.e.
\
(2)
are useful properties of determinants:
determinant
b m}
while the row matrix, one with one row and n columns,
can be given the normal notation [c lt c 2 ,
., c n ].
Two matrices are of the same order if they have the
called a symmetrical sth minor.
The following
.,
lJ>m_l
it is
[15] [19], particularly [17].
ii
11
'
BjrA-t
l
of two
(the post-factor)
is
(3)
ALGEBRA
2.1.
Note
(i) The product can only be formed
A = [A H ] of the square matrix a=[<7] is

whose elements are the transposed cofactors
of the element a^ in the determinant |a i3
It then
number of
the number
The
the
columns () of the pre-factor is the same as

of rows of the post-factor.
(ii) The number of rows of the product will be the
same as the number of rows of the pre-factor, and the
number of columns of the product will be the same as
the number of columns of the post-factor.
(iii) The associative and distributive laws hold for
matrix multiplication. The commutative law does not
necessarily hold, but two matrices for which BA=AB
are said to commute. The unit matrix 1 commutes with
any square matrix of the same order.
(iv)
P=A A
In a product of r matrices
Reciprocal Matrices
2.1.8.4.
if
r_ 1,
.,
adjoint
the matrix
-|.
follows that
[*]
....(4a)
\A H = {a]"' 1
and that
If the matrix
MH|1
(4b)
a non-singular square matrix, the

elements of the adjoint A may each be divided by \a\.
The matrix so obtained is called the inverse a* 1 of a,
and it follows that
aar x =\
(5)
A 2A X
is
From (4a) it is clear that the determinant of any

matrix can be obtained by multiplying any row of the
matrix by the corresponding column of the adjoint
number of columns of the 5th matrix must equal

the number of rows of the (s-l)th matrix.
(v) A useful mnemonic for matrix multiplication is
the
matrix.
the diagram
matrix a whose transposed matrix a' is equal to

is said to be orthogonal. Its determinant has the value \a\ = 1 If the conjugate complex
a of a matrix a is equal to its transposed matrix a',
the matrix is said to be Hermitian. Thus a real
symmetric matrix is Hermitian.
If the conjugate complex of the transposed matrix
(i.e. a') is equal to the inverse of the original matrix,
it is said to be unitary and the determinant |a| = l.
Real unitary matrices are also orthogonal, and vice
its
reciprocal a~ x
=
L
The
>
o
T
row of the pre-factor multiplied term by

term by they'th column of the post-factor is added and
entered in the ij position of the product. The following
/th
example
is
illustrative
2.1.8.5.
01
Lo
ij
[2
-2
16
14
41
"ml
91
Wo
u 2n
The determinant of the product of two matrices

the product of the determinants of the factors.
is
present volume.)
often necessary to find the principal axes of the
. These axes are also called the characteristic
vectors^ of the matrix u and are represented by the
It is
matrix
column matrices \
(see 2.1.8.1), for
which
\\=u\
We
construct the characteristic matrix of ,
/(A)=Al-
and notice that
the three inequalities

\
(6b)
or more rows and/or columns) whose determinant is

non-zero, and no other matrix of higher order whose
determinant is non-zero.
square matrix (m x m) whose rank r is less than
is said to be singular. The quantity (mr) is called the
degeneracy of the matrix. If r x and r 2 are the ranks of
two square (nxri) matrices, the rank R s of the sum
satisfies the inequality R s <r 1 +r 2
The rank R P of the
_X<n_
y=ux
which the column matrix x is premultiplied by the

square matrix u to give the column matrix y. In other
words, the set of n variables x { has been transformed
into the set of n variables y t (For examples see Vol. I,
Sec. 2.5; and Sees. 2.1.6, 2.2.4, 2.2.5 and 2.4 of the
contains at least
one square matrix of r rows and columns (either the
matrix itself or one obtained from it by deletion of one
R 9 <r
x2
in
it
"nn_
r>
i.e.
matrix.
satisfies
r* !
.(6a)
Determinants and Rank
A matrix is said to be of rank r if
'"11
L"l U
The determinant of a square matrix is the determinant whose elements are identical with those of the
product
Characteristic Values
Consider the matrix equation
4
3
2.1.8.3.
versa.
(7) is
....(7)
i.e.
....(8)
equivalent to
/(A)?=0
....(9)
R P <r 2 R p >r x +r 2 -n
;
terms "characteristic function" and "characteristic

due to Hamilton, were translated into German as
Eigenfunktionen and Eigenvektoren. They were then returned to
English as eigenfunctions and eigenvectors.
fThe
If a square (n x n)
matrix of rank r is multiplied in

order by a non-singular (nxri) matrix, the
product is also of rank r.
vectors,"
either
12
2.1.
The condition
ALGEBRA
Example. Consider the matrix
that a non-zero solution of (9) exists
(2.1.9.1, p. 16) is that
0)
-1
characteristic
-1
A(A)H/(A)HA1-|=0
The determinant A(A) is called the
determinant, and the above equation
is
roots (A x A 2
,
.,
A(A)=(A-l)(A-2)2
The
If Aj- is a simple root of (10), we construct the matrix

F(K), which is the adjoint matrix of/^). This matrix
can be resolved into the product of a column matrix
and a row matrix, i.e.
first
root, A x =l,
={U,1}[1,-U] and ^={1,1,1}
/(!)=
The twofold root A=2
racy exactly s, we form the (s l)st derivative (2.1.8.8)

of F(X) and hence iJ,J_1 (As). This can be factored in
terms of (n x s) column and row matrices as follows
/(2)=
is
V VL.D+1
52.P+1
S>2,
F'-HK)-
leads to the matrix

1
1
1
and
&1.P+S-1
which has rank
%2,P+s-l
therefore calculate
-1
-1
-1
thus twofold degenerate.
is
-in,x>
sn,P+l
n,p+s-l-
K P,1
/Cjj2
K P+1,1
K P+1,2
K P+l,n
....(12)
and
z
one of s multiple roots and the degeneracy of

/(As ) is q <s, only q linearly independent columns can
be obtained. If q=\ there is only one \ column, and
it is obtained by factoring F(X S ) as in (11).
If q>\,
the q linearly independent % columns must be obtained
from the derivatives of F(X) which are not null when
A s is substituted. For details see [18].
In those cases in which n column matrices si can
be obtained we can construct any one of a number of
matrices k in which the column k si is proportional to
the column matrix si
These matrices are nonsingular and have the property that
"1
-1
and ^ 2 ={1,1,0},
kAk
-1 =
0"
_-l
1
0"
"1
0"
1
1
2(A -2).
={0,1,1} are solutions, and
-1
1
-1
"1-1
we have
f
-1
1-1"
2-2 =
-2
1
1
=k
-1
-1
-1
We note also
that we may choose instead of $* 2 ,J- 3 any

other pair J^.'^' suc h that { 2 ,^'}=M{^>2 3 } where
is any non-singular (2x2) matrix.
'
....(13a)
that
2.1.8.6.
A^kûk
J;
"1
u=kAk
1-1"
2
P+s-l,n.
If A s is
and hence
2(A-1)
F'(2)= -1
-1
-1
-1
-1
F' (A)=
... Kp n
_ K j)+s-l,l K p+s-l,2
....(136)
Diagonalization of a Quadratic Form
The matrix expression
which A is a diagonal matrix, having the characnumbers of the matrix u as terms in the leading
diagonal. The reduction of to a diagonal form is not
in
teristic
x'ax= [Xiâîx^ânX^+iyânXiXj
J
possible unless the conditions of the preceding paragraph are satisfied.
We
"
~2(A-2)
.... (14)
i<j
known as a quadratic form. The matrix a can be

taken as symmetric without loss of generality. In
many geometrical and physical problems it is desirable
to replace the variables x { with j* by means of an
orthogonal unitary transformation in such a manner
that the new quadratic form has no mixed products
2
yî and consists only of the squared terms y t If we
set x=qy, then the expression (14) becomes
is
Hermitian or unitary, the reduction to

is always possible. This is true a fortiori
for real symmetric matrices or real orthogonal matrices.
If u is Hermitian the characteristic numbers are
If
it
-l
For
simple.
is
K in]
(11)
F(K) = {li Ui
Li}[K il *i2
one of s multiple roots, and/(A s) has degene-
If A s
(A-2) -(A-2)
A(A-2) -(A- 2)
(A-2)
(A- 2) 2
F(X)= -(A-2)
-(A-2)
may or may not be distinct) are called the characteristic

numbers of
(A-2) 2
A n) of this equation (which
-1
1
A-3
1
-1 A-l
A-l
/(A)=
called the
characteristic equation for the matrix u.
The n
-1
-1
is
diagonal form
and the characteristic vectors orthogonal.

In the case of degeneracy the characteristic vectors
as determined by the foregoing method are orthogonal,
real
y'q'aqy=y'q
but any linear combination of the characteristic vectors

belonging to the same multiple root is also a characteristic vector belonging to that root.
since q'=q~ x
tion.
13
If
if
now
is
aqy=y'by
.... (1 5)
an orthogonal unitary transformais to correspond to a
the expression
2.1.
ALGEBRA
quadratic form with only squared terms, the matrix
2.1.8.7.
b=q~ x aq must be diagonal. Thus the matrix q must be

of the type k (2.1.8.5 (13)) with the added restriction
that the vectors which compose k must be unitary.
Since a
is
symmetric, such a reduction
is
The elementary operations on matrices
always pos1(a)
and the characteristic vectors are always orthogonal. The method is illustrated by the following
(b)
example.
11(a)
Example. Consider the quadratic form

2x1 2 +2x 2 2 -4x3 2 -2x1 x 2 + 10x2 X3+ I0x3xt
(b)
have
111(a)
-5
-5 =A 3 -63A+ 162=0
1 A-2
-5 -5 A+4
A-2
A(A)=
(b)
"A 2 +2A-33
For the
first
21 -A
A 2 +2A-33
5(A-3)~
5(A-3)
5(A-3)
5(A-3)
A 2 -4A+3_
we
vector
Thus the
J_ J_
J_-
b=
J_
-12
-4
J_ _L zl
-I _1_
_L _L JL
V3 V2 V6
^
V6J
LV3
\
J_ _1_ J_-
2V3
V3 V3 V3
V2 V2
1
^
W3
-2
Equivalent Matrices and Canonical
said to be equivalent if they can be

derived from each other by a finite number of elementary operations. It then follows that, if and v are
equivalent,
-9
v=PuQ
V~2
V6
^6J
0-9
now
+3y2 -9y3 =X 1 y1 2 +X2 y2 2 +X3y3 2
canonical (or standard type) matrix all of whose

elements are zero except for r units occupying the r
leading positions in the principal diagonal. Such a
matrix is more strictly described as "canonical under
elementary operations" (see 2.1.8.10)^
If a square matrix of rank r has integral elements and
if the multipliers
and h in the matrices
are
and
restricted to integral values, it is equivalent to a
canonical (or standard) matrix all of whose elements
are zero except for r diagonal elements 8 lt 8 2
., 8 r ,
and the transformation
is
-1
V3 V2 V6
M-
_L _L J_
V3 V2 V6
LV3
....(16a)
where P and Q are any non-singular matrices, and that

the rank of v is the same as that of .
Any square matrix of rank r is equivalent to a
is
Forms
Two matrices are
-9"
V2 V6
.^ 3
The quadratic form

6y 1
-3
,,
.\/6 \/6 \/6_
,,
column by a non-zero
Thus
V3 V2 V6
V2 V2
Multiplication of the rth
T5{111}[111]
V3 V3 V3
row by a non-zero
considering F(3)
for the remaining vectors.
Multiplication of the rth
Mu
vector
By
column of a multiple of the
when normalized will be 1/V3,

we get -I/a/2,
1/V3, W3.
1/V2, 0, and from F(-9) we get 1/V6, 1/V6, -2/V6
first
rth
it will interchange columns.

Operations of type II consist of multiplications by
the matrix
which is derived from the unit matrix by
adding the non-zero constant m in the rth row of the
y'th column. In
then the product is obtained from
u by adding m times they'th row to the rth row. In uM,
times the rth column is added to they'th column.
Operations of type III consist of multiplications by
the matrix
which is derived from the unit matrix by
replacing the rth entry in the diagonal (rth row, rth
column) by the non-zero constant h.
The operating matrices are non-singular, so that
rank is preserved under elementary operations. The
operations / and
have unit positive determinants,
so that the value of the determinant of the matrix is
preserved under operations of types I and II. Operations of type III multiply the value of the determinant
by the constant h.
consider
"15 15
15]
F(6)= 15 15 15
15 15 15
row of a multiple of they'th
multiplier
write
21-A
F(X)=
/th
Operations of type I consist of multiplications by a

matrix /which is derived from the unit matrix by interchange of rows i andy (or of columns i andj). Used as
a premultiplier it will interchange rows; as a post-
A(A)=(A-6)(A-3)(A+9)=0
we
Addition to the
row.
Addition to the
./th column.
constant.
chosen for simplicity, we have

find the characteristic vectors,
Interchange of the rth andy'th rows.

Interchange of the /th andy'th columns.
constant.
The solution of the characteristic equation is often

the most difficult part of the operation. In this case,
To
consist of the
following:
sible
We
Transformations of Matrices
Elementary Operations
{^}
V6.
14
ALGEBRA
2.1.
such that S s _ x
is a factor of 8 S
Such a matrix is more
described as "canonical under integral operations" (see 2.1.9.4 for the technique of this reduction).
If the matrices P and
are reciprocal, the trans.
strictly
which are
likely to arise in physical
graphy problems.
or in crystallo-
For discussions of the
applicability of these results reference
is
limits of
made
to
[18], [19]
and
Numerical Calculations with Matrices

The present section is intended only to
[20].
formation
w=Q uQ
l
....(16b)
2.1.8.10.
called a similarity transformation or a collineatory

transformation. In 2.1.8.5 the conditions are given
Note.
indicate simple
under which
problems
is
of transformation will reduce a

matrix to a diagonal canonical form.
this type
methods which may be used
in specific
in the
absence of other reference material.

The methods given are not necessarily the most effi-
most rapid. If many such calculations are

performed reference should be made to [18],
cient or the
2.1.8.8.
Differentiation of Matrices
to be
The
etc. Programmes are also available for machine computations with matrices.
Calculations involving matrices with two or three
rows and/or columns, with simple numbers as terms,
are best carried out directly. If the number of rows
and columns is greater than three, and even in the case
of 3 x 3 matrices, the calculations are best made on a
systematic basis as suggested below.
....(Ma)
The general philosophy of matrix calculations involves the reduction of the matrix to a simple form
before performing any manipulations with it.
If the terms of a matrix are all functions of a single

independent variable, the derivative of the matrix with
respect to that variable is the matrix whose terms are

the derivatives of the terms of the original matrix.
The differentiation of products and of other functions of matrices follows in general the customary
rules, except that the order of factors must be preserved
and division is only possible if an inverse exists.
following examples illustrate these points:
d
d
(Ul
2)
d
dr
dw
dt
du
du-,
=Ul
-+-
du 2
.(Mb)
U2
du
du
dt
dt
dt
r-
is
Reduction of a Matrix
(Mc)
1
=u - A
ir\ from -(uu- 1)^
"
dt"
kept of the operations performed by carrying

them out at the same time on the unit matrix.
du,
du
1
record
(lid)
'
dt
Since in these tables we shall make only occasional

use of the differential calculus of matrices, and no use
of the integral calculus of matrices, reference must be

to [18], [19] and [20] for further information on
made
these topics.
By reduction of a matrix we mean the transformation

of a matrix to an equivalent form (Section 2.1.8.7) by
means of the elementary operations. The purpose of
such a transformation is to simplify the form of the
matrix so that its rank can immediately be evaluated.
If we keep track of the operations which we have
performed we can at the same time evaluate the
determinant and the inverse of any matrix which is
we consider
non-singular. If
Functions of a Matrix
The method for the construction of polynomials of
a single matrix follows from the rules of the algebra
of matrices, and if the matrix is non-singular such
2.1.8.9.
polynomials
and post-multiply
tions
L0
in
which
then
(18)
<(A n )J
The
M )=\ (M,M
n
...
n)
.... (21)
if
we perform a
series
A/n )=l
....(22)
...Mn )
....(23)
of elementary operations
a given function of the characteristic

<f>(\ t)
number A t and <f>(A) is the same function! of the
matrix A. It may then be shown that
is
<()=*^(A)*-i
if
....(20)
by post-multiplication (by rows) on u until u is reduced

to the unit matrix (22) and at the same time carry out
the same post-multiplications on the unit matrix, we
evaluate the inverse matrix u 1 If at the same time we
keep track of all the operations of type III (2.1.8.7),
that is, of those which alter the value of the determi-
...
...
- 1 =(M
Thus
...
<(A 2 )
u=\
by a series of elementary operawe have
(uM
matrix (13) has the property that
^(A)=
(2.1.8.7)
the equation
it
then clear that
It is
(2.1.8.5-6, p. 12) more general functions can be constructed. This process depends on the result that the
-*(h)
Mi
u-\uM
may
include negative integral powers.

In cases in which the matrix u can be diagonalized
nant of the matrix, we can directly determine the

value of the determinant l|.
....(19)
t Note, however, that if ^(A z ) is a multiple-valued function
n values.
values, <(A) is multiple-valued with
Thus
results of this section are applicable to
a large
range of function types and to most of the matrices
with
\/î
15
is
2-valued and
\/A
is
2"-valued.
2.1.
In Table 2.1.8.10A
we reduce
a given matrix u
ALGEBRA
In Table 2.1.8.10B the same routine
is applied to a
of course zero.
This routine does not lead to a calculation of the
adjoint of a singular matrix. For a 3 x 3 matrix the
adjoint is, of course, easily calculated directly. For
matrices of higher order, routines are given in 4.12 of
reference [18]. It should be remembered that if the
degeneracy of the matrix is greater than unity the
adjoint is a null matrix.
For further examples of the application of reduction
(left
and then to diagonal form by postmultiplication elementary operations on rows alone.

We keep track of the operations which we perform by
applying them also to the unit matrix (right array).
At stage I we have completed the reduction to a
triangular form and have obtained a matrix whose
determinant is unity. Thus it follows from 2.1.8.3
(p. 12) that the rank of the original matrix and of all
the equivalent matrices under the heading "Left Array"
singular matrix
array) to triangular
is
three.
The operator matrix
minant whose value
is
1/48.
at this stage has a deter-
we complete
form. From (23) it is
in the
-1
II,
routines see 2.1.9.
TABLE
Proceeding to
the reduction to the diagonal

the inverse of
is
Uofu is
(4a) that the adjoint
\u\u~ 1
u, i.e.
.
The
Operation
reduction could equally well have been carried out in

terms of columns.
TABLE
2.1.8.10A
Row
Left Array
No.
(1)
-1
(2)
15
(3)
-3 -1
Reduction of a Non-singular Matrix
-d)
Operation
Row
Left
Right
No.
Array
Array
(4)
(2)+3(l)
(3)+2(l)
36 16
(1)
(2)
15
(3)
(4)
(5)/12
OiO
ooi
i(2)
*(3)
(6)
(4)-(6)
(7)
(5)-(6)
(8)
(6)
(6)
(9)
(8)-2(9)
(10)
(6)-3(9)-2(10)
01)
-1
3
(6)
12
-3 -1
4"
1
1
-1
i
(8)
-3 -1
-A
ooi
lii
ooi
lii
i-i
4
12
Numbers
In the case of square matrices of order (4x4) or less

the best routine for the calculation of the characteristic numbers is perhaps the direct expansion of the
determinant A(A) of equation (10); one such example

has already been given in 2.1.8.5 (p. 12). If the characteristic vectors are required they can be calculated as
indicated in Section 2.1.8.5. For matrices of high
order such a simple procedure becomes extremely
tedious. Slightly less tedious procedures of a more
(I)
-i
(9)
Calculation of Characteristic
-1
(8)-(7)
o-i
i-i
(7)
(8)
(5)
(9)
(5)
(4)
i(7)-(8)
12
(7)
(6)/6
Right Array
24
(4)
id)
2.1.8.10B
Reduction of a Singular Matrix
clear that the operator matrix
"Right Array" column
and from
is
Thus the determinant of
the original matrix has the value 48.

stage
whose determinant
(ID
sophisticated
reference
nature
are
quantum mechanical
and for these

and to discussions of
available,
must be made to
[18]
calculations.
Results
4"
[36 16
15
_
"! =
2_
~i
L
i
"
-1
-1
2.1.9.
Linear Equations
2.1.9.1.
Non-homogeneous Systems
Consider the system of
4_
linear equations in n
variables
-16
U= -12
48
||=48
|-i|
-48
= l/48
12"
ll*l+ fl 12*2
fl 2i*i+ fl 22*2
-48
84_
Rankof=3
+
+
tfrnl*l+ fl m2*2+
16
+^1 =0
+a2nxn +b 2 =0
+lrt*n
+mn^n+*m ==
(1)
ALGEBRA
2.1.
The matrix
a 2\ a VL
a-
'
am
a 2n
can be written very

is
called the matrix
variables
of
a mn
n a 12
a 2l a 22
'a
b=
the system, while the matrix
briefly in matrix notation. If the

are written in order as the column matrix
x={*i> x 2
., xn } and similarly the variables j> t as the
column matrix y={ylt y2
.,yn }, then (2) takes the
abbreviated form
,
_ a m\ a m2
a ln Z>!
a 2n^2
"|
If the
1.
is
is
less
-...(4)
written
x=ar*y
augmented matrix of the system.
rank of the matrix a
there
b,
is
a.
QmlQr
called the
ax=y
and the solution, which
is
....(5)
involves the computation of the matrix a -1 the inverse

,
than the rank of
of
no solution and the equations are
a.
inconsistent.
2.1.9.2.
a and the matrix b both have the same

rank r, and there are n unknowns, the values of
(n-r) unknowns may be assigned at pleasure and
the r others will then be uniquely determined. The
(n-r) unknowns whose values may be assigned at
pleasure may be chosen in any way provided that
the matrix of the coefficients of the remaining
unknowns is of rank r.
Homogeneous Systems
If the matrix
2.
If in the
2.
If the
rank of the matrix a is r, the values of (nr)

of the unknowns may be assigned at pleasure. The
others are then uniquely determined.
If the
3.
The
solution of a system of rank r (<) is obtained

by using any one of the available square matrices
of rank r contained in a as the matrix of a system
3.
equations (1) the terms b { are all zero, the

system (called a homogeneous system) always has
one or more solutions, since the matrix a always
has the rank of the matrix b.
4.
non-trivial solution
method given below for a system of n equations

n variables, is then a solution of the original
system of m equations in n variables.
in
non-homogeneous system of n equations
in
is
=xn =0.
condition for a nonthe rank of the matrix of
is
sufficient condition for a

that the determinant of the
matrix of the system shall vanish,

6.
i.e.
||=0.
Any homogeneous
system for which a non-trivial

solution exists can be reduced to a non-homogeneous system of rank r<n which is soluble by
the
sufficient
Thus the necessary and
5.
of the coefficients b t
The
solution of this system of equations, obtained by
as part
The necessary and
the system shall be less than n.
and the (n-r) unknowns not associated
with the terms of the (rxr) matrix are disposable

and are included explicitly with their appropriate
coefficients
the only solution
is n,
x 1 =jc 2 ==
trivial solution is that
of r equations in the r unknowns associated with

the terms of the matrix. Any unused equations are
discarded,
rank of the matrix a
the trivial solution
the methods given for non-homogeneous systems.

This is done as described above by using any one
of the available (r x r) square matrices as the matrix
of a non-homogeneous system.
Any unused
equations are discarded, and the (nr) unknowns
not associated with the terms of the chosen system
matrix are included explicitly as part of the
coefficients b { The solution is then concluded as
that of a non-homogeneous system of r equations
variables has a unique solution provided that the

matrix of the system is of rank n, i.e. the determinant
of the system matrix does not vanish. Let the system

be written in the form
011*1 + 012*2+
021*1 + 022*2 +
+a 1 xn =y 1
+ 02n*n = J 2
;
0nl*l + 0ji2*2 +
Then
the solution
is
is
+ 0nn*n = J n
;
2.1.9.3.
.,
xn =aja
In order to calculate the solution of the equation
ax=h
01112
021 fl 22
0nl0n2
and
it is
Ob)
0rm
xâ-^h
is
(6a)
possible to calculate a -1 by one of the methods

referred to in 2.1.8.10 (page 15) and then to use the
solution
a.
the determinant obtained from a by replacing

the y'th column by the elements
This
., y n
y lt y 2
solution is complete algebraically, but it probably does
at
Numerical Solution of a System of Linear
Equations
...(3a)
the non-zero determinant
a=
whose system determinant does not
vanish.
uniquely
x i=aja, x2 =a 2 /a,
where a
in r variables
(2)
.(6b)
given literally, this is the best procedure. If h

is given numerically, the best procedure is to reduce
a to 1 by operating from the left and at the same time
to operate directly on the column h. The routine,
If
not provide the easiest numerical routine (Section

2.1.9.3). The solution of the system of equations
(2)
17
is
2.1.
which
is
is
ALGEBRA
closely analogous to that of Tables 2.1.8.10,
exhibited in Table
2. 1.9.3
4 -1
"
x%
-1
TABLE
-XjT
-2
This method of reduction is applicable to any system

of linear simultaneous equations, homogeneous or
non-homogeneous, without previous investigation of
the rank of the determinant of the system or of its
augmented system. The nature of the solution is
A for the case

= -1
xs
>J
indicated directly by the routine solution.
above system has a unique non-zero solution. An

example of a non-homogeneous system in which the
variables are under-determined (leading to a solution
2.1.9.3A
is exhibited in Table
while Table 2.1.9.3C presents a case in
which the equations are incompatible. The same
routine is of course applicable to homogeneous systems.
involving variable parameters)
Solution of Linear Simultaneous Equations
2.1.9.3B,
(see reference [18])
Five equations and four unknowns: Solution

unique non-zero
Operation
(2)-4(l)
(3)- (1)
(4)-3(l)
(5)- (1)
(8)3(8)+
3(8)+
(6)
(7)
(9)
Row
Column
Left Array
No.
TABLE
(1)
1*
(2)
-1
(3)
(4)
-1
(5)
3
1
i*
-1
(6)
-1
-11
-6
(7)
(8)
-1*
-3
-7
(9)
fi
-24
-20
4*
-2
2
4
(10)
(11)
(12)
-2*
8
4*
-2
2
(14)-(13)
(see reference [18])
3
3
Variables under-determined
-7
-3
-3
Operation
Note
(a)
-12
-8
Row
(1)
(3)
(10)/4
(13)/22
12
12
1*
1*
(80
(100
(130
1*
1**
Stage
(2)-3(l)
(3)-2(l)
(4)- (1)
(5)
(6)- (5)
5(7)-2(5)
(8)
-(5)/5
5
5
3*
5
5
-5* -10 -5*

-10 -5
-4 -2
-5
-2
(7)
-10
-10
-4
(9)
(1)
6/11
2*
2
6
1
4 -1
2
(6)
(15)
Column
Left Array
No.
(2)
0*
(15)
(1)
-(8)
22*
22
(13)
(14)
2.1.9.3B
(4)
6(10) + (11)
5(10) + (12)
Thus the
(10)
Stage
(8)
(0-
(130
(8')-2(13')
(100- (130
(16)-3(18)
(17)-7(18)
(16)
(17)
(18)
1*
1*
(19)
(20)
1*
(19)
(20)
(18)
7
1*
0**
0*
0**
1*
16/11
21/11
5/11
Note
(b)
Note
(c)
1/11
-14/11
MH)-(12)
1/11
-14/11
5/H
(130
6/11
Solution: {x 1 x 2 x 3 jc 4 }={1/11 -14/11, 5/11, 6/11}

Notes
* At these stages the choice of row to be used in elimination
and retained and of the variable to be eliminated is arbitrary.
j
(9)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(12)
(13)
(14)
5-5a-3j3
2-2a-j8
2
1
*(l--0)
2-2a-j8
Solution
{x1 x 2x 3 xi }={h2,0,0}+oc{-h-2,l,0}+p{-h-hO,l}
Notes
(a) The rows and the variables used in the elimination are
starred and are dropped after they have been used. They are
may or may not be profitable here to reduce the coefficient

of the variable to be eliminated to unity in some or all rows.
The starred rows are dropped as they are used and then reassembled at stage X.
** At these stages only the coefficients used in the previous
elimination of variables (and still given a single star for that
reason) may now be used (in any order of rows) for the elimination of the other coefficients in the same column. Again the
double-starred rows used in the elimination are dropped as they
are used and reassembled at the end.
At stage X it is clear that the ranks of the system matrix and
of its augmented matrix are both 4 and that a solution thereIt
reassembled at stage X.
(b)
(c)
At stage X the presence of the rows with zero coefficients

and with zero in the right-hand column entry, indicates undetermined variables, and therefore in the present case any
two variables may assume arbitrary values. We have taken
* 3 =a, x*=p.
The equation system (square matrix) is completed by the
assumption of arbitrary values for x 3 xt as above, and the
record of this operation is transferred to the column symbol.
,
fore exists.
18
2.1.
TABLE
ALGEBRA
2.1.9.3C
The
cess
is
theoretical
background of the reduction prois of the form
as follows. If the equation system
ax=0
Equations incompatible
Operation
Row
No.
Column
Left Array
alone, the equation system

(2)
3-1
(3)
1*
3
-7
-1
(2)-2(l)
(3)- (1)
(4)
(5)- 3(4)
(6)
(5)
(a)
equivalent to
is
(Xa)x=0
....(7a)
an equation system with a new set of coefficients

(Xa) but the same set of variables. If the elementary
operations on the matrix a are applied from the right,
the system (7) becomes equivalent to
i.e.
20
(a)
(ap)p- 1j:=0
0)
Note
-2
(1)
Note
1*
....(7)
and the matrix a is subjected to a series of elementary

operations from the left, i.e. to manipulations of rows
(4)
(6)
-2
-7
new
a system with a
set
20
....(lb)
of coefficients (ap) and a new

of variables x' connected with the old set x by the
set
relation
x'=p- x x
Note
here that an equation with zero coefficients cannot
equal a non-zero quantity, and that the equations are therefore incompatible.
(a) It is clear
or
its
x=px
which may be written
*=(W
For
simplicity the examples presented have been

selected to have integral coefficients in the square and
in the
sary,
Thus the
Thus 5jc=0 has only one solution

(x=0) in ordinary algebra, while in modular algebra
(2.1.5, p. 7) the set of solutions x=pm/5 is valid where
m is a modulus and p any integer. Methods for the
reduction of systems of linear equations with integral
coefficients which are valid under modular algebra
depend on the reduction of the matrix of the system
to canonical form under unitary integral elementary
operations. The operations are therefore of Types I,
crystal lattice.
is
are applied
form
to the canonical
development of the matrix (lp) may be followed in the

example of Table 2.1.9.4A. In this process all operations on columns (multiplications from the right) are
performed both on the matrix a and on the unit matrix.
Operations on rows (multiplications from the left) are
performed on the system matrix a alone.
The motivation of the reduction scheme depends
on the fact that S lt the leading diagonal term of the
canonical form, must be the greatest common divisor
Solutions of Homogeneous Systems valid
III (2.1.8.7, p.
it
In crystallography the equation 5x=0 has the meaning that x can be one-fifth of any translation of a
and
....(7e)
x by (7d).
Appropriate row and column operations
x' is related to
(Section 2.1.8.7) in which all terms are zero except the

diagonal terms. These in succession have the values
8 t such that 8 { is a factor of Si+1 except that after S
r
(where r is the rank of the matrix a) Sr+1 =0.
The reduction of the matrix a and the simultaneous
in a Lattice
II
which
to the matrix a to reduce
[26].
only, since division

sense (Section 2.1.5).
is
(Xap)x'=0
in
Accounts of routines for the solution of linear

equations which differ in arrangement from those presented here are given in many places, e.g. [24], [251
2.1.9.4.
....(7d)
of a succession of row and column

the system
result
operations
column matrices. This is, of course, not necesand the methods are well adapted to machine
computation. It should be noticed that many steps

which have been written out in these schemes for
clarity's sake can be omitted by the practised computer.
In these schemes we have reduced the system matrix
by Operations on rows alone because this is perhaps
the simplest. For an example in which the reduction
makes use of both rows and columns reference is made
to Table 2.1.9.4A.
and
.(7 c)
equivalent
(g.c.d.)
of
all
the terms of the original matrix.
one must exhibit
this g.c.d.
and move
it
Thus
to the leading
position, using only the permitted operations.

steps are as follows:
1.
(a) If
the g.c.d. appears explicitly,
row column interchanges

step 2 follows,
explicitly, it
it is
The
moved by
to the a n position
and
the g.c.d. does not appear

be exhibited by means of the
(b) If
must
Euclidean algorithm (2.1.6, p. 8). This is done by

a succession of row reductions and/or column
reductions. One of the smaller terms a of the
matrix is selected. Multiples of the ith row are
subtracted from every other row so that the terms
in the 7th column are reduced either to zero or to
non-zero remainders. Thus for the new sth row
14) using integral multipliers
not permitted in the general
The reduction to canonical form

involves operations on both rows and columns and
cannot in general be completed by row operations or
column operations alone.
19
2.1.
2.
ALGEBRA
Special cases will of course arise if linear relations
are permitted between the required translations. An
arbitrary number of additional independent translations may be added to those required, but the
one chooses q so that the Euclidean remainder

a S jqaij is either positive or negative and smaller
in magnitude than a^. If the g.c.d. appears during
this process* either in the y'th column or elsewhere
in the matrix, the reduction can be stopped and the
procedure of 1 (a) adopted. If the column reduction
continues until only one non-zero term remains,
without the appearance of the g.c.d., then this one
remaining term should be used in the reduction of
the corresponding row. If the row reduction and
possible further column reductions are completed
without the appearance of the g.c.d. and there
remains an isolated term (not the g.c.d.) which is
the only non-zero term in its row or column, the
row or column containing this term must be added
to a row or column containing a term for which
the isolated term is not a factor. This row or
column is then reduced as before, until the g.c.d.
does appear when step 1(a) is followed.
When the g.c.d. is located in the a n position,
all other terms in the first column and in the first
row are reduced to zero by subtracting appropriate multiples of the first row and first column
not thereby increased.

from equation
(Id) by the substitution of the expressions (9) and of
independent parameters for the variables x' for which
the S-values are zero. All possible solutions are then
obtained by permitting all values of /?,<8 t and by
permitting the arbitrary vectors to have components
in the directions of the r t This process is illustrated
by the examples, and it is in this manner that one can
demonstrate that the solutions obtained by different
reduction routines are similar.
The three examples of Tables 2.1.9.4A-C illustrate
generality of the solution
The
different situations
Xj
may be
first
.,
is
S rx/=0
row 1
row 1 row 2
3(row 1) row 3
row 1 row 4
completed,
... .(8)
row 1
row 4 row 2
or row 3 2(row
row 2
arbitrarily chosen.
The
interpreta-
any translation of the
col.
col.
2
2
-1
1)
1)
4
4
and p t
is
No
change
No
change
*)
-2 -1
1-2-3
..-.(9)
lattice
Unit
Matrix
any
integer.
Solution
which
a general solution of the original system can be
obtained, one allots one translation to each of the
equations (8) for which 8* is not unity. These translations are linearly independent in the general case and
are also linearly independent of any variables which
may be left independent by the equation system.
it is
2-2(col.
3-3(col.
a Lattice
System
Matrix
r variables x/. The remaining
x/=p<r t l* t
If
^>^2
in
=0
x$-=0
-^3 ==0
x3 -=0
*)A*3 =
ZiJC^
on the problem in
hand. If one is working in a lattice which is already
determined, these equations mean that a given
variable x/ must be of the form
is
g.c.d.=l
tion of these equations depends
where r f
^Xq't'
Operation
form will always be the same. The matrix (lp) may be

different for different methods of reduction, but any
two solutions so obtained will be equivalent as dis-
8 2 x 2 '=0,
2.1.9.4A
Aj"-"/^
Note that considerable freedom is possible in the

reduction of a given matrix, and the process is considerably shortened if one can choose the appropriate
column or row to exhibit the required g.c.d. as rapidly
as possible. Whatever routine is adopted, the canonical
variables
*}JX"i "t~
routine already established.
cussed below.
When the reduction to canonical form
the equations for the x/ read
arise in the application
System of Equations Valid
X-
Vi'=0,
may
TABLE
After steps 1 and 2 are completed, a sub-matrix

remains of order one less than that of the original
matrix. The g.c.d. of this matrix must now be
exhibited and moved to the leading position by the
and determine the
which
of the routine described above.
respectively.
3.
is
solutions x 5 are then obtained
desirable to find the simplest lattice in
Xi=Q
4x 2 '=0
4x 3 '=0
Xi
=0
x^=p 2r % IA
*i= -/>2 T 2 /2-3/W4
x3 '=/W4
x2 =
*3 =
/W4
/>2 T 2/4
The reader who wishes to understand fully the variety

of solutions presented here should write out and plot
the solutions for all values of p t in the range 0<p { <4.
20
2.1.
TABLE
in
3x 2 =0
a Lattice
+5x 2 +5x 3 +3A; 4 =0

2x x + x 2 2xz 6x 4 ==0
3jt 1
No
g.c.d.
change
=l
2-col.
col.
-2
2
6
row
1
1)
10
10
10
-2--6
-7
5(row 1) row
No
2
1
7
3
1--7
7
1
3-
first
row
-13
g.c.d.=l
-2
-7
change
10
10
10
10
1
No
change
Rearrange
columns
-1
2
6
row 1 row 4
Reduce
2-2(col.
g.c.d.=2
4(row l)+row
4
col.
Interchange col.
and col. 2
-1
row 2
2(row 2)+ row
row 3
Unit
Matrix
System
Matrix
Operations
4
2
2
a Lattice
+ x 2 + x 3 +2x 4 =0
x 1 +4x 2 + 7*3+ 9x 4 =0
row 1+row 2
in
2jc x
Unit
Matrix
=l
2.1.9.4C
4*3=0
System
Matrix
Operations
g.c.d.
TABLE
2.1.9.4B
2^=0
ALGEBRA
1-2-2-1
10
row 2+ row
4
4
2-col. 3
1--7
change
row 3 7(row
row 4 8(row
-13
col.
No
-4
4
4
-1
3-2(col. 2)
10
1-2-16
56--21
No
change
2
12
-6
-2
0-1
1-215
0-1-3
4+3(col. 3)
Solution
*'=0
2x 2 '=0
12x 3
'
=0
* x '=0
x 2 =p 2T2 /2
x3 '=p 3rj\2
0-3 1
2-3
1
7--21
col.
î=3/7 2 t 2 /2-/7 3t3 /2
1-218
0-3-8
12 3
x2 =
+/V3/3
x3 =-p 2 r 2 /2+p 3T3 /4
Note that the obvious solution in terms of three

and has been replaced by a less
obvious and equally general solution in terms of two
translations. The equally obvious solution in terms of
a single translation is obtained by setting p 2 =0.
Solution
translations contains
x=0
^'=0
X 2 '=0
*i= pr/7 3a
X 2 '=0
X 3 '=prjl
X4 =
X 2 =pr/7+8a
7x 3 '=0
X 4 '=oc
21
'
<x
7-3
0-1
-1
5
1
12
2)
change
-col. 3-3(col. 4)
col.
No
g.c.d.=7
row 3+2(row
2)
Reduce second row

and also subtract
row 3 from row 4
-2
56--21
56--21
2)
JC 3
= 3/>r/7 8a
X 4 =2/7r/7+3a
2.1.
An
ALGEBRA
alternative reduction of this system gives the
provided that
solution
JAo
"
X*>
x 1 =2p Tp3a.'
X2 =
8a'
X 3 = 5p'r/l-Soc'
X i =-p'r/l+3a'
The
x x +x 2 +x3 =0
jX-^
X 2 Xo U
===
These equations have a
two solutions are equivalent may

be demonstrated by setting .'=<x+pr/7 and p=p
fact that these
2.
x2
x2
X2
x2
Xi
if
distance table
x3
Single Variable
....(1)
Ax
is
calculated
from
)//'(x
-...(3)
difficult to calculate.
X3 X2
Xi
xx 3
X2
The expression
x3
Xi
x1
,,
x2
x 2
X%
"^3 ==
set
result of equation (4) is
Xq r== U
from rewriting
and lead to the same homometric pair for
Then,
if
X2
*1
(4)
as the rule of false
method of
iteration,
the formf
(5)
Xp+i=<Kx p )
....(6)
be a better approximation than x P provided that

\<f>'(x)\<l in the neighbourhood of the desired root.
There are usually several ways in which (5) can be
all integral
(1).
For variations on the methods which we have included and for a detailed discussion of their accuracy,
reference must be made to [24], [25] and [26].
x3
-X!
It is difficult
Xi-x3
.X"i
will
Example 2. In a second case for four points the basic

table can be rearranged in the form
x2 x3
x2
x p is an approximate root of (5), xP+1 given by
written from
Xi
(1) in
*=#*)
of solutions equivalent to
non-zero values of p. This can easily be verified by

substitution in the two distance tables above.
known
third approach, called the
results
X 1 = -2if7T/13, x 2 = 5pr/\3, x 3 =pr/\3
-x
rise to
position or regula falsi.
2x 2x 2 +x 3 =0
These equations have a
)]
an improved root provided x t and

x are close to each other and to the root. It is most
effective when/^j) and/(x ) are of opposite sign. The
J.V3
^--^*2
2*X-y ~r
xl x
A*= -/(*o)(*i-*o)/[/(*i)-/(*
This will give
between the entries of the second table as existed

between the corresponding entries of the first. This
leads to four equations (one redundant) as follows:
X^
/(*i)-/(
~ *o)
l-*!)/^
to obtain
exists
X-^'tX^
can be modified by setting
(3)
(*i>*o)
X3-X1
and therefore an arrangement homometric with the

first, provided that the same difference relationship
-Xo
for the solution of the equation
This method of improving a root is known as the

Newton- Raphson method. It is most effective when
It should be avoided if f'(x ) is
|/'(*o)| is large.
x 2 -x 3
A*=-/(x
These distances can be rearranged to form the second
Xi~x 2
10.
f(x +Ax)f(x )+f'(x )Ax

.... (2)
Thus, if x is an approximate value of a solution to (1),
then x 1 =x +Ax is an improved value of this solution
x s Xi~xs x x 3
/(*)=0
x3
X 3 X-t
x 3 x2
X^
^3=^2^2/4
depends on the location of an approximation x to a

root and on the improvement of that approximation
by means of the first two terms of the Taylor expansion
i.e.
The general method
Example 1. The following table represents the

vector distances between four atoms of equal weight
in terms of their co-ordinates with respect to one of
*!
*2=/W4,
Transcendental Equations
2.1.10.
structures.
X]_
of solutions equivalent to
and to the same homometric pair of structures for

p x p 2 both odd. All other cases lead to identical pairs.
Non-homogeneous systems of equations can also

be analysed for solutions valid in a lattice by similar
techniques. The column matrix for the constant terms
must then be carried and subjected to row operations
as in Tables 2.1.9.3 as well as the unit matrix.
Examples of the application of these methods to
crystallography can be obtained from the theory of
them,
set
=
*i -7W4-/W4,
'.
homometric
X% 0X3 == U
X-^~\-
the
22
down
The more general form
basis of
x 3 -x x
to lay
an
more
can also be used as the

but the one given in the text is
<f>i(x)=<f> 2 (x)
iterative procedure,
usual.
a routine for the solution
2.1.
ALGEBRA
of a transcendental equation or for the selection of

method to be used. If the function and its derivative are both easily computed, the Newton-Raphson
method is probably the most profitable in general,
provided /'(x) is not too small. Otherwise an iterative

process is probably the best attack, but then the selection of the form for (5) is a matter for trial and error
and/or for the experience of the computer.
the
TABLE
Example of
Compute
the solution of the equation

sin
Using
(7)
sin
+Ax
is
-x
(8)
x -\)
In solving this equation eight-place trigonometric

argument in radians were used. As initial
value we assume x= 1-732, obtained from the solution
x x=0
o COS
"7-=2
of the approximate equation
(x-x 3/3 !)/x-=0,
X 1
ax
The approximation routine

sin
COS X
2 sin
-0-1605
-0-3376
-0-31912269
-0-31902237
0-9870
0-9412
0-94771328
0-94774705
0-94774706
1-89549414
1-89549412
(2 sin
(2 cos
df
1-8956
a possible solution, x
tables with
/=2
1-9152
is
if
Ax=-
the half-value breadth of the one-dimensional
1-732
when x
interference function.
Consider
(3),
a better solution
x
i.e.
2.1.10.1A
Newton-Raphson Method
the
2 cos
The solution
1-895494 is clearly accurate to six decimal places.
error, since linear interpolation was used on a three-place argument.
above table should be 26 instead of
The two
.... (9)
then as follows
x 1
Ax
-1-3210
-1-6752
-1-63824538
-1-63804474
+0-2420
-0-0328
-0-00017344
-0-00000004
0-00000000
x=
is
x 2 =3
i.e.
+0-1832
-00196
-0-00010586
-0-00000002
additional places
Correctly, the last
two
may
be in
digits in the
12.
TABLE
2.1.10.1B
Example of the Rule of False Position
We therefore
Consider the equation
c
(sin x x cos x)=3
s.
x3
x 4 -28x 2 + 140=0
(10)
solve
to find the approximate solution
involved in finding the half-value breadth for the

diffraction function for a sphere.
x=2-55
An approximate solution can be obtained by expansion in series,

6
Since the solution
i.e.
ly3 Ix
x L\
x3 x 5 x7 \
3!
5!
V.)
XI/ 1
1
x 2 x* x 6 \l
4!
6!/
x
x*
=2--+
2
140
2-5
/6=0
(11)
This equation could be solved by the Newton-Raphson

method, but it is perhaps simpler to use the rule of
false position.
The successive approximations can
then be tabulated as follows
2!'
remote from x=0, we write (10)
/(x)=sinx xcosx
_
5
is
form
2!
in the
COS X
sin
x 3/6
/(*)
Ax
Xq
Xj
2-49
-0-8011
-0-7951
0-5985
0-6065
2-6042
2-5730
-0-0030
+0-0133
-0-0018
*0
*1
2-4982
2-4983
-0-800065
-0-800125
0-599913
0-599833
2-598546
2-598858
+0-00008938
-0-00007271
+0-000055
*0
*1
2-498255
2-498256
-0-80009806
-0-80009866
0-59986923
0-59986843
2-59871734
2-59872046
+0-00000086
-0-00000075
+0-00000053
Final value x=2-4982555
23
ALGEBRA
2.1.
TABLE
1.
Iteration
Consider x 2 =a.
Square Roots.
2.1.10.2. Simultaneous Equations in Several

Variables
2.1.10.1C
Examples of the Method of
Suppose that fi(x,y)=Q and f2 (x,y)=0 are to be

and that we have an approximate solution x ,y Then clearly an improved solution
This equation
satisfied simultaneously,
form
suggests iteration in the
x +Ax,y +Ay
is
obtained
if
the equations
*o
but this relation

|<'(*)|
=1
at
Newton and
f1 (x y )+Âx+Ây=0
ox
oy
non-convergent, since
however, we follow
clearly
is
the solution.
If,
d)
write
f (x y )+Âx+Ây=0
ox
oy
2
*! =
^ + 3
...(12)
are satisfied, the derivatives being calculated numeri-
the iteration process will converge. Note that the

number of correct digits doubles (approximately) at
each
approximate solution x ,y
This is the
counterpart of the Newton-Raphson method for two
variables. It can be extended to any number of
variables in an obvious manner.
In two variables the rule of false position takes the
cally for the
step.
Calculation of
-\/tt
{nine decimal places)
form
By slide rule \/tt= 1 -772=x Using (12) by machine

we get
*!= 1-772453909
x 2 = 1-772453851 (correct to 9 places)
.
Higher Integral Roots. The solution of x"=a

similarly obtained by iteration of the expression
2.
Ax
fi(x yo)+ [fi(xiyo)-fi(xQyo)]
(*i-*o)
+ [fi(x
n-l
^0
Oi-.yo)
is
A(x y )+ [fiix^-Mxoyo)]
Ax
x
(2)
Ay
+ [/2 (*oJ i)-/2(*o} o)];
we
=o
)]
.(13)
In determining the extrema of >>=sin x/x
=0
O'i-J'o)
find
and can be extended to any number of variables.
dyx cos x sin x

x%
dx
and we
Ay
yi)-fi(x y
(*!
Xi=- (n-l)x +3.
TABLE
desire solutions of the equation
2.1.10.2
Solution of Simultaneous Transcendental Equations
x=tan x
(14)
which suggest an iteration procedure.
Consider the two-parameter, one-dimensional
However,
dif-
problem in which the third and the fifth

orders are both missing experimentally. The structure
fraction
(tan x)=sec 2
x,
which
is
always greater than unity,
so that the iteration will not converge. If

the equation in the form
we
factors are written
rewrite
f(3)=2{0-39 cos
_1
we note
that
x=tan x
(15)
d
(tan- 1 x)=l/(l+x*) and we can expect
From
4-7124
4-5033
4-4939
4-493433
4-493411
4-493409
78
77
77
77
77
]l
1-3'
78-02
28-8'
77-48
27-29'
77-4548
77-4535
77-4534
77-4534
27-2075'
27-2039'
77 27-2036'
180+tan- 1
equation
(1)
we may
2tt-3;c 2
}=0
27t5jc 2 }=0
.(3a)
.(3*)
write
67r(0-39) sin 2tt3x 1 Ax 1
+ 6tt(0-60)
sin 27r3;t 2A;t 2 =iF(3)
10t7(0-24) sin 2tt5jc 1 Ax 1
+ 10tt(0-40)
sin 2-n5x 2 Ax 2
= |F(5)
.... (4a)
.... (46)
clear that equation (3d) has solutions at

+1)/12; x 2 =(2Ar 2 +l)/12; and along sinuous
curves through these points in the general direction
of the x x axis. Equation (3b) has solutions at
and along curves
jc 2 =(2/ 2 +1)/20;
jCl =(2/ 1 +l)/20;
joining these points, again in the general direction of
the x axis. We can sketch plots of these curves by
noting that for x 1 =2& 1 /12=fc 1 /6, equation (3a) has
solutions where cos 2tt3jc 2 =-(- 1)^0-39/0-60. Also
that equation (3b) has solutions for a: 1 =/ 1 /10 where
It
tan~
cos
F(5)=2{0-24 cos 2tt5x 1 +0-40 cos
convergence for large x. The non-zero solutions of

(14) are clearly near (2k+ 1)tt/2. For the solution near
377-/2 the iteration procedure is as follows (using tables
with argument in degrees and minutes):
2tt3a: 1 +0-60
is
a: 1 =(2A: 1
;c
258-02
257-48
257-4548
257-4535
257-4534
24
ALGEBRA
2.1.
00
00
o
3 3
Tj-
5
5
Q
Ci
co
mX
fc
<N
tN
o
u
-H
rt
*n
co
oo
oo
n
6
o
o
fS
co
ST
H
He)
<
CO
CO
O
CO
tN

CO
ON
CN
N
a
a>
T*
Tf
S
4>
5 w>
a S
.BO
S
as
u
^H
CTV
m
00
<N
VO
CO
0
8 VO

HJ
V0
>n
N
Tt
00
*-
<N
Ov
<N
<n
00
M
tN
<n
CO
s 3
t--
r~
o
o
oo
ON
ON
>o
08
S3
CO
<o
t=
<N
(/J
CO
CO
o
c
Sos
rt
rll
,1,
vb
CO
ON

TJ-
CO
/1
<n
CO
.s
.s
"cO
*CO
w
><
<r>
o\
o
00
6
*1|
o
6
V)
o
<n
CN
6
o
>n
t
CO
oo
m OO

ON
oo
r-
r~-
ON
r>
0\
CO
CO
5
fl
co
ON
CO
G
V
co
<
o
o
>n
<N
00
<N
s
<N
<N
0\
CO
N
00
o\
CO
*N
OO
o
m
o
25
t-
H rt
S s
9
O
n
<N
>n
1
ft cr
wo
CO
V)
W
d
PQ
<n
"3
H
1H
iH
s
Ov
ON
o
o
v\>
<N
CO
CO
o
w
^r
n
t
VO
er
_
o
8
a
o
ON
oo
oo
00
fS
O VO
8 8

VO
r~
2.1.
ALGEBRA
Rough sketches indiaddition to the obvious solution at

*i=*2=2 there are three other solutions in the range
0<*i, -v 2 <l. The first of these near xÔ-050,
x 2 =0-250, is refined as shown in the table on page 25.
In this calculation an extra place is carried in the
x x ,x 2 values to give greater accuracy after multiplicacos27r5.Y 2 =-(-iy>0-24/0-40.
cate
that
two numbers a and b, substituted for x in the

polynomial/^), give results with contrary signs, an
(b) If
in
lies
same
real roots
give results with the
root or an even
them.
number of real
no
sign, either
roots
lies
For
derivatives.
example to
details, reference is
made
for
[21].
set of functions called Sturm's functions can be

calculated which permit the exact location of all
real roots of a polynomial and the determination
(d)
it is clear that a solution x =0-068, x =0-240 is correct

x
2
to three places in decimal fractions of the cell dimen-
of their multiplicity. Discussion of these functions

given in [18], [21], [24] and [26]; a useful routine
is
sions. The reader who wishes may find two other

roots by taking as initial values xÔ-150, x =0-050,
2
and also xÔ-250 and x 2 =0-050. All roots are, of
course, repeated according to the symmetry of
for their calculation
2.
(3).
is
given in
[18].
1 1 .3.
Special Equations
The quadratic equation
ax 2 +2bx+c=0
2.1.11.
real
between
locate the
roots in terms of the changes of sign of f(x) and of
its
Section 8.3. The coefficients of the determinant of

equations (4) are then entered in the appropriate
column, and the solutions of equations (4) are calculated by the methods of 2.1.9.3 (page 17). In this case
between them; and
The theorems of Fourier and Budan
(c)
by the order numbers. The sine and cosine values

are read from three-figure tables such as those in
tion
expressions
odd number of
if they
Polynomial Equations
(2)
has the two solutions
methods which have been devised for the

of transcendental equations can also be
applied to the solution of polynomial equations, but
the latter have a number of special properties, and in
consequence special methods which can be applied to
All the
x=[-bV(b 2 -ac)]/a
....(3)
solution
If the coefficients are all real, there are
real solutions when b 2 -ac>0; two equal real solutions

when b 2 ac=0; and two conjugate complex solutions
when b 2 ac<0.
The cubic equation
their solution.
2.1.11.1.
ax z + 3bx 2 +3cx+d=0
General Res ults

is
The equation
f(x)=a x"+a 1 x n ~ 1 +.
.+a n . 1 x+a n =0
when we
in
Some of the
will
tion
results given
assume
H=sh h and
three
complex numbers; otherwise
+3Hy+G=Q
a, b, c,
it
may
be best to expand the equation into simultaneous

equations with real coefficients for the real and
imaginary parts of the unknown.
1 1 .2.
Location of Roots
The following theorems

the equation
is
in
serve to locate the roots of
Rule of Signs. No equation can have

more positive roots than there are changes in sign
from + to and from to + in the sequence of
coefficients a a x
., a n off(x).
No equation can have more negative roots than
there are changes in sign in the sequence of coefficients of the function f(x).
.
.(5)
(6a)
....(6b)
....(6c)
and use the notation

g=\G\. The
are summarized in Table
called a reciprocal equation of the first class,
(la)
and one
which
Ob)
called a reciprocal equation of the second class. If a

is a root of a reciprocal equation, 1/a is also a root.
(a) Descartes'
all real
a m =-a n -m
(1).
1
G=sg g, where h=\H\ and
a m =a n . m
2.
trigonometric functions and of hyperbolic functions

and are limited in accuracy by that of the available
tables. Solutions obtained by these methods can be
refined by the methods of 2.1.10.1 (p. 22) or by
Horner's method (2.1.11.4, p. 28).
Any equation of the form (1) in which
be valid for complex coefficients if careful attenis paid to the proper interpretation of the alge-
braic operations for
of interest
These solutions require the use of tables of
cases
2.1.11.3.
H=(ac-b 2)/a 2
G=(a 2 d-3abc+2b*)/a 3
which
We
below
x=y-b/a
setting
obtain
and
the coefficients a t are rational or rationally dependent,

the roots are either rational or occur in conjugate
irrational pairs (A y/B, A and B rational).
If the coefficients are complex, the roots will in
.... (4)
reduced to standard form by dividing the coefficients
by a and by
... .(1)
has n roots. If the coefficients a t are all real, the roots

are either real or occur in conjugate complex pairs. If
general be complex.
two unequal
is
Any reciprocal equation of the first class of odd

degree has one root x= l, and consequently a factor
(x+ 1) can be removed from the equation. Any reciprocal equation of the second class and odd degree
has x= 1 as a root, and a factor (x 1) can be removed.
26
2.1.
ALGEBRA
Any
reciprocal equation of the second class and even

degree has the two roots jc= 1 and the factor (x 2 1).
The result in each of these three cases is a reciprocal
equation of the first class of even degree, which is thus
the standard form for reciprocal equations, i.e.
anx<2m +a 1 x 2m 1 +
+a mx m +. .+a x x+ao =0 .(8a)
which the algorithm tells us that the numerical value

of the coefficient of a given term is obtained from the
sum of that immediately above and that two above
and one to the left (a Knight's move, neglecting signs).
The signs alternate in a given equation and propagate
vertically. The use of the substitutions (8/) leads to an
equation of degree m in Z. From the m roots Z of
this equation, one obtains the 2m roots of the standard equation (8a) by the solution of the quadratic
in
This
may be
written in the
a*Vm +a x Vm _ x +
+a m . 1 V1 +a m =0
p
p
which
Vv =x +l/x (p>0)
in
form
VP+1 ^VV Z-VV ^

where
Z=x+ \jx
The algebraic form for each Vv is as
F1= Z
F2 =Z 2 -2
F3 =Z3 -3Z
F4 =Z 4 -4Z 2 +2
V5 =Z 5 -5Z 3 +5Z
F6 =Z 6 -6Z 4 +9Z 2 -2
.(Sb)
x 2 -ZiX+l=0
.(8c)
and
that
.(Sd)
x^[Z V(Z
i
.(Se)
When
follows
..(8g;cf. 8e)
to say
is
Z,
is
values for
2
i
-4)]
....(8h)
applied directly will give two

which will of course be reciprocals of each
real, (Sh)
When
Z* is complex, the expression under the

root will also be complex, and must be so treated in
extracting the root. Thus (8h) will apparently lead to
four roots for (Sg), which is, of course, illusory. They
will consist of two equal pairs, and only two different
roots will be obtained.
other.
(8/)
TABLE
2.1.11.3
Solution of the Cubic y 3 +3Hy+G=0
Notation: h=\H\; g=\G\;
Equation
H=sh h; G=sgg
Roots
Conditions
I.
s
y +3hy+sg=0
sinh 39=g/2h 3' 2
II.
3
y -3hy+sg g=0
2
3
3
g >4h cosh 39=gj2h
III.
3
y -3hy+sg g=0
2
3
3
g <4h cos 39=g/2h
'
'
2sg\/h sinh
6; sg \/h(sinh
2sg y/h cosh
6; s g ^h(cosh
2sg \/h cos
9; s g \/h(cos
0i\/3 cosh
6i\/3 sinh
9\/3
6)
9)
sin 9)
V3 = 1-7320508
Special Cases
G 2 +4H 3 >0. One real, two conjugate complex

G 2 +4H 3 =0; G 2 =-4tf3 Three real roots, two
G 2 =4i/ 3 =0. Three equal real roots [v=0].
G 2 +4H 3 <0. Three unequal real roots (III).
.
Example. Consider the cubic
III).
(I or II).
equal [-2sVh, sg ^h, sg ^/h\.
roots
We
then have cos 30=1/3, i.e. 30=70-52 (using

and 0=23-51. We then have
5-place tables)
6x 3 -45x 2 +108x-82=0
Here -b/a=5/2, and Horner's scheme

p. 28,
is
cos 0=0-91699
sin
(2.1.11.4,
0=0-39890
^=-0-91699
r=5J2, h=y) for the reduction to standard form
j 2 =0-11304
written
v 3 =0-80396
-45
-30
-15
+ 108
33
-82
V3 sin 0=0-69092
y/h=l/2
X!=l-58301
x 2 =2-61304
jc 3 =3-30396
x=j;+5/2
The accuracy to be obtained by this method depends

on the accuracy of the tables which are used. Reference
to the more exact solution of this equation (Table
(5/2
4-1/2
-9/2
2.1.11.4B) indicates that the above solution
so that the reduced cubic
far as
is
it is
is
exact as
given.
After the solution of the standard equation (6a) has

been completed, the solution of the original equation
(5a) is of course obtained by substitution of the y
y -(3/4)y+(l/\2)=Q
with g=l/12; A=l/4; sg =+l; and g 2/4h 3 =l/9 (Type
solutions in (5b).
27
2.1.
ALGEBRA
Horner's Reduction for a Polynomial

Equation
2.1.11.4.
If
TABLE
Use of Horner's Method
we know an approximate
root r for equation (1)

we can improve this approximation by calculating the
function /(/+ h) as a polynomial in h giving an equation in h which can be solved for its smallest root.
The process for calculating the coefficients of powers
of h in f(r+h) from the corresponding coefficients of
powers of x
/(x)=6x 3 -45x 2 +108x-82=0

and the
derivative of f(x),
clearly a root near to (and greater than)
exhibited in Table 2.1.1 1.4A. It can readily be

down for any other degree by following a
root
is
make
-45
similar scheme.
known
-82
39
69
-13
more
illustrated
-39
69
33
-33
36
Table 2.1.1 1.4B. When the Horner reduction is

completed to the accuracy desired, the remaining portion of the equation can be solved for other roots of
Comment
is
made on some
.... (2)
1.
the substitution
108
in
the equation.
.(1)
We
use
x=l+h 1
as follows:
written
precisely an approximately
Atx=0,/(x) = -82 and /'(*)= 108. At x=l these functions are -13 and +36 respectively. Thus there is
Horner's reduction to
in locating
i.e.
f'(x)=lSx 2 -90x+ 108
been schematized by Horner

Horner's scheme for the quintic
The use of Horner's reduction
Consider the cubic
f(x)=a Q x 5 +a 1 x 4 +a 2 x 3 +a 3 x 2 +a i x+a 5 =0
is
in the Solution of
Polynomial Equation
in f(x) has
(see [23], [25]).
2.1.11.4B
practical
(1
points in the course of the example of Table 2.1.1 1.4B.
-27
TABLE
and the equation for h 1

2.1.11.4A
6/i 1
Horner's Reduction
which
<*2
<*i
ra
rb x
rb 2
rb 3
rb t
^1 = ^0 + 1
b 2 =rb 1 +a 2
b3
b.
b5
rc x
rc 2
rz
ra
c 1 -=ra
+b 1
is
-27/j 1 2 +36/? 1 -13=0
(3a)
be rewritten
36/* 1 =13+27/* 1 2 -6/i 1 3
f(x)=a x 5 +a 1 x 4 +a 2 x 3 +a 3 x 2 +a i x+a 5
t*l
may
....(3b)
approximation is h x = 13/36=0-36, and this

will clearly be low. It is possible at this stage to make
successive approximations to solve (3b), but experience
indicates that it is perhaps more profitable to guess
and to continue the Horner reduction of equation (3d),
since the convergence of (3b) may be very slow at early
c 2 =rc 1 +b 2
first
stages.
We shall make this guess as h =Q-A-\-h

We must here make some sort of decision as
1
2.
Note.
ra
rd,
rd2
to the accuracy to which calculations will be carried
dr
d2
d3
out. We have here quite arbitrarily decided that this

equation shall be satisfied to six decimal places. The
question of accuracy of solution is discussed in [22]
and [24] but these discussions are very complicated,
and in general much must be left to the instinct of the
computer in relation to the problems which he has
under consideration. When once such a decision is
made, approximations short of this accuracy should
not be made, since they may lead to difficulties.
The reduction of the roots by 0-4 is then
re.
fx
f(r+h)=a h 6 +f1 h*+e 2 h 3 +dah i +cMb 5

Note.
In desk machine calculation by Horner's

entries which need be written are
method the only

aQ
ax
a2
a3
a4
a5
bx
b2
b3
b4
b5
dx
d2
ex
e2
-27
36
d3
-13
-9-84
10-464
-24-6
26-16
-2-536
2-4
-8-88
-22-2
17-28
2-4
(r
(0-4
2-4
-19-8
fx
and the equation for
All other entries in the above table can be handled in

the machine.
)t
2 is
6h 2 3 - 19-8/z 2 2 +17-28/z 2 --2-536=0

28
(4)
..
2.1.
The approximate
ALGEBRA
of this equation, i.e.

we have underestimated h v We also note that h 2 is probably low,
since the term in h 2 2 has the same sign as the constant.
We therefore choose h 2 =0-l5+h z Note that we now
omit the intermediate step in each Horner reduction,
as can always be done on a calculating machine, and
write simply
/i
solution
2 =2-536/17-28=0-146,
-19-8
-18-9
-18-0
-17-1
We
14-445
For
generally see [21].
it is
approximation
/z
3 ^0-0314.
profitable to consider the equation

.(5*)
I.
11-745
16-908
16-716
11-203944
10-669032
-0-36925
-0-010724
satisfy the
Between the elements of the group there is

uniquely denned a method of connection called
multiplication.
Under multiplication, any two
elements A (called the pre-factor) and B (called the
post-factor) define a third element of the group C,
called the product,
form
17-1
which
following four group postulates:
II.
(0-032
III.
16-524
i.e.
AB=C.
The associative law must hold

i.e. A(BC)=(AB)C.
There
for multiplication,
one and only one element, called the

such that for any other eleof the group AE=EA=A.
exists
identity element, E,
and the equation for
/j 4
ment
becomes
- 16-524V+ 10-669032// 4 -0-010724=0
(6)
for a given element A there exists one and only

one element B=A~ X such that AB=BA=E.
i.e.
now
It is
important to note that
Group
2.
The commutative law need not hold
multiplication has no necessary connection

with arithmetical or algebraic multiplication.
in
group
the product AB (i.e. the operation B followed by the operation A) is not necessarily equal to BA (i.e. the operation A followed by
multiplication,
x=l+/i 1 +/i 2 +/i3+/i 4 =l+0-4+0-15+0-032

+0-001006=1-583006
We now verify the whole calculation
IV. Every element of the group has a unique reciprocal,
very clearly possible to obtain a solution to

(6) which is accurate to the limits we have set. The
first approximation leads to /i 4 =0-001005, and if we
take into account the term in /i 4 2 we obtain the
slightly better value with 6 in the last digit. We thus
obtain the root as
It is
consists of a set of mathematical objects,
called the elements of the group,
approximation into the right-hand

side of (5b) and recalculate h 3 we find /z 3 ^0-0329; this
s
is clearly high, from the sign of the h 3
term. We
assume h 3 =0-032+h i and the next Horner approxima-
Group Postulates
A group
If we insert the first
6/i 4
Groups
2.1.12.1.
.(5a)
11-745/j,=0-36925+17-1/?, 2
tion takes the
background of Section 2.1.11

For numerical methods see [18],
[22]-[26].
- 17-1V+ 1 1 -745/1,-0-36925=0
this stage
[26].
theoretical
2.1.12.
first
and
[24], [25]
(0-15
11-745
From this we obtain as
Method
This method, which depends on forming the equation whose roots are successively higher binary powers
of the roots of the original equation, serves to locate
all the roots of a given equation. It is not possible to
give a full account of this method in the space available in these tables. Reference is therefore made to
thus obtain
6/i 3
At
-2-536
-0-36925
17-28
Graeffe's Root-squaring
2.1.11.5.
indicates that
by the Horner
i.e.
the operation B).
reduction
3.
45
35-501964
26-003928
108
51-800178
10-635804
-82
(1-583006
-0-000007
16-505892
which indicates that the correct root
is
probably
closer to 1-583007.
The equation which remains,
.... (7)
2.
abstract group
is
concerned only with the
rela-
from
their
group for which the commutative law
(i.e.
AB=BA)
can, after h 5 is divided out, be used to find the other

roots of the equation under consideration. In this
case we have to solve a quadratic; in other cases we
start again
An
tionships of a set of operations as apart

nature.
i.e.
6h 5 3 - 16-505892V+ 10-635804/i 5 =0
may have to
follows from I that the product of an element

with itself (i.e. AA=A 2) must also be an element of
the group.
It
holds for
all
elements
is
said
to
be
Abelian.
3.
on a Horner reduction for the
A group which contains n elements is said to be of

order n.
smallest root.
infinite.
29
The order of a group may be
finite
or
2.1.
4.
If
among
the n elements of a group
it is
possible to
elements which themselves

satisfy the group postulates, these elements form a
sub-group of* the original group. Every sub-group
must contain the identity element. The order m of
a sub-group must be a factor of the order n of the
group which contains it.
5.
If r is the smallest integer for
called the order of the element X,
4.
There is, of course, only one crystallographic group

of order unity, i.e. 1.
5.
The
1,
three crystallographic groups of order two, i.e.

m, are simply isomorphous with the cyclic
2,
abstract group of order two.
The group
6.
group
which
=E, r is
and the r elements
in
which case the group
is called a
a (cyclic) sub-group
of the group containing the element.
itself,
cyclic group, or the period
6.
is
AB=C
A2
A
A- 1
A-
group
1
1
The
-1
-1
2
...(3)
1
-1
is clearly an infinite group which

isomorphous with the group (1).
(iii)
is
multiply
The crystallographic three-dimensional point
groups (Vol. I, 3.6)_which are simply isomorphous

with (1) are 4 and 4, which have group tables
4-1
4-1
2
4
4-1
4-1
2
(4)
and
1
Results and Examples of Group Theory
cyclic
This
always a cyclic group.
4-1
4-1
4-1
(5)
which the operations are represented by powers

of their Hermann-Mauguin symbols.
in
t The use of the term isomorphous in group theory should not

be confused with the use of the same term in crystallography.
the identity operation E.

3.
(1).
The group of all
4-1
For every prime number p there is one and only one

group of order p and that is the cyclic group of
order p, and the only sub-group of such a group is
..(2)
1
reads
about the diagonal.
2.
group
tive
of the first row (post-factor). The order of the

elements (other than identity) in the first column is
not necessarily dependent on that in the first row.
It is, however, usual to write the inverse of an
element in the first column in the position corresponding to the element in the first row. In this
way the identity always appears along the diagonal
of the table and the table is always anti-symmetric
is
abstract
integers (positive and negaand zero) under addition modulo 4 (2.1.5,

p. 7) as group multiplication operation. The identity
operation is 0, and the group multiplication table
(ii)
(pre-factor) with the corresponding entry
For every order n there
this
The identity operation is, of course, the number 1.

The group (2) is simply isomorphous with the
properties of the elements of a group are most

conveniently represented by a group multiplication
table. In such a table the elements of the group are
listed in the top row (led by the identity) and in this
position are considered as post-factors. In the first
column (with the identity in common with the first
row) the elements are represented and considered
as pre-factors. An entry of the table is then the
product of the corresponding entry in the first
1.
...(1)
A
1
The
2.1.12.3.
A- 1
A2
-1
If to every element of an abstract group there

corresponds a member of a set of concrete mathematical objects (such as numbers, matrices or
geometrical operations) in such a way that the
concrete objects form a group isomorphous with
the abstract group, then the concrete group is said
to form a representation^ of the abstract group.
column
by
groups are said to be multiply isomorphous.
8.
A2
A
A- 1
typified
is
as follows
(i) The group associated with the symbol / under

algebraic multiplication which has the table
... of G' so that if

then A'B'=C for every
product. If several elements of one group correspond to a single element of the second, then the
7.
is
include
groups G and G' are said to be simply isomorphous^ if to each element A, B, C,

of G there
corresponds one and only one element A', B', C",
.
which
Groups isomorphous with
Two
table for the cyclic groups
that of order four,
2
r
~\ r =Eform the period of X. The
X,
...
period of any element of a finite group is either the
,
ALGEBRA
find a subset of
groups are Abelian.
For discussion of the theory of representations
[30].
30
see [28]
and
2.1.
7.
There
ALGEBRA
is a second abstract group of order four,

represented by the table
ABC
A
B
C
C
B
B
A
11.
(to
(6)
tables are respectively:
2/m
222
2--
2-22
-2--2
--2
-2-
--2
-22--
2--
while
BA=3, and
that
3A=B while A3 =C.
This abstract group has three crystallographic

representations: 2/m, 222, and mm2, for which the
AB=3~ 1
for example, that
12.
The group tables for all the crystallographic groups

have not been included in the present edition of
these tables. To facilitate the construction of such
a table by the reader for any group in which he may
have interest, the table for the cubic point group 23
is constructed in detail in Table 2.1.12.3.
The
matrix representations for the group operations
have been used to facilitate this process.
With the aid of this table we can now give a
detailed analysis of group 23. It is of order twelve,
with three sub-groups of order two and four subgroups of order three. The operators 2 commute
with one another but not with the operators 3, nor
do the latter commute with one another.
An additional group of great importance to crystallography
is
the
translation
group.
The
lattice
translations (in three dimensions)
mw2
m
m
/w
#i
is
the zero vector as identity operation.

Some sub-groups of the translation group of
interest are constructed as follows.
indicated by the dots, which locate the

respect to the
Hermann-Mauguin symbols with

axes with which they
may have been
coefficients
values, positive, negative
In this group and in its representations there are

three sub-groups of order two which are independent, as
which the
n t assume all integral

and zero, and the vectors
a{ are non-coplanar) form an infinite group under
the group operation of vector addition and with
(in
(a)
arbitrarily
Any
three non-coplanar translations selected
from the group,
for the sake of simplicity in the tables of Vol. I
qia!+q 2 a 2 +q 3a 3
(Table 3.6.2), in which only one sub-group 2 has

been indicated instead of the three which do occur.
8.
The only crystallographic group of order three

the cyclic group 3.
9.
The
r^^r^+rsUs
generate a translation group which is a subgroup of the original translation group. The
determinant
is
three crystallographic point groups 3, 6 and 6

are simply isomorphous with the cyclic group of
Pi Pi Ps
Z>= Ql
order six and as such contain one sub-group of

order two (T, 2 and
respectively) and one subgroup of order three (in all cases the point group 3).
rx
10.
non-cyclic crystallographic point groups

of order six, 32 and 3m, are simply isomorphous
and have the common group table:
1
3- 1
3" 1
3" 1
C
A
B
B
C
A
CAB
<?2
q%
r 2 r*
has an integral value which is the ratio of the

volume of the primitive cell of the sub-group to
that of the original translation group.
If
D=\, the sub-group is the group itself. If
D= (>1), the sub-group is a superlattice of
The two
i.e.
Such distinctions have been omitted
associated.
the original translation lattice.
determines the relative "hand" of the two

primitive triplets. It is positive if they are both
of the same hand and negative if they are of
3- 1
3
3-i
3- 1
different
(b)
In this table the symbols A, B and C, which are

elements of order two, stand for the three twofold
axes in 32 or for the three planes in 3m. The group
has one sub-group of order three and three sub-
groups of order two.

This group is important in group theory in that
it is the non-Abelian group of
lowest order. Note,
Any
hands
Vol.
I,
sign of
2).
p 1 a 1 +p^ i +pâ s selected from

the group generates a one-dimensional translation group or row (cf. Vol. I, 2) which is a subgroup of the original group. If the coefficients
Pi are prime numbers or are relatively prime to
one another, then the row is a primitive row of
translation
the original
lattice. If not,
row of some
31
(cf.
The
the
row is a primitive
superlattice of the original lattice.
ALGEBRA
2.1.
(c)
Any two
non-collinear translations,
tions generate primitive
i.e.
lattice
Pi"i+P2.a 2 +p 3a 3
and
if in
^ll+^22+^33
P1P2
generate a two-dimensional translation group

or net which is a sub-group of the original
?1?2
have no
P2P3
PiPz
#2?3
?1?3
factor except unity, the net
common
translation group. If both of the above transla-
36
3- I
^ -1
3C
-1
"-1
3a
36
3b
3C
3a
3C
3a
36
3- L
--1
--1
--1
3C
- 1
3C
--1
-1
3- I
-1
3C
3a
3a
3
3c
36
36
2a
2b
2C
3a"
" 1
1 -1
Jb
3- 1
2b
3C
3b
2a
3C
36
3
3c
3
2a
26
2C
3a
36
2b
3- 1
3c 1
J
3a 1
J
1 -1
2a
2C
3b
3a
3C
2b
1
2C
2a
2a
2C
2a
2C
26
2b
3C
--1
3"-1
3- 1
36
J6
3a
36
-1
3C
" 1
-1
2b
2C
2a
3a"
3- I
"-1
36
"-1
3C
--1
--1
3- 1
Notation (continued)
The symbol 2 a
tion
-1
3} c
2C
Notation
(a)
_1
2C
26
2.1.12.3
Construction of Group Multiplication Table for the Point Group 23

"-1
--1
3- 1
26
2C
3
3a
3b
3C
3&
3C
"-1
-1
1
32C
2b
3
3b
36
3C
3a
3a--1
-1
L
3"
1
2a
3b
3a
3C
3
3C
3a
--1
--1
-1
2a
1
3C
3
3b
3C
3b
3a
3a"
2a
is
(Continued on page 33)
TABLE
2a
26
2C
3- 1
-1
rows of the original
addition the three determinants
and
it
"0
represents the 2 axis in the a direchas the matrix representation

0"
"1
TOO
3 C =2 C 3^
^32,
Axis [ITT]
T
etc.
J)
and we have 2 a 2 b =2 c
(b)
The symbol
|"0
3C
From
3 a3b
(d)
derive
many
other
32 C 2 6 3=32 6 2 3=3 C ^3 C
~2 a 3 3 _ 2 b =2 a 2 6 =2 etc.
C
c,
that the axis for positive rotation 3 a
is [TlT],
generated by 2 6 from [111].

The operation 2 6 does not occur in the definition
of 3 a in terms of 3 either as pre-multiplier or postThis latter
However, 3 a =2 6 32 6 x
multiplier.
result is related to the theory of the "transforms"
X
of an operation Q by the operation R, i.e. RQR~
where R is any one of the operations of the group.
Such transforms are involved in the theory of
"classes," a branch of group theory which is
beyond the scope of these notes. For references
i.e.
of course,
0"
"0
Note
we can
by
3a3b~
is,
these key results
results, typified
"0
^2 h 3"
1
1
3 represents a positive rotation about
_1
2C ^
etc.
the axis [111] and has the pre-factor matrix representation (see 2.4.7.3, p. 63):
Its inverse 3
" 1 =3- 1
1
1
the axis which
is
(c)
The symbol 3<=2 f 3 and the symbol
3f
_1 =3 -1
2i,
and
the construction of the table then follows directly
from the following key

"0
s2
results
1*
=32,
see
Axis [TlT]
T
3
-'a
- 1 =3~ 1
2 =
**o
(e)
a3-
-32 a
Axis [111]
[30].
in the Hermann-Mauguin notation (Vol.

Section 3.3, Table 3.3.2) for the group 23 a set of
twofold axes in the primary directions and a set of
threefold axes in the secondary directions is implied. In Table 2.1.12.3 the symbol 23 does not
occur, but 2 a 3 implies the operation of the axis 3
in the [111] direction followed by a rotation 2
Note that
about the a direction. The equation 2 a 3=32 c does

not imply that the space group 23 is equivalent to
the space group 32
and
I,
3 h =2 h 3=
[4], [29]
-23-
TOO
32
2.1.
ALGEBRA
a primitive net of the original lattice. If these

conditions are not satisfied, the net is a primitive net of some superlattice of the original
lational properties of the
2.1.12.4.
in the
The nature of the above discussion is illustrated by

consideration of the general point position for all space
groups which are isomorphous with the point group
222 (Table 2.1.12.4). The equivalent positions for this
point group are xyz, xyz, xyz, xyz. The equivalent
positions for all the space groups are strictly analogous
lattice.
In the space groups, the translation group

always a sub-group.
symmetry element
space group.
is
Space Groups
with these positions, the co-ordinates being modified

only by the displacements of the axis sets with respect
to the origin chosen for a given space group and by the
screw components of the axes in question. Each displacement of I translation of the axis from the origin
adds I translation to the corresponding co-ordinate,
and each screw component adds itself to the corresponding co-ordinate.
This discussion is somewhat trivial, since it is clear
Space groups in the abstract sense are infinite

groups. Each space group of a given crystal class is
multiply isomorphous with the point group associated
with that class. In this isomorphism all the lattice
translations are associated with the identity operation
of the point group; all the centres of symmetry (if any)
in space are associated with the single centre (if
any) in the point group; and all parallel planes of

symmetry, rotation axes, or inversion axes, of a
given orientation are associated with corresponding
choice of the
planes, rotation or inversion axes of the point group

in corresponding orientation, irrespective of the trans-
arrangement of the space-group tables of Vol.

of many earlier space-group tables.
that
TABLE
it
is
just such considerations
which led to the
Hermann-Mauguin symbols and
to the
I
and
2.1.12.4
Analysis of General Positions for Space Groups Isomorphous with the Point Group
222
number
Space
Symmetry Elements and Co-ordinates
Group
2--
P222
xyz
xyz
uOO
2
P222 1
xyz
22
xyz
OvO
xyz
P2 1 2 1 2
xyz
2i
x, y,
\-z
P2 1 2 1 2 1
xyz
2i
2i
x,y,
%+z
OOw
\+x, \-y, z
2i
\-x, \+ y> z
xyz
OOw
ivO
xyz
00h>
wOO
3
Lattice Translations
\+x, i-y, 2
2i
x,
xyz
x, y,
h+y, \-z
2,
2-x,
y,
\+z
u\0
5
C222 x
xyz
\-z
wOO
6
C222
xyz
xyz
wOO
7
F222
xyz
7222
xyz
xyz
xyz
wOO
9
72 1 2 1 2 1
x,y,i+z
(000; ||0)+
xyz
OvO
wOO
8
2X
00h>
xyz
OOw
2
OvO
xyz
xyz
xyz
(000;0H;i0|;iJ0)+
OOw
OvO
xyz
OOw
(000; if)+
xyz
2i
l+x, \-y, 2
2i
x,
Ovi
i+y, \-z
2X
\0w
33
2~x,y,%+z
2.1.
by no means
It is
ALGEBRA
symmetry Fmmm and Immm
For example, the general positions of
give distance sets with
considerations
trivial that similar
can greatly facilitate extensions of previous tabulations,

as indicated by the example of the next Section.
respectively.
Fmmm
be occupied four times with exactly the

for F222 as for P222. These will now
be 32-fold positions instead of 8-fold, so that there
will be in all 128 general vectors. Similarly, there will
be two sets of 64 internal distances, one from each of
the sets x 1 y 1 z 1 and x 2 y 2 z 2 Note that there are then
256 vectors within the F-cell, i.e. 4x8 2 Thus, in this
normalization of the vector set each primitive cell of
the centred cell is treated separately in forming the
will
same parameters
Group Considerations and the

Derivation of Vector Distance Sets
2.1.12.5.
In connection with the interpretation of the \F\ 2

series
it
often desirable to calculate the vector
is
distance set for a given set of points which possess the
symmetry of a given space group. To
clarify the pro-
we shall calculate in detail the vectors drawn

from the points equivalent to x 2 y 2 z 2 in the space
group P222 to the points equivalent to x x y x z x This
cedure
vector
calculation
is
as follows
x x y xz x
x 2 y 2Z 2
x \x 2 y x y 2
x 2y 2z 2
set.
Reference to Table 2.1.12.4 will indicate directly

the form for the vector distances for any other space
x x y xz x
XJiZi
x xy xz x
Xi-X 2 ,y x +y 2 ,Z x +Z 2
x x +x 2 y x -y 2 z x +z 2
x x +x 2 ,y x +y 2 ,z x -z 2
x x -x 2 y x +y 2 z x +z 2
x x x 2 y x y 2
z x z 2
Xj+x 2 ,y x +y 2 ,z x -z 2
x x +x 2 y x -y 2 z x +z 2
x 2 y 2z 2
x x -\-x 2 y x
z x -\-z 2
x x +x 2 y x +y2> z i~ z 2
x x x 2 y x y 2 z x z 2
x x x 2 y x +yg, z x -\-z 2
x 2 y 2z 2
X x -\-X 2 Vj+^j z \~ z 2
x x +x 2 y x -y 2 z x +z 2
x x x 2 y x +y 2 z x +z 2
x x x 2 y x y%,
z x z 2
2,
If now we remember that the space group of the

vector distance set will be Pmmm, it is clear that the
thirty-two vectors joining x x y x z x anil its equivalents
group of the
Pmmm
(w):
2x x
(y)
2x x
There
is
a similar
set
x 2 y 2z 2
positions
special
2x x 2y x 0;
,
\,
will
\+2y x 2z x \+2x x
,
follows
1.
Form
set
2.
the group table for the point group and
its
of equivalent points.
Locate the simplest space counterpart of each

operation of the point group.
2y x 2z x
tances of the set

It
0,
the
0. 0, 0;
0,
2y x 2^;
,
2y x 2z x
2x x 0, 2z x
0,
2z x 2x x 0, 2z x 2x x 0, 2z x
2y x 0; 2x~x 2y~x 0; 2x[, 2y x 0; 2x x 2y~x
0,
have parameters
have parameters
%, 2z x etc.
Thus the procedure for determining the vector
distances for any space group may be summarized as
while
3.
2y x 2z x
will
>
4(a): 000
(): 0,
Pmmm
equivalent points of
z x z 2
x x x 2 y x y 2 z x z 2 2 +x x x 2 f +yi+y2> î+ z 2
*i+* 2 71+^2, î-^ 2 H*i+*2> i+î-j^ *i+^ 2
x x x 2 y x 2 z x z 2
x x x 2 y x +y%, z x +z 2
x x +x 2 y x y2> z x +z 2
x x +x 2 y x +y2t z x~ z %
It is clear now that it would only have been necessary
to write down the first column of the distance table
and that that could have been done by inspection.
Setting x 2 =x x etc., we see that the distances between
the equivalent points of x x y xz x are, in terms of the
;
For example, for P2 X 2 X 2 the
class.
general positions of
with x 2 y 2 z 2 and its equivalents will be expressed in

terms of the 8-fold general position 8(a) of the space
group Pmmm. This will be occupied four times with
the four sets of parameters
,
Write down the vector components in terms of the

general and special positions of the Laue space
group.
As a final example to indicate the application of

these rules, Table 2.1.12.5 summarizes the discussion
of points for the internal dis-
for the space group
P2 X 3
(cf.
Table
2.1.12.3).
There
are 12 different sets of parameters for the general

position of the Laue group Pm3, i.e. 288 general vectors.
These degenerate as indicated to the 144 special vectors
should be pointed out here in caution that some
"special positions" are required to describe distance

sets which are not in fact symmetrical special positions
between equivalent atoms.
of the tables of Vol. I.

After this discussion of the space group P222, the
form taken by the distance sets of the remaining space
groups of this class is quite clear. F222 and 7222 will
in the sense
For references
in connection with Section 2.1.12
generally, see [27]-[30]
on quantum mechanics
34
also [4] and many textbooks

for discussion of group theory.
ALGEBRA
2.1.
TABLE 2.1.12.5
Analysis of Co-ordinates and Vector Distances for the Space Group
Operation
Axis
Location
3- 1
(20.
3a"
1 I
3rx
I I
3c-
(2i) c
1
1
I T
I I
y x -y 2
y x -x 2
y x -z 2
4+*i-* 2 i+yi+y*, z x +z 2
%+x x -z 2 %+yi+%2> z x +y 2
Hx t +y 2 yi+z 2 l+zx-xi
l+y> \-z
h+x, \~y
$+y, \-z, x
x x +x 2 \+y x -y 2 %+z x +z 2
x x +z 2 i+yi-x 2 i+î+^2
h+x x -y 2 %+yi+z 2 z x +x 2
4*o
4*o
\-x, y, ^+z
*-z, x, \+y
?> i+z, \~x
*+*!+* y\+y%, Hz x -z 2
i+xi+z* yi+x 2 i+z x -y 2
xi+y 2 Hyi-z 2 4+*i+* 2
0**
0*1
J
x,
to*
Z,
(2,)
36
3C
Pm3
4+*, l-y, 2
4+z, i-x, y
\-y, z, \+x
J
1
Special Vectors
Pw3:24(/)
x x -y*
General Vectors
x,y,z
z,x,y
y,z,x
Co-ordinates
*o
J
P2 X 3
xi-x %
x x -z 2
z x -z 2
z x -y 2
z x -x 2
12(a)
)
24(1)
x-y, y-z, z-x
\2(k)
24(/)
%+x+y, y+z, \+z-x
12(k)
\,
24(/)
%+x-y, i+y+z, z+x
12(/c)
*,
24(/)
x+y, h+y-z, $+z+x
35
4+2j, 2z
*+2z, 2x
4+2*, 2y
2.2.

The functions tan
Trigonometric and Hyperbolic
2.2.1. Properties of
Definitions
2.2.1.1.
x, cot x, sec x, cosec
are defined
by the equations
Functions
x=
tan
The two fundamental trigonometric

defined by the series
x* x a x'
ix
quantities are
tan
cot
x=
sin x/cos
(5)
The hyperbolic functions
=(e -e- ix)
x cosec x=cos x
sin
sinh
sec
x= 1
(6)
x and cosh x
are
defined by the two series
(1)
2i
and
cos *=!--+--- +
The
x x
*=*+-+-+-+
K*
cosh
X* X* X*
*=!+-+-+-+
=K**+e-*)....(8)
X2
sinh
jc
-v*"
-v-4
(e
.-*
+e -.-*)
....(2)
e-*)....(7)
and
definitions of these functions in terms of the
ratios of the sides of a right-angled triangle are
A=a/c
cos A=b/c
sin
and
where the the notation
is
These functions do not have a simple geometric
....(3)
cance.
(4)
(C
that of Fig. 2.2.1.1
is
They
signifi-
are related to the trigonometric functions
by the relations
ix= i sinh x
sin
(9)
right angle).
cos ix= cosh
(10)
with similar definitions for functions tanh x, coth x,

sech x, cosech x. Although little further use of hyperbolic functions will be made in these tables, it is
worthy of note that, to every relation between trigonometric functions presented in subsequent Sections,
there is a corresponding relation between hyperbolic
functions which can be established with the aid of (9)
and
(10).
As a
direct consequence of the definitions there
result the following
fundamental relationships:
sin 2
Fig. 2.2.1.1
x+
2
cosec jc=
The
definitions (1)
and
(2) are equivalent respectively
to (3) and (4) when the variable

of the corresponding angle.
cos
tan
(2n+l)irA
(4n+l)Â
A
A
T
T cot A
A
cos A
cos
sin
tan
x= 1 +
cot
....(11)
....(12)
tan x
(13)
The periodicity of sin A, cos A, and tan A
2n-7TA
sin
sec
x is the radian measure
x=l
eos 2
sin
.4
is
as follows:
(4n+3)Â
A
A
tan A
sin
cos
=F
cos
sin
A
A
cot/i
Special values for these functions are given in the table below:
j
sin*
cos*
tanx
77
7T
77
577
7T
12
12
V(3)-l
V2
V3
V0)+1
2V2
2V2
V(3)+l
V3
V2
V(3)-l
2V2
V3
2+V3
2V2
2-V3
V3
3
36
CO
TRIGONOMETRY AND GEOMETRY
2.2.
Functions of Multiple Angles
2.2.1.2.
(7)
The
half-angle formulae are important special cases

of multiple-angle formulae.
(2)
sin ,4/2= V{(1- cos A)/2}.

cosA/2=^{(\ + cosA)/2}.
(3)
tan,4/2=V{(l-cos,4)/(l+cos,4)}
(7)
=(1-
cos ,4)/sin
A=
()
(9)
sin ,4/(1
sin
(4)
nA+i
2,4=2
sin
sin
3A=(4
cos 2
3
(6) sin 4,4= (8 cos
sin
(5)
=(4
cos (-,4+7*+ C)+ cos (A-B+C)

cos (A+B-C).
(10) 4 cos A cos 7* sin C= sin (,4+7*+C)
+
(11)
+
+
cos A.
A-l)
sin
,4=(3-4
A-4 cos ,4)
sin
sin 2
A)
sin A.
(7)
sin
(8)
sin
6,4=(32 cos 5 ,4-32 cos 3
sin 2
A+16
,4.
A+6 cos ,4)
sin
(7)
(2)
(3)
AS
5,4=16 cos 5 ,4-20 cos 3 ,4+5 cos A

=(1-12 sin 2 ,4+16 sin 4 A) cos A.
(13) cos 6,4=32 cos 6 ,4-48 cos 4 A+ 18 cos 2 ,4-1
= 1-18 sin 2 ,4+48 sin 4 ,4-32 sin 6 A.
(12) cos
(16)
(77)
(75)
(19)
(21)
,4= 1+ cos
(5)
A+5 cos 3,4+
cos
(7)
5,4.
,4=10+15 cos 2,4+6 cos 4A+ cos 6A.

,4= 1- cos 2,4.
(22) 16 sin
(25) 32 sin 6
,4=10
sin
A+
C=-
cos 7*+ cos
A- 5 sin 3,4+
sin 5,4.
6/4.
Miscellaneous Formulae
sin 2
Addition Formulae and Product

(2)
sin 2
B=
cos 2
A-
sin 2
B=
B-
cos 2
sin
cos 2
(A+B)
(4)
e.g.
w=
=
may
sin
sin
C
f
Note by General Editor. There
Volume I.
sin A + sin
B+
sin
C+
sin
a misprint on page 360 of
is
(/4+5-C)
,
=4 sin
consequence of the addition formulae, we

have the product formulae
(tf)
(A-B).
cos (,4+7*) cos (A-B).
(x+iy)= sin x cos iy+ cos x sin y>

x cosh v+/ cos ;c sinh v.
cos h>= cos (x+iy)= cos x cos iy sin x sin y;
= cos x cosh >> sin x sinh 7.
of angles,
(5)
sin
Trigonometric functions of a complex variable

be expanded as follows
A cos B cos A sin B.

A cos 5+ sin ,4 sin B.
cos
sin(,4+7*+C)=sin,4 cosTicos C+cos,4 sinTicos

+ cos A cos B sin C- sin A sin B sin C.
cos (,4+7*+C)=cos A cos 7? cos C-cos ,4 sin B sin
- sin A cos 5 sin C- sin A sin 5 cos C.
A-
(3) sin
As
cos (,4+7*+C)
+4 cos \(A+B) cos |(7*+C) cos \(C+A).

- cos ,4+ cos 5+ cosC= cos (A+B+C)
+4 sin l(A+B) cos l(B+C) sin \(C+A).
Successive applications of the above formulae permit

the development of addition formulae for any number
(4)
sin
additional formulae of special interest for the

reduction of structure factors are given in Vol. I, page
360. f The following formulae may also be useful.
4,4.
Formulae
(3)
C=sin (A+B+C)
%(B+C) sin \(C+A).
sin
A+ sin B+ sin C=- sin (A+B+C)

+4 cos \(A+B) sin k(B+C) cos \(C+A).
2.2.1.5.
(7)
(2) cos (,47*)=
B+
\(A+B)
Some
,4=10-15 cos 2,4+6 cos 4,4- cos
(7) sin (,4 7*)= sin
sin
sin
sin
cos
(6)
2,4.
A= 3 cos A+ cos 3 A.
A= 3+4 cos 2A+ cos 4,4.
,4=10 cos
A+
+4
sin 3
2.2.1.3.
sin
(4)
are useful special cases of the Fourier
,4= 3 sin A- sin 3,4.

8 sin 4 ,4= 3-4 cos 2A+ cos
(20)
Sums of Trigonometric Functions

A sin 7*= 2 sin \(AB) cos \(A+B).
cos A+ cos 7*=2 cos i(A+B) cos %(A-B).
cos A- cos 7*= -2 sin \(A+B) sin \(A~B).
sin
powers of the trigonometric functions:
2 cos 2
4 cos 3
8 cos 4
16 cos 5
32 cos 6
2 sin 2
(14)
sin
The formulae for sums of three and more trigonometric functions are more complicated than those for
two, and many forms may be derived from the addition
formulae. Typical examples are:
= 1-8 sin 2 ,4+8 sin 4 A.
(75)
(A+B+C)
(A-B+C)
sin
2.2.1.4.
=(6 sin ,4-32 sin ,4+32 sin A) cos ,4.

cos 2,4=cos 2 ,4-sin 2 ,4=2 cos 2 ,4-1 = 1-2 sin 2 A.
(10) cos 3,4=4 cos 3 A-3 cos ,4=(l-4 sin 2 A) cos ,4.
(77) cos 4,4=8 cos 4
cos 2 A+l
The following
sin
B sin C=-
(-,4+5+ C)+
(A+B-C).
(9)
series for
sin
,4
sin
sin (,4-7*+ C)
formulae for the addition of more than three angles.

sin
sin 4 ,4) sin
(-A+B+Q+
(A+B-C).
Similar formulae for the products of more than three

trigonometric functions can be developed from the
,4-8 sin 3 A) cos ,4.

5.4=(16 cos 4 ,4-12 cos 2 A+l)
sin
sin
4 sin
nA= (cos A+i sin A) n
sin
=(5-20
2 sin ,4 sin 5= cos (A-B)- cos (,4+T*).

4 cos ,4 cos 7* cos C= cos (,4+72+C)
+ cos (-A+B+Q+ cos (,4-7*+ C)
+ cos(,4+7*-C).
4 sin ,4 sin B cos C=- cos (A+B+C)
+
-
cos A).
The general expansions for sin nA and cos nA are

given by Bromwich [14], Chapter IX. They can be
calculated from the binomial expansion
cos
direct
,,,
should be
2 sin A cos 7*= sin (A-B)+ sin (,4+T*).

2 cos ,4 cos 7*= cos (A-B)+ cos (,4+T*).
The
correct formula
formulae.
37
was applied
4 sin
A+B
C-A
C-B
r sin r
sin r
A+B
-
cos
C-A
C-B
- cos
-
in simplifying structure-factor
xx
2.2.
Approximations for Trigonometric

Functions
2.2.1.6.
Addition of further terms to the denning series for

the trigonometric functions will, of course, give increased accuracy of approximation, but this procedure
has great disadvantages from a practical point of view,
since these series give high accuracy near x=0 and
concentrate their largest errors near the end of the
range in which they are used. If an approximation is
required over a definite range, between A and A+a,it
is more efficient to use a series such as
It is often necessary to replace one trigonometric

function by another or by an algebraic expression in a
range in which both have approximately the same

value. Frequently used approximate relations (valid
for small x) are, in order of decreasing range
(7) sin
(2)
x^x
/6.
cosx^l x 2 /2.
(3) sin
x&x.
(4)
tanx*x.
(5)
tan x<* sin x.
Least Squares Approximations
2.2.1.6.1.
cos (A+x)<*CQ
Table 2.2.1.6A indicates the ranges in which these

denned accuracy limits.
in
relations hold within
+C x+C x
1
....(1)
which the constants are chosen to give the best fit for
by least squares methods (see Section
the given range
TABLE
2.2.1.6A
Ranges for Approximations for Trigonometric Functions
The
both the approximation and the funcnumber of decimal

places the specified difference may occur for lower
values of x. The entry in column 1 gives the angle in
degrees (to two decimal places) corresponding to
x radians, while the entries in columns 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7
give the values to 5 decimal places of the trigonometric
functions and their approximations at the critical
values of x.
columns 8-12 indicate the

decimal places) for which
the exact values of the function and of the approximation agree to less than one unit in the specified decimal
place. Thus {3} in column 11 for x=0-143 indicates
tan x-x=0- 143983-0- 143000=0-000983, i.e. less than
one unit in the third place. It is then implied by the
table that for x=0-144, tan x-x=0- 145004-0- 144000
=0-001004 is greater than or equal to one unit in the
integers in braces in
largest value of
Degrees
/6
third place.
sinx
tanx
l-x 2 /2
cosx
3-32
05797
05797
058
05807
99832
99832
3-78
06595
06595
066
06610
99782
4-81
08390
084
125
14251
143
08420
12566
14398
99647
12467
8-19
08390
12467
14251
99782
99647
99220
10-37
18001
18001
181
18300
98362
98366
12-66
21920
21921
221
22467
97558
97568
15-41
26577
269
27568
96382
96404
30125
38204
306
31592
22-46
26576
30122
38196
392
41339
95318
92317
95355
92415
22-57
38381
38389
394
92338
40126
40136
413
91472
91592
32-49
53662
53710
567
83926
36-15
58913
58995
631
80092
84352
80744
37-53
60816
60916
655
41574
43820
63674
73065
76812
92238
23-66
-78549
79305
40-22
64434
64575
702
84571
75360
48-87
59-70
72-25
95-45
74956
75326
853
1-15
63620
76355
65773
85344
92681
99532
86341
1-042
1-71
95240
99547
1-261
3-12
45712
20494
50449
30486
1-666
-10-47
7-16
17-53
99219
98978
If
tion are rounded to the specified
(to three
sin
10
COS
x-x 3 /6 *d-x 2 /2
sin
#x
38
tan x
*X
tanx
<=
sinx
{4}
{4}
{4}
{3}
98979
-38778 09506
12
11
{3}
{3}
{4}
{2}
{2}
{2}
{3}
{4}
{1}
{1}
{3}
{2}
{1}
{2}
{1}
{1}
2.2.
page 92). The constants are solutions of the

normal equations
2.6.6.4,
2.2.1.6.2.
and the total squared departure over the range

given by
In making rough sketches on squared paper it is

useful to know that in many cases a simple rational
fraction will give a close approximation to the tangent
of an angle which occurs frequently. For example, in
drawing hexagonal nets on squared paper one may
use the ratios 7/4, 12/7, 19/11 as tangents of angles
which lie within 15' of 60. For the tetrahedral angle
-'0^0~l"-'l^l
+ ^2^'2 =,'0
J% ^
~t"
~f"
^3
^1
'i
^ 2 = "^
is
2,
(109 28') the fractions 14/5, 17/6, 20/7, 23/8, 25/9,

31/11 give tangent approximations which are within
20' of the correct angle. For the half-tetrahedral angle
-(2)
a
where
A~
the useful approximations to the tangent are 7/5, 10/7,

17/12, all of which are within 20' of the correct angle.
cos 2 (^4+x)f/x,
a
7n
Approximations for Sketching
= x"^, and /=
pc"cos 04+x>/;c.
Plane Trigonometry
2.2.2.
Notation
and angles of a plane triangle are given by
the notation of Fig. 2.2.2.1. The perimeter 2s=a+b+c,
the area of the triangle is S. The centre of the inscribed
circle (radius r) lies on the intersection of the bisectors
of the vertex angles and is always inside the triangle.
The centre of the circumscribed circle (radius R) lies
on the intersection of the perpendicular bisectors of
2.2.2.1.
The
It is difficult to estimate the maximum departure of

such an approximation, but the mean squared error is
of course given by EJI =E2 /a. An example of the use
of a series of the type (1) in machine computation of
cosines for structure factors is given in Table 2.2.1.6B.
TABLE
sides
the sides. It
obtuse.
2.2.1.6B
lies
outside the triangle if one of the angles
is
Series for Linear Interpolation for Cosine
The cosine of the argument x (quadbe approximated by the series
Explanation.
rants)
is
to
cos -nxl2= CQ + Cj\xA
The range
is divided into 20 sub-ranges above and

below the values ,4=0-05 (2r+l) for r=0, 1,
., 9.
The greatest departure of the rounded-up approximation is one unit in the third place. With obvious
modifications the same numbers enter into the cal.
culation of
sin
ttx^Sq+S^x-AI
Fig. 2.2.2.1
Q
A
0-05
0-15
0-25
0-35
0-45
0-55
0-65
0-75
0-85
0-95
2.2.2.2.
Basic Formulae
(/) a/sin
C
*-o
(2)
x>A
x<A
0-9974
0-9729
0-9244
0-8531
0-7608
-0-1846
-0-4263
-0-6573
-0-8726
-1-0661
0-0617
0-3064
0-5436
0-7674
0-9723
0-6498
0-5228
0-3829
0-2336
0-0785
-1-2334
-1-3703
-1-4735
-1-5404
-1-5694
(3)
and Properties
A=b/sin B=cf sin C=2R.
a 2 =b 2 +c 2 -2bc cos
A+B+C=tt.
A,
etc.
A plane triangle is determined uniquely by

sides,
(ii)
two angles and one
side,
(iii)
two
(i)
three
sides
and
the included angle. There are two solutions in general
two
and one non-included angle are given.

two angles are given, there are infinitely
many similar triangles which have these angles, and
in them any two of the sides are determined in terms
if (iv)
sides
If (v) three or
1-1533
of the third.
1-3059
Any
1-4263
triangle
1-5116
two
three lengths can

if,
and only
if,
form the
the
sides of
sum of the
a plane
lengths of any
sides is greater than that of the third.

All problems connected with the complete solution
of a plane triangle can be solved in terms of (/), (2),
1-5597
39
'
2.2.
and (3) above. In special cases, however, there are

countless other derivative results of plane trigonometry
which will lead to an answer more rapidly than do
these formulae.
in spherical trigonometry
Polar Triangles
2.2.3.3.
S=\bc
(/)
sin A, etc.
S 2 =s(s-a)(s-b)(s-c).
S=\a 2 sin B sin C/sin A,
(2)
(3)
(4)
S=abc/4R.
(5)
S=rs.
(6) sin
Poles of the great circles which form the sides of the

spherical triangle ABC define the vertices of the polar
triangle A'B'C. A' is chosen as that pole of the great
circle BC which lies on the same side of it as does A,
Special Properties of the Plane Triangle
2.2.2.3.
and a similar convention is adopted in the choice of

B' and C".
The following relations then hold:
etc.
(7) If
is
A/2=(s-b)(s-c)/bc,
etc.
(2)
(7)
cos A/2=s(s-a)/bc,
(8)
r=(s-a) tan \A,
etc.
A'B'C is the polar triangle of ABC, the converse

also true.
A=7T-a', B=7T-b', C=tt-c'.

A' = TTa, B' = 7Tb, C'=TTC.
etc.
Right-angled Spherical Triangles
2.2.3.4.
Regular Convex Polygons, n
2.2.2.4.
R= radius
of circumscribed
r= radius of inscribed
Sides
There are ten formulae connecting the sides a, b, c

and the angles A, B of a triangle in which the angle C
is a right angle which may be derived from the basic
relations 2.2.3.2(7)-(5). These are:
(1) cos c= cos a cos b.
circle.
circle.
Angle subtended at centre by one side=27r/.

Exterior angle between sides=7r+27r/.
Interior angle between sides=7r 2-n/n.
Length of sides=L=27? sin n/n.
Radius of inscribed circle=r=R cos n/n.
Area of polygon=nrL/2=$nR 2 sin 2ir/n.
Perimeter =2i? sin tt/k.
(2)
2.2.3.1.
c=
cot
cot B.
(8)
a= sin c sin A.
sin b= sin c sin B.
tan a= tan c cos B.
tan b= tan c cos A.
tan a= sin b tan A.
tan b= sin a tan B.
(9)
cos
(4)
(5)
(6)
Trigonometry
Notation
(10) cos
In a spherical triangle the sides are great circles

surface of a sphere (radius R). The measures of
B=
A
cos b sin A.
cos a sin B.
All of these formulae can be remembered by means of

the diagram of Fig. 2.2.3.4(1) and the mnemonic
on the
the sides a, b, c are the angles subtended by the corresponding great circle at the centre of the sphere. The
known
as Napier's Rules.
The
circle is divided into
shown, and the unique radius is

labelled C (=90). The remaining five sides and angles
are placed round the circle in order, the complements
five parts
angles A, B,
are the angles between the planes
(passing through the centre of the sphere) which contain the sides of the spherical triangle.
cos
(3) sin
(7)
2.2.3. Spherical
can be solved by means of
the above fundamental formulae.
by
radii as
common
convention to consider only those

sides and angles are less than
rr.
The properties of all more general spherical triangles can be deduced from these.
It is
spherical triangles
2.2.3.2.
(j\
whose
Basic Formulae
sm
-A
sin
sin
a=
cos b cos
(2) cos
sin 2?_sin
A=
c+
sin
B cos C+
(3)
cos
(4)
tt<A+B+C<3tt.
cos
sin c
b sin c cos A,
sin
etc.
B sin C cos a,
etc.
spherical triangle is determined uniquely by (i)

three sides, (ii) three angles, (iii) two sides and their
included angle, and (iv) one side and the two adjacent
angles. There may be two solutions if (v) two sides and
one non-included angle are given, or if (vi) two angles
and one non-included side are given.
As in the case of plane trigonometry, all problems
Fig. 2.2.3.4(1)
40
2.2.
of the side and angles not adjacent to C being taken.

Napier's Rules then may be remembered as:
middle equals tAngents AdjAcent.

middle equals cOsines Opposite.
(a) sin
(b) sin
As
~ A =tan
)
-c
)
tan b '
*'
e tan * == tan c cos

*
b, i.e.
cos
c=
cos a cos b
is a right angle there are again ten

between the remaining sides and angles,
which may be obtained by considering the polar
triangle of that triangle used in deriving (1)-(10) above
and by dropping the primes.
If the side c
C= -
cos
l.
(1)
relations
(77) cos
sides and a
Thus, the solid angle subtended by
the whole sphere at the centre is 720 spherical degrees.
The ratio of the spherical degree to the steradian is
the same as the ratio of the angular degree to the
angular radian, i.e. 47r/720=27r/360=7r/l80.
vertex angle of
(6)
cos a cos
sin
two equal right-angled
triangle having
for example
sin
point is 4tt. The spherical degree is defined as the solid

angle subtended at the centre of a sphere by a spherical
The spherical excess

of a spherical triangle is
defined as the difference between the sum of the angles
of the spherical triangle and two right angles.
The area 27 of any spherical triangle in spherical
measure
measure.
A cos B.
is
equal to the spherical excess in angular
We have the three fundamental results

E=A+B+C-n
.-..(I)
Z=E
....(2)
S=ZR*=ER*
C=- cot a cot b.

sin A= sin C sin a.
(12) cos
(13)
the surface area of the spherical triangle in

square measure and all spherical and angular measures
are in radians.
B= sin C sin b.
A= tan C cos b.
tan i?=- tan C cos a.
tan A= sinB tan a.
tan B= sin ^4 tan b.
cos Z>= cos B sin a.
(14) sin
(15) tan
(16)
(77)
(75)
(19)
(20) cos
These
a=
cos
,4
....(3)
S is
where
Textbooks on spherical trigonometry, crystal measurement, spherical astronomy and navigation carry
formulae which may be of interest.
text specially
adapted to those familiar with crystallographic
techniques is given as reference [31].
sin .
of course, be written down directly

from Napier's Rules after substituting the polar angles
in the diagram of Fig. 2.2.3.4(1) or, alternatively, by
using the diagram of Fig. 2.2.3.4(2).
results can,
2.2.4.
Plane Analytic Geometry
The
results of this section apply to Cartesian coordinates only, except where noted. The results for
oblique systems are best expressed in vector or tensor
notation (see Section 2.4, page 52).
2.2.4.1.
Straight Line
(a) Intercept
Equation
x/a+y/b=l
where
-...(1)
b are the intercepts on the x and y axes

respectively. Valid also for oblique axes.
(b)
a,
Slope and Intercept Equation
y=qx+b
....(2)
where q= -b/a is the tangent of the angle which the line

makes with the axis of x, and b is the intercept on the
axis.
(c)
Perpendicular Equation
lx+my-p=0
l
Solid
+m
=l
(3a)
....(3b)
where p is a positive number equal to the length of the

perpendicular from the origin on to the line, and /
and
are the cosines of the angles which this perpendicular makes with the positive axes of x and
Fig. 2.2.3.4(2)
2.2.3.5.
Angle
The surface area of a sphere of radius R is AttR}.

The unit of solid angle (the solid radian or steradian)
respectively.
(d) Line through
defined as the solid angle subtended at the centre of a

sphere of unit radius by unit area on the surface of the
sphere. Thus, the total solid angle subtended at a
point by any surface which completely encloses that
is
The
Two
straight line
oblique systems
Points
through two points in Cartesian or
is
(x-xi)Kx2-Xi)=(y-yi)/(y2-yi)
41
.... (4)
2.2.
General Equation
(e)
The
(h)
general equation for a straight line
Area of a Triangle of Given Vertices
The area A of a
is
Ax+By+C=0
triangle with vertices
A=
This can be reduced to the special forms (l)-(3) above
by the
relations
which follow:
a= - C/A, b= - C/B, q=-A\B

and
if s is
the root
the sign of
is
C in (5)
and the
the sign being chosen to
.... (6)
is
make
.(16)
the area positive.
positive value of
Curves of the Second Degree
2.2.4.2.
taken:
l=-sA/V(A +B ),
m=~sB/V(A
p=sC/V(A 2 +B 2)
2
x^
xxy x l
x 2y 2 \
xsy3 l
....(5)
+B
Any
plane curve of the second degree is a conic

and can be reduced to one of nine standard
forms as indicated in Table 2.2.4.2.
),
section
....(7)
(/) Perpendicular Distance from a Point on to a Line
is
the distance
is
positive
if
P=lx x +my x -p
from the point x xy x
x1 y 1
is
on the
TABLE
....(8)
to the line (3a).
Reduction of General Quadratic
It
side of the line opposite to
a xx xx
-\-a 22
x2
that containing the origin.

(g) Intersection
The two
of Two Lines
S=
j> ),
is
the solution of
a12
022 032
31
011 012
>=
012 022
The co-ordinates
'"
a*
of the centre are given by
Da x = a31a 22 +a32a 12
Da 2 =a31 a12 - Z2a xl
i.e.
two equations are reduced to the form

lx x+m x y~p x =0)
l2 x+m 2 y-p 2 =Q)
The
(18a)
...,(18)
substitution
(3a), i.e.
=W +<x
i
then leads to
.(11)
0ii w;i
+022 M'2
+ 2 0i2W iW2+'S /i)=O

,
(19)
is:
x=(p xm 2 -p 2 m x)/(lx m 2 -l2m x))

The angle
a between the two lines

their normals, which is given by
lx l2
Note.
(15a)
A X B2 ~A 2 BX =Q
(15c)
lx
the two lines are parallel.
in sign
2.2.4.2 (continued).
Case
I.
When
signs are shown, corresponding signs
must be taken throughout. Thus in entry (1) below,

Ax and A 2 must be both plus or both minus and S must
have the opposite sign. In entry (7), Xx and 8 must
have opposite signs. When the two roots are opposite
(15b)
is
usually simpler.
If
+m m =\
m -l m =0
lx l2
but in numerical examples the matrix approach
.(13)
.... (14)
The quadratic terms in (17) or (19) can be reduced

sum of squares by the methods of 2.1.8.6. Literal
methods are given in many texts on analytic geometry,
to a
the angle between
+m m =0
lines are at right angles.
or equivalently
or
is
Reduction to Principal Axes

(l2)
a=lx l2 +m x m 2
cos
TABLE
ax2
Reduction to centre (Z)#0)
which
x =(B1 C2 -B2 Cx)/(A 1 B2 -A 2 B1 )\

y =(A 2 Cx -A x C2 )/(A 1 B2 -A 2 B1)j
Thus if
the two
011
these two equations simultaneously,
the solution
XiX 2 -\-2asiXi-{-2.a2 2 x 2 -{-a$$=\)
31 032 033
A x x+Bx y+Cx =0\

A 2 x+B2 y+C2 =0f
If the
-\-2,a X2
(17)
lines
intersect in the point (x
2.2.4.2
we have
arbitrarily
chosen Xx to be positive.
>#0.
Transform to centre and to principal axes: A 1 ^ 1 2 +A 2 >' 2 2 +5'/D=0

Ai
A2
+
+
+
+
2
3
S
=f
Standard
Form
Special Cases
Conic
X*/A 2 +Y*/B 2 =l
Ellipse
Circle
X*/A*+Y2/B 2 =-l
X2/A 2 -Y2/B 2 =l
X2/A 2 - Y2/B 2 -0
Imaginary ellipse
Hyperbola
Pair of intersecting real
Imaginary
X /A
Pair of imaginary lines
circle
lines
2
+ Y2/B 2 =0
with real intersection

(Continued on next page)
42
2.2.
TABLE
Case
II.
D=0;
2.2.4.2 (continued)
A 2 =0.
Transform to principal axes: ^y^+lv^+lv^yâ^-O.

linear term in y t by completing squares: \ 1 z1 2 +2v2 y 2 +8=0.
Remove
"2
#0
#0
Standard
Come
Form
Y 2 =4AX
Remarks
Remove
Parabola
by
7
X =A
X =-A
^0
constant term
of origin
shift
Pair of real parallel

lines
Pair of imaginary
parallel lines
2.2.4.3.
X =0
2
Pair of coincident lines
General Properties of Plane Curves
where p is a positive number equal to the length of the

perpendicular from the origin on to the plane, and
/, m, n are the cosines of the angles which this line
makes with the positive x, y, z axes respectively.
In general, a real straight line intersects a real curve

of the wth degree in n points.
If the equation of the curve is given in the form
Plane through Three Points
(c)
and xQ y be a point on the curve, the tangent to the

curve at jc y will be the line
The equation of
XtyiZi is given
y ~ y _ i dy \
x-x
x y z
xi y x z 1
X 2 y-L Z 2
x3 y$ z3
\dx)
If the equation of the curve
is
expressed in the form
<Kx,y)=0
the equation of the tangent at the point (x
will
the plane through three points
by the determinant
be
*-*> +
^(S)
=0
,(3)
The General Equation
(d)
The general equation

(
for the plane
Ax+By+Cz+D=0
The radius of curvature p of a plane curve is given by
can be reduced to the special forms
(4)
(1)
and
(2)
by the
following relations
a~-DjA,
and
2.2.5. Solid Analytic
Geometry
The results of this section apply in general only to

Cartesian co-ordinates except where noted. The results
(e)
The Plane
(a) Intercept
the sign of
is
a, b, c are the intercepts
respectively.
(b)
D in (4) and the positive value of
P=~lx x -Ymy x +nz x -p

is
....(1)
on the
x, y, z axes
Valid also for oblique axes.
(7)
from the point x x y x z x to the plane (2a).

if the point (x^z^ is on the side of the
the distance
plane opposite to that containing the origin.
(/) Angle between Two Planes
Perpendicular Equation
lx+my+nzp=0
2
2
2
l +m +n =l
(5)
Perpendicular Distance from a Point on to a Plane
It is positive
where
taken
Equation
xja+yjb+zjc=l
l=-sA/V(A 2 +B*+C*), m=-sB/V(A 2 +B*+C*),

n=-sC/V(A 2 +B 2 +C 2 )
and
p~sDJV(A 2 +B 2 +C 2)
....(6)
for oblique systems are best expressed in vector or

tensor notation.
2.2.5.1.
if s is
the root
c= - D/C.
b=-D/B,
The planes
..(2a)
/1
..(2b)
l2
43
x+m j+ z-/7
x+m y+n z-p
1
=0j
=0j
2.2.
an angle 6 given by the angle between

outward normals, i.e.
intersect at
The planes
+m m +n n = 1
2
intersect at right angles if

I1
l2+m 1 m2+n 1 n2=0
m nx
where
lx
The
by
shortest distance between the
(9c)
etc.,
The Line
m
m
The specification of a line in three dimensions involves two linear equations, i.e. the equations of any
two planes which intersect in the line (cf. (8) above).
Line through
Two
The condition
(c)
that the
lines
be coplanar
(e)
xiyî
is
V of a
tetrahedron whose vertices are
given by
xx y x zx
whose direction cosines are proportional

given by
6F=
define a line
v=A 1B2~A 2 B1
x,
2.2.5.3.
....(13)
and one form for the equation of this
x-(B1 D 2 -B2D1)fv y+(A 1 D 2 -A 2 D )/v

1
An
line is
....(20)
1
Surfaces of the Second Degree
analysis of the general equation of the second
degree is given in Table 2.2.5.3, together with the

standard forms for the 16 types of surfaces which can
~-W
ti
....(19)
n2
^2 72 %2
*3 73 Z3
*4 74 *4
....(18)
Volume of a Tetrahedron
The volume
p=C A 2 -C A
then
is
=
l2
.(12)
is
xxx yy x zzx
v are in fact the direction
The General Equation for a Line
^=BX C2 B2 CX
=0
and the equation for the common plane
The two planes
to A, n, v
two
(i7)
(ZiWa-ZaWi)
-x2) (yi-72) {zx -z 2)

nx
x
m%
n2
h
.... (1 1)
A x x+Bx y+Cx z+D x =0}

A 2x+B2 y+C2z+D2=0j
line are pro-
(i/2 -2î)
a line through xx y xzx in a direction given by A/zi>,

which are proportional to the direction cosines Imn of
1, A, fi,
....(16)
that
is
the line. If A 2 +/* 2 +v 2 =

cosines of the line.
a
c
a Given Direction
(x-xj/^y-yj/^z-zj/v
lines is given
V(A 2 +/* 2 +v 2)
nx
n2
(AM^g-WaWi)
.(10)
in
two
and the direction cosines of this shortest

A, /x, v, given by
Points
Line through One Point
portional to
(x-xj/(x 2 -xj=(y-yj)/(y a -yj=(z-zj/(zt -zj
(b)
are direction cosines.
A
(a)
'
(x x -x2 ) (y1 -y 2) (z x -z2 )

lx
2.2.5.2.
(9b)
lines
(x-x 1)//1 =(>;-^ 1)/w 1 =(z-z 1)/ 1

(x-xj/l2 =(y-yj/m 2 =(z-zj/nj
(9a)
are parallel if
lx l2
and they
Properties of Two Lines
(#*)
Consider the
1 m + 11^2
6= 1^+
cos
their
arise.
TABLE
2.2.5.3
Reduction of General Conicoid

^ll'^'l
#22-^2 ~r#33^3 "T-"î2^l^2 '"^23 ^2^3~'~^^31-^3'^1

,
11 #12 031
'
2XX4X
XX
-f"
#41
#12 #22 #23 #42
^#42-^2 ~r ^#43-^3 "t" #44 == vJ
.(21)
a xx aXi #31
aX2 #22 #23
D=
31 #23 #33 #43

#31 #23 #33
#41 #42 #43 #44
Reduction to Centre (D#0)
The co-ordinates
ct t
of the centre are given by
cc
= (aÂ^+aÂ^+aÂ^j D
- (anA X2 +a42 A2 2 +a43 A2 3)/D

(#41^31+#42^23+#43^33)/-D
co-factor of a i5 in D. The substitution x =w +a then leads to
2
2
3
U H;l +#22W'2 + a33W 3 + 2#12 M;lW 2+ 2a 23 M M;3+2#3lH 3H'i+5'/Z)=0
<*%=
<*3=
in
which A u
is
the
'2
....(22)
44
2.2.
TABLE
2.2.5.3 (continued)
Reduction to Principal Axes
The quadratic terms
in either (21) or (22)
can be reduced to a sum of squares by the methods of Section
2.1.8.6 (page 13).
Note. When signs are shown, corresponding signs must be taken throughout. Thus in entries (1) and (2)
below the three A's must have the same sign. When the roots differ in sign A x is arbitrarily taken as positive and
A3 taken as negative. A2 may then have either sign. An asterisk indicates that the corresponding quantity may
take any value irrespective of the signs of other entries but subject to the other conditions specified. Thus in
entries (5) and (6) D may have any non-zero value. In entries (11) and (14) 8 may have any value.
Case
I.
D#0.
Transform to centre and to principal axes: A1 j 1 2 +A 2 j; 2 2 +A3j;3 2 +5/Z)=0.

Ax
A2
A3
Standard
X /A +Y /B +Z /C
=F
Form
2
Conicoid
=l
Special Cases
Ellipsoid
Prolate or oblate
X jA + Y /B 2 +Z IC 2 =-l
Imaginary ellipsoid
Imaginary spheroids
X // +Y /B -Z /C
Hyperboloid of one
Hyperboloid of revo-
spheroid; sphere
2
or sphere
2
X /A
X /A + Y /B -Z /C
X /A + Y /B +Z /C
=l
sheet (unparted)
+ Y2/B 2 -Z 2/C 2 = - 1
lution (unparted)
Hyperboloid of two
Hyperboloid of revo-
sheets (parted)
=0
2 =0
2
Cone
lution (parted)
Circular cone
Imaginary cone with
Three unnamed
real vertex
Case
II.
D=0;
special cases
A 3 =0.
Transform to principal axes: A1j1 2 +A 2}>2 2 +2i>1 j;1 +2v2>'2 +2i'3}>3 +^=0.
Reduce linear terms by completion of squares: A 1z 1 2 +A 2 z2 2 +2i'3y3+S=0.
Case Ha. v3 ^0.

Reduce to form: A 1 z1 2 +A 2 z2 2 +2v3z3 =0 by
7
8
Case
Ai
A2
Standard
shift
of origin of yz to vertex of paraboloid.
Form
Conicoid
X /A +Y JB =2Z
X \A -Y \B =2Z
2
Elliptic paraboloid
Hyperbolic paraboloid
Special Cases
Paraboloid of revolution
116: v,=0.
A2
9
10
11
12
+
+
13
O-
=F
Standard
Form
Conicoid
X /A +Y /B =l
X /A +Y /B =~l
X /A -Y /B
X /A - Y /B
Hyperbolic cylinder
Pair of real intersecting
Special Cases
Elliptic cylinder
Circular cylinder
Imaginary
Imaginary circular
elliptic cylinder
cylinder
=l
=0
X /A
planes
2
+ Y2/B 2 =0
Pair of imaginary planes with

real line
of intersection
45

2.2.
TABLE
Case
III:
D=0;
2.2.5.3 {continued)
A 2 =A3 =0.
Transform to principal axes: X^+lv^^lv^y^lv^^dÔ.

Reduce linear term in y by completion of the square and the remaining terms by the substitution z2 =v2 y2 +v3 y3
and obtain A 1z1 2 +2v 2 z 2 +S=0.
Ax
VZ
^0
^0
15
16
14
2.2.5.4.
Standard
Form
Conicoid
Y2 =4AZ
Y2 =A 2
Parabolic cylinder
Pair of real parallel planes
Pair of coincident planes
72=0
General Properties of Surfaces
to the facially regular solids by the principle of
whereby vertices and faces are interchanged.

The rhombic dodecahedron is the one example of a
duality,
In general, a real straight line intersects a real surface of the nth degree in n points.
If the equation of the surface is given in the form
"vertex-regular" solid of special significance crystallographically. It
<j>(x,
y,
z)=0
is
may be
found in references [32] and [33].
For all convex polyhedra Euler's theorem states that
V+F=E+2, where V, F, E are respectively the number
of vertices, faces and edges.
the equation of the tangent plane at the point JtcVoô

(on the surface) will be
=0
In the Tables,
is
made
given
Cartesian
in
most important
co-ordinates for the vertices.
to advanced textbooks of analytical
geometry.
2.2.5.5.
are
dimensions are given in terms of a simple choice of

These dimensions are
expressed (both operationally and in decimals) in
terms of the units chosen for the vertices. The coordinates of the vertices and dimensions are also
similarly specified for polyhedra of unit edge, and in
detailed discussion of the properties of surfaces,
reference
vertices
co-ordinates. In each polyhedron the
....(23)
For
the dual of the cuboctahedron.
detailed discussion of various polyhedra
Properties of Regular Solids (In collaboraBrown and H, D. Megaw)
cases (c) to (g) for unit distance
tion with P. J.
From centre to
vertex.
convex polyhedron is said to be regular if its faces

are regular and equal, while its vertices are all sur-
TABLE
rounded alike. There are five regular convex polyhedra,

the so-called Platonic solids. These are the tetrahedron,
cube, octahedron, icosahedron and pentagonal dodecahedron. While the icosahedron and pentagonal
dodecahedron are not crystallographic solids, they are
of importance in crystal structure problems since the
neighbouring atoms of a given atom may occur in
(a)
Cube
V~%,F=6, =12
Dihedral angle=90
(1,1,1)
Vertices
these configurations.
polyhedron is said to be facially regular if every

a regular polygon, though the faces are not all
of the same kind, and if the faces are arranged in the
same order round each vertex. There are thirteen such
solids, and only one example
the cuboctahedron
is described here. Also there are thirteen polyhedra
which are regular in respect to their vertices and in
each of which the faces are equal. These are related
face
2.2.5.5
Dimensions of Regular Solids
Edge
is
..
Face diagonal
Body diagonal
Area of face
Volume
2V2
2V3
(1/2, 1/2, 1/2)

1
V2
V3
46
2.2.
TABLE
2.2.5.5 (continued)
(b)
Tetrahedron
F=4, F=4,
E=6
Dihedral angle=70 32'
(1,1,1) (1,-1,-1)
Vertices
\2V2' 2V2' 2V2/ \2V2' 2^2' 2V2/
(-1, 1,-1) (-1,-1,
1)
\2V2 2V2' 2V2/ \2V2' 2^2 2V2J
Centre to mid edge

Centre to centre of face
Centre to vertex
1/(2 V2)
1/V3
1/(2V6)
V(3/8)
Edge
2V2
V6
0-57735
1-73205
2-82843
0-81650
2-44949
4/V3
2V3
V3
Mid edge to centre of face

Mid edge to vertex
Mid edge to opposite mi d
.
edge
Height (vertex to centre
c>f
V(2/3)
0-35355
0-20412
0-61237
1/V2
0-28868
0-86603
0-70711
2-30940
V(2/3)
0-81650
3-46410
2-66667
(V3)/4
1/(6V2)
0-43301
0-11785
l/(2\/3)
(V3)/2
opposite face)
Area of face
Volume
8/3
(c)
Octahedron
V=6,F=8,E=12
Dihedral angle=109 28'
(1,0,0)
Vertices
(0,
1,0)
(0,0,
Edge
Centre to vertex
Centre to mid edge
Mid edge to near vertex
Mid edge to distant vertex
Area of face
.
Volume
1)
V2
1-41421
1/V2
1/V2
1/V3
0-70711
0-57735
1-22474
1-58114
0-86603
1-33333
0-70711
0-50000
V(3/2)
V(5/2)
(V3)/2
4/3
1/2
1/V6
0-40825
(V3)/2
(V5)/2
(V3)/4
(V2)/3
0-86603
1-11803
0-43301
0-47140
47
2.2.
TABLE
(d)
2.2.5.5 {continued)
Rhombic Dodecahedron
F=14, F=\2, =24
Dihedral angle= 120
(6 Tetragonal
(1,0,0)(0, 1,0) (0,0, 1)
Vertices
j
18 Trigonal
(-L, .L,
(1/2, 1/2, 1/2)
Centre to tet. vertices

Centre to trig, vertices
Centre to centre of faces
Edge
(trig. vert,
to
1/V2
1/2
0-86603
0-70711
0-86603
0-70711
0-50000
1/V2
0-70711
1/V2
tet. vert.)
Centre of face to tet. vert.

Centre of face to trig. vert.
Area of face
(V3)/2
Volume
(e)
V3
M
V3/
1-15470
2/V3
(V3)/2
.
V3
V(2/3)
0-81650
0-81650
0-57735
0-94281
3-07920
V(2/3)
1/V3
(2V2)/3
16/(3V3)
Regular (pentagonal) Dodecahedron
V=2Q, F=12, =30

Dihedral angle= 11 6 34'
(o,
I > .)
(-K)
(4-4)
(
(
(44)
(1, 1, 1)
(1, 1, i\
Ur,0)
T
,
2/
W3
V3
0,
V3/
tV3/
V3
Vertices!
,o)
V3
V3
V3/
Edge
tV3
1-23607
0-71364
rV3
ti/3
Centre to vertex
V3
1-73205
1-61803
-40126
T2
Centre to mid edge
0-93417
V3
5l74
1-37638
2(5
53/4
5 3/4
4rV5
f T
l/i
'
1-11352
0-79465
'V3
53/4
T 3/2
0-87622
tV5
14-47214
=!db^ = 1-61803;
1-72048
2-62866
Area of face
T 3/2
T 5/2
T 3/2
Volume
1-30902
t 1;
t 2 =t+1;
15
At
7-66312
2-78516
3
t\/5=t2.
{Continued on next page)
48
2.2.
TABLE
2.2.5.5 {continued)
(f )
Icosahedron
V=\2,F=20,E= 30
Dihedral angle= 138 12'
(-H)
Vertices!
(4'i)
s^w
Centre to mid edge
_U
1-17557
T 3/2
0-93417
V3
VI
0-43301
0-66158
T2
(g)
0-79465
'V3
t\/
'
4-12023
3t
V5
fr=+^=1-61803;
4(5 1
2-18169
6
0-85065
51/4
20
Volume
Vr
1
2V3
4
51/4
0-95106
0-75576
Area of face
-J_ 0)
S^yV
51 '4
1-05146
Vr\
0,
1-23607
0-80902
Centre to vertex
Vl,
(Î,
(i.,il.0)
K4)
Edge
1,0, 1)
_L_\
(0,
0-47873
5
)V^
2-53615
l/r=r-l; r 2 =r+l; rV5=r+2.
Cuboctahedron
F=12, ^=14, =24

Dihedral angle= 125
(0,
Vertices
.A
16'
1, 1)
(0,
I
(1,0, 1)
to vertex
to
mid edge
to centre of square face

to centre of triangular
.
Volume
0,
V2J
V2
V2
V2
V2
1-41421
1-41421
V(3/2)
1-22474
(V3)/2
2/V3
1-15470
V(2/3)
0-86603
0-70711
0-81650
1/V2
1/V3
0-70711
0-57735
face
Vertex to centre of square face

Vertex to centre of triangular face
Area of square face
Area of triangular face
V2
U, J_, o\
(1, 1,0)
Centre
Centre
Centre
Centre
VV
V2
u,
\
Edge
J_ _L\
V(2/3)
2
0-81650
2
0-86603
6-66667
(V3)/2
20/3
49
1/V2
(V3)/4
5(V2)/3
0-43301
2-35702
Differential
2.3.
and Integral Calculus
2.3.1. Differential Calculus
and Notations
(a) Definitions
(1)
(14)
WJWfa Wdv
dx
dyldx=df(x)ldx=Um {f(x+h)-f(x)}/h
du dx
dv dx
d2 V
V_dd 2 V/du\
h->0
(2)
and u=fx (x,y) and v=f2 (x,y)\
If V=<f>(u,v)
dx 2
df(x,y,z)/dy= Um{f(x,y+h,z)-f(x,y,z)}/h, etc.
d 2 Vldv\
Vl dv\
^d 2 V dudv
dudvdxdx
dVdû dVd*v
du \dxj
dv \dx)
= {m
W j*L=(m
dxdy 8x[dy) dy[dx)
{4)
,etC
etc
dv
\dx du
dx dv)\du dx
dv dx
tdu jPV_(dvdu
ÎL^ÎX^^.
^Ll^l^f f^?\
c
du 2 dx dy
dudv\dx dy
dx dy
d^Vdvdv dV
d 2u
dv 2 dx dy
d(u+v)/dx=^+^.
/s\
(6)
i/
\
d(uv)/dx=u+v.
i
dv
du
dx
dx
dv dxdy
(9)}
V
4fdû dY/du)
2 =^. r-rr+jiZ/^fV
2
d
ajKU),ax
f(u)/dx:2=
du d
du 2\ dx )
,,_.
(17)
(18)
<f>'(y)=d<f>/dy, etc.:
dyfdx=-^; d2y/dx 2 =-<f>"(y)/[<f>'(y)Y

and
(19)
<f>\d
dx
f" dx 2
ae a *.
da u
du.
dx
dx
dx =
;
In a.
cos x.
=-sinjt.
dx
(20)
sec 2 x.
dx
f'f -ft'
[/']*
'
(d) Taylor's Series
lff(x,y)=0:
(2/)/(*0+ A)-/(*o)+A
dfi dx
() o 4;(g) o+
dftdy
d 2f/df\
d*y
a"
dtanx
y=<f>(t):
dy
d
(n\
KU) y_
dx
dx
dx
and
^- =nx n-\
de ax
(16) ,
dMldx=Ju Jx
If x=f(t)
dv dy)'
Derivatives of Simple Functions
(15)
dx)
(8)
du dxdy
d2v
dx n
dx
If x=<f>(y)
dx dv) \du dy
\dx du
(7) d(u/v)/dx=
dV
dx dx
(c)
(70)
dv dx 2
'
Basic Forms
(5)
2+
dj\(dVdu 8Vdv
(dud^
dxdy
(b)
du dx
8 2f
8J(8fY
8f8[
lff(x) and its derivatives are finite and continuous

within the range x -h<x<x +h, then the series (21)
8x8y dx 8y
8x \8y)
n\\dx n )
dy \dx)
differs
dx 2
from f(x) by an amount no greater than
R n+l
where
n n+l
Mn+1
Rn+1=
If y=f(u,v)
(13)
and
u=<f>(x)
and
where
dy^du + ^Zdv
8u dx
dx
dv dx
d 2y _d 2y Idu \
dx
8u \dx )
(^Tji
n+1 within the range.
n+1 is the upper bound of/
v=0(jc):
(22)
8 2y du dv
dudv dx dx
^y(dv\ 2
2!\
d2 u dy d 2 v
du dx 2
f(x +u,y +v)^f(x y )+(u-+v-\

2
d f .
1 / .d
l
u 2ll-2+
+ 2uv
dv 2 \dx)
dy
dv dx 2
dx
-lu + v)f(x y
'
nl\ dx
50
d 2f\
d 2Jf
+ v2 2 +
+V
dy ),
dxdy
dy/o
2.3.
DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
This series represents f(x,y) within the range to an

accuracy i? +1 where i?w+1 is less than or equal to the
upper bound in the range of the first omitted term.
2tt
\e imxdx=0
(4)
(mÔ),
=2tt (w=0).
J
oo
(e)
Differentiation
C sinx
..
of an Integral
(5
(23)y-jf(x)dx;
dx=
-.
^=/(*).
a
b
(24)
y=jf(x,u)dx;
~J^-
(25)
^/[^T^T
&- [^dx+v(Xl ,)^-v(x ,A
y= Ux,)dx;
da
da
da.
da
x.
*,()
For further
tables of derivatives see
[2], [6]-[9].
o
00
2.3.2. Integral Calculus
Indefinite Integrals
2.3.2.1.
impossible within the scope of these tables to

give a list of indefinite integrals which is extensive
It is
enough to be of
For such
value.
lists
00
,n
(7
'
see the biblio-
to
.^
(2w)!
/^
2 Zn+1 a nn\sJ a
graphy.
(7.2)
Definite Integrals
2.3.2.2.
Jx^*-,.^-.
The following definite integrals are of sufficient

frequency of occurrence in crystallographic calculations to merit listing here.
Z
2.
00
sin"
(1)
x dx=
cos"
dx
jc
(7.0
J*V-*r-l^.
1.3.5... (-1)tt
(n even)
2.4.6
Transform of any function is known,

doubly infinite range is
also known from the obvious formulae
If the Fourier
its definite
2.4.6... (n-l)
(
1.3.5.7
odd)
integral over the
n
00
2w
2ir
/(0)=
sin"
(2)
x dx=
cos"
jc
dx=0
(n
odd)
lit
(n even)
For
2ir
sin
mx sin nx dx=
mx cos nx dx
also
[2],
=0
(m#n),
=7T
sin /mjc cos
nx dx=Q
(all
any textbook of the
[6]-[9].
The
integral calculus
and
basic tabulation of definite
is
[34].
definite integrals
(m=w)
2*r
Transforms see
For methods for the evaluation of

by contour integration see any text
on the theory of functions of a complex variable, e.g.
[12] and [13].
integrals
tables of Fourier
references in connection with Section 2.3.2
generally, see
cos
F(0)=
\f(x)dx
-!'
[62]-[66].
2.4.6... n
(3)
and
(u)du
For references to
1.3.5...(-1)
2w
w, n)
t
51
For general formula
see [13], Chapter VI,- Misc. Ex. 13.
2.4.

from a to b about c. There are again two
standard notations for the vector product
2.4.1. Definitions
rotation
a quantity which is denned by its magnitude (a single number) in a space of n dimensions.

sign may also be allotted to a scalar.
A vector is a quantity which is defined by its direction
and magnitude. In n dimensions, n numbers are
scalar
is
required for
its
requires n p
definition in n dimensions.
and a
numbers for
vector
is
scalar a zero order tensor.
should be avoided
not commute, i.e.
its
(5)
The magnitude a= \a\ of a vector a
(c)
tf2
=
|
is
a |2 =aa
defined by
....(6)
The
multiplication of a vector a by a scalar s

a vector of magnitude sa in the same direction
although the sense of sa will be opposite to that
(d)
result
The vector product does
axb=bxa=c
order
second
order tensor will in general express the relationship

between two vectors, and in general a tensor of order/?
will express relationship between two tensors of lower
order/?! and/> 2 such ihatp=p 1 +p 2 Detailed definitions
of some of the many types of tensors are given in
Section 2.4.4 (page 54).
Many techniques have been suggested for handling
the mathematics of vectors and of tensors, and there
has been considerable controversy as to their relative
merits. Some vector properties can be stated without
reference to any co-ordinate system (2.4.2). However,
in almost all calculations involving vectors reference
must ultimately be made to a co-ordinate system. Of
the many techniques developed for handling vectors
and second order tensors the two most fruitful have
been the dyadics of Willard Gibbs and the tensor
analysis of Ricci and Levi-Civita. The calculations
which
if possible.
first
(4)
Occasionally the redundant notation [ax b] is convenient if a and b are themselves composite, but it
definition.
tensor of order
tensor,
axb=[ab]=-c
results in
as a,
of a
if s is negative.
The
(e)
a vector
simplest type of vector
may represent any
is
a displacement, but
directed quantity such as a
velocity, acceleration, force, field, etc.
However, any
may
be represented by a displacement.
The
addition
or subtraction of two vectors follows
(f)
the parallelogram law for displacements. The magnitude of the sum of two vectors a+b=c is given by
vector
c 2 = \a+b\ 2 =a 2 +b 2 +2ab cos 6
The
(g)
scalar triple product of three vectors abc
from such methods can be included in
a.[bc]=v
matrix analysis (Section 2.1.8, page 11).

For a historical summary see [39].
.... (7)
is
....(Sa)
where
v=abc(\ cos 2 a cos 2 jS cos 2
y+2 cos a cos /? cos y)*

....(86)
2.4.2. Absolute
Vector Analysis
and a, j3, y are respectively the angles between b and c,

c and a, and a and b. The sign allotted to v is + if
a, b, c taken in order form a right-handed system and
if they form a left-handed system. The volume of
the parallelepiped bounded by the three vectors a, b, c
Some results of vector analysis can be expressed

without reference to any co-ordinate system.
(a) The scalar product of two vectors a and b, of
magnitudes a and b respectively, is the scalar quantity
a.b=(ab)=ab cos 6
is Ivl.
(1)
a. [be]
the forward directions of the two vectors make an

angle 6 with one another.
The "dot" notation and the "parenthesis" notation
are used interchangeably in these tables and are both
if
in current use in the literature.
commutative,
The
We thus have
= b. [ca] =c.[ab]=-a. [cb] =-c. [ba] =b. [ac]
(8c)
The
simplified notation (abc)
scalar product is
(h)
i.e.
The
there are
(ab)=(ba)
is
often used for this
product.
vector triple product
is
non-associative,
and
two important forms:
....(2)
ax
The vector product of two vectors a and A is a

vector c at right angles to both a and b, in the sense
that a, b, c taken in that order form a right-handed
system, i.e. a right-handed rotation through an angle
less than 180 in the direction c takes a into b. The
magnitude c of the vector c is given by
= (ca)b- (ab)c
.... (9a)
c=(ca)b-(bc)a
.... (9b)
[be]
(b)
[ab] x
(i)
where the angle
6 is
sin
scalar four-fold product
is
expandable as
[ab].[cd]=(ac)(bd)-(ad)(bc)
(/')
c=ab
The
(3)
The
vector four-fold product has

[ab]
two expansions:
x [cd]=(abd)c(abc)d
=(cda)b-(cdb)a
measured as a right-handed
52
.... (10)
....(11)
2.4.
(k)
The
VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS
Any
solution of vector equations presents special

by the following examples
vector
x can then be
features which are indicated
The equation
(ab)=0
where
a=(ab)b/(bb)
will
be
....(Mb)
(xy)=x yj gij
(abc)=0
....(14)
aa+j8*+yc=0
....(18)
....(13a)
case the three vectors are linearly dependent, and

have a relation of the type
where
(,) =;;
If the second vector h
is
where
we
then
(18a)
expressed in the form
*=W
....(19)
hi=(ha^)
(19a)
(hx)=hiXi
....(20)
(14a)
2.4.3.3.
However, the constants a, , y are not determined by

(14) and must follow from the known properties of the
b,
same form
Their scalar product will then be
implies either that one or more of the vectors abc is

zero or that all three lie in the same plane. In the latter
vectors a,
(17a)
in the
....(13)
implies that either a or b or both are zero vectors, or

that a and b are collinear (0=0), and hence that
The equation
(17)
x* =(*<*,*)
and a second vector y written
y=y<a
[ab]=0
form
x=Xiai
....(12)
implies that either a or b or both are zero vectors, or

that a and b are orthogonal (0=7r/2).
The equation
written in the
Cartesian Base Systems
form a right-handed system

and are chosen with unit magnitude and orthogonal to
one another, such a system e is referred to as a
If the three base vectors
c as in (13a).
Cartesian or orthonormal base

2.4.3.
Base Systems and
their Reciprocal
Systems
Although the many results of 2.4.2 are of great

and importance, almost all of them
require use of the methods of analytical vector analysis
in their proofs and in their applications. Such methods
make use of the fact that in three dimensions any
vector can be expressed as a sum of three non-zero
non-coplanar vectors. Three such vectors are chosen
as base, and all other vectors under discussion are
It
has
the
( 21 )
(e<e t )=Su
theoretical interest
and
it is its
Any
own
vector
reciprocal base system.
is
expandable in the form
jc=x^
x =(xe
with
and
(22)
(22a)
t)
the scalar product of any
two vectors
is
(xy)=xi y i
expressed in terms of this base.

2.4.3.1.
system.
properties
(23)
For the vector product of two vectors we use the
Summation Convention
[&] = =-[&]
In the following sections we shall make use of the

convention that any repeated index implies summation
over that index for all dimensions, i.e.
result
....(24)
and we have
[xy]=(x2 y 3 -x3y 2 )e 1 +(x3y 1 -x1 y3)e 2 +(x1 y 2 -x2 y 1)e 3
....(25)
x yt = ^x y ^x1 y 1 +x 2 y 2 +x3y 3
t
2.4.3.4.
If repeated indices occur in
which summation
is
not
implied, this fact will be specially noted. In the sections

on tensor analysis (2.4.4) a further specialization of
this
The
<f>
(*a,*)=8,
where 8^ is the Kronecker

have the solution
delta.
and the vector
The equations
<f>,
z of the point
(1 6a)
... .(26)
be written
<f>
e x +s sin
r.R=sS cos
and
may
(f>
e 2 +ze 3
.(27)
The scalar product of this vector with a second vector

R whose co-ordinates are 5", 0, Z will clearly be
(15)
inverse
= k***]/(l*2*3*)
f=s cos
....(15)
a* = [aja^Ka&a^
s,
x x =s cos
x 2 =s sin $
x 3 =z
General Base Systems

,
its
cylindrical co-ordinates
are defined by the relations
Consider the base system ^ consisting of the three

non-coplanar vectors a lt a 2 a 3 It is then possible to
define a set of reciprocal vectors a,* such that
and
and polar co-ordinates are usually de-
fined in terms of a Cartesian base system.
convention will be made.
2.4.3.2.
Cylindrical and Polar Co-ordinates
Cylindrical
the lengths of these vectors will be obtained
r 2 =s 2 +z 2
... (16ft)
53
.... (28)
(<P-<f>)+zZ
and
R 2 =S 2 +Z 2
respectively.
The
from
distance
2.4.
between the two end points off and R is obtained from
(r-R)*=s*+S*-2sS cos (<P-<f>)+(z-Z) 2
Thus a given vector x is expressed

form
co-ordinate system.
in terms of the base system a t in the
.... (29)
x=x ai
{
while the volume element in these co-ordinates
dV=sdsd<f>dz
The usual ranges

0<<I)<2it;
....(30)
6,
of the point
<j>
are
<f>
<f>
e x +r sin 6 sin
<f>
e 2 +r cos 8 e 3
@+
sin 6 sin
@ cos
(#-<)]
....(32)
distance between the end points of r and
dummy indices.
for
It is possible to
dummy indices
at will.
Let us write
bi=<*i
(33)
for the transformation
while the volume element
The usual ranges
tion
....(34)
.,..(2a)
The
A,.
....(2b)
'
2.4.3.5.
fc
<W=V (=0, i*j;
The Physical Dimensions associated with
Base Systems
H)
and
is
-(3a)
....(3b)
notation clear it is worth while to

write out the matrix expressions for (3a) and (3b) in
full, i.e.:
'
a x x ax 2 a x 3
a^ a 2 2 a 2 3
_a3 1 a 3 2 a 3 3
_
In such a system the components of a vector

have the same physical dimensions as the vector itself.
Thus the components of a vector displacement will
also be displacements and the components of a force
will also have the dimensions of a force.
In setting up a general system a t in crystallography
it is customary to choose the vectors a, as possessing
the dimensions of length (A or kX). If a vector x is a
displacement, its components x { as given by (17a) will
be pure numbers. Similarly if the vector h of (19) has
dimensions of a reciprocal length, its components
given by (19a) will again be pure numbers.
nitude.
Pi
'Pi
ft
fz
1
1
&
Pz
Pi
A,
2
"10
,(3a')
Pz\
and
'
1
"ft
&
Pz
1
1
Pi
Pi
P 2 * ft*
Pz
Pz
ax 2 a x 3
a2x a2 2 a2 3
_a3 1 a 3 2 a 3 3
_
"10
aj 1
,(3b')
Thus in (3a) the subscript / is the first index of [a,*]

and corresponds to the matrix row in (3a'). The superscript k is the second index, and this fact is indicated
by the space which is left over the subscript i. The
superscript k thus corresponds to the matrix column
in the matrix [a/]. The order of the terms is chosen
to correspond to the summation implied in matrix
multiplication (cf. 2.1.8.2), which requires that the
column index of the pre-factor corresponds to the row
Tensor Analysis
The
basic notion of tensor analysis is that any

physical or geometrical quantity must have expression
in
a,*
To make our
In setting up a Cartesian base system e { it is usual

to choose the base vectors in a given set of orthogonal
directions and to allot to each a unit numerical mag-
2.4.4.
=1,
AV=V
and
then be
a< will
where the matrix j8 is the inverse matrix to

related to it by the equations (cf. 2.1.8.4)
0<e<ir;0<(f><27T.
a,
inverse transforma-
from the system b { to the system

a k =p k
for these variables are 0<r<<x>;
ak
from the base vector system
to the base vector system
is
dK=/- 2 sin0drd0dc
Such indices are called

change the letters used
in the contravariant position.
is
obtained from
(r-R)*=r 2 +R 2 -2rR[cos 0cos @

+ sin sin cos ($-)]
transform as do the reciprocal base vectors. Such

quantities are said to be contravariant.
Summation will always be implied for pairs of
repeated indices, and these will now always occur with
one member of a pair in the covariant and the other
The scalar product of this vector with a second vector

R whose polar co-ordinates are R, , will be
6 cos
components x\ y indicate that these quantities
the
....(31)
rR=rR[cos
....(lb)
in the
In expression (1) we have used subscripts for the

base vectors to indicate that they transform in the same
way as base vectors. We shall use subscripts for all
quantities which transform in this manner. These we
call covariant quantities. The superscripts attached to
<f>
may be written
sin 6 cos
expressed in terms of the
two systems must be so

related to the base vectors a it b { as to make the two
expressions (la) and (lb) equivalent expressions for
the same vector.
l
r,
is
x=y%
The co-ordinates x y
,
and the vector
The
for these variables are 0<s<<x>;
xx =r sin 9 cos
x 2 =r sin 6 sin
x 3 =r cos 6
#=/
while the same vector

system A, in the form
co<z<co.
The polar co-ordinates

defined by the relations
(la)
is
index of the post-factor. This ordering
a form which remains invariant under a change of

54
is
not required
2.4.
by the tensor notation but is used here to emphasize

wherever possible the relationship of the tensor notation to the matrix notation.
We now write down (without proof) the corresponding transformations for the reciprocal triples,
and
its
rules
B =a
ti
A''=W
....(4a)
a*='a t *
....(4b)
must
(4a)
if
is
to be
be expressed in terms of
variant components
this case the
and (4b) imply that b and

one another. Note that
and
and (2b) the covariant base vectors are represented as column symbols in the matrix notation, since
they appear as a post-multiplier, while in (4a) and (4b)
the contravariant or reciprocal base vectors appear as
its
Bi
i
since they appear as a pre-multiplier.

Referring now to (1), it is clear that the contravariant
designation for the components of x was justified, since
if we write
same
vector,
and
(8Z>)
its
B'J in the
doubly contra-
two systems. In
....(9a)
ij
<x i
ma
n
j
(9b)
can also consider the mixed components A*j and

of the same tensor A. These will transform accord-
BiâfA^pj
....(10a)
A^PWjt?
....(106)
and the inverse

mixed components Aj
first indices and contravariance in the second. The reader can write down
transformation equations for these components by
analogy with (8), (9) and (10).
Note that in writing expressions (8), (9) and (10) we
There
....(5a)
and
and the inverse

verify that (la)
ing to the rules
row symbols,
for the
inverse
A mn =B
We
transformations will be
in (2a)
we can
A" and
BV=A*p m *pj
also be reciprocal to
**=j>'a,*
a second order tensor. The same quantity
/-*W
....(8a)
easily verify that if the triple a* is
ak then
ma "A
mn
i
A mn=Pm PnJ Bu
i.e.
A may
The reader can
and the inverse
inverse
reciprocal to
bi
such components must transform according to the
....(5b)
(\b) are truly expressions
i.e.
x=x a =y k* k %j bi =y khj bi =yibi
Bj
{
is
also a second set of
with covariance in the
have not attempted to maintain the order of transformations in relation to matrix multiplication. This
cannot be done without using transposed a and j8
matrices. Throughout the later parts of this Section
we use the matrix order whenever it can be written
without transposed matrices. In any case the summations implied by the dummy indices must be carried
We
therefore call the quantities x* and y the contravariant components of the vector jc in terms of the base
l
systems a t and b t respectively. We can, however,

same vector x in terms of the reciprocal
base systems a* and b and obtain
express the
and also
Here
x,
vector x.
x=Xia
x=y
tb
(6a)
out.
(66)
The
and y{ are the covariant components of the

They transform according to the expressions f
k
yi=*i x k
....(la)
x k =P k y t
....(lb)
B^PpV&ai'A*,,
We
factor.
The
matrix [p k
which gives the new variables in

is [a,*] and the vector is a post-
inverse transformation uses the inverse
and the vector
is again a post-factor. For

contravariant quantities the role of the two matrices is
interchanged and the vector becomes a pre-factor.
]
Using the notion of transformation given above
....(11)
In a tensor of order r there are 2 r ways in which the

components can be written as covariant or contravariant. In n dimensions a tensor of order r has n r
components of each variant configuration. Thus a
vector can be taken as a first order tensor, and a scalar
or invariant is a zero order tensor.
notice that the tensor notation and its relation

to the matrix notation gives a simple presentation to
the transformation rules of Vol. I, 2.5. For covariant
terms of the old (2a)
of higher order tensors follows
Thus a fourth order tensor has mixed components of the type A hi ik and B hi jk in the two systems,
and these components transform according to the rule
and the inverse
quantities the matrix
definition
directly.
t In physical literature, particularly on relativity theory, it is.

customary to refer to a vector which is conveniently (for physical
reasons) expressed in terms of its contravariant components as
"a contravariant vector." This is very misleading, since any
vector can be expressed in terms of its contravariant components
or its covariant components with equal validity. In crystallography, co-ordinates of atoms are expressed in contravariant
components, since these numbers repeat periodically with period
unity. This is not true for the covariant components of coordinate vectors. Similarly zone indices are also expressed in
terms of their contravariant components, since these components
obey the law of rational indices, while the covariant components
do not. On the other hand, the indices of planes are rational in
their covariant components. There is, however, no reason other
than numerical simplicity for the preference of one set of components over the other.
it
possible to define a set of more general quantities

according to the way in which their components trans-
is
form.
quantity A is defined as a second order tensor
if it has n 2 components of a given variance in an n
dimensional space and if its components transform as
indicated below. The tensor may be represented by
its doubly covariant components A
u in the a, system and
the corresponding BiS in the b { system. By definition
55
2.4.
There is no a /v/0/7 reason why tensors should exist

other than as mathematical entities. It is necessary in
any physical application of tensor analysis to demonstrate that the physical nature of the set of quantities
under discussion is such that they do transform as the
components of a
There are similar relations between the different types

of components of higher order tensors, e.g.
A =gikA k =gikA k =gim ginA mn

ij
and
in particular
tensor.
jk
important to remember that the quantities a/

and
are not the components of a second order
tensor. They express the transformation of tensors
from one axial system to another.
tensor is said to be symmetric (cf. 2.1.8.1) with
respect to a pair of indices if the interchange of these
two indices leaves the tensor unchanged, i.e. if
.... (22)
gug =*i
.-..(23)
It is
&
AijAji
tensor
skew symmetric
said to be
is
^mn
.(12)
2\-^
mn>
A mn~ 2\-&mn
-A-
nm)
.(24)
^nm)
(cf. 2.1.8.1)
Aij=-A H
the
the
ZV=X*YJ
(13)
For a skew symmetric tensor

(no summation)
(136)
The most important second order tensor is

metric tensor g, whose components are defined by
Any
second order symmetric tensor in n dimensions

has %n(n+l) independent components (for =3, six
components), while a skew symmetric tensor has
\n(n 1) independent components (for =3, three
components).
Another second order tensor of importance is the
general product f of two vectors A*" and Y. It is easy to
prove that
with respect to a pair of indices if the interchange of

these indices changes the sign of the tensor, i.e. if
Aa=0
which establishes the matrix [g ] as the inverse matrix

of [giil (cf. 2.1.8.4, page 12). Note also that if A it is
symmetric A i k =A k
Any second order tensor Xmn say, can be expressed
as the sum of a symmetric tensor Smn and a skew
symmetric tensor A mn given by
ij
....(25)
relations
gtiâttif)
gO=('a->)
\g\
transforms as a contravariant second order tensor.

scalar product (XY) is then
The
gt
(XY)=gmn X> Y=gXm yn =Z- Ym
easy to verify that this tensor is symmetric and

possesses the appropriate transformation properties.
In terms of this tensor the length of any vector has the
It is
Thus the scalar product depends only on the symmetric

part of the tensor
The
and
=gijx xi=g Jx xi =x x
i
.(15)
cosine of the angle 6 between the two vectors

is given by
etc.
K=xr l\x\
2
its
in
and
(A
will
rst
= m "A TOA=g,nnA'"A"=A'"A w =l
.(18)
n
lJ>
=* m pm
-(19)
The metric tensor also provides the transformation

expressing the base vectors in terms of the reciprocal
vectors and vice versa, i.e.
z=g Mi
r
and
similarly the
two
and
sets
a^gvaj
e rst
cyclic
=l/Vg;
*'=*>*,
.(28)
cyclic
inner product.
For convenience of reference Table 2.4.4 summarizes

and their
reciprocals, and of the corresponding metric tensors.
Examples in which some of these results are applied
the principal properties of the base vectors
(20)
of components satisfy the
and
.(27)
permutation of 123
are given in 2.4.7.
relations
Xi==gnxj
according to
It is only in three dimensions that a vector product

can be defined as a vector. In other spaces the skew
symmetric part of the product tensor Z is referred to
as the outer product of the two vectors. The symmetric
part which defines the scalar product is called the
two such unit vectors X
0=g mn \ mPn=gmn* m
ij
permutation of 321
rst =0: '"=0;
any two indices equal
rst
....(17)
be
COS
which
erst=Vg;
length
Similarly the angle between
....(16)
often of value to be able* to define a unit vector

in the direction of a vector jc. Clearly
be covariant, and
gmn =gnm
in three dimensions corre-
[XYY=ermn Xm Yn
\
[XY] r ==e rmn X>Y"\
or
It is
|*|
since
the expression
=*%/|jr||*|
will
sponds to the antisymmetric part of
coiO-guxUPftxWXl-gVxiXMW
Zw
The vector product [XY]
three expressions
\x\
.... (26)
f Not to be confused with the dyad of
(21)
56
2.4.5.
2.4.
TABLE
2.4.4
Properties of Base and Reciprocal Systems
A. Scalar Products (Definitions)

ij
(<*)=; (a aJ)=g
C. Transformations between Base and Reciprocal

Metric Tensors
(a'a,)=g i
Note.
No summations are implied by double indices.
gg =gikgk,gijgkk gg U =gngkk- (gjk) 2

ik kj
ij
ga/g=g g -g g kk gu/g=gijg kk -(gjk) 2
ij
B. Transformations between Base

Vectors
a i =giiai ;a
and Reciprocal
D.
=g Jai
Vector Products in Base and Reciprocal Systems
\=\/ (,g)a k
[aia3:
Mixed
E.
Note
WaâJ^g (i,j, k in cyclic order)
Vector Products
that [<>] =-['<].
Components
Product
1
1
I'x*
[x
-sWvte
+i2/V
[i
[2
[2
[2
[3
+sWVs
-git/Vg
-gu/Vg
+g23/Vg
-g**/Vg
+g*t/Vg
3
]
+g2llVg
-g*JVg
+^3 2 /V^
3
]
+g13 Vg
+g 23 Vg
+g 33 Vg
-g12 Vg
-g 2 Wg
-g 3 Wg
-g*JVg
-gn/Vg
+gn/Vg
faa 1 ]
[3
03
+gn/Vg
X
2
a1
-fta/VS
+ai/V
-gJVg
2.4.5 Dyadics
-g13 Vg
-g 23 Vg
-g 33 Vg
+g 12 Vg
+g 22 Vg
+g 32 Vg
~gu Vg
~g 2 Wg
~g 31 Vg
+g a Vg
+g 2 Wg
+g 3 Wg
i*
side without
any sign of multiplication expressed or

implied between them, f A dyadic
is the sum of any
1
+A nBn
pletely determine the dyadic,
i.e. the dyadic requires

nine parameters for its specification.
If the antecedents and the consequents of a dyadic
are both non-coplanar sets, the dyadic is said to be
&c=B A +B2 A 2 +
1
Bn A n
.... (2)
Multiplication of a dyad by a scalar k is defined as

the multiplication of either factor by k.
dyadic is
multiplied by k when all its dyads are multiplied by k.
The product of
the vector r with the dyadic
complete. If either the antecedents or trie consequents

are coplanar sets, the dyadic is said to be planar and
can be reduced to two dyads, and
if either the antecedents or the consequents are collinear, the dyadic is

said to be linear and can be reduced to a single dyad.
In terms of any non-coplanar base triple a and its
defined by
r.$=M )H
1
+M
2)il2
+(rA n)Bn = ri
....(3)
called the scalar product of r with the dyadic, with r
as pre-factor and
as post-factor.
second scalar
product with
as pre-factor and r as post-factor is also
defined, i.e.
reciprocal triplet a 1 (for notation see 2.4.4, page 54)

any dyadic can be expressed in what is called the
nonion form as the sum of nine dyads with appropriate
is
+jr=A 1 {rBJ+AfrBJ+
is now clear that
+A n (rBn)=r
r1 =i-.*=# c .i-
....(6)
dyads, and in this form the antecedents (consequents)

can be three arbitrarily chosen non-coplanar vectors.
In such a case the consequents (antecedents) com-
.... (1)
The first vector of any dyad is called the antecedent,

the second vector the consequent of the dyad. The
conjugate of &, i.e.
c is defined as
=4.f=f.* c
can be shown that any dyadic in three-dimensional

space can be reduced to a form consisting of three
i.e.
&=A B +A B +
It
number of dyads,
It
a3
and of course that
A dyad is defined as a pair of vectors AB placed side

by
a2
numerical coefficients as follows:
*=4>iP at=V*a i =V4g0*=$ }a ai

which summation over dummy indices is
i
iiBi
.... (4)
in
....(5)
57
Not
.... (7)
implied.
to be confused with the general product of 2.4.4

(25).
a a
aa
2.4.
The numerical
and
tensor in the corresponding covariant, contravariant

or mixed forms (see 2.4.4, page 54).
and that
coefficients of a dyadic in the nonion

form are thus the components of a second order
The
scalar of a dyadic
s-(Â)+(^ A)+
+UAM*c)s
in
which g
The
The
vector of a dyadic
nonion
[rx5].4>=r.[$x#]
sx&=[sxA 1 ]B1 +[sxA 2 ]B2 +
-W
+[sxA n ]Bn
....(156)
form
&=A B +A B +A 3B3
1
.(**>
then the quantity
of the
\^\HA 1A 2 A 3)(B1 B2B3)
....(16)
coefficients as
&v=erp<,<f>
The idemfactor I
every vector into
is
pg <* r =e'Pcf>
pq a r
.... (9b)
called the determinant
itself, i.e.
The nonion forms

i
scalar product
may be
of two dyadics
(11)
is
dyadic
*=2^,jj
and
,F
is
complete, the reciprocal
With
* _1
is
*.4>-i=*-i.*-/
=2 ciA
and
it
it
.(12)
defined by
....(18a)
follows that
(*.*F)-i=iir-i.*-i
.V-JS^'VM^
and
*=-*x/=|/x* F
then
*=
If
*=#.(#.).
....(17)
if *=* c
said to be symmetric
is
defined as
follows.
5=r.O and t=sW, then
1*1^0 the
follows that
K =0. It is antisymmetric if
and it follows that 4> 5 =|#|=0 and also that
written
*=g iiaia i =giia i aJ
&M!
If
|.*H1|V|
....(10)
for the idemfactor
I=a a i =a0
of the dyadic.
dyadic is complete (non-singular). If |#| =0 the dyadic

is planar or linear (singular). It may be shown that
the dyadic which transforms
rJ=I.r=r
If
(15a)
with
is
The
.... (14)
vector product of a vector with a dyadic is
defined as
is
....(13)
= C.# C
If a dyadic is expressed in the trinomial
* v =[A B ]+[AM+ ..+[A nBn ]=~(4>c)v

Using 2.4.4 (27), & y may be written in terms
l
(#.*F) C
.<&*)
the metric tensor.
is
follows that
defined by
In terms of the coefficients of the nonion forms (7) the

scalar can be written
Vs-gHii-gi^-Vi-W
it
/.*=*./=*
defined as
is
....(186)
One importance of dyadic notation for crystallography
TABLE
2.4.5
Dyadics for the Crystallographic Proper Rotations
Note. The dyadics for the corresponding improper rotations are obtained by changing
(n) s = 1 +2 cos 1-njn
=+(/-) cos 1-njn- Ix u sin Injn

n=-uu-(I-uu) cos 1-njn+Ixu sin 1-njn
()s
=-(l+2 cos 1-njn)
Nonion Form
(n) F
General Dyadic
I=a1 a 1 +
luu-I
2=a 2a 2 a za3 x a x
u=a2 j\a2
3=a 3a3 - a 2a 2 + aâta^

3 _1 =a 3a3 -a 1 a 1 -fl 1 a 2 +a 2a1
u=a3j\a 3 \; gu=g22
1.
V3
^r-lXU
111
3
-UU-I
uuIxu
1
*r V3,
-uu+-I-~-Ixu
111
,
a2 +
=-2w sin 1-njn
Axial System
Any
(n) s
axial system
-1
V(3)
=(a1 +a 2 +a3)/|a1 +a2 +a3

gll 22
4=a 3a3 +a 1 a 2 2 !
4- x sa 3a 3 1 a2 +a 2a1
^12== 5'23 ==^31=0
= 33
'>
gl2
==
u=aj\a z \; g11 =g22
58
u=a3j\a 3 \; g n =g22
()k
i 2 =23 =0
3=a x a2 + a 2 a3 + a zax
3 2 =a 2a 1 +a 3a 2 +a 1 a 3
6=a 3a 3 + aH^ aSa 2 - a 2 a x

6~ 1 =a 3a3 +a 2a 2 -a1 a2 +a 2a1
all signs, i.e.
(n) v =lu sin 1-njn
g23
23=3i=0; gi2=-h
= gz\
1
V(3)
2.4.
lies
in the simple expression for the dyadics for rota-
tions (proper or improper).
conform to the conventions of these tables) as part of

Table 2.4.5. Also included in this table are the nonion
forms for these dyadics in terms of crystallographically
customary co-ordinate systems.
For such dyadics
*=*c_1 l*H*d=i
;
-09a)
All such dyadics (post-factors) are of the form
*={ +(/-) cos <f>-Ix u sin
(196)
<f>)
with
between Matrix, Tensor and Dyadic

Notations for a Second Order Tensor
2.4.6. Parallelism
*s=(l+2cos<)
If|#|=+1 the rotation

rotation
is
Note that
* K =2sin<
and
is
(19c)
proper, if |*| = -1
The transformation of
the
the vector r into a vector s
by means of a tensor A as pre-factor

the dyadic notation by
improper.
u .&=&.u=u
and that therefore the vector u is invariant for a proper

rotation and anti-invariant for an improper rotation.
s=A.r
The same tensor operating on
of course the rotation axis.

complete derivation of point-group and spacegroup theory in terms of dyadic notation has been
given by Zachariasen [40]. For convenience of reference his table for the five crystallographically possible
rotations is reproduced (with slight modification to
produce a different vector
It is
is
represented in
....(1)
r as a post-factor will
t=r.A
....(2)
These two expressions provide a Very convenient

shorthand for the more complicated expressions which
they represent. These more complicated expressions
must, however, be used if detailed calculations are to
TABLE
2.4.6A
Comparison between Tensor, Dyadic and Matrix Notations
Note. In this table the parentheses do not denote scalar multiplication but merely group the terms of a vector
or dyadic for clarity. The square brackets indicate matrices.
Tensor
Dyadic
Matrix
M =M M
M-H
s=A.r
s
=A
l]
a^{r h a k)
s={Aâ ia ^.{r k ak)
a={Aja aiUrh a k)
s=(A it a* aJ).(r k a k)
s=(A"
r,
s'Â^r*
Si=Af rt
ai
sÂu r>
t=(rk a k).(A'J <*i at)

t=(r k ak).(AS a* a,)
t=(r k a k).(A' iai aJ)
U=r A ti
*=C**).(^y'9
tj=f i
TABLE
= W]
[rt ]
[SiMAu]
[rj ]
[Si]
W -M [A]
t=r.A
P=riA
tJ =r*A^
[rt ]
M-M'd W
MhM
M-M W]
W-W [A
W-M [An]
[A*>]
,]
2.4.6B
Matrix Transformations for Second Order Tensor

if
Transformations are written in tensor notation, but the order of the terms is correct for matrix
multiplication
the first index is taken as the row index of the matrix and the second index
as the column index.
A*
A**=
A'J
A'tcg*
ik
A kJ
A*t =
A ik gkj
A',
ik
A k m gmi
gikA k m g mJ
AS
A ik gV
Ai k g ki
Aij
Aj=
gik
An=
gik
ki
gmj
Ai j
gik
Ak
59
Aa
ik
A km g mJ
ik
A ki
2.4.

2.4. No attempt has been made to indicate all the
problems which will be encountered, nor has any
attempt been made to adhere exclusively to one notation. In each case it should be apparent to the reader
how a problem written out in tensor notation, for
example, can be rewritten in dyadic or in matrix form.
be carried out. The vector r must be expressed in

terms of the base triple or its reciprocal triple as in
equations 2.4.4 (It?) or (6a) and the dyadic A in one
of its four nonion forms (2.4.5 (7)). The expanded
expressions are then those shown in column 2 of
Table 2.4.6A. In column 1 of the same table the corresponding tensor expressions are shown, and the
equivalent matrix expressions are shown in column 3.
If now we reduce the products of column 2 by means
of the defining equations of the reciprocal triple
2.4.7.1.
(cf. 2.4.3.2), i.e.
....(3)
located in the cell by the contra{

of the vector from the origin
sx
to the atomic position.
see that all three notations reduce to exactly the
Here the prefixed subscript
simply indicates the number of the atom, while the

suffixed superscript indicates the number of the con-
same
calculation, a matrix multiplication.

Table 2.4.6B shows the transformations which
relate the four forms (cf. 2.4.4 (8) and (9)) in which the
components of a second order tensor may be expressed.
The one table serves for both the tensor and matrix
The vector from

r= sx 1 a 1 + sx 2 a2 + sx 3 as
travariant component.
s
the origin
is
(1)
These contravariant components are simply the fractional co-ordinates usually used in crystallography.
The reader may easily rewrite this table in

dyadic form by accompanying each tensor by its
nonion dyad (cf. 2.4.5 (7)) and applying dot multinotations.
In these terms, the distance

str= tr- sr
has a magnitude
plication to the resulting expressions.
2.4.4(15),
2.4.7.
is
variant components
(a%)=^
we
Calculations of Bond Lengths and Bond
Angles
An atom S P
st r
i.e.
Vector and Tensor Problems in Crystal Analysis
str
in
In the present section several problems of importance in crystal structure work are selected as examples
of the methods described in the preceding sections of
(2)
which may be calculated from

2
=gijstVsfi j
....(3)
which
....(4)
st&^tx'-sX*
The angle
TABLE
<f>
tsu
atom
at the
between the vectors
2.4.7A
Metric Tensors for Crystal Lattices
g"
Lattices
Sii
gii
Triclinic
a*
Clidj
a?
6H = 6W =
Monoclinic
a, unique
COS
(a*)
OCfc
"
gikâfik cos
g
2
(see
a aj cos a*
{
g*J=
(a9 2
u=0
jk
k
g =aj a cos
oci
a'
l/(0 2
Orthorhombic
a?
Tetragonal
a3 unique
ll=22 =
Rhombohedral
Sll=22=33 =
2
#33 = C
2
33
# =l/c
2
l2=#23=31 = COSa
g"23=g31 =
Hexagonal
ll=22=tf
a 3 unique
33 = C
Cubic
gll=g22 ==g33 = <*
i2=-a
cos a
cos a
a\\ cosa)(l+2cosa)
(l-COSa)(l+2 COS a)
ll=22= 4 3a 2
/
3S
2
g =l/c
g =g =0
12
2
# =2/3a
g u=g=g=l/a
gl2=g23 = g.31 =
^11=^22=^33 =
1
note)
ij
23
31
Note. The contravariant components of the metric tensors are given in terms of the reciprocal lattice parameters for the triclinic and monoclinic systems. They can be calculated in terms of the base system parameters
by the formulae of Table 2.4.4C. The contravariant components for all other lattices are given in terms of the
base system parameters.
60
2.4.
joining
atoms
to the
it
2.4.4 (16),
and
is
then given by
and
its
inverse [^'^[A^Jfa/],
i.e.
i.e.
st r su r
cos (ktsu^gijst^sJ 4
The matrices gtj needed for these calculations
+g 32 x3/Vg 33
Wg 33)*3
* 2 = VigJgg 33)*2
(5)
v3_
are given
in Table 2.4.7A for the seven primitive lattices.

It is clear that the detailed expansions of (3) and (5)
are very cumbersome for the triclinic and the rhombohedral cases, and are only a little less difficult to
....(13)
In the transformed system the usual methods of

analytic geometry can then be applied. The numerical
procedure for such a calculation is quite parallel to that
given for the monoclinic case in the following Section.
handle for the cases in which there is only one general

angle (monoclinic and hexagonal). It is only in
the orthogonal systems that formulae (3) and (5) are
practical if a large number of distances and angles are
to be calculated. Of course, if only one or two distances or angles are to be calculated these formulae
probably offer the best method.
If many such calculations are to be carried out there
are two approaches. In the first, the covariant components of all vectors (e.g. pct) are calculated by
cell
2.4.4 (21),
sXi=gij(sXj )
(3)
The calculation for a monoclinic lattice

for the sake of brevity.
Unit vectors
st r $u r
(8)
and by using the
we may
results
1/a
[a]=
....(9)
Example
In a particular case
54).
a=12-792A 6=5-627 A c= 11-474 A and 0=1 11-17

and we have sin =0-932513 and cos 0-361136.
The two matrices are thenf
Aâjy/gu
A2=-gi2aJV(ggiig 33)+V(gu/gg 33)a 2
^3=S 3
and
its
VVs
33
+S 3 VVs 33
Ws
... .(10)
33
)3
12-79200
inverse
5-62700
[(*]=
-4-14368
and
i=Si*WSu+ V(gg 33/gn)A 2

32
s=gzMVgn-(Vg)g AJV(giig )+AJVg 33
[*>[*;][&']
(cf.
2.4.4 (5), etc.),
xl HVgidx 1 +g12 x z
X=
Z=
2
....(15a)
inverse
0-1777146
....(11)
variant components are then written
its
(A)
10-69965
"0-0781739
33
The corresponding transformations
....(146)
l/(csinj8)
and in these two matrices (cf. 2.4.4) we have all the

information necessary to effect transformations of
vectors or tensors from one system to the other.
page
\\b
_-l/(atanjS)
(cf. 2.4.4,
....(14a)
csin/3
ft
The determinant of this matrix is equal to the volume

of the cell V=abc sin /J. The inverse of this matrix is
of Table 2.4.4 and 2.4.4 (20)
write [^<]=[a f '][aj
b
c cos
set
/?
0"
'a
[0]=
A+c sin
j8
may
be written formally [a]=

[$][A] (cf. 2.4.4 (2b)), since [a] and [A] are of course
covariant. We then have
A 1 =aJ\a1
A 2 =A 3 xA,
^ 3 =a3/|a 3
its
A and B are
c=c cos
This transformation
These formulae are much simpler than (3) and (5) for
the non-orthogonal systems, and it may be that they
will be of use for machine calculations.
The second of the two approaches mentioned above
involves the transformation of all quantities to an
orthonormal system. For example, one might choose
an axis A x of unit length in the direction of ax a
second axis A 2 perpendicular to ax and in the plane of
a x and a 2 and an axis A 3 perpendicular to that plane.
Thus we
given here
that for a
a=aA
b=bB
....(7)
cos </>ts=st&sJi
is
from
....(6)
= st VsA
It differs
complication but not in

chosen parallel to
a and b respectively, and the third vector
is perpendicular to the first two. We have clearly
principle.
becomes
(5)
only in
triclinic lattice
then takes the simple form

str
and
Bond Lengths and Bond Angles
of
i.e.
The formula
Numerical Example of the Calculation
2.4.7.2.
0-0302746
(A-i)..(15fc)
00934610
for the contra-
down
In this problem
directly as
We
i.e.
/Vgu+g31 xVVgu
V(gg 33/gidx*-(Vg)gx*JV(gng 33)

* 3/V 33
we
are interested in calculating the
have calculated these matrices in

since we are almost
t
exclusively concerned with the matrix [a]. It is usually preferable to use millimicrons (1 m/u=10 A) as units in such calculations in order that the coefficients of the two matrices are
more nearly of the same magnitude. To avoid rounding errors
in matrix calculations it is wise to carry several figures beyond
the accuracy justified by the data.
....(12)
61
2.4.
bond
lengths and bond angles in a carboxyl group in

which C$ is the carboxyl carbon and C3 the carbon to
which it is joined.
9 are the carboxyl oxygens.
6 and
into the Cartesian co-ordinates X, Y,
The
tabulated as follows
variant transformation [A]=[jc][p]
fractional co-ordinates x, y, z are transformed
c3
0-0458
0-0142
0-1332
0-2722
-0-0113
-0-0249
0-1627
0-1955
0-1684
0-0682
0-1849
0-2616
vectors from
following table
C6
to the other three
Ay
AZ
0-01097
0-78215
-1-07210
-0-79880
-0-88963
^6 ^3
1-10919
0-35056
0-17655
0-99721
t/5^-6^3
-0-557288
-0-551808
-0-384944
0-74952
1-53167
1-80182
0-72972
1-97837
2-79903
terms of the Cartesian system) in the
Direction Cosines
1-76127
1-46069
2-34762
1-32713
0-008266
0-589354
-0-807833
1-20859
-0-660935
-0-736089
1-53219
0-723925
0-228797
0-146079
0-650840
bond angles
<j>
can be calculated directly from the
Direction Cosines of Vector Product
Bond Angles
1-10008
and
the direction cosines of the last three columns, the

scalar products of the pairs of vectors as follows
C6
-0-14011
(in
2.4.4 (5)
of co-ordinates are
r2
From
cos<
sets
0-99727
Bond Lengths
c6-o 5
C6-0 6
The two
-0-11192
-0-10095
-0-91072
atoms are then investigated
Co-ordinate Differences
AX
(12)).
The
and
2.4.7.1 (1 1)
Z by the contra-
(cf.
0-641581
0-642600
0-639464
0-461798
0-457630
0-460219
<t>
-0-612468
-0-614524
-0-615860
123-87
123-49
112-64
360-00
and one obtains the vector: -7-8579; 3-6081; 7-4660.
In the same table are included the direction cosines of

the vector products of the three pairs of vectors. These
are very close to parallel, as was suggested by the fact
that the three angles added up to 360-00 (a fortuitous
This
all four atoms are very

average of these three vectors
(normalized) gives the vector: -0-614286; 0-641217;
0-459884, which must be very close to the unit normal
to the plane most nearly containing all four atoms.
This vector is (HKL) for the plane in question, and if
one is interested in the corresponding Miller indices
one must use the corresponding transformation for
accuracy), indicating that

close to coplanar.
An
covariant components,
i.e.
[A]=[p][#]
(cf.
is
of course quite close to the (212) plane.
These are only a few of the calculations which can

readily be carried out in Cartesian space and for
which the results can immediately be reconverted to
the non-orthogonal system.
2.4.7.3.
Rotations
In a/Cartesian system (2.4.3.3, page 53) the point

l
{
operation of the
[y ] is rotated to the point [Y ] by the
matrix
[p]
on the row symbols

[r]
2.4.4 (7)),
62
as post-multiplier,
[v'][p]
i.e.
..-.(16)
2.4.
We find that
where
TeOS a+/j 2(l - COS a)
[p]= hh(\ - COS a)-/3 Sin a
_AA(1 cos a)+/2 sin a
IPMMMM
COS a)+/3 sin a

COS a-f 2 2 (1 - COS a)
/ 2 /3 (l cos a)-/j sin a
/i/ 2 (l
VlO cos a) 2 sin a"

/ 2 / 3 (l - cos a)+/ sin a
x
If we wish to find the matrix [P] for hexagonal and

trigonal axes in a hexagonal co-ordinate system [*'],
we
first
recognize that
e x =ax \a x
(17)
COS a+/3 2 (l COS a)
e 3 =a 3/a 3
is
axes are listed in Table 2.4.7B.

If we wish to calculate the rotation matrix [P] which
describes the same rotation in an oblique system [*"],
m,i. e
[y
a unit vector system for the Cartesian co-ordinates

] and thus by 2.4.4(2) we have
"1/fli
M=
we make
in (16)
and
its
2/( x V3)
....(22a)
l/a s
inverse
M-MIP]
and
l/fo V3)
.0
....(18)
use of 2.4.4(5) and write
[**]-[ !"][]
(2i)
'H^vi"*)/"'
which /i/ 2 /3 are the Cartesian direction cosines of the

rotation axis and a is the angle of rotation about that
axis. The special forms of [p] for the crystallographic
in
[*]= [*][P]
-...(20)
ax
m=
and obtain
-bh
(V3K/2
....(22*)
az
The
....(19)
TABLE
rotation matrices [p] for the operations 3
and 6
2.4.7B
Cartesian Rotation Matrices for the Crystallographic Axes
Note that the inverses of these matrices are their transposes and that the matrices for h are obtained by changing
the signs of
all
terms in the matrices for
COS a sin a
Matrix for
~1
n.
Important special cases
[/i/2 /3 ]
0"
1
1
-1
"2/i
-l
2/x /2
_213 k
V3
"-1
2lx l2
2/3 /i
2/2 2 -l
2/2/3
24/3
2/3 2 -l_
TW-l)
|{3/1 /2 -(V3)/3}
|{3/x/2 +(V3)/3}
2
K3/2 - 1)
[110]
1
M3/3 /i-(V3)/2r
M3/2 /3 +(\/3)/1 }
-I
2
3
&
'1
kk~ k
JMk
6
V3
i(/i
kk+k
k
kk~k
+i)
/*
-10
1
ukk+ivm Wzk-wvkr
"
I
2
Wik-WVk)
K4 2 +i)
My +(v 3)/ }
3
[001]
My -(V3)/i} Kk
3
63
+i)
v2ol
2
-vî
2
_Myi+(\/3)/2 >
0-l_
"0
[111]
"0 10"
[001]
.0
0"
2
1_
kk~k
kk+k
0"
J{3/3/i+(V3)/2 } i{3/2 /3 -(V3)/!} K3/3 2 -l)

1
ol
-^ -1
[001]
"0
0'
0-1
[001]
2
1_
.1
0.
2.4.
about a Cartesian axis [001] can both be represented
with their inverses
by the matrix
"
[p]=
-1
$s
"
(V3)/2
-(V3)/2
&
3-^
-1
and
....(23)
6~ x =
...(26)
in
which s=-l for the operation
and +1 for the
I"
Pl-tMMM-
K*+l)
-1
tities
matrix
to be
"
Kj-1)
for the
3^ -1 -1
two operators are
6= -1
jc
1
,
x2
and
(7)
and the
related text). Thus,
the operation 3 transforms the co3

2
x 1 x 2 , x 3 while the same
jc into jc
,
operation transforms the indices hjiji z into

specifically
(/Jx+Z^),
For discussions of vector analysis see almost any

textbook of theoretical physics and also [4], page 132
and
2.4.4(5)
(cf.
specific,
ordinates
....(24)
1
and the matrices
well to remind the reader that covariant quanare transformed as post-factors by the inverse
It is
operation 6. The corresponding matrices [P] are then

given by (20).
.(25)
et seq.
For general references
see [35]-[40].
64
in relation to Section 2.4
2.5.
Fourier Theory
In the following discussion the need for brevity will

not permit complete mathematical rigour in the statement of results. Mathematical limitations are included
only when they are of importance in the understanding
of the results or in the efficiency of their application
to crystallographic theory. Almost every textbook
of theoretical physics contains a brief treatment of
Fourier analysis.
This does not mean that the approximation is

n
"close" in any sense other than that of the least squares
theory. See for example the discussion of Gibbs
.
if>
phenomenon in [41]. Expression (5) is known as

BesseVs formula, and from (5) we clearly have BesseVs
inequality
b
%\an \*<[b- a ]-i[\f(x)\*dx
2.5.1.
A
to
Orthogonal Functions
of functions
set
tjj
a< x< b
of a real variable x is said

of functions for the range
n (x)
form an orthogonal
set
.... (1)
S mn is the
of
functions belonging to a certain class in terms of a

certain set of orthonormal functions, that set of
orthonormal functions is said to be complete with
respect to that class of functions and the expansion (4)
all
[Nn Nm (b-a)]-iJMx)L(x)dx=S nm
Kronecker delta defined by
be unique.
will
8m=0(m^);=l(m=n)
(2)
The functions ijjn (x) are said to form an orthonormal

set for the interval if for every n the normalization
factor
If the equality sign in (6) is valid, this expression is

known as ParsevaVs equation.
If Parseval's equation is true for the expansions
if
b
where
....(6)
Nn defined by
detailed discussion of the nature of the convergence of Fourier series is beyond our scope. It is
sufficient to say that if the integral on the right of (6)
is finite and if f(x) has a finite number of discontinuities, the Fourier series with respect to a complete
set
n will converge to f(x) everywhere except at the
discontinuities. At these points the series is not convergent in the usual sense but is summable to the value
ifj
[b-a]-^n,(x)\*dx=N
(3)
r>
has the value unity.

function f(x) defined at every point within the
specified range has a representation in terms of an
Um\{f(x+e)+f(x- 0}
orthonormal set in
orthonormal series.
ifj
by the Fourierf
f(x)=ân
ijj
n (x)
series
or
....(4a)
n
b
an = [(b-a)]-
where
(f(x)tfn (x)dx
.... (4b)
The
set of constants a n are called the Fourier constants

of the function /(x) with respect to the set i/j. These
constants as defined by (4b) have the property of
minimizing the mean square deviation of any number
of terms of the series (4a) from the function f(x).
This minimum deviation is
b
a
b
= [fe-]- 1 f|/(x)|^-2k| 2
J
a
representation of a given function f(x)

(i.e. the series 4a) is the closest approximation in the
least squares sense which can be achieved by means of
arbitrarily selected set of the
set
from the
crystal-
the set e Zrrinx, where n is

integer, positive, negative or zero. The set is clearly
is
any
orthonormal for the range 0<jc<
1, and complete, and

expansions in terms of this set will be periodic with
period unity. Such series are of course the Fourier
page 73.
of functions
2 cos 2-nnx, -\/2 sin 2-nnx,
together with the constant 1 also forms an orthonormal
set for the range 0<x<l and leads to an alternative
presentation of Fourier series.
The detailed discussion of the orthogonality of the
non-denumerable set e 27Tiux where u is not restricted to
integers in the range -co<<oo is beyond our scope
here. Reference must be made to texts on the Fourier
integral theorem.
second orthogonal set of importance to the theory
of Fourier transforms is provided by the set of Hermite
functions <^(ax), where n is a positive integer or zero
and a is an arbitrary parameter. As is often the case
series discussed in 2.5.4,
The
set
....(5)
The Fourier
an
The most important orthogonal

lographer's point of view
[b-a]-i(\f(x)-ân Mx)\ 2 dx
J
...(7)
e-*0
orthonormal functions
65
t Mathematicians are inclined to use the term Fourier Series

for all expansions in terms of orthogonal or orthonormal
functions.
shall confine the term Fourier Series in later
sections to the usual usage in terms of eînx or the corresponding
cosine or sine series and use the terms orthonormal series or
orthogonal series for expansions in terms of other functions, but
for the present section it will be more convenient to continue
the mathematician's usage.
We
FOURIER THEORY
2.5.
The important
with orthogonal sets, these functions can be denned

by a generating function^
T(x, t)=e*
-^-'r=^Nn
tx 'l 2
<f>
n (ax)t"ln
oo
fr(x)8(x-x )dx=f(xQ)
(8)
properties of S(x) are as follows
....(4)
=o
easy to show that the
form an orthonormal set J over the
range -oo<jc<oo. This is done by integrating the
product T(x, s)T(x, i) with respect to x over the doubly
infinite range and expanding the resulting series in
comparison with the integral of the double series
and
representation of the product. It follows that the

range, provided that
n (ocx) are orthonormal over the
and
Using
this definition
functions
it is
now
in particular
(ax)
<f> n
S(jc)8(jc x
)dx = S(x
(5)
oo
oo
je^Six-xJdx^
.(6)
(f>
A=
V' 2 n n\
need not
but need only include the value x
at which the delta function is non-zero.
The delta function may be defined otherwise than
above. Thus we may write
(9)
By calculating the Fourier transform of (8) with respect

to x (see 2.5.3) it is easy to show that
(iYU V(2t7) M }= IU V(27r)x}e**dx .... (10)
The first few Hermite functions are given explicitly by
Note that
in (3)-(6) the range of integration
be doubly
infinite,
T
Lim
S x (x)=
sin
NMax^locxe-****! 2
N2 2 (ocx)=2(2<x 2x 2 -l)e-"*xtl2
3 3
-3ax)e- a8jc8/2
3 (ax)=4(2a x
^
<f>
Here we cannot say that
JV=2(\A0/
more
The delta function
generally
Nn
larity
ld n T\
a special case
is
i>
of the singu-
functions H> defined by Campbell and Foster
[63].
.(12)
(<XX)
<f> n
equals zero in
(at x^0) S x (x)
integral of the types (3)-(6).
>
(H)
or
._.
(7)
the limit. It oscillates with infinite frequency between

1/ttx, and will thus make zero contribution to any
7V2 2 =8(V^)/
iV3 2 =48(V^)/
nNx
TTX
JV-*oo
In n dimensions the delta function
Note that n (x) defined here differs from that defined

by Campbell and Foster [63]. The latter is
is
defined
by
<j>
S(x)=
The
our notation. Our definition agrees with that of

Courant-Hilbert, Wiener, Titchmarsh [50], etc.
in
2.5.2.
results (3)-(6) then
2.5.3. Fourier
hold for the corresponding
Transforms
..(la)
consider Fourier transforms
and
its infinite
.(8)
Although historically the notion of Fourier transforms arose from the theory of Fourier series, it is
profitable as far as crystallography is concerned to
Consider the function
a)=-^-^ 2/a2
atl
multiple integrals.
The Delta Function
D(x,
Lim e
first.
integral
oo
Basic Mathematics
The function F(u) defined by
2.5.3.1.
\D(x,
<x)dx=l
'
(!*)
the integral equation
oo
Thus the area under the curve D plotted as a function

of x has a constant value unity irrespective of the value
of a. At x=0 the value of D tends to infinity as a
tends to 0, while for xÔ, the value of D tends to zero
as a
is
if
we
F( M)= (f(x)e 2 " iuxdx
define
Lim -e-' **
1
is
given by
x^0
;*=o
n
S(x)dx=l
(
.... (16)
(2)
sets and of their generating
t Details of other orthogonal
functions and other properties are given in many places, for
have Dirac's delta function, for which

8(x)=0;
and
oo
S(x)=
shall
.... (la)
00
called the Fourier transform of f(x)
tends to zero.
Thus
we
2 " iux
du
f(x) = (F(u)e-
example [53].
1
range the factor [b -a]- must
t In working with an infinite
be replaced by unity in the above treatment of the orthonormal
....(3)
set.
66
2.5.
Symbolically,
we
equation
write
F(u)=T[f(x))
and
By
FOURIER THEORY
f(x)=T-i[F(u)}
T we mean
....(2b)
indicated in equation 2.5.1 (10) to be characteristic

functions of the operator T with characteristic values
multiplication
(i").
kernel e s
The fundamental mathematical operations as applied

to Fourier transforms are listed in Table 2.5. 3A, which
is modelled on that given by Campbell and Foster; the
T2 [f(x)]=f(-x)=T[F(u)], etc
(3)
The operator T forms a group of order four. Note that
the formulae (1) are not completely symmetrical. They
do exhibit many important symmetry properties which
are of great value, but neglect of the change of sign in
the kernel can lead to considerable trouble.
The
range
F (u)
Fourier cosine transform
0<x<co
is
of f(x) for the
defined by
f(x)=2 \Fc(u) cos 2-nuxdu
notation of the tables in this section parallels theirs,

f(x) corresponding to F(f) in their listing and F(u) to
G(g). In using any tables of Fourier transforms care
must be taken to observe the lack of full symmetry
between the operations T and T' 1 Reference to the
tables indicates that in some cases the symmetry is
complete, while in others the relation A14 (see Table
2.5.3A) indicates the change which must be made in
using a function which appears in the f(x) column as
.
F(u) and vice versa.

In addition to the basic formulae given in Table
2.5. 3A, the following results are of importance. These
are all special cases of the important convolution
.(4a)
o
oo
formulae
F (u)=2
and
\f(x) cos 2-jruxdx
A8 and A9
given in Table 2.5.3A, and are
related to Parseval's equation 2.5.1(6).
.(4b)
The Fourier sine transform Fs (u) of/(x)

is
for the range
(f(x)g(x)dx= [F(u)G(Tu)du
defined similarly by
sin
2nuxdu
oo
.(5a)
jf(x)g(x)dx=JF(u)G(u)du
CO
F (u)=2 \f(x)
s
sin
2nuxdx
and
..(5b)
in particular
oo
oo
We shall make no further use of the cosine and sine

transforms except to note the useful fact that for even
functions f(x)
F(u)=Fc (u)
j\f(x)\
oo
F(u)=iFs (u)
it is
....(6b)
clear that
F(u)=F(-u)
....(7)
and that the real part of F(u) is even and depends only
on the even part of f(x), while the imaginary part of
F(u) is odd and depends only on the odd part off(x).
The characteristic functions of the Fourier transform
are those functions which are a constant multiple of
their
own
teristic
Fourier transforms, i.e. </(w) is a characfunction belonging to the characteristic value
4>(u)=X \ip(x)e 2 " iuxdx
page
81).
2.5.3.2.
Evaluation of Fourier Transforms
beyond the scope of these tables to discuss the

methods which are available for the evaluation of
Fourier transforms. Such methods are discussed in
It is
of Fourier transforms of special

Table 2.5.3B,
of the most important tabulations is
brief table
and a
(8)
list
appended.
The Fourier transforms of three special types of functions are of particular importance in crystallography.
oo
many
not necessarily equal
interest to crystallographers is given in
oo
infinitely
is
detail in the references given in the bibliography.
A if
There are
....(11)
oo
In addition to the theoretical importance of the

convolution formulae A8 and A9, these results are of
central practical importance in many phases of X-ray
diffraction theory.
Since these results are equally
applicable both to Fourier series and to Fourier
transforms, a separate section following those on
Fourier series is devoted to their discussion (2.5.4.10,
the expressions (5) and (6) are often of help in

evaluating Fourier transforms as defined by (1).
a real function of x,
dx =j\F(u)\*du
to $F 2 (u)du.
Thus
is
Note, however, that jf2 (x)dx
....(6a)
and for odd functions f(x)
If f(x)
.... (10)
00
oo
and
.... (9)
oo
oo
oo
f(x)=2 \Fs (u)
We have
oo
oo
0<x<oo
we have already
....(2a)
by the
and integration with respect to the
variable x or u contained in the operand; and by T~ x
we mean the same operation with the kernel e~ 27riux
Thus
the operation
A particular set of great importance are
(8).
the Hermite functions <f>n (-\Z27r)x, which
solutions to the integral
67
2.5.
FOURIER THEORY
TABLE
2.5.3A
Properties of Fourier Transforms
F(u)
/(*)
00
1.
00
/(*)= (V()e-
2w u
*</M=r- [F(u)]
F(u)=jf(x)e*dx=T[f(x)]
2.
C f1 (x)+CMx]
C^M+CMu)
3.1.
f(ax)
F(u/a)/a)
)a
>
is
3.2.
f(x/a)/a
F(a)
4.
/(-*)
F(-)
5.
/(*)/(-x)
F(k)F(-k)
6.1.
f(x-x
e2
6.2.
7.
f8.1.
e-
2wfa
W/ux.
^(w)
F(i/-
*/(x)
^(T)
/1(*)
JFiu-vMrid^JFWGiu-rDdr,
f(x)g(x)
00
00
t8.2.
a positive real constant.
00
00
F()G()
J/fokOc-,)**,-= mx-v)g(v)dv
00
00
00
f9.1.
f(x)g(x)
\F(u+7J)G(rj)dr}=: \F(rftG(v-u)dn
00
00
00
00
mew
f9.2.
jf(x+ v)g(v)dT-=
10.1.
<///<&
2iriuF(u)
10.2.
2irixf(x)
dF/du
11.
S/(x,A)/0A
8F(u, X)/8X
12.1.
00
\f(v)g(v x)dt\
F(u)/27riu
|/(jc)fl?jc
00
u
12.2.
f(x)/2mx
00
A
13.
Jf(w, X)dX
|/(jc,A>A
A.
A.
14.
F(x)
fThe formulae
f(Tu)
given here are typical of the convolution formulae.

is given in 2.5.4.10 (page 81).
by successive application of A4 and A7,
68
A discussion of all the possible formulae of this type, derived
FOURIER THEORY
2.5.
TABLE
Some
2.5.3B
Fourier Transforms
/(*)
2niUtX
1.1.
e~
1.2.
8(x
2.
MV(2*)x}
2.1.
^n(a*)
8(w-u
g2iriuxt
oil
?<f>nW(2n)u}
Note A
HnO-nuja)
Note a
00
/If
'^{e-^dx-l}
,-Wj8M
f?
3.
f(x)~a,\x\b
/(x)=a(l-|x/6|), |jc|<A
=0,
5.
|jc|
ab(sin rrub/iruby
Note b
(%ab/9)[sin (27Tub/3)J(27rub/3)Y
NoteB
(3ab/4)[sm (irub/2)/(nub/2)]*
Note b
>b
/(x)=a(l-3x 2/6 2),
|x|<Z>/3
=(2>al2){\-2\xlb\+xW), *>/3<|jc|<6
=0, |jc| >b
6.
f(x)=a[l-6\x/b\*+6\x/b\*}, \x\<bJ2
=2a(l-\x/b\)\ b/2<\x\b
7.
8.
f(x)=a(l-x*lb 2), \x\&
Note b
m-a[l-3(x/b)*+2\xlb\*\, \x\fc
sin TTub 3[sin
mibimb
cos
/(x)-a[l-6(x/A)+8|jc/ft|-3(jc/A)], |*|<*
rrub]
{7TUb) z
nub
Note B
(4ablS).60[2irub(2+ cos 2irub)~3 sin 2nub)li27rubY
=0, |x|>6
10.
Note b
f(x)=ae2*ixl\\x\&
Aa sin27r^(t/+1/A)
(wA+ 1)
7T
Special cases (p integer)
Xa sin 2rrub
b -pX
71^1)"
'
A=(2P+ l)A/2;
-^fL^
7T
/>i
i\\ii
7T
10.1.
/(x)=a cos
7rjt/2Z>, |*|
b
11.
(t/A+ 1)
,Aacos27ru6
ae-l*l
(2a/a)a 2/(a 2 +47r 2 M 2)
Note a. For the properties of ^n(ax) see equations 2.5.1 (8)-(12).

Note b. Fourier transforms of the types B 3-9 can be evaluated by the methods of 2.5.3.2(6).
of that section in connection with the transforms B 4, 7 and 6 respectively.
69
See examples 1-3
FOURIER THEORY
2.5.
The Fourier transform of a
periodic
function
Example 2
is
discussed in 2.5.4.2 (page 73). We now discuss the

Fourier transforms of "atomic" functions and of
dy
f(x) = l-x* \x\<\
fx =~2x
functions which can be specified in terms of their
jc
Transforms of Atomic Functions
(a) Fourier
single
A/"(
A/< 1 )=2
A/< 2 >=2
:[sin
Note
2ttu2ttu cos 2ttu]
that
(12)
Jd-,
Lim
)dx=% and
;[sin
distribution
is
2ttu2ttu cos 2itu] =
Example
F(u)=^f (u)e
2 " iua i
...(13)
Consider F(u)= (sin ttw/W) 4
3.
(27TZM)
the Fourier transform of Pi(x).

from A5 and A6.1.
This
e -^'"- 4 e
-îu
are clearly four segments in
Fourier Transforms of Functions specified by their
-2<jc<-1
Kx<0
Consider a function f(x) which is zero outside a

finite range,t and which is continuous with continuous
derivatives except at a finite number of points a* at
which the function and its derivatives may have dis-
0<x<l
\<x<2
We know
continuities.
Lim
{/(-) (a,+e)-/<>
not
fa-*)}
(n)
at a t
it
-2<*<-l
-Kx<0
can
be shown by integrating by parts that
A/< >(a
This
t/TTl1J\
(2-Triuy
IttIIJ
2-niu
A/(3)(aQ
Bo+B^+B^+BsX 3
A +A x+A x 2 +A 3x 3
A A x+A 2 x 2 A 3 x 3
B -B x+B2 x 2 -B3x 3
1
fact
\x\<\
=0
\x\>l
=1(2- W)
=i(4-6x 2 +3|x| 3 )
A/( >(1)
1
F(u)-
(c)
(2iriuy
Fourier Transforms of Empirical Functions
Fourier transforms of empirical functions can be

calculated by methods similar to those used for the
Fourier analysis of empirical functions (2.5.4.5, page
other discontinuities
2+e 2 ) =
\>\x\
=1
-2ttm
2>|*|>1
This function is the self-convolution of the triangular

2
peak function whose Fourier transform is (sin ttuJttu)
step
the
of
which in its turn is the self-convolution
function whose Fourier transform is sin ttu/ttu.
A/< 1 >(-1) = 1
=-2 No
\x\>2
3
f(x)=l-\x\
be described more briefly
f(x)=0
Af<U(0)
f(x)=(2+xy
=l[4-6x 2 -3x 3 ]
=%[4-6x 2 +3x 3 ]
=i(2-x) 3
0<x<\
\<x<2
function may of course
....(15)
(277W) 4
Fourier transforms which can be written in the form

(15) are clearly transforms of discontinuous functions,
and thus (15) can be used to obtain the discontinuities
of f{x) as indicated in the examples.
jc=1
dif-
as follows
{2-rriuY
x=-l
x=0
have
that/< 4 >=0 at all boundary

x 4 must be zero. It is then
to show that the segments of f(x) are
from the
difficult
....(14)
the discontinuity in the th derivative
Example
will
points that coefficients of
A/(") (,)=
*l
which f(x)
ferent forms, as follows
Discontinuities
is
+ ^_4 e 2niu + e 4iriu]
The discontinuities are clearly all in/(3 >, and since F(u)
There
is real, f(x) must have a centre of symmetry.
result follows directly
If
then
given by
(b)
that
(2ttu)
The Fourier transform of such a
is
(2ttu)
j=i
where f(u)
i.e.
/>(*)=2M*-tf*)
= -2
A/< x >=2
= -2
or may not be symmetric. Consider now a

function p(x) which is built up of a number of such
atomic functions p^xa^) with their maxima or arbi,
dx 2
may
at
lx|>l
F(u)=-^ (e- +e2)--^ (-e-2+e )
distribution
trarily specified origins at
x =\
"atomic function" we mean a density

which has a single maximum and falls
monotonically to a negligibly small value on either
side of the maximum. Such an atomic distribution
By a
cPy
=0
discontinuities.
t This condition may be relaxed under special circumstances,

but certain precautions must then be taken in applying the
sin7rw
method
TTU
70
(see [63]).
FOURIER THEORY
2.5.
An alternative procedure consists in fitting the

empirical function as well as possible in terms of the
Hermite functions or other functions whose transforms are known.
75).
2.5.3.3.
Fourier Transforms in
Dimensions
Two and
set
up our
definitions in such a
manner
that the
of F shall be the same,

that is to say we have chosen the co-ordinates x x x 2 x3
etc., u x u 2 u 3 etc., to be dimensionless. Thus a displacement vector x is defined as
of/ and
physical dimensions
Three
x=^x a
i
(16a)
The Fourier transform

form
in three dimensions
is
ex-
where the base vectors a t have dimensions of length.

Similarly the reciprocal vector u having the dimensions
pressible in the
00
of reciprocal length
\F(ux u 2 uz)e~
/(*i*2*a)=|
is
û^ +u^+ u^du du du

1
u=Ju^*
defined as
....(16b)
....(15a)
and
its
where the reciprocal base vectors a* have dimensions
inversion
of reciprocal length.
In the physical problem of most interest to crystallographers the scattering in a direction * due to a plane
parallel beam of wavelength A in the direction * is
00
F(u x u 2 u z) =
lf(x xx 2 x z )e
^ ^+ u^+"'x^dx dx dx
u
....(15b)
given by
Such Fourier transforms may usually be evaluated by
oo
oo
F(u) = f i L(x)e 2
successive integrations with respect to the individual
The many-dimensional Fourier transform

operation T forms a group of order 4 as in the onedimensional case.
Fourier sine and cosine transforms can also be
defined in two or more dimensions, but they will not
be discussed here.
xdv
= v[[ L(x)e 27riuxdx x dx 2 dx z
variables.
(17a)
)/\, and dv x is an element of volume in x
This latter is given by dv x = Vdx x dx % dx z where
V is the volume of an elementary cell of the triplet
a x a 2 az Thus F(u) is the Fourier transform of Vp(x)
and conversely
where u=(s-s
space.
The mathematical
properties of three-dimensional
Fourier transforms are in every way analogous to
those of the one-dimensional transforms, and every
of Table 2.5.3A can be generalized for three

dimensions. In Table 2.5. 3C some of the most important and less obvious generalizations of Table 2.5.3A
made
explicitly.
\F(u)e- - xdux du 2 duz = |T|f(u>- 2 -Vv

2
i[ f
....(lib)
2,7
Note that the argument (h.jc) of the kernels e M x
must always be dimensionless.
'
Others can easily be carried out
by the reader.
In our discussion of the Fourier transform
oo
oo
^) =
result
are
we have
If the triplet a t consists
TABLE
of orthogonal unit vectors,
2.5.3C
Properties of Three-dimensional Transforms
The numbering corresponds
to that of Table 2.5.3A.
For the other
entries of
Table 2.5.3A the generalizations
are obvious.
/(*)
F(u)
00
1.
00
\F(u)e- 2
/(*)=
j
F(u)=j[jf(x)e 2 ^- Xdx1 dx2 dxz
dux du2 duz
3.1.
Ffra- 1)}
3.2.
F(au)
10.1.
&(x)ldx t
ImUiFiu)
10.2.
2rriXif(x)
dF(u)/8Ui
71
is
any unitary matrix,
i.e.
|a|=l.
2.5.
FOURIER THEORY
the Fourier transform can be expressed in cylindrical
Bessel function (see
or in polar co-ordinates as follows:
s,
Co-ordinates (see 2.4.3.4, page 53)
(a) Cylindrical
2w
00
<f>,
00
r, 6,
are polar co-ordinates in /-space referred
<f>
and zero meridian, and R, 0,

are
corresponding co-ordinates in F-space, then (15a)
becomes
f{s, z)=2tt f (f(S,
Z)JQ (27TsS)e-
2 " izZ
SdSdZ
.... (18a)
f(r
0,
<f>)
kW
with a similar expression for the inverse transform.

In (18a) and (186) below, J (2ttsS) is tne zero order
> $) e
R 2 sin 0dRd0d&
8(x-x
<
.(19)
S 2 =u2 2 b 2 2 +u3 2b 3 2
2
i? ==w 1
6 1 2 + M2 26 2 2 +w3 26 3 2
F{u)
fix)
1.2.
2.5.3D
W+*iW+*sW
<>-
Three-dimensional Fourier Transforms
Notation: s 2 =x 2 2/b 2 2 +x3 2/b 3 2

#*-*!
'
*-*
-2-j?[cos9cos+sinflsinecos
o o o
TABLE
Some
2ir
tr
<x>
Ooo
e~ 2n u
.... (186')
the delta function.
is
to a given pole
00
1.1.
this case the
Polar Co-ordinates (see 2.4.3.4, page 53)
(6)
....(18)
with an obvious form for the inverse transform (156).

lff(s, <f>, z) is independent of <f>, (18) becomes
.(186)
Z)e-WsSco*(*-' +zZlSdSd<PdZ
If
2.
depends only on
F(S, 0, Z)=F(S)8(Z)
where 8(Z)
z)= f f (f(S, 0,
<f>
z)
<f>,
with an analogous inverse. Note that in

three-dimensional transform is given by
00
2.
If f(s,
<f>,
f(s,
[1]).
form
\F(S)J (27TsS)SdS
/C?)=2tt
,-2-j;
z are cylindrical co-ordinates in /-space

referred to a given plane and zero direction, and
S, 0,
are corresponding co-ordinates in F-space,
(15a) may be written
If s,
(18) takes the
5(-
m{\/(27r)x 1 }
m (a i*i)
<f>
<f>
n {V(27T)x 2 }
n (ct 2 x 2)
<j>
<f>
p {V(2")xz}
K{V(27r) Ul }
,-m+n+/^
v (a. 3 x 3)
_,
2.2
m+n+P
TO (277-W 1 /a 1)
<f>
<f>
n {V(2rr)u 2 }
n(27TU2 /<X 2)
(f>
<f>
{V^)u3}
p (2TTU3 /(X 3)
-itR*
6i6 26 3
3.1.
3.2.
f(x)=a,
=0,
\x t \<b,
>6
2ttu-J)x
/(jc)=a, |^ 1 |<6 1
and5 2 <l
=0,\x 1 \>b 1 or
3.3.
f(x)=a
=0
4.
/(jc)=a(l-|r|)
=0
5.
/(*)=a(l-/- 2)
=0
sin 2-nUibi sin 2-nu2b 2 sin 2-nu3b 3
(Sab x b 2 b 3)
>l
/ 2
<1
(477-a6 1 6 2 6 3)
/4
W3
,
r 2 >l
(r*
r 2 <l
(yW
r 2 >l
sin 2iru 1 b 1
J^ttS)
2-ttU^
(2ttS)
\3(sin 2ttR-2ttR cos 2ttR)

)
2-nu3b 3
)(2^|)-4
(2^?
[2(l- cos
^R)-2-nR
sin 2Jl]
_15_
(Snab 1b 2 b 3 /l5) 7^-^[3-(27rR) 2 ] sin 2^/?
\27rR) 5
3(2ttR) cos 2ttR}
r 2 <l
2
2TTU2 b 2
>l
72
2.5.
FOURIER THEORY
with an obvious form for the inverse transform.

is independent of
becomes
<f>)
<f>, (19)
If
00
set
of functions for the periodically repeated range
0<x<l.
f(r, 6,
If in (1)
f(r, 0)=2tt \\F(R,
Q)JQ (2irrR
sin d sin
6)e-
9 9
2nirR
parts,
we
separate Fih) into
its real
and imaginary
i.e.
F(h)=A(h)+iB(h)
00
R 2 sin 0dRdO
.(\9a)
and
if f(x) is
with an obvious inverse transformation from (156).

If f(r, 0, <f>) depends only on r, then the transform
becomes
A(h)=A(h) \
B(h)=-B(h)j
then the results
00
..(2b)
can be rewritten
(1)
ou
f(r)=4* (f(R)
^r*R*dR
.... (19b)
2-nrR
....(2d)
a real function
00
f(x)=A(0)+2Â(h) cos 27rhx+2yB(h)
sin 2-nhx
.(3a)
with the obvious inverse transformation.
with
A(0)=\f(x)dx;
Evaluation of Three-dimensional Fourier

Transforms
The evaluation of Fourier transforms in two or three
dimensions is usually carried out by successive evalua-
A(h)=
(f(x) cos 2-nhxdx
2.5.3.4.
tion of one-dimensional transforms. Fourier transforms for "atomic functions" have exactly the same
properties as the one-dimensional transforms, and the
details of the generalization need not be given here.
No account seems to be available of a generalization
of the method of discontinuities to several dimensions.
However, von Laue (Ann. derPhys., 26, 55, 1936) made
use of Gauss's theorem to transform the volume
Fourier integral into a surface integral for those cases

in which the function/(x) is a constant within a closed
surface and zero outside it. Reference must be made
B(h) =jf(x) sin

si
2-nhxdx
From the general theory of orthogonal functions we

have a number of important results. Bessel's formula
for a partial sum takes the form
i
\\Rx)~%F(h)e-
^\
dx^\\f(x)\ 2dx~y\F(h)^
....(4)
and the
partial
sum is
the closest possible
approximation with the terms used.
Z\F(h)\*<
two- and one-dimensional transforms has been

given by Waser and Schomaker [66] in a paper which
includes a treatment of the relationship between integral and series transforms and many applications of
Fourier transform theory to diffraction problems.
Some examples of three-dimensional Fourier transforms are given in Table 2.5.3D, and reference is made
to further examples in [61], where some transforms are
used as shape functions. See also Section 6.3 for some
crystallographic applications of Fourier transforms.
three-,
h=n
\\f(x)\
dx
....(5)
The equality in (5) (Parseval's equation) holds only

for the complete set of Fourier coefficients.
In Table 2.5.4A are listed the effects on the Fourier
of the application of certain mathematical
operations to /(*). Note the analogy between these
results and those for Fourier transforms. Note too
that there is even less reason to say that the relation
between the periodic function and its coefficients is
symmetrical than there is in the case of the more
general function and its Fourier transform.
coefficients
2.5.4. Fourier Series
Basic Theory
2.5.4.2.
is
also have
If fix)
mean square
We
Bessel's inequality
to the original paper for a discussion of this method.

detailed discussion of the relationship between
2.5.4.1.
....(3b)
a periodic function of period unity, we write
Fourier Transform of a Periodic Function
Consider the Fourier transform J^~(u) of
the Fourier series
f(x)^F(h)e-
f(x)=^F(h)e-*
...(la)
....(6)
h= oo
h oo
00
with h integral and the Fourier coefficients are

;
F(h)^jf(x)e* *dx
i
\f(x)\ dx is infinite, we have first to consider the

00
transform of the function f(x)e-"* tx \ We now write
Since
(lb)
oo
i%
The functions
negative integral
2 " ihx
J^(u)= Lim
which h takes all positive and

values form a complete orthonormal
in
a*Q
73
oo
y2F(h)e-*" ih *e-7'* txte 27riuxdx
J h=~
oo
(7)
2.5.
FOURIER THEORY
TABLE
2.5.4A
Properties of Fourier Series
Note,
(a)
f(x)
a real function,
is
(b)
The numbers correspond
to those of Table 2.5. 3A.
F(h)
/(*)
l
oo
F(A) = f/(jc)c* w '**^xr
f(x)^F(h)e~^ ihx
1.
C1f1 (x)C2 f2 (x)
2.
4.
f(-x)
5.
f(x)f(-x)
6.1.
f(x-x
8.1.
f(x)g(x)
F(/*)F(-A)
)
00
^F(k)G(h-k)
k= oo
F0W)
jf(V )g(x- v )dv
8.2.
9.2.
10.1.
Now
jf(v)g(x+ V )dV
Rh)G(h)
#/<**
-27rihF(h)
cedures which may be adopted. If we let x be a

fraction of the vector period a, such that a vector
distance r along the axis is given by
the integral
oo
= L- *
2
I(u, a)
+2(-/0*jx
r=xa
00
can be rewritten in the form
coefficients the
"" L
dx=~e
a'
form
in the
00
by 2.5.2
(2)
is
given by 2.5.3 (17)
form
uûa*
....(8)
Now
(lb).
transform Jz?~(u), the vector u
form (la) and the

In the case of the Fourier
the Fourier series will retain the
00
I(u, <x)=e
....(10)
(page 66):
....(11)
which a.a* = l. That is to say, the delta function of

weight F(h) will be located at the points ha* (i.e. h/a).
In the second approach the distance r along the axis
is used directly as a variable and the Fourier series
in
Lim
and
(7)
I(u,
<x)=S(uh)
becomes
J^(u)^F(h)8(u-h)
h
(la) takes the
....(9)
oo
f(r)=^F(h)e- z ihr i<
which is zero everywhere except at the whole numbered

points u=h; and at each such point there is a delta
function of weight F(h) (which may, of course, be
F(A)-i [f(r)e^ ih ^ a dr
Fourier Series for an Arbitrary Period
.... (126)
In this case the Fourier transform with respect to r

as a variable will be a set of delta functions at u=h/a.
not unity, but is

a an arbitrary positive number, there are two proIf the period of a Fourier series
.(12a)
while the Fourier coefficients are of the form
complex).
2.5.4.3.
form
is
74
2.5.
FOURIER THEORY
The first approach is the most usual in crystallography and is in general to be recommended. The
second approach is of importance when the period
must be kept in mind.
2.5.4.5.
Summation
The Fourier
Calculation of Fourier Coefficients
(a) Fourier Series
for the Periodic Repetition of an
at
(a)
N Equidistant Points
series f(x)
of period a
to be
is
N equidistant points ra/N, where N
at the
2.5.4.4.
Numerical Calculations for Fourier
Series
is
assumed to be divisible by 4.f The Fourier

takes the form
summed
an integer
series
then
oo
Arbitrary Function
f(ra/N) = yF(h)e-^ ihr N

h oo
'
Let
(x) be an arbitrary function with Fourier
transform 
=c e (raJN)+c (rajN)+s e (ra/N)+s
(ra/N)
....(15)
The four sums
are
N/4
^(x)=2^ (^-)=2^) e_2ff
''
AWa
c e (ra/N)=^C(2p) cos
-( l3a )
InZprjN
p=0
Then
JV/4-1
CO=-
J,<f>o(x-)e
a J n = oo
2 " ihxla
If
c (ra/JV)=2C(2/>+l) cos 27r(2p+l)r/N

P =o
aJ
oo
s e (ra/N)=^?S(2p) sin 27r2pr/N
dx=- Lê^'l'dx
=-<P
a
(h/a)
.(16)
N/4- 1
AT/4-1
....(13*)
(ralN)^S(2p+\)
and the Fourier coefficients are simply the sampling of

the Fourier transform at the points u=h/a with the
appropriate scale factor I fa. Note that there is no
restriction as to the non-zero range of
(x) in this
result: it may be entirely confined to the period or
extend over the infinite range.
sin
2n(2p+l)r/N
In these sums the coefficients C(h) and S(h) are

related to the Fourier coefficients F(h)=A(h)+iB(h) by
the expressions
<f>
The way
in
which
C(h)^[A(sN+h)+A(sN-h)]
s
00
be applied to the
calculation of the Fourier coefficients of a set of atomic
functions, i.e. of a set of structure factors, is discussed
more clearly in terms of the three-dimensional series
S(h) =J^[B(sN+h)~B(sN-h)]
s= 00
in 2.5.4.9 (page 80).
C(0)Â(sN)
(b)
this result is to
The Fourier Series of a Function determined by
00
its
c(^)=2a[{2s+\)NI2]
Discontinuities
The
result for the Fourier series of period unity is

identical with that for the Fourier transform as given
1Z\
*/<'> fa)
.,,,
(2mh)
s=-oo
usually the case, the Fourier coefficients F(h)

are negligibly small for h>NI2 and f(x) is real, the
If,
in 2.5.3 (15):
2-nih
....(17)
00
as
is
expressions (17) take the simpler forms:
C(h)=2A(h): C(0)=^(0); C(N/2)^2A(NI2);

S(h)=2B(h)
....(18)
(27Tih) 2
Note
A/Wfa)
that the sine coefficients B(sN/2)
{lirihY
It is
except that the co-ordinates of the discontinuities can

now be limited to the range 0<a,< 1, and h is integral.
(c) Tabulations of Fourier Coefficients for
Functions
make no con-
tribution to the series at the points ra/N.
.(14)
only necessary to calculate the sums (16) for
the range
0<r<N/4,
since
we have
f(ra/N)=c e +c +s e +s
Various
(f-H
Table 2.5.4B gives a brief list of the Fourier coefficients for a few functions which may be of importance
in crystal structure calculations.
This list may be

amplified by the use of (13) and Table 2.5.3B or any
other table of Fourier transforms. Tables of Fourier
*~e
Co
(e
S e ~rS
.(19)
~\-S e
[(N-r)a/N]=ce +c -se -s
t This assumption is required by the usual strip methods of

Fourier summation. For schemes using other values of
see
series coefficients are also available in [63].
[42].
75
2.5.
FOURIER THEORY
11
1H
a
<N
CO
CO
-r
lR
^
8
*?
t:
r
r
fc
-r
CO
fc
CO
-r
-r
-r
CN
c
at
r*
kJ
5
H
II
II
II
r r
>
<N
fc
~8"
R
at
fc
"o"
"H
II
r .r
In
CU
fS <N
R R
CO
R R
ST
cs cs
II
II
-R R
...
-R
N'
8
<3
R R
CO
CI
8
+
8*
<3
8
<3
o
V
*
v V
V

K ^
I
V 8
H V
V H
V
I
x?^
V r*
Si?
8 ^~*
>
CO
13
_8^
vrT v
a a
V
V
V
V
~G-~ 8
3*
<S
r4
76
2.5.
FOURIER THEORY
S
X
1
a
5
O
U
co
-h
"2
t
P
in
^
*R
-H
II
R
II
00
"
3:
5.
oa.
qq.
-H
f
8
P
<N
<w
|8
~8"
<
<^

<N
CO
O
o
8
V t>
8 V %
8 35
.3
co
I
Vo
77
T3
"T
-,
-JS
sP
4)
o V
.
x
00.
CO.
"h
CO
*>
<3
t>
<3
FOURIER THEORY
2.5.
The
principles indicated here are directly applicable to
the
summation of two- and three-dimensional
For
If f(x, y)
is
real
we have
series.
F(hk)=F(hk)
....(26)
A(hk) =A(hk) and B(hk) = -B(hk)
.... (27)
details see 2.5.4.7.

i.e.
(b) Calculation
known
at
of Coefficients for a Periodic Function
N Points
of period a
If the function /(a-)
is
known
at the
The
^T^[A(hk) cos 2ir(hx'+ky)+B(hk)

h,
....(20)
are analogous to (16)
sin lirihx+ky)]
oo
....(28)
all
cases two-dimensional Fourier series
are handled in terms of the component one-dimensional series. The application of Fourier transforms
and are
to the determination of the coefficients of a
many-
dimensional series will be illustrated in 2.5.4.9 (page

80) in terms of the three-dimensional series.
JV/4
k=
In almost
NC(h)=C e (h)+C (h)

NS(h)^Se (h)+S (h)
can be written in the form
oo
x=ra/N, the coefficients C(h) and

S(h) defined by (17) and (18) can be directly calculated
from the relations
equidistant points
The four sums
series (24a)
(h)=^c(2q) cos 2-n2qh\N

<7=o
A742.5.4.7. Expansion of Two-dimensional Series in

Terms of One-dimensional Series
Following the suggestion of Beevers and Lipson,
C (h)^c(2q+l) cos 27r(2q+l)h/N

<?
=
..(21)
JV/4-1
Se (h)=^s(2q)
sin
27r2qh/N
the series (28) can be further expanded as follows

00
N/4-1
S (h)=^s(2q+l)
f(x,
sin 2iT(2q+l)h/N
j)=
VV CC(AA:) cos
2-Trhx
cos 2-rrky+
h,k =
<?=o
oo
In these sums the coefficients c(r) and s(r) are given by
^ysS(hk)
sin 2-nhx sin
2-nky+
h,k=l
c(r)=f(ralN)+f(-ra/N)\
s(r)=f(ra/N)-f(-ra/N) )
oo
(22)
Again we need only calculate the sums

range 0<h<N/4, since we have
^>J?CS(hk) cos 2-nhx

h=0k=l
(21) for the
^>J?SC(hk)
sin
2-nky+
sin 27rhx cos 2-nky
(29)
A=l &=0
C^-h\=C (h)-C (h)

e
In this series the summations have been changed from

the doubly infinite range to the singly infinite range,
and the multiplicities are taken care of by the following
expressions
..(23)
(Z-h} = -SJLh)+S
(h)\
Equations (18) tell us that C(h) and S(h) determine the

Fourier coefficients for 0<h<N/2 (with the exception
of B(N/2)) if the coefficients outside this range are
negligible. Otherwise equations (17) establish relationships between the Fourier coefficients (other than
B(sN/2)) through the quantities C(h) and S(h).
Fourier
The function
2.5.4.6.
Series in
Two
CC(hk)=+A(hk)+A(hk)+A(hk)+A(hk)
=2[+A(hk)+A(hk)]
SS(hk) = -A(hk)-A(hk)+A(hk)+A(hk)
=2[-A(hk)+A(hk)]
CS(hk)=+B(hk)-B(hk)+B(hk)-B(hk)
=2[+B(hk)+B(hk)]
SC(hk)=+B(hk)-B(hk)-B(hk)+B(hk)
=2[+B(hk)+B(hk)]
Dimensions
CC(0k)=2A(0k)
SS(0k)=0
CS(0k)=2B(0k)
SC(0k)=0
CC(00)=^(00)
CO
f(x
F(hk) e
y)=Y^
fc=
~ 27Ti(hx+ky)
24)
oo
h,
the most general form for the Fourier series in two

dimensions. Here
is
CC(hO)=2A(hO)
SS(hO)=0
CS(hO)=0
SC(hO)=2B(hO)
SS(0O)=CS(0O)=SC(0O)=0
....(30)
FQik) = f [f{x, y)e
hx+k^dxdy
odd and even terms is

followed, each of the four sums of (29) will lead to
four separate sums of different parity which are then
combined with different signs to give function values
for the sixteen cell "quadrants" by rules which derive
from (19). It is usual, however, to do the expansion
If the practice of separating
.... (246)
The Fourier
may
coefficients are in general
complex and
be written
F(hk)=A(hk)+iB(hk)
.(25)
78
2.5.
in
two
to h
is
parts.
If,
for example,
carried out
first,
we
00
fix,
summation with
shall
FOURIER THEORY
respect
have
CO
y)=yC(x,
k) cos
2nky+ys(x,
elimination
k) sin 2-nky
.(31)
in
which
CO
C(x,
that no term can appear which possesses an antisymmetry element to correspond to a symmetry element in
the plane group of the summation. The process of
Example
by examples.
00
cos 27rhx+J^SC(hk) sin 2-nhx

A=0
h=i
=c e C(x, k)+c C(x, k)+s e C(x, k)+s C(x, k)
CC
....(32a)
ee
and
S(x,
best illustrated
Plane group p2mg with axes at |. The symmetry

elements are then: 2 at H;
in Ov; g in u%. The
elimination is then indicated by the square array
k)=^CC(hk)
is
CS
SC
SS
2g
2m
gm
CO
k)=^SS(hk)
=j- 5(x,
e
sin
k)+s
27rhx+^CS(hk) cos
S(x,
k)+ce S(x, k)+c
2-nhx
S(x, k)
eo
2g
gm
2m
oe
2g
gm
2m
2m
gm
....(32b)
The expansion in range of* is then carried out by rules

analogous to (19) before the summation (31) with
respect to k is carried out. The rules for expansion are
C(x, k)
C
C
C
2g
Remaining terms: CC(ee)(oo); CS(eo)(oe).
Example 2
=c e C+c C+s e C+s C )
C(i-x, k)=c e C-c C-s e C+s

C(^+x, k)=c e C-c C+s e C-s
C(l -x, k)=c e C+c C-s e C-s
oo
Plane group clml.

(33fl)
C;
m in
Ov;
in v;
The symmetry elements are:

and the elimination table reads
and also
=c e S+c
S$~x, k)=c e S-c
S(Hx, k)=c e S-c
S(l~x, k)=c e S+c
S(x, k)
S+se S+s S
S~s e S+s S
S+s e S-s S
S~s e S-s S
all sixteen different
(i.e.
0, 0,
H).
eg
cm
cm
eg
eg
cm
cm
gm
gm
summations
Remaining terms: CC(ee)(oo); CS(ee)(oo).

It should be noticed that there is no inherent advancomputing a two-dimensional series. The presence
of the axis decides the number of terms which have to
be computed whether or not the axis is at the origin.
Symmetry operations of the plane group other than
those listed in Table 2.5.4C do not affect the number
of terms in the summation, but they may reduce the
area of the region for which the function need be
in
in-
volved in the complete expansion of a two-dimensional

series outlined in 2.5.4.7, and it is only in the case
of
symmetry pi that all these terms are required. The
sum CC(ee) possesses all possible centres, planes, and
glide planes which can occur in any possible setting
of any plane group of the plane point groups 1, 2, m,
2mm. In addition this sum possesses all the possible
half-translations
eg
tage to the location of the twofold axis at the origin
Symmetry of the Beevers-Lipson
Expansion
There are in
gm
.(33b)
After the summation (31) over k is completed, the

expansion over the necessary range of y values is
completed by an identical procedure.
2.5.4.8.
gm
The sum CC(ee)
occurs in all Fourier series. In each of the other fifteen

sums, half of the symmetry elements are replaced by
antisymmetry elements (cf. Cochran, Acta, 5, 630,
1952), and the combination of one such term with
CC(ee) will remove those elements from CC(ee) which
do the operations of Table 2.5.4C. In

such plane groups one can only make use of the
symmetry of the classes 2, m and 2mm. This process is
illustrated by an example.
calculated as
Example
Plane group
6 at 00.
p6mm
referred to hexagonal axes with

If the Fourier series in this plane group is
calculated in terms of the hexagonal axes, the only

effective symmetry element will be the 2 axis at
00 and
the series will contain all the terms
and all the
terms SS. Calculation of one quarter-cell will not
exhibit the full asymmetric unit of p6mm. However,
correspond to the antisymmetry elements in the added

term. Table 2.5.4C lists the symmetry and antisymmetry elements of each of the sixteen types of terms in
the Beevers-Lipson summation. The application
of
this permits a rapid decision as to the terms which
will
appear in the summation for any given plane group, in
CC
calculation of the half-cell, which is logical for/?2, will

exhibit the asymmetric unit of p6mm six times.
79
2.5.
FOURIER THEORY
TABLE
2.5.4C
Symmetry and Antisymmetry Properties of Beevers-Lipson Summation
CC
CS
Translations
Axes
Mirror Planes
Glide Planes
|0
0|
00
i0
0i
tt
Ov
Jv
uO
Ov
|v
m0
u\
ee
eo
oe
00
+
+
+
-
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
_
+
-
+
+
-
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
+
-
+
+
ee
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
+
+
-
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
_
+
-
+
_
+
+
+
+
+
-
+
+
-
+
+
-
+
+
-
+
+
+
+
00
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
+
+
+
+
-
+
+
-
+
+
ee
+
+
-
--+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
+
+
+
+
_
-
_
+
+
_
-
_
+
+
_
+
+
_
+
+
-
_
+
+
_
+
+
-
00
ee
eo
oe
SS
indicates antisymmetry element
00
eo
oe
SC
symmetry element
indicates
eo
oe
-(-
+
+
00
+
-
_i_
will
be c2mm, for which the elimination table reads

g'm'
2'
gm
2
2'
gm
m'g'
eg'
cm'
cm
cm
g2'
2g
2g'
m'2'
eg'
cm'
cm
cm
*2*
2g
2g'
m'2'
g'm'
gm
gm
2'
2'
from the
original paper.
Fourier Series in Three Dimensions

general Fourier series in three dimensions
most
The
of the form
2.5.4.9.
m'g'
is
be two terms to sum, and if the series is

for one-eighth of the cell, as is usual for
c2mm, three asymmetric units of the p6mm will be
obtained. However, in this case the lattices for the
There
_
+
hexagonal asymmetric unit, values can be obtained on

some points of a mesh finer than that originally
computed.
M. J. Buerger (Am. Min., 34, 771-88, 1949) has
suggested a different approach to the computation of
plane groups having 3, 4 and 6 axes. He suggests
making an asymmetric or centrosymmetric computation for the whole or half-cell, using only the "asymmetric unit" of the data in reciprocal space. He then
develops the full symmetry by appropriate recombination procedures. Further details must be obtained
group p6mm is referred to the orthohexagonal

A=a1 +a2 B=ax a2 the applicable plane group
If the
axes
will
f(x, y,
summed
z)^^F{hkl)e- 1 ^hx+ky+lz)
h,k,l=
in
.... (34a)
which
i
three sub-units will not necessarily coincide with respect to the orthohexagonal cell. However, if data are
F(h,k,l)= [[[f(x,y,z)e
combined from the three representations of the

80
^hx+ky+lz)dxdydz
.(346)
FOURIER THEORY
2.5.
The Fourier
may be
coefficients are in general
complex and
The
F(hkl)=A(hkl)+iB(hkl)
If f(x, y, z)
is real,
F(hkl)=F(hkl)
/)
k, I)
....(37)
The
series (34a)
can be written in the form
00
/(*, y,
z)=y^y{A(h
>
k, I) cos
27r(hx+ky+h)
h,k,l=-ao
+B(hkl)
sin 2Tr(hx+ky+lz)}
.(38)
In general the Fourier coefficients can be evaluated by

generalization of one-dimensional methods. For the
expansion of a three-dimensional summation in terms
of one-dimensional summations see Section 6.5.1.
Unfortunately the method of discontinuities has not
yet been generalized for the three-dimensional case (see
2.5.4.4(6), page 75). The result of 2.5.4.4(a) can, however, be directly generalized to two or three dimensions
variable
<f>
<j>
are integers,
positive,
negative
Then
or zero.
in the integrands tabulated.
The column
will
rise to
Hi
entries 8.1, 8.2,
be referred to below.
The corresponding convolutions in transform space
are identical in form with those in the base space and
are readily obtained from the table as indicated in the
notes to the table. Any entry in the table can be
readily verified as follows. One of the integrands of
the first entry of the second block of the table gives
Consider the triplet a x a 2 a 3 and its reciprocal

a 2 *, a 3 *. Let
(x) be an arbitrary function
of x=x1 ax +x2a 2 -]-x 3 a 3 and O () be the transform of
(x\ where u=u x a x * +u 2a 2 * +u 3a 3 * (2.5.3.3 (page 71)).
Now define the vector n= 1 a 1 + 2 a 2 + 3fl 3 where the
,
17
headed "Reduced Form"
as follows:
triplet <*!*,
by
of Table 2.5.3A are referred to as convolutions of the functions f(x) and g(x) with one another
or of F(u) and G(u) with one another. The German
word Faltung and its English equivalents "fold" or
"folding" have also been used as synonyms for
"convolution."
If it is assumed that/(x) and g(x) are complex functions of the real variable x, which may be assumed to
be a real variable vector in one or more dimensions,
there are sixty-four convolution formulae which may
be derived from formulae 8.1 and 9.1 of Table 2.5. 3A
by successive application of formulae 4 and 7 of that
table. Table 2.5.4D lists the sixteen essentially different transforms which can be obtained from such
formulae together with two possible forms for the
integrand of the convolution. Two additional forms
can be obtained by changing the sign of the running
....(36)
and B(hkl)=-B(h,
eight formulae represented
9.1, 9.2
.... (35)
we have
A(h, k, l)=A(h, ,
i.e.
Properties of Convolutions
2.5.4.10.
written
ifix+vMriM-nFMe-W'+rtgWdudn
= jF(u)e- 27riux Sg(v)e- 2niun dr)du= \F{u)G{u)e- 2" iuxdu
consider
which
j =
verifies the entry in the table.

In dealing with real functions / and g it should be
remembered that F(u)=F(u). There are then only
sixteen forms for the convolution instead of sixty-four.
In many of the applications in X-ray crystallography
the two functions / and g are equal. In such autoconvolutions there are clearly ten different transforms,
which are listed in Table 2.5.4E. This table is also
oo
...(39)
hj
It
oo
then follows thatf
*0iMa)= U\U{x)e 2 "
ih - x
dx1 dx 2 dx 3
grouped to indicate the three different forms which are

assumed by the auto-convolutions of real functions.
The column of Table 2.5.4D headed "Reduced
o
oo
= U^<f>o(x)e 2 ^ xdx 1 dx 2dx 3
^0
Form"
o (h)
....(40)
which h=h l a1 *+h 2a2 *+h 3a3 *. The Fourier coefficients are thus given directly by sampling the transform
<P (u) of
(x) at the whole-numbered points Ui=h t
A particularly important case arises in which is
a function only of the radius r=\x\ given by |x| 2 =
SZfoa,)*,*,. In this case $(h 1 h 2 h 3)=&(h)=&(\h\) and
2
=2S//^.(a i *ai *). We then have by 2.5.3.3 (19b):
|//|
in
<j>
indicates that all sixteen types of convolution
can be interpreted in the same way as a correlation

between the weights of the two functions at points
separated by a distance x. In Figure 2.5.4 two identical
infinitesimals dt\ (length, area or volume) are located at
(q+\x) and (rj\x). The convolution then measures
the product of the weights of two functions at the two
infinitesimals multiplied by the common infinitesimal
<f>
and summed over all values of 17. Both functions are

same origin, but for a given convolution
the function referred to that origin and a particular
referred to the
infinitesimal
which
V is
the unit cell
volume of the
triplet
at
be the function
itself
or
its
inverse
t Note that we have varied the technique from that of

2.5.4.4(a) (page 75) by defining < (x) and *() in terms of
the system a t and
instead of in terms of a unit system as
in
may
a*
before.
81
Both procedures are equally
valid.
FOURIER THEORY
2.5.
TABLE
Forms
Note
The
first
2.5.4D
for the Convolution
Formulae
entry corresponds to
lF(u)G{u)e-îux du^ Sf(fi)gix-7i)dn^5f(x-yi)giv)dn
The
= !A~V)g(x+v)dv= Sf(x+rj)g(-rj)dn
and fourth convolutions are obtained from those given in the table by changing the sign of 77.
third
Note
Note
An
overrule indicates a negative quantity.

Convolutions in transform space are obtained by interchanging the variables x and u and interchanging
2.
3.
capital
and small
letters.
Reduced Form
Convolution Integrands
Transforms
F(u)G(u)
Av)g(x-v)
Ax-v)g(v)
Av + %x)g(ri-hx)
F(u)G(u)
Av)g(x-v)
Ax-v)g(v)
f(-Q
+ \x)g(T)-\x)
F(u)G(u)
Av)g(x-y)
Ax-v)g(v)
Av~\x)g{r] + \x)
F(u)G(u)
Avteix^v)
Ax-v)g(v)
Av+lx)g(v-lx)
F(u)G(u)
A-n)g(x-rj)
Ax-v)g(j})
AvHx)g(v-lx)
F(u)G(u)
Ai)g{xn)
Ax-v)g(v)
AvHx)g(ri-hx)
F(u)G(u)
fQg^v)
Ax^v)gQ
Av+hx)g(v-^x)
F(u)G(u)
Av)g(x-y)
Ax-v)g(i)
Av~lx)g(r) + lx)
Interchange /and g in preceding block
F(u)G(u), etc.
F{u)G(u)
ffagix^v)
Ax-v)i(v)
AlHx)g(r]-ix)
F(u)G(u)
Av)g(x-v)
Ax^vMv)
Av-ix)g(r)+lx)
F(u)G(u)
A-n)g(x^rj)
Axn)g(n)
AvHx)g(v-lx)
F{u)G{u)
Av)g(x-r})
Ax-v)g(v)
Av+ixîv-^x)
TABLE
Forms
Note. The
entries in
2.5.4E
for Auto-convolutions
each block reduce to the same form for real functions, in which case the
first
two blocks
are inverses of one another.
Convolution Integrands
Transform
F\u)
Av)Ax-v)
Av)Ax+i)
F(u)F(u)
Al)Ax~rj)
A-n)Ax+rj)
F\u)
ftofc-v)
Al)Ax+ri)
Ax-v)Av)
Ax+v)Av)
Ax-v)Av)
Ax+v)Av)
Av)Ax+v)
Ax-i)M
Ax+v)Av)
Ax+v)Av)
F\u)
Ai)Ax-v)
F(u)F(u)
Ari)Ax~v)
Av)Ax+v)
Av)Ax+v)
F\u)
Al)Ax~ri)
A-i)Ax+i)
|F()|
F(u)F(u)
Av)Ax-v)
A-n)Ax+-n)
Ax-n)Av)
F(u)F(u)
Av)Ax-v)
Ai)Ax+ri)
Ax-Â-n)
Ax+v)Av)
Ari)Ax-ri)
Ai)Ax+v)
Ax+i)Av)
Ax-v)Av)
82
FOURIER THEORY
2.5.
in the origin or
its conjugate complex.

It must be
emphasized that this geometrical interpretation is only
one of many possible. Still more generalized types of
convolution may be set up (Patterson [58]) in which
the correlation expressed by Fig. 2.5.4 is carried out
between a function and those related to it by any of
the crystallographic symmetry operations.

In discussion of Fourier transforms all convolution
doubly infinite, while for periodic functions the integrals are usually taken over a single cell.
integrals are
The most important applications of the convolution

formulae to crystallography depend on the properties
of "atomic functions" (2.5.3.2 (a), page 70).
which the functions Fû) are the transforms of the

For such functions the
convolutions can be written as the various possible
products of the two functions (43) and their conjugates
and inverses. Table 2.5.4F lists the expressions corresponding to the first four entries of Table 2.5.4D.
in
individual functions /(*), etc.
The products corresponding
to the remaining twelve

can be written down by inspection. From Table 2.5.4F we can make the following
statement. The convolution of two functions / and g
which are the sum of
and
atomic functions
respectively will consist of
atomic functions
located at origins whose co-ordinates will be sums or
differences of the co-ordinates of the origins in the
original functions. The convolution atomic functions
will be convolutions pairwise of the original atomic
entries of Table 2.5.4D
N
MN
functions.
In addition to the application of the convolution in

the calculation of vector maps (Section 6.1, page 318)
has also proved of importance in the calculation of

molecular transforms and in the calculation of diffracit
tion
from small crystal particles (Section 6.3, page
TABLE
322).
2.5.4F
Convolutions of "Atomic Functions"
M
Typical Case:
The
F(u)G(u)=^
^F (u)G (u)e 2Hu(a +

i
transforms of convolution atomic

and locations of the corresponding convolution atomic functions (e.g. flj+Z>; ).
table
functions
lists
(e.g. Fi{u)Gj{u))
Fig. 2.5.4
Assume
that/(x), g(x) are of the
form
Transforms
fix)=^fi{x-a x)
and
(*)=]>Wx-6,.)
Transforms of
Convolution
Atomic Functions
....(42)
Location of
Convolution
Atomic Functions
Then, by 2.5.3.2 (13)
(p. 70),
F(u)G(u)
F(u)G(u)
F(u)G(u)
F(u)G(u)
the transforms F(u) and
G(u) are given by
F(u)=2F (u)e 2viua

4
1
and
G(W)=2^(")e2
'"
'r,
''
....(43)
83
FMGM
F^Gjiu)
FiWG&u)
FiWGM
di+bj
<*i-bj
-ai+bj
-di-bj
2.6.
By D. W.
Statistics
J.
Cruickshank
conception
2.6.1. Introduction
2.6.1.1.
that f(x)dx
General Introduction
The assessment of
is
cardinal problem in every experimental science. No

measurement is of any value unless one has at least
some idea of its accuracy.

A single measurement of the magnitude of a quantity
differs by errors from its unknown true value A. The
is
In the hope that it will ease the task of any reader

wishes to study a point in more detail, an attempt
has been made to follow, in a general way, the style of
one of the standard texts. Accordingly the definitions,
notation and sequence of the mathematical matter in
these sections are rather similar to those used by
Cramer in The Elements of Probability Theory [67] and
that, for a given experimental procedure, the
who
possible results of an experiment define the probability

distribution of a random variable . If, for instance,
random
variable has a continuous range of values

supposed that there is a probability density
function /(x) such that f(x)dx is the probability of a
single measurement lying in the range (x, x+dx). Both
the true value A and the probability density f(x) are
unknown. The problem of assessing the accuracy of a
measurement is thus the double problem of estimating
f(x) and of assuming a relation between f(x) and A.
For many purposes the crudest of estimates of
f(x) may suffice a mere glance at a measuring scale
may be adequate to determine limits of error but for
work of precision more formal methods are needed.
Fortunately the theory of probability shows that it is
often unnecessary to estimate the complete form of
the
x,
it is
f(x).
It is
commonly
Mathematical Methods of Statistics [68]. No blame is,

of course, to be attached to Cramer for any mistakes
made here; in any case the present treatment differs
from his in a number of important respects.
2.6.1.2.
sufficient to estimate
(a)
The
probability that one of several mutually exhappen is the sum of the separate
clusive events will

probabilities.
(b)
the variance of the distribution. These

estimates can be made in a straightforward manner
mean and
The
probability of the
S and
combined occurrence of two
the product of the probability of

S and of the (conditional) probability of T on the
assumption that S has happened; or alternatively
it is the product of the probability of T and of the
events,
from the results of a series of experiments.

The problem of what relation to assume between
f(x) and the true value A is a more subtle one, involving
usual procedure, after correction for
Fundamental Rules for combining
Probabilities
only the
particularly the question of systematic errors.
that of an ideal infinite population such

the probability of a member of the
tion problems.
fundamental supposition usually made about the

errors
is
population having the property with a value in the

range (x, x+dx). Similar conceptions occur in the
basic applications of probability in quantum mechanics.
For definiteness the. applications of the theory of
probability in the following sections are described in
terms of the assessment of the accuracy of measurements, but the methods are often applicable in popula-
the accuracy of a measurement
or of quantities derived from measurements
is
T,
is
(conditional) probability of
The
that
known systematic
T has
S on
the assumption
happened.
Hence, if the events are independent, the probability

of the combined occurrence is the product of the
probabilities of the separate events.
suppose that some typical value of f(x),

ordinarily the mean, is the value of A. No repetition of
an experiment will ever reveal the systematic errors, so
that statistical estimates of accuracy take into account
only the random errors. Empirically, systematic errors
can be detected only by remeasuring the quantity with
errors, is to
2.6.2.
One-dimensional Probability Distributions
Discrete and Continuous Distributions

The two simple types of one-dimensional probability
distribution are the discrete, in which the random
variable takes only certain discrete values, and the
continuous, in which both the range and the probability
distribution of the random variable are continuous
2.6.2.1.
a different technique.
In the preceding remarks the concepts of probability
have been applied to the errors of measurements. This
kind of application is frequently needed in the physical
The situation in the biological sciences is

rather different: here the errors in the measurements
themselves are often negligible and the concepts of
sciences.
(though the range may be bounded).

For a discrete probability distribution
probability that will take the value
zation condition is
probability are applied to samples from populations

of plants and animals, each individual in the population being regarded as giving a measure of the property
of interest. In these applications the concept of a
unique true value of a quantity has no place the usual
2>=i
t.
let p { be the
The normali-
(!)
where the summation
84
is
over
all
possible values of
i.
2.6.
STATISTICS
For a continuous probability distribution let f(x)dx

be the probability that will take a value between x
and x+dx. The normalization condition is
Measures of Location
The three most important measures of a
2.6.2.3.
f(x)dx=l
...(2a)
!-
typical
property of a distribution are the mean, the median and

the mode, of which the mean has already been defined.
The median of a continuous distribution is the value
x such that
where a and b are the limiting values of . By denning

f(x)=0 outside the range a<x<b, this may alter-
jf(x)dx=i=jf(x)dx
...(11a)
natively be written
For a
!f{x)dx=\
.(2b)
The mean value, or the expected value, of a function

of the random variable $ is defined as
=y-i
or
and
i=l
00
fc(*)/(*)<&
Xj
....(3)
and continuous distributions respectively.

In particular, the mean
of a distribution is
for discrete
oo
Also,
if
the median
\xf(x)dx
(4)
E(a+b)=aE(0+b
Theorem.
any value between
are
....(5b)
random
variables,
E(ZV )=E(0E(V )
whether
is
The lower
x
....(7)
that value
quartile of a continuous distribution is
(f(x)dx=i
.(8)
moments
for
which
....(\2b)
semi-interquartile range is \(x u ); in a symmetrical distribution this is sometimes (and somewhat

misleadingly) called the probable error.
or
2.6.2.5.
Measures of Skewness
distribution
is
symmetric
if it is
symmetric about
the mean. In a symmetric distribution
are
=a o=l ^=0;
f(jc-/w)'/(*>/jt
ix 2
=a 2 -m
Wr-l+l0W
a r -2-
all
the central
moments of odd order, 2n+1 vanish.

The third order central moment ^ 3 is one of the
simplest measures of skewness. The dimensionless
/j-
(10a)
and generally
J
xu
The
the
between the moments about the origin
^r=r-{
that value
\f{x)dx=l
....(9)
is
00
xu
moments about
are the
/*r={(-"0'}=2/* -#)
f*o
....(12a)
oo
while the upper quartile

(x rf(x)dx
or
oo
central
at
for which
a consequence of the normalization condition,
relations
only one
is
xi
The central moments

mean m and are
and the
(s.d.) a.
while a x =m, the mean.
The
and xjJrX
ju.
Moments
ar Ê(e)^x/Pi
=l
x,
distribution are those values of
If a- is a non-negative integer, the moment of order r

of the random variable is
....(lie)
Measures of Dispersion
The second moment about the origin a 2 is sometimes
called the mean square deviation, and its square root
the root mean square deviation.
The second order central moment 2 is tne variance,
and its positive square root is the standard deviation
variables
2.6.2.2.
how-
2.6.2.4.
E(+ V )=E(Q+E(r,)
....(6)
and t? are independent random
If
If,
....(5a)
E(g-m)=0
-q
...(116)
which f(x) or /^ have maxima. If there

mode, the distribution is unimodal.
E($)=m:
Theorem. If and
independent or not:
is
The modes of a
a and b are constant:
further, since
2a>I
5>=i
or
is
i=\
the median of the discrete distribution.
is
x5
ever,
oo
m=E(^)=^x p
if
'=7
2a,g(Xi)Pi
discrete distribution let the possible values
of i be arranged in ascending order. Then,

value such that
quantity
(10b)
skewness.
85
fxjcr
is
sometimes called the
coefficient
of
2.6.
STATISTICS
The corresponding expansion of log
For unimodal continuous distributions of small

skewness the relation
Mean-mode=3(mean-median)
holds approximately.
Karl Pearson's definition of skewness
Skewness =
....(13)
io g
.(17)
<f>(t) is the characteristic function of a sum of independent random variables with characteristic functions
> 4>n(f) the convolution theorem gives
<i(0> ^2(0>
shown
If
mean mode
distribution
^(o=2-;(/o
is
The continuous
defines the
<f>(f)
semi-invariants or cumulants k.
in Fig. 2.6.2.5
log
exhibits positive skewness.
<f>(t)=
log &(/)+ log
<f>
2 (t)+
log
<f>
n (t)
....(18)
mode
and hence the rth semi-invariant of the sum
is
the
sum
of the rth semi-invariants of the individual distributions

K r =K r
W + K W+
+K r (">
.(19)
the chief reason for the introduction of

no corresponding relation holds in
general for the central moments except for the first
This relation
is
semi-invariants;
three
Fig. 2.6.2.5
m=m +m +
2
2.6.2.6.
Characteristic Functions
The mean value of the random
variable e
tH=fH w +tH
may be
it
The
written
oo
<f>(t)Ê(e
ili
)=ê
itx i
Pi
or
\e
the
first
moments
f(x)dx ....(14)
/c
The
/c
first
+an 2
=a =m
x "=o2 =a 2
3 ==a 3-3a 1 a 2 +2a 1
/c 1
The
....(20)
+i" 3
(n)
are
itx
This function of the real variable t is called the characteristic function of the distribution /(x). Apart from a
factor 2tt it is the Fourier transform of the distribution.
The theoretical importance of characteristic func-
{l)
+mn
few relations between the semi-invariants and
oo
tions arises as follows.
a 2 =<r1 2 +a2 2 +
.(21)
s
few relations between the semi-invariants and
the central
moments
are
probability distribution
f{x) of the sum of two independent random variables

and rj is the convolution of their respective distributions ftix) and/2 (x), thus
....(22)
oo
oo
f(x)=jf1 (x-2)Mz)dz=jf2 (x-z)f1 (z)dz

oo
.(15)
Particular One-dimensional Distributions
2.6.3.
oo
The Binomial Distribution
Hence by the convolution theorem, Section 2.5.3.1, the
2.6.3.1.
of (+17) is the product of

the characteristic functions ^(t) of | and 2 (t) of 17.
More generally, the characteristic function of a sum of
independent variables is equal to the product of the
characteristic functions of the variables.
The probability distribution of a sum of independent
variables may thus be found by taking the Fourier
transforms of the individual distributions, multiplying
these transforms together and then taking the inverse
Fourier transform to obtain the probability distribution of the sum.
Assuming the moments exist, the sum or integral
defining the characteristic function may be expanded
for small values of / to give
Let/? be the constant chance of an event in a random

experiment, and let q=\p. The probability of the
characteristic function
<f>(t)
<f>
event occurring r times in n repetitions of the experi-
ment
is
...(i)
(?K
The corresponding
probability distribution in which
the variate takes the values 0,
1, 2,
.,
r,
.,
n with
probabilities
r
1
n
q ,nq"- p,...,(j\p g"-",...,p
the binomial distribution; it is so called because these

probabilities are the successive terms in the binomial
is
expansion of (p+q) n
The mean of the distribution
a 2 =ii 2 =npq, and i* z =npq(q-p).
.
.(16)
where the a r are the moments.

86
is
m=np;
the variance
2.6.
STATISTICS
Distribution
2.6.3.2. Poisson's
*=&+&+...+&
probabilities
Ar
m=m +m +
-A
'3!
2!
distribution may be regarded as a limiting form of

the binomial distribution in which n-ôo and p=X/n.
It is thus applicable to problems involving a large
number of experiments,
in each of
which there
is
constant small chance of an event occurring, or to

problems including a large number of individuals, to
each of whom there is a constant small chance of some
All the semi-invariants of the distribution are equal
to A, so that w=A, o- 2 =A and /x3 =A.
The sum of any finite number of independent

Poissonian variables is itself a Poissonian variable,
with parameter A equal to the sum of the parameters
A x , A2
of the separate variables.
.
2.6.3.3(a).
+m n
mean
(7)
o*=a1 *+az *+
+on *
....(8)
Discussion of these very general conditions will be
found in Cramer, Mathematical Methods of Statistics;

Kendall, Advanced Theory of Statistics, etc., but,
roughly speaking, the only requirements are that each
i must have a finite variance, and the probability of
any & making a relatively large contribution to the
total value of $ must be small.
The Central Limit Theorem makes it plausible to
suppose that if the experimental determination of the
value of a quantity is subject to a large number of
independent sources of small errors, the probability
distribution of the quantity will be normal. This may
be considered the explanation of the fact that observed
distributions are often approximately normal.
happening.
and variance
r\
The
....(6)
tends to the normal distribution, as ->oo, with
e~ x Ae~ A
,
variables subject to certain very general conditions

the distribution of the sum
t
In Poisson's distribution with parameter A the random

variable takes the values 0, 1, 2, 3,
... (oo) with
., r,
The Normal Distribution

The x 2 Distribution
Let 1? i ,...,n ben independent random variables,
each normally distributed with mean and variance 1.
The distribution (for x>0) of
2.6.3.4.
A random variable | is normally distributed if it has

a probability distribution
1
/(*)oV(2tt)
(x-m)''
2<x
(-^)
exp
~"r
(2)
This distribution is symmetrical about its mean m and

it has variance a 2
The mean, median and mode of the
-2^
The mean
deviation,
of a normal variate
[2J
This is known as the x 2 distribution with n degrees of
freedom.
-a=0-7979a
IT
The mean
range
or probable
2.6.3.5.
The
=2.
Distribution, or Student's
variance
1,
and
if
V^pt'/n)*
(4)
and with variance
the variable
-rl n 2
2 2_L
a'=a
l CTi
2_
+0n <V
(C\
,J-=
(P'rf
.(11)
The Central Limit Theorem
The great theoretical importance of the normal

distribution arises from the Central Limit Theorem,
of
the
.(10)
has the distribution
which may be stated as:

Whatever the distribution
Theorem. In particular, if the independent variables

are normally distributed with a common mean m and
a common variance a 2 their arithmetic mean is also
normally distributed about m with variance <r 2/n.
2.63.3(b).
cr
If % and $ lt
., in are w+1 independent random
variables each normally distributed with mean
and
.... (3)
the variance
Distribution
=a1 1 +a 2 2 +
+ aJn
normally distributed with mean
m=a1 m 1 +a2m 2 +
+anmn
m=n and
error
(Section 2.6.2.4) of a normal variate is 0-6745o-.

Theorem. If the set of random variables $ { (/=1, 2,
...,) are independent and normally distributed
with means t and variances a, 2 , the variable
is
(9)
22r
is
semi-interquartile
_*
is
from the mean
E(\tj-m\),
JThe
2.
distribution are coincident.
This is known as Student's distribution with n degrees

of freedom.
As ->oo the distribution tends to the
normal distribution with mean and variance 1.
independent
87
2.6.
F and
The
2.6.3.6.
STATISTICS
z Distributions
., -q n be m+n independent
gm and ^ x
random variables, each normally distributed with
Let l9
mean
.,
and variance
and
1,
The relations between the second order moments

and the second order central moments are
i 20
let
= a 20-'l 2
The
bivariate
= a ll-^1^2
A 02 ==a
02-^2 2
0)
form of the normal distribution has
^ll
the probability density

2
=2
and
l=%li
The
/(*,*)=
variable
277CT 1 O- 2
2 m
2
F=
by
As
2/
The
Uru)
{mx+n)
Let/(x, y)dxdy be the joint probability that and

respectively.
x+dx) and
The normalization condition

00
(y,
We
line.
obtain
E(-q-a-by=ix 20b 2 -2iJ. 11 b+fi02 +(m 2 -a-bm 1) 2

....(10)
which
is
....(1)
value of a function g(,
rj)
is
.... (2)
ma =fa =E(rj)
[x
is
The
line
of
7]
is
(7
=/x
i=0 and
At 2 o =(7 i
2
>
x-m
square regression line of
ym
a2
Oi
which passes through (m x
and the regression

|u 10
....(11)
the regression coefficient of 17 on .

Thus the equation of the mean square regression
moments are the moments about the

/aÊ{(-/Wi) r (>7-/n 2 )*}
a ^m 2 -bm 1
is
(4)
are
In particular
and
y-m
cc
.... (3)
rs =E(?, r) )=Ux yf{x, y)dxdy
The mean of the distribution has the co-ordinates
(m t m 2 ) where
central
and
for
b= n = P?*
distribution are
s
=. w -=E()
minimum
^20
E{g(t, v)}= JM*, y)f(x, y)dxdy
The moments of the
Conversely, the
2 ).
mean
is
_\
p
xm
...(13)
ax
coefficient of
on
-q
is jn
n //*
2-
.... (5)
j^02 ==o'2
2
5
where
2.6.4.2.
Multi-dimensional Probability
are the variances of and -q.

2
called the covariance of and -q.
o-
(9)
oo
E{q-g(OY
-q
00
The mean or expected
and
00
y+dy)
defined as
the
mean
sometimes desirable to fit the regression curves

by approximate functions. Thus, we may propose to
find the best linear estimate of -q in terms of i.e. to
find the linear function g()=a+b, such that
00 00
ct
(*)= :
is
y)dxdy=\
mean and
is
is least.
will take values in the ranges (x,
The
the distribution for simplicity being
continuous.
the
It is
avoid repetition we shall consider the probability distribution of two one-dimensional random
on
J/(x, y)dy
a single
To
-q,
-q
2 (x) is
The regression curves of rj on and of on 77 coincide

only when the probability density is concentrated along
Distributions
and
i.e.
F distribution tends to the distribution
Two-dimensional Probability
variables
mean of
where
Multi-dimensional Distributions
2.6.4.1().
2 (x)},
..(13)
m with m degrees of freedom.
2.6.4.
locus of the point {x,

value of rj when =x,
--1
'fr)
Regression Curves
regression curve of the
distribution of the variable z deexp (2z)-=Fis known as Fisher's z distribution.
->co the
of x 2 /
)''
..(8)
The corresponding
fined
l(x-m xy
)*
)l
2.6.4. 1(b).
(12)
has the distribution (for x>0)
f(x)=m 2 n!2
(l-
Ipjx-mjjy-mz) (y-m 2
/<
correlation coefficient of the variables
P-^CT
12
Distributions
and
Space does not permit a

-q
is
....(6)
discussion of multishall consider
full
variate probability distributions.
the probability distribution /(jq,
x2
We
,
dimensional random variables x 2

,
.,
.
xn ) of n one.,
2.6.
The moments of the
Suppose that the values of a one-dimensional ranobtained in a sequence of measurements
distribution are
dom variable
,=&*... &')=
.....
J
STATISTICS
xnrnf{Xl
1
.
J**/
r 1 +r2
where
+rn
is
The
lt
xn)dx x
the order of the
The first order moments
m = lx f(x
.,
dxn
.(14)
*i X2,
moment.
xn)dx 1
.dxn
(15)
moments are the moments about the

., m n ). The following notation will be
the second order central moments
central
mean m(m x
used for
K=PuOiaj=E{{t; i -m i){j -m })}
.,
xn
We shall regard these as a sample of n values from the
are
.,
are
.(16)
)
where p u is the correlation coefficient of & and ,-.

Accordingly A is the variance of & and X i3 the
co variance of & and ,-.
The matrix whose elements are X ti is known as the
variance matrix or moment matrix; it is symmetric and
positive definite. The matrix with elements p u (p H =-\)
is the correlation matrix.
It is also symmetric and
-
distribution f(x) appropriate to the experiment. Even

n is rather large this sample will not be sufficient to
if
obtain a reliable estimate of the whole form of f(x).

Nevertheless, for large n some very remarkable and
important results can be obtained by applying the

Central Limit Theorem. In particular, although we
know nothing of f(x) in advance, provided only that
we can assume that it is a distribution satisfying the
very general requirements of the Central Limit
Theorem, we can say the distribution of the mean x of
the sample is normal, with the same mean m as the
parent random variable and with variance a 2 /n. To
determine the accuracy of the value x, which we obtain
from the sequence of measurements, we require there-"
fore only to estimate a 2
The variance s 2 of the n values in the sample is
.
positive definite.
If y)=a1 i; x +a 2 i; 2
+an
n , the
variance of
2 Êa a x a
The
--'XiXi-xV
rrt
It
form of the normal
multivariate
is
..(17)
17
may be shown
that
distribution
E(s 2)=
has the probability density
(3)
.
.(18)
may
For
sample
far probability distributions
all
accuracy of the
have been con-
We
tributions.
measurements introduced in Section 2.6.1.1 and to the

problem of estimating the probability density appro-
2.6.5.2.
priate to a particular experiment.
Analogous
tus
of
is
hold for multi-dimensional
large
it is
dis-
sometimes convenient to avoid
the labour of computing the exact
mean and
variance
of a one-dimensional distribution by grouping the

data. In this method the range of the variable is
divided into a number of intervals of equal length, and
each observation is taken to have the value of the
mid-point of the interval in which it lies. This simplifies the calculations at the price of a little inaccuracy.
On the average the means of the grouped and ungrouped samples are the same, but on the average the
variance p 2 of the grouped data is larger than the
variance s 2 of the ungrouped data. If h is the length of
the intervals the corrected estimate of the sample
of course, to attempt to neutralize the

systematic errors in any appara-
unknown
by making further measurements
results.
results
Sheppard's Corrections
When n is
single measure-
ment tells us almost nothing: it is only by repeating

the measurement a number of times that we can make
some estimate of the distribution f(x).
It is usual,
thus
an adequately accurate estimate of

we can easily derive from the
that we need for an assessment of the
large n this
sidered only in the abstract.

must now return to
the problem of the assessment of the accuracy of
effects
The estimated
is
the variance of x, so that
Large Samples
Thus
be taken as an estimate of a
variance of the mean x of the sample
is
Sampling Distributions
2.6.5.1.
(2)
{-*2 ^(Xi-mdiXi-mi)}
the determinant of the moment matrix

of the distribution and \ iJ are the elements of the
inverse matrix.
2.6.5.
accordingly
1- 1 j-
where det
n-\
n
f(x1 ,...,xn)=(2n)-i"(dttA)-i
exp
..(1)
after altering
details of the
apparatus or, better still, by making

additional measurements with other techniques. We
shall postpone consideration of such methods until
Section 2.6.6.3, as it is more convenient to discuss
first the accuracy of results obtained from repeated
measurements with the same apparatus. This first
discussion necessarily excludes any allowance for
variance
systematic errors.
is
P
89
~&h 2
....(5)
2.6.
STATISTICS
Corrections of this type, which may be made to any

moments of grouped samples, are known as Sheppard's
can be adequately illustrated by supposmean x derived from a

small sample of n values, the distribution of the mean
being normal, f
Repeated measurements with the same apparatus
give no information about the systematic errors of a
particular experiment, so that any estimate of the
accuracy of x derived from the sample values necessarily allows only for the random errors. (The problem
of accuracy when a quantity has been measured by
ciples involved
ing that
corrections.
Small Samples
2.6.5.3.
When
only a few measurements are made it is no

longer possible to appeal to the Central Limit Theorem
to decide the distribution of the mean of a sample. In
such cases the distribution of the mean can be determined only if the parent distribution f(x) is known.
In principle, given f(x), the distribution of the mean
can always be calculated by the method described in
Section 2.6.2.6 for the distribution of a sum of independent variables.
For certain parent distributions, the distribution of
the mean is unusually simple. Thus iff(x) is a normal
distribution with mean m and variance a 2 the distribution of the sample mean is also normal with the same
mean m and variance a 2 jn. If f(x) is a Poisson
distribution with parameter A, the sample mean x also
has a distribution of the Poisson type with 0, 1/n,
2/n, ... as the possible values of x, the probability of
we
are considering a
methods
several
is
discussed in Section 2.6.6.3.)

that the mean Jc has variance
The formal knowledge
o 2 jn is of little help in assessing its accuracy, since we

do not know a exactly. However, we can consider the
random
variable
(Section 2.6.5.3) defined as
xm
t=-
.(I)
where s'=S/\/n=s/\/(nl) is the estimated standard

As has been mentioned, t is distributed
in Student's distribution, sn _ x (t), with n 1 degrees of
freedom (Section 2.6.3.5). Since t involves only the
unknown m and not the unknown a 2 it may be used
to discuss the accuracy of x as an estimate of m.
deviation of x.
x=a/n being
e
Vrr
(a!)
The
Suppose that we may assume that f(x)
is
a normal
In assessing the accuracy of the mean x

of a small sample, we have to allow for the fact that
the estimate S 2 of the variance a 2 off(x)
distribution.
ment
no
longer, as
it
unknown,
....(6)
quantity.
xm
2.6.3.5)
involve the
n 1
unknown a it can be used
accuracy of x.
Sections 2.6.6.1
2.6.6.
degrees of freedom.
The use of
and 2.6.6.2.
is
As
even
if
random variable taking a value in a

we are speaking of the probability
0-99=L
iif)dt
(2)
does not
in discussing the
points x+ts' and x-ts' are then called the 99%

confidence limits. Confidence ranges for 95%, 99%
probabilities for different values of are
and 99-9
values
and 0-1
readily obtainable from the 5 %, 1
The
discussed further in
Statistical Inference
2.6.6.1.
fixed,
+t
distributed in Student's distribution (Section
with
(7)
where s'=S/\/n is the estimate of the standard deviation

is
is
distributed in a x 2 distribution (Section 2.6.3.4) with

n\ degrees of freedom, and hence that the statistic
of x,
mean
Whereas usually we speak of the
of a fixed point being contained in a variable interval,

the interval being specified by the sample values x and
To specify a range of values within which
is
s'.]
likely to lie we may define confidence, or fiducial,
ranges in the following way. For instance, we may
define the 99% range as that interval (x+ts', xts')
probability that it
which is such that there is a 99
includes m. The value of t defining this range satisfies
is
t=-
the
lies in
fixed interval, here
was with a large sample, a fairly

2
2
It can be shown that (n l)S Ja
precise estimate of a 2
is
bability distribution, for the
is
mean
sn _ x (t)dt. [This statedoes not imply that the true mean has a pro-
probability of a
S =J
2
probability that the true
interval {x+ts', x+(t+dt)s'}
of
One-dimensional Confidence Intervals
An
experiment may be undertaken either to determine the value of some hitherto unmeasured quantity
or to obtain a value for comparison with another
estimate of the same or some similar quantity.
In the first case, a typical statement of the results
of the experiment will include an estimate of the mean
value of the probability distribution of the quantity
and an estimate of the accuracy of this determination.
It is worth examining in more detail what can be said
about the accuracy of the determination. The prin-
tv
given in Table 2.6.6A
(p. 94).
One-parameter Significance Tests

Suppose alternatively that we wish to compare the
experimental mean x with a theoretical value so as
2.6.6.2.
examine whether the theory is supported or

opposed by experiment. Again, for simplicity, let us
to
The sample mean will be normal if the parent distribution

normal. Whatever the parent distribution, we may also
reasonably assume that the sample mean is normal if the sample
is sufficiently large (Central Limit Theorem, Sections 2.6.3.3 and
f
is
2.6.5.1).
90
2.6.
suppose that the distribution of x

tentative hypothesis that
is
is
normal.
the true
On
STATISTICS
When
both of the samples are small the

more complicated, but the significance points have been tabulated (e.g. Fisher and
Yates [73]).
the
mean m,
f=-
either or
distribution of
0)
is a random variable distributed in Student's distribution with n~\ degrees of freedom. Let t be the
value of t obtained from a particular experiment, and
let P be the probability that |f|>|/ |very small
value of P indicates that the occurrence of the results
x and s' is very surprising if the hypothesis is true, and
2.6.6.3.
is
Weighted Mean Values and the Detection
of Systematic Errors
When P is so small as to cast doubt on the hypothesis

we may say that x is significantly different from
just how small P has to be for this is quite arbitrary,
So far in our discussions of sampling and of statistical

we have considered only the case in which
the sample values were derived by repetitions of the
same experiment. Suppose, however, that a quantity
is measured by two methods, in one of which the
random variable has the distribution fa (x) and in the
other fb (x). If the means m a and m b of the distributions
differ, either one or both of the methods is subject to
systematic error. On the other hand, if the means
coincide it does not imply that both methods are free
from systematic error, for the error may be the same
and
in both.
inference
we may therefore suspect, or even reject, the hypothesis

that is the true mean m. On the other hand, if P is
not small we conclude that the experimental data are
consistent with the hypothesis, though they cannot
provide evidence to prove that
is
the true value.
a compromise between the dangers of falsely

rejecting a true hypothesis and of too frequently retaining an incorrect hypothesis. Values of P=5 %, 1 %
and 0-1% are commonly used in testing hypotheses,
and are sometimes taken to denote possibly significant,
is
and highly
hypothesis. However,
significant
Suppose first that neither method is subject to

systematic error. Let jc be the mean of n a observations by the first method and a a 2 be the variance of
2
a (x), and let x b n b and o-6 be similarly defined. Since
both distributions have the same mean, the estimate
of lowest variance of this common mean is
significant evidence against a
perhaps wiser to refer to a

level rather than
as being highly significant. Values of t at the various
significance points are given in Table 2.6.6A. The
large values of t when the number of degrees of freedom
is small should be especially noticed. They reflect the
low accuracy of s' as an estimated standard deviation.
In many problems the sample size n exceeds 30,
and so to a high degree of approximation the t
distribution may be treated as normal. In any case,
with large samples our treatment is no longer restricted
to normal parent distributions, for we may then
reasonably assume that, whatever the parent distribution, the mean x is normally distributed. In this case
it is
result as being significant at the 0-1
the probability
P that
P=\
The
values of
|f|>/
the variance of
In practice
2
mean with
dence ranges and significance
levels
'
'
+l/s b z). Confimay be applied as
variance ll(l/s a
in the earlier case.
Formally, however, we may not assume that the two

methods are free from systematic errors. There is no
means of telling how far the systematic errors are
common to both methods, but we can test whether
the systematic errors of the two methods are different
by the significance test for the difference of two means
which uses t defined by 2.6.6.2(5). If a difference of
systematic errors is revealed, we must examine the
experimental procedures in an effort to find the causes.
Should this search fail, it will be no longer proper to
use x as an estimate of the true value of the quantity,
(4)
/=l-960
=2-576
r=3-291
f=3-891
for the discovery of the systematic error implies that

the difference \m a
b is much greater than the stan-
possible to
-m
dard deviation of the random variable f Further,

whether x is near m a or m b is determined by the now
irrelevant aa ab n a and n b
The wisest course is
probably to weight the two methods equally and to
take \(x a +x b) as an estimate of the true value. The
.
'.
"<ft"+o
'
the true
*,
and a b 2/n b by the estimated variances

2
and
of x a_and x b For large n a and n b whatever
fa (x) and fb (x), x will be normally distributed about
compare two experimentally determined mean values and to tesXthe hypothesis that the
true means of each quantity are the same. Let the two
means be x x and x2 with estimated standard deviations
When both samples are large the hypothesis
Si and s 2
may be tested on the normal law by taking
It is
....(7)
we do not know a a and a 6 and we must
replace aa 2 jn a
sa
at the various significance points are
i>=0-l%
jc is
1/(W+A 2)
then
P=0-01%
>
H>$*)l&$
is
'/ exp (-\t*)dt
P=5%
P=l%
ordinary confidence intervals and significance

not applicable to such an estimate.
'' (5)
91
tests are
2.6.
STATISTICS
The discussion of accuracy when a quantity is determined by more than two methods will be restricted
to the following problem. Suppose a total of n
measurements with values x lt x 2
., xn is made on a
quantity by various methods, the ratios of whose
variances, though not the absolute variances, are
assumed known. Accordingly the variance of x t
.
is
varies
called the weight of the observation x,. Assuming

that there are no systematic errors, the estimate, of
is
lowest variance, of the true
x=
The variance of x
ing estimates ur of
(9)
mr
+Wn
The estimated variance of Z can be shown

XWiiXi-x)
s '=2h> 7
....(10)
is
....(13)
minimum.
R is
minimum when
to be
(r=l,...,k)
n 1
.(14)
8ur
.(11)
that
is
statistic
/=
2*Af -0
xm
..(12)
(r-l.
.,*)
When
....(15)
the A t are linear functions of the ur

conditions (15) are a set of simultaneous
equations determining the k unknowns ur
has the Student distribution sn _x {i) (Section 2.6.3.5)

with n 1 degrees of freedom.
If there are systematic errors in the observations
generally, if the
will be an over-estimate of the variance of the

random variable x (i.e. the spread of the values of x
obtained in many repetitions of the whole set of
measurements will be less than implied by s' 2 ). Nevertheless, though s' 2 is no longer the estimated variance
of a random variable, its use through the statistic t
will make some allowance for systematic as well as
s'
random
so that
R=2wA
is
H>!+
and the
., k,
r the true value of one of the parameters (r=l,
and n>k). The least squares method consists in choos-
.+wn
W-.+
residuals
from problem to problem.
m is
+wn xn
mean
the squares of certain residuals or
minimum, f The form of the
In one case the

residuals might be the differences between observed
values and values calculated as a function of the parameters. If the best plane through a number of points
was being sought, the residuals would be the distances
of the points from the plane. Formally, each residual
is a function of one or more observations and of one
or more parameters.
Let Aibea. residual (z'=l, ...,), w t its weight, and
....(8)
an unknown constant and the assumed
sum of
deviations be a
=a/w
where a 2
weighted
and
the
if
an approximate
variate Taylor series.
More
functions of the ur
ur of parameters is known,
first order of a multiEquation (15) is then linear in
'
set
A may be expanded
to the
the (ur ur ').
To
save space
linear case.
we
will consider only the strictly
We may therefore write

k
errors.
Finally,
known
are any
the
linear
A i=gi+Z a ir Ur
we may illustrate by an example the intimate
...(16)
/=!
connection between systematic errors and the true and

estimated values of a quantity. Suppose a particular
molecular bond length is measured both by the electron diffraction method on the gas and by the X-ray
method on a crystal. If the results of the two experiments differ by significantly more than their estimated
random errors several explanations are possible either
there is a difference between the bond lengths in the
solid and gas phases, or there are unsuspected systematic errors in one or both of the techniques. Further
effort must then be directed towards discovering
either a reasonable theoretical explanation of the
difference in the solid and gas phases or the cause of
the unsuspected systematic errors.
where g t
independent of the ur though possibly a

more observations, and the a ir
are either assumed constants or functions of the
observations. If A t is not a function of a particular
parameter ur a ir =0.
is
function of one or
Accordingly
~=a
8u
(17)
ir
so that the conditions (15)
may
be written
?p rs us = c r
...(18)
where
i=\
2.6.6.4.
The Method of Least Squares
and
The method of least squares may be used when a

number of parameters are to be determined from a
larger number of observations. In this method the
Cr^-^WiOirgi
(196)
i'=l
t When the errors of the observations are normally distributed, the method of least squares leads to the same estimates
of the parameters as R. A. Fisher's maximum likelihood method.
parameters are chosen to satisfy the criterion that a
92
2.6.
The
linear equations (18) are
known
STATISTICS
as the normal
to minimize the weighted
Their solutions are
equations.
....(20)
A^lxi+myt+nzi-p
s=\
is
an element of the matrix inverse to
and
(b rs ).
Ix+my+nzp=0
no systematic errors in the observations or in

the residuals. For simplicity, suppose further that the
residuals, which are random variables when conthere are
which
....(21)
an unknown constant, the same for each

can then be shown that the estimates ur
have a multivariate normal distribution (Section
2.6.4.2) whose mean coincides with the true mean
iw=(m 1
., m k) and whose second order moments are
where a
is
residual.
It
E(ur -m r) 2 =b rra 2
The estimated value of a
quite different approach. The best plane must

pass through the weighted centre of gravity of the
distribution of points. Relative to this origin, the
matrix of the weighted second moments
(22b)
is
(ZwiXi 2
-zz&*?
n k
-(23)
EWiXiZt
variable
..(24)
has Student's / distribution (Section 2.6.3.5) with n-k

degrees of freedom.
If there are systematic errors in the observations or
in the residuals (as could occur if insufficient parameters were being employed), b rrs 2 will be an overestimate of the variance of the random variable ur
when
was of the variance of I
(26)
J
(Az^Zi+LXi+Myi-P
in Section 2.6.6.3
.... (27)
where L,
and P are the parameters to be determined.
The normal equations for L,
and P are
systematic errors). Nevertheless,

though s is no longer the estimated variance of a
random variable, its use through the statistic t will make
some allowance for systematic as well as random
errors. In cases where systematic errors are known to
be present the weights ought to be chosen to reflect
2
M+b
b xxL+b xy
x P=c x
b xyL+b yy M+byP=c y
b xL+b y
P=c
....(28a)
M+b
where b xy =J^w i x i y i
trends in the sizes of the residuals rather than being

related to the variances of the residuals considered
only as random variables.
application of the
IiWiZi
from the points to the plane. These distances are
there were
As an example of the
^W^Zi
ZwiXiZi
Sw^
is
s'
calculated, and the required direction cosines are

then given by the characteristic vector (2.1.8.5, p. 12)
with the lowest characteristic value (which is the
minimum second moment of the -distribution).
If the points are nearly coplanar and if n, say, is
known to be the largest direction cosine, the problem
can, however, be solved with a single set of normal
equations by minimizing the weighted sum 'LwÂz)?
of the squares of the distances parallel to the z axis
where the A t are calculated with the estimates ur (b rr)*s

is thus the estimated standard deviation of u and the
r
(just as
XwiXtyi
Shw, Snyy
/*
/=ur m r
(b rr)h
are not,
by a
....(22a)
E[(ur -m r)(us -m s)]=b rs a 2
....(25b)
The parameters
to be determined.
refinement in crystallography.
The general problem in which the points are not
nearly coplanar can be more conveniently dealt with
is
however, independent, since / 2 +m 2 + 2 =l, so that A t

is not linear in a set (/, m and p, say) of three independent parameters. Formally, therefore, the normal
equations (18) can only be used to determine small
changes to an initial approximate set of parameters,
whose final values are obtained after several successive
applications of the normal equations, as in structure
sidered as functions of the observations, are each

normally distributed and that the weights have been
so chosen that
W^/o ^)
(25a)
m, n and p are the parameters of the plane
/,
To consider the accuracy of the ur suppose first that
the squares of the
In orthogonal co-ordinates
ur =^b"cs
where b rs
sum of
from the plane.
distances
b x =-^w txt
b =2,Wi
....(286)
c x =-'Lw i x i z i
method of
C n = 'LWiZ i
least squares in a case
where each residual involves

one observation and all the parameters, we may mention the application in X-ray crystallography, which is
The required parameters /, m, n and p are then given

+M 2 +\)-K l=Ln, m=Mn, p=Pn. If the
by n=(L 2
discussed fully in Section 6.4.1.

As an example of a case where each residual involves several observations, we may mention the
problem of determining the best plane to pass near a
number of points. Here the observations are the three
co-ordinates of each point (x iy y it zt) and the object is
plane
and
is
to be constrained to pass through the origin,
M are determined by omitting the
in (28a)
and the terms
The condition
in
in the first
last
equation
two equations.
for the equivalence of the minimization

of Hw(Az)i 2 with the minimization of the weighted sum
of the squares of the orthogonal distances (Snyli 2) is
93
STATISTICS
2.6.
2
x AS A Test of Goodness of Fit
that "ZwiAi 2 should be less than the value of the least
2.6.6.6.
significant figure in b xx or b yy
The method of least squares
If we make a large number of observations we may

use the x 2 distribution to test the hypothesis that the
observations have been sampled from a distribution
with probability density /(jc).
The range of the variable x is divided into r intervals
such that each interval contains at least, say, 10 observations. Let n be the total number of observations,
and the normal equations may also be applied in the fitting of approximations to given functions. An example of this was given
In such problems, however, the
notions of probability are irrelevant.
in Section 2.2.1.6.1.
Vi
Multi-parameter Confidence Regions
2.6.6.5.
and Significance Tests
When an experiment results in the
the
number of observations
in each interval
and
/,,
Pi the probability of an observation in the interval It

iff(x) is the probability density. Then, if the number
of observations is large
determination of
several parameters, one-parameter significance tests
nPi)
can be applied to each parameter separately, but it

may be difficult to interpret the experiment as a whole
if some parameters show significant differences and
some not. It is therefore preferable to use a test which
considers all parameters simultaneously, taking into
account their correlations.
Suppose that the experiment provides estimates
x lt x 2
., xn of n quantities (each corresponding to a
mean x in the one-parameter case) whose true values
are m lt m %
For simplicity, suppose that the
., m n
,
multivariate
r- 1 degrees
of freedom. The value of Q obtained from the sample
values is used to test the hypothesis with the ordinary
2
X significance test (Table 2.6.6B).
If it is necessary to determine s parameters of f(x)
from the sample (say, to estimate the mean and
variance of an assumed normal distribution), Q is
distributed like x 2 with rsl degrees of freedom.
is
normal distribution
x lf x 2
.,
xn
is
the
distributed like x 2 (Section 2.6.3.4), with
2.6.4.2(18).
TABLE
As with a 2 \n in
matrix
the one-parameter case, the variance

unknown, but we can estimate it by
is
The
methods similar to those used in the one-dimensional

case. Let a tj be an element of the estimated variance
matrix of the jc's. If the number of measurements in
the sample is large, the a*/s will be adequately accurate
The
estimates.
Section 2.6.6. 1
generalization of the statistic
is
T 2 given
the statistic
The
P%
value
2.6.6A
tv
of the
Distribution
is such that the probability of

exceeding tp is P%.
tv
tp
as a function of n
and
Degrees of
Freedom n
by
T2 =2 jtaViXi-mMxi-m,)
Significance Points
of
P=5%
P=l%
12-71
4-30
636-62
31-59
12-94
....(29)
P=0-1%
=1 7=1
an element of the matrix inverse to (a i}).

With large samples, T2 is distributed as x 2 with n
degrees of freedom (Section 2.6.3.4), and the confidence
where a iJ
is
T2
are those of x 2
Similarly the hypothesis that the true values of the
jc's are tj 01 , 2>
on ma Y be tested by calculating
regions of
j>>o
w (*w-**X**-w)
where the xoi are the values obtained
..-.(30)
in a particular
experiment. From the tables of x (Table 2.6.6B) the

probability that T2 >T 2 may be found. If this is small,
we may reject the hypothesis.
We will mention the distribution of T 2 for small
samples only in the case when p parameters have been

determined from q independent observations by the
method of least squares (as in the determination of
X-ray structure parameters, Section

is
3-18
2-78
63-66
9-92
5-84
4-60
2-57
4-03
6-86
6
7
2-45
3-71
5-96
2-36
3-50
5-40
2-31
3-36
5-04
9
10
2-26
3-25
4-78
2-23
3-17
4-59
12
14
2-18
3-06
4-32
2-14
2-98
4-14
16
2-12
2-92
4-02
18
2-10
2-09
2-88
3-92
2-84
3-85
30
60
2-04
2-75
3-65
2-00
2-66
3-46
00
1-96
2-58
3-29
8-61
ro 2 =2
distributed like
F (Section
n=q-p. Tables of
6.4a).
2.6.3.6),
with
Here
m=p
and
the significance points of the
distribution will be found in
many
(31)
nPi
i=l
joint probability distribution of
statistical texts
20
/p
and
tables.
94
\t\
2.6.
STATISTICS
TABLE
The
The
Significance Points
P% value Xp
is
2.6.6B
2
2
xP of the x Distribution
such that the probability of x 2 exceeding Xp 2
Xp
as a function of n
and
is
P%.
Degrees of
Freedom n
i>=99%
P=95%
P=5%
P=l%
P-0-1%
0-0002
0-020
0-115
0-30
0-55
0-87
1-64
12-59
16-81
22-46
1-24
2-17
14-07
18-48
1-65
2-73
15-51
20-09
24-32
26-12
9
10
2-09
3-32
16-92
21-67
27-88
2-56
3-94
18-31
23-21
29-59
2
3
0-004
3-84
6-64
10-83
0-103
0-35
5-99
9-21
13-82
7-82
11-34
16-27
0-71
9-49
13-28
18-47
1-14
11-07
15-09
20-52
11
3-05
4-58
19-68
3-57
5-23
21-03
24-72
26-22
31-26
12
13
4-11
5-89
22-36
27-69
34-53
14
15
4-66
6-57
23-68
5-23
7-26
25-00
29-14
30-58
37-70
16
5-81
7-96
26-30
32-00
39-25
17
6-41
8-67
27-59
33-41
40-79
32-91
36-12
18
7-02
9-39
28-87
34-80
42-31
19
7-63
10-12
30-14
36-19
20
8-26
10-85
31-41
37-57
43-82
45-32
21
8-90
11-59
32-67
38-93
46-80
22
9-54
12-34
33-92
40-29
48-27
23
10-20
13-09
35-17
49-73
24
25
10-86
13-85
36-42
11-52
14-61
37-65
41-64
42-98
44-31
12-20
15-38
38-88
16-15
40-11
45-64
46-96
54-05
12-88
13-56
16-93
41-34
42-56
43-77
48-28
56-89
49-59
50-89
59-70
26
27
28
29
30
14-26
17-71
14-95
18-49
51-18
52-62
55-48
58-30
Note: These Tables (2.6.6A and 2.6.6B) are based on R. A. Fisher's

Statistical Methods for Research Workers
and Boyd, Edinburgh), 8th Ed., 1941. Acknowledgment is due to the
author and to the publishers
(Oliver
for permission to use this material.
Section 4 of Volume IV (to be published in 1972) of these International Tables

entitled Statistical Significance
Tests contains a discussion of the It-factor ratio, and of tests for consistency
of weight assignment.
95
General References
Compendia of Mathematical Physics
[1]
[2]
[7]
Burington, R. S. Handbook of Mathematical Tables

and Formulae (from Lange's Handbook of Che-
Physikers. (Springer, Berlin, 1925.)

[3] Magnus, W., and Oberhettinger, F. Formeln und
Satzefur die speziellen Funktionen der mathemati-
[8]
[9]
York, 1943.)
See also
Mathematical Tables and Formulae

[5]
[6]
Barlow's Tables of Squares, Cubes, Square Roots, Cube

Roots and Reciprocals. (Spon, London, 1950.)
Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (Chemical Rubber
Co., Cleveland, Ohio, 1914 to date.)
Standard Mathematical Tables (Mathematical Tables
from Handbook of Chemistry and Physics).
(Chemical Rubber Co., Cleveland, Ohio, 1931 to
1931.)
Chambers's Shorter Six-Figure Mathematical Tables. (Chambers, Edinburgh, 1955.)

Pierce, B. O. A Short Table of Integrals. (Ginn,
Boston, 1929.)
Comrie, L.
H., and Murphy, G. M. The Mathematics of Physics and Chemistry. (Van Nostrand,
Margenau,
New
mistry). (Handbook Publishers Inc., Sandusky,

Ohio, 1934 to date.)
Milne-Thomson, L. M., and Comrie, L. J. Standard
(Macmillan,
Four-figure Mathematical Tables.
London,
schenPhysik. (Springer, Berlin, 1948.)

[4]
Lange, N. A. Handbook of Chemistry. (Handbook

Publishers Inc., Sandusky, Ohio, 1934 to date.)
Jahnke, E., and Emde, F. Funktionentafeln mit Formeln und Kurven. (Teubner, Leipzig, 1933, 1938.
Reprinted, Dover, New York, 1943.)
Madelung, E. Die mathematische Hilfsmittel des
J.
[1].
Catalogues of Mathematical Tables

[10]
[11]
date.)
96
Fletcher, A., Miller, J. C. P., and Rosenhead, L.

An Index of Mathematical Tables. (McGrawHill, New York, 1949.)
Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation.
Quarterly journal. (National Research Council,
Washington, D.C., 1943 to date.)
Special References
2.1.1
[27a]
[12]
MacRobert,
[13]
(Macmillan, London, 1947.)

Whittaker, E. T., and Watson, G. N. Modern
Analysis. (Cambridge University Press, 1920.)
T.
M.
Functions of a Complex Variable.

[21b]
Buerger, M. J. Elementary Crystallography. (Wiley,

New York, 1956.)
Burckhardt, J. J. Die Bewegungsgruppen der
Kristallographie.
(Burkhauser, Basel, 1947.)

Matrix-algebraic Development of the
Crystallographic Groups," Zeit. Krist., 88, 413,
1934; 90, 289, 1935; 91, 336, 1935; 94, 100, 1936.
2.1.2
Bromwich,
A. Die Theorie der Gruppen von endlicher

Ordnung. (Springer, Berlin, 1927.)
[30] Wigner, E. Gruppentheorie und ihre Anwendung auf
die Quantemmechanik der Atomspektren. (Braunschweig, 1931; reprint Edwards, Ann Arbor,
[29] Speiser,
T. J. I'a. An Introduction to the Theory

of Infinite Series. (Macmillan, London, 1926.)
[14]
2.1.5
Any
text of higher algebra, e.g.
Barnard,
S., and Child, J. M.

[15]
1944.)
Higher Algebra.
See also
2.1.7
texts
on quantum mechanics
for
See any text on trigonometry and also [6]-[9].

2.2.2
See any text on trigonometry or any account of descripSee also [6]-[9],
2.1.8
tive crystallography for further formulae.
Frazer, R. A., Duncan, W. J., and Collar, A. R.

Elementary Matrices. (Cambridge University
2.2.3
Press, 1950.)
[19]
and many
2.2.1
[17] Bocher, M. Introduction to Higher Algebra. (Macmillan, New York, 1907.)

See also [15], [16], [18] and [19].
[18]
[4]
discussions of group theory.
Chrystal, G. Algebra. (Black, London, 1920.)
[16]
"A
[28] Seitz, F.
Turnbull, H. W.
Matrices, and
Donnay,
J. D. H. Spherical Trigonometry after the

Cesaro Method. (Interscience, New York, 1945.)
[31]
The Theory of Determinants,

(Blackie, London,
Invariants.
1945.)
Wedderburn,
J. H. M. Lectures on Matrices. (Am.

Math. Society, New York, 1934.)
See also [4], [17] and [26].
[20]
2.2.5
[32]
[33]
Burnside,
W.
S.,
and Panton, A. W.
Scarborough,
York, 1947.)
P. Mathematical
Models. (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1951.)
See any text on differential calculus and also
[2], [6]-[9].
Vorlesung iiber nume-
risches Rechnen. (Springer, Berlin, 1924.)
2.3.2
B. Numerical Mathematical Analysis. (Johns Hopkins, Baltimore, 1950.)

[25] Whittaker, E. T., and Robinson, G. The Calculus
of Observations. (Blackie, London, 1924.)
[26] Willers, F. A. Practical Analysis. (Dover, New
[24]
New
Cundy, H. M., and Rollett, A.
2.3.1
versity Press, 1949.)
Runge, C, and Konig, H.
M. Regular Polytopes. (Pitman Pub-
Theory of
Equations. (Longmans-Green, London, 1928.)

[22] Milne, W. E. Numerical Calculus. (Princeton Uni[23]
S.
lishing Corporation,
2.1.9
[21]
Coxeter, H.
J.
See any textbook of the integral calculus and also
[2].
[6]-[9].
The
[34]
basic tabulation of definite integrals is

Bierens de Haan, D. Nouvelles Tables d'Integrales
Definies.
York, 1948.)
See also [17] and [18].
(Leiden, 1867; reprint Hafner,
New
York, 1957.)
For methods for the evaluation of definite integrals by
contour integration see any text on the theory of functions
of a complex variable, e.g. [12], [13].
2.1.10
See [22]-[26].
2.4
2.1.11
For theory
see [21]; for numerical
methods see
[35] Gibbs, J.
[181
(Yale,
[22]-[26].
W., and Wilson, E. B. Vector Analysis.

New Haven, 1901.) (Vector analysis and
dyadics.)
[36]
2.1.12
ferential
"A Class-room Method for the Derivation of the 230 Space Groups," Trudy Inst.
Krist.
[27] Belov, N. V.
J.
Applications of the Absolute Dif(Blackie, London, 1931.)
Calculus.
(Tensor analysis.)
Sokolnikoff, I. S. Tensor Analysis. (Wiley, New
York, 1951.)
[38] Synge, J. L., and Schild, A.
Tensor Calculus.
(University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1949.)
[37]
Akad. Nauk. SSSR, No. 6, 25, 1951; translated

into English by V. Balashov, Proc. Leeds
Phil
Lit. Soc, 8, 1, 1957.
97
McConnell, A.
SPECIAL REFERENCES
Wills, A. P. Vector Analysis, with an Introduction to
Tensor Analysis.
(Prentice-Hall, New York,
1938.) (Dyadics also.)
[40] Zachariasen, W. H. X-ray Diffraction in Crystals.
(Wiley, New York, 1945.) (Dyadic treatment.)
For discussions of vector analysis see almost any textbook of theoretical physics and also [4], pp. 132 et seq.
[39]
Robertson,
[60]
Sayre, D. "The Fourier Transform in X-ray Crystal

Analysis" in Computing Methods and the Phase
Problem in X-ray Crystal Analysis (R. Pepinsky,
Ed.). (Department of Physics, Pennsylvania State
[61]
Wrinch, D. Fourier Transforms and Structure Factors,

A.S.X.R.E.D. Monograph No. 2, 1946.
Physical Society, London, 1937.)
University, 1952.)
2.5
Elementary Theory
[41]
Carslaw, H.
Integrals.
[42]
S.
Theory of Fourier's Series and
Practical Treatise on Fourier's Theorem
Tables of Fourier Transforms
Eagle, A. A
and Harmonic Analysis. (Longmans-Green, Lon-
[62]
[44]
Franklin, P. Fourier Methods. (McGraw-Hill, New

York, 1949.)
de la Vallee Poussin, C. Coursd' Analyse. (Louvain,
Erdelyi, Ed.).
[45]
Bochner,
[46]
(Akademische Verlag, Leipzig, 1932.)

Bochner, S., and Chandrasekharan, K.
[47]
Bohr, Harald. Fastperiodische Funktionen. (Sprin-
[48]
Hardy, G.
[49]
(Cambridge University Press, 1944.)

Sneddon, I. N. Fourier Transforms. (McGraw-Hill,
Vorlesung
iiber
Fouriersche Integrate.
[64]
Fourier
Fourier Series.
(American Telephone and Telegraph Co., New

York, 1937.)
Magnus, Wilhelm, and Oberhettinger, Fritz.
Formeln und Sdtze usw., Kap. VIII. (Springer
Verlag, Berlin-Gottingen- Heidelberg, 1948.)
[65]
Sneddon, Ian N. Fourier Transforms, Appendix C.
[66]
Waser,
ger, Berlin, 1937.)
W. W.
(McGraw-
Fourier Integrals for Practical Applications. Bell

Telephone System Technical Publications, Monograph B584, September 1931; reprinted in the
collected works of George Ashley Campbell.
(Princeton University Press, 1949.)
H., and Rogsinski,
1.
York, 1954.)
[63] Campbell, George A., and Foster, Ronald M.
Advanced Theory
Transforms.
Project (A.
New
Hill,
Libraire Universitaire ; Paris, Gauthier-Villars,

1923; reprint Dover, New York, 1946.)
S.
Bateman Mathematical
Tables of Integral Transforms, Vol.
don, 1925.)
[43]
J. M. "X-ray Analysis and Application

of Fourier Series Methods to Molecular Structures," Reports on Progress in Physics, IV. (The
[59]
(McGraw-Hill, New York, 1951.)

Jurg, and Schomaker, Verner.
"The
Fourier Inversion of Diffraction Data," Rev.
Mod.
Phys., 25, 671-90, 1953.
New
[50]
York, 1951.)
Titchmarsh, E. C. Theory of Fourier
(Cambridge University Press, 1937.)
Integrals.
2.6. Bibliography
Tonelli, L. Serie Trigonometriche. (V. Zanichelli,

Bologna, 1928.)
[52] Zygmund, A. Trigonometrical Series. (Mathematical
Monographs V, Warszawa-Lwow, 1935.)
[51]
Statistics
Courant,
R., and Hilbert, D. Methoden der Mathematischen Physik. (Springer, Berlin, 1931.)
See also Bohr [47] and advanced texts on theoretical

and quantum mechanics.
statistics
given here
is
somewhat
similar to that given in [67] and [68]. Other important texts

are [69], [70] and [71]. For a wider view see [72]. Useful
collections of statistical tables are given in [73], [74]
and
[75].
[67]
Cramer, H.
[68]
Cramer, H.
Theory of Orthogonal Functions

[53]
on
The treatment of
The Elements of Probability Theory.

(Almqvist and Wiksell, Stockholm, 1954.)
Mathematical Methods of
Statistics.
(Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1946.)

[69]
Kendall, M. G. The Advanced Theory of Statistics.

Vol. I, 1943; Vol. II, 1946. (Griffin and Co.,
[70]
Whittaker, E.
physics
London.)
Numerical Methods
See [22], [24], [25], [26], [42].
[54] Carse, G. A., and Shearer, G.
and Periodogram
T.,
Observations.
1944.)
Fourier's Analysis
Analysis. (Bell,
London,
1915.)
and Robinson, G. The Calculus of

4th edition. (Blackie, London,
[71]
Wilks,
S.
S.
Mathematical
Statistics.
(Princeton
University Press, Princeton, 1944.)

Application to Crystallography
[55]
Booth, A. D. Fourier Technique in X-ray Organic

Structure Analysis. (Cambridge University Press,
[72]
[73]
1948.)
and Cochran, W. The Determination of

Crystal Structures. (Bell, London, 1953.)
1953.)
[56] Lipson, H.,
[57]
Nowacki, W.
[58]
Patterson, A. L.
[74]
[75]
Statistical Tables
and Formulas. (Wiley,
York, 1952.)
Pearson, E.
S.,
and Hartley, H. O. Biometrika

(Cambridge University
Tables for Statisticians.
"Symmetry Maps, derived from

the |F| 2 -Series" in Computing Methods and the
Phase Problem
Hald, A.
New
Fouriersynthese von Krystallen. (Birk-
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Wilson, E. B. An Introduction to Scientific Research.

(McGraw-Hill, New York, 1952.)
Fisher, R. A., and Yates, F. Statistical Tables. 4th
edition. (Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh, London,
Press,
1954.)
Hamilton, W. C.
X-ray Crystal Analysis (R.

(Department of Physics, Penn-
in
Pepinsky, Ed.).
sylvania State University, 1952.)
Statistics
in
Estimation, Hypothesis Testing
(Ronald Press Co.,
98
New
Physical Science:
and Least Squares.
York, 1964.)
Section 3
CRYSTAL GEOMETRY
J.
D. H.
DONNAY AND GABRIELLE DONNAY
page
3.1.
General Relations, valid for all Crystal Systems
3.2.
Triclinic System..
3.3.
Monoclinic System
3.4.
Orthorhombic System
3.5.
Tetragonal System
3.6.
Hexagonal System,
101
106
107
..
108
109
sensu lato
3.7.
Rhombohedral System,
3.8.
Cubic System
3.9.
Hexagonal-Rhombohedral Transformations
sensu stricto
112
116
119
150
3.1.
3.1.1. Definition of
all
Crystal Systems
Terms
Periodicity along
independent directions in w-dimensional space (m<n):
Triperiodicity
Diperiodicity
(m=3, =3)
(m=2, w=2 or
Lattice
Net
Row
Lattice plane
Plane lattice
2-dimensional
Line lattice
1 -dimensional
Synonyms: Bravais lattice

Space lattice
3-dimensional
lattice
3)
Monoperiodicity
(No
(m=l, =1,
Lattice
lattice
3-dimensional
2,
or 3)
periodicity)
m =0,
w =0,
or 3)
1, 2,
Point
row
Lattice point
Node
(French
nceud)
lattice
2-dimensional
-dimensional
translation
translation
translation
group
group
group
Translation
lattice
Period in each case:

Cell
Synonyms: Unit cell

Elementary
Mesh
Parameter
Unit mesh
Elementary
Interval
parallelepiped
Repeat distance
parallelogram
Translation distance
The terms lattice, net and row are used to designate

periodic assemblages of points. The net plane is the
plane that contains a net; the row line is the line that
contains a row. The origin is always taken at a lattice
point. Unless otherwise specified, nets and rows are
considered to pass through the origin. For short,
when
there is no danger of confusion, net and row are

used instead of net plane and row line.
3.1.3.
The Row Line
The row linej [uvw] passes through the origin 000

and the lattice point uvw, where u, v, w are coprime
integers. The parameter of the row is the length of
the lattice vector L(wvw), which is given by the quadratic form
\L(uvw)\ 2 =u 2a 2 +v 2b 2 +w*c 2 +2vwbc cos a
+2wuca cos fi+2uvab cos y

3.1.2. Direct
Direct vectors f:
Reciprocal vectors in
terms of direct vectors
bxc
direction parameters of the row line are the coordinates of the lattice point uvw; in reciprocal space
Reciprocal vectors f:
a*, b*, c*
a, b, c
a*=a.bxc
The
and Reciprocal Lattices
Direct vectors in terms of

reciprocal vectors:
a=
etc.
its direction cosines in terms of the interplanar distance

d(uvw)* are (Fig. 3.1.3):
b*xc*
,
a*.b*xc*'
etc.
Volume of
cell
a*b*c*
d(uvw)*
p*=v
\ cos v*=w d(uvw)*

c*
.
'
'
b*
Applications. Parallel to a row in the direct lattice

there may be an edge, a zone axis, or a co-ordinate
[where bxc is the vector product of b and c, and the

dot denotes the scalar product (see Section
2.4.2)]
with a.b*=a.c*=0, etc., and a.a*=l, etc.
Volume of cell abc

F=c.ax b=a.bx c=b.cx a
d(uvw)*
c A*=w
i*
-*-, cos
cos
ar
axis to central rows in the reciprocal lattice correspond

face normals and straight lines of reflections on a
;
Weissenberg pattern; and to non-central rows in the

reciprocal lattice correspond row lines on a rotation
pattern and festoons on a Weissenberg pattern.
F*=c*.a* x b*=a*b* x c*
=b*.c*xa*
Relation between Cell Volumes:
t
is
The symbols used

here taken as
are defined in Table 2.4.1, Vol.
I,
p. 12.
1.
row line usually needs to be defined in direction only. In

1
the reciprocal lattice, however, it is important to distinguish
non-central row lines, which do not pass through the origin, from
VV*=\
This relation holds provided the lattices are primiI, p. 12, for non-primitive lattices).
central
tive (see Vol.
row
Integers
101
which do.
having no common factor except unity.
lines,
Gen. Ed.
3.1.
Row
normal to reciprocal net (uvw)*.

the empty
indicate the intersections of the plane and the
Fig. 3.1.3.
The black
circlets
[uvw]
They are not
3.1.4.
The Net Plane
it.
From
Applications.
net planef (hkl) n
to
necessarily lattice points.
intercepts n-, n-, n-
tion
Net (hkl) and reciprocal row [hkl]* normal

The black circlet indicates the origin; the empty
circlets indicate the intersections of the plane and the
lines. They are not necessarily lattice points.
Fig. 3.1.4.
indicates the origin;
circlet
lines.
The
GENERAL RELATIONS, VALID FOR ALL CRYSTAL SYSTEMS
h,k,l
coprime integers J, has
on the co-ordinate
of the
is
given the symbol
(1
1 1),
it is
and
h-+k$+l-=n
b
angles
{hkl) the axial ratios are
called unit face or parametral face. Two faces,

each parallel to one co-ordinate axis, may be chosen
axes. Its equan
is
the direction
normal to an indexed face

obtained by (1). If this face
arbitrarily indexed, instead of a single face that
intersects
all
three axes, e.g. (110)

and c:b.
and
(Oil) give
respectively a:b
Once the axial ratios are known, the ratios of the

any face (hkl) can be obtained by (2) from
The perpendicular distance between (hkl) n and

(hkl) n+1 is the interplanar distance d(hkl). It is inversely
indices for
the direction cosines of
proportional to the area A(hkl) of the mesh of the net

A(hkl).d(hkl)=V. Hence d(hkl)=l/\L*(hkl)\.
In direct space the direction cosines of the normal to
the net plane (Fig. 3.1.4) are:
normal.
its
(hkl), as
,d(hkl)
cos
A~h
N.B. If
-;
h,k,l are
cos
,d(hkl)
v
n=k
3.1.6. Relations
the
cos v=l-
not coprime integers, (hkl) x
is
Two
not
3.1.5.
One and
uvw
nets (h^kj^)
[uvw] if
Parallel to a net in the direct lattice
kx
K2
may
be a crystal face, a cleavage plane, or an

X-ray "reflection" plane; to a net in the reciprocal
lattice corresponds a plane normal to an edge of the
crystal, a layer line on a rotation photograph, a
Weissenberg layer or a precession layer.
there
in
Application.
a net plane.
Applications.
Rows
A net (hkl) contains a row [uvw] if hu+kv+lw=0

A face lying in a zone.
jd(hkl)
'
between Nets and
Same Space
Application.
Three nets
row
and
(h 2 k 2 l2) intersect in
h x kx
n 2 k2
hx
lx
lx
'2
h h2
a row
A zone axis defined by two faces.

(h x k x lx ), (h 2 k 2 l2 ), (h 3 k 3 l3) intersect in
if
"2fi 2 l 2
Fundamental Formula
=0
"3^3*3
From the above

3.1.4) we obtain
definition of direction cosines (Fig.
..(1)
fi
Three faces lying in one zone.
t The subscript is used to designate one particular plane of

the family of planes. It indicates the position of this plane with
respect to the origin. Thus the plane (hkl) is the plane passing
through the origin, (hkl)n the nth plane away from the origin,
a:b:c=cos A COS
Application.
cos v
or
etc. [1].
h:k:l=a cos X:b cos
fx,:c
cos v
X Integers having
(2)
102
no common
factor except unity.
Gen. Ed.
3.1.
row
Two
uh+vk+wl=0.
[uvw] lies in a net (hkl) if
Application.
rows
zone containing a
and
[MxViWj]
[w 2 v 2 H'2]
WX
w2
wx
w2
v1
v2
li e i
Although given for tautozonal
Direct Sine Formula
Mi
"l v l
3.1.8.1.
u2
u2
Consider four tautozonal faces (hikJi), where /= 1, 2,

consecutive order. Let the angle between face
normals be u The following relation holds:
v2
lie
3, 4, in
in a net if
<\>
sin
Three zones having a
common
h,
the direct lattice
is
2, 3,
.,
The
in
represented by the lattice point

., of the row [hkl]* in the reciprois normal to the planes; the length
A net plane (uvw)
sin
^ 14
kx
"3
^"3
"2 ^2
hi ki
n2
hi
kx
fc 2
hi ki
a zone
formula can be rewritten as follows

cot
cf>
12
+q
cot
<f>i 4
[2, 3]:
=(P+<l) cot ^13
Pardillo [4] has prepared charts f for the graphical

determination of angles in crystal zones based on the
general formula
ncot 10:m=mcot 10:ll+(n-w) cot 10:01

This
may
[uvw]
is
between two
their
zone
the converse cotangent formula given above,

Fedorov notation. The correspondence
p=m, q=n-m, ^ 13 =angle
be seen by writing
10: mn,
< 12
=angle 10:11,
( 14
=angle 10:01.
Knowing
the indices of the four faces

and the angles between one face and two of the other
three, to find the angle between the first and the fourth
Application.
For accurate results one of the known angles

should be as close to 90 as possible, while the other
or 180.
should not be too close to
faces.
axis.
direct-lattice
is
written in the
containing the origin and lattice

points hkl with uh+vk+wl=0 of the reciprocal lattice
is represented by the row [uvw] in the direct lattice.
The row [uvw] is normal to the net plane (uvw) * of
the reciprocal lattice. The net planes (hkl) of the direct
rows
0=[ 1 v1 w 1 ]:[ 2 v 2 w a ]
given by
tan
/=
V{2(vjw a - wx v 2) 2 a* 2 + 2L(w x u 2 - u^îujv^- ViU 2)b* c* cos a*}

V*[Zu1 u 2 a 2 +'Z(v 1 w 2 +w1 v 2)bc cos a]
HuiU
or by cos
tfi=
w 2 +w l v 2)bc cos a
a 2 +'Z(v
LJ1
L(W1 V 1 H' 1 ) L(w 2 v 2 h> 2)
where L(vH>)=v/ (2 2 a 2 +2Evw'Z>ccos
coprime): h 2 ^nh 3 +mh x

m and n are integers, often
then reduces to
,
row
co
Harmonic Case
Four faces are harmonic when a line

drawn parallel to one of the face normals,
say 1, intersects the others, 2, 3 and 4, in
and d, so that bc=cd. The indices of face 2 are

the sums, and the indices of face 4 the differences, of
corresponding indices of faces 3 and 1 (not necessarily
<f>
reciprocal-lattice
3.1.8.3.
b, c
a).
between two reciprocal-lattice rows is

The angle
given by similar formulae (see Section 3.2.5).
The angle o> between a direct-lattice row and a
is
Converse Cotangent Formula
sine
W{Q(hkl)}.
is
23
3i
The row
</<
<f>
<j>
which h and k stand for any two of the three indices

k, I, provided they do not lead to indeterminacy.
Application. Knowing all the angles and the indices
3.1.8.2.
3,
V{Q(nh.nk.nl)} of the reciprocal-lattice vector, from

the origin to the lattice point nh.nk.nl, is equal to
\jd(nh. nk.nl). The calculation of d is based on this
relation. It is given for each crystal system.
The mesh area A(hkl) of the net (hkl) is equal to
The angle
sin
between Planes in Direct Space and
Rows in Reciprocal Space, and vice versa

The family of planes (nh.nk.nl), w=l, 2,
lattice lie in
of three of four tautozonal faces, to find the indices of

the fourth face.
Obliquity).
cal lattice.
12
"3 ^3
Remark. The condition for a line [uvw] to be perpendicular to a plane (hkl) is given for each crystal
system under "Twinning" (see also 3.1.9.5, Twin
n=l,
cf>
face.
in
nh.nk.nl,
h
sin
uz v3 w 3
3.1.7. Relations
the Miller
Three rows ["iV^], [u 2 v 2 w 2 ], [u3 v3 w 3 ]

ux v x w x
u 2 v 2 w 2 =0
Application.
faces,
formulae also hold for coplanar zone axes.
a net (hkl) if
A face belonging to two zones.
Application.
Formulae of Miller
3.1.8.
face.
= [uvw]: [hkl]*
cot
<j>
12
.;
1.
hi=nh 3 mh x
., where
The cotangent formula
cot <f>n=2 cot
<f>
13
given by
COS co=
uh+vk+wl
Application. Knowing two of the angles

harmonic quartet, to find the third one.
L(uvw) h*(hkl)
where l*(hkl)=^(Y.h 2 a* 2 +2Lklb*c* cos a*)
(cf.
in
Sec-
tion 3.1.9.5).
t Available through the Spanish National Committee.
103
any
3.1.
Twinning
3.1.9.

sin
is
geometrical.
The
sin
rela-
Of
or with the enantiomorph of
I. In either case,
group) is always centrosymmetric, the lattice of II is congruent to that of I and
can be brought to coincide with it by a rotation. There
is only one such rotation in the triclinic case, whereas
xyz axial cross in the non-triclinic
case, for instance
All possible rotations are tabulated
{x'x, y'y, z'z).
under each system.
sin
Ty
system xyz
Choice of Twin
first
sin
is
Tz
orthogonal, from
Law
row
is chosen as twin axis; in the second

chosen as twin plane. (Some authors
the corresponding twins parallel twin and normal
case the
call
is
twin respectively.)
When the indices uvw of one

integers, this axis
twin
is
axis.
of the rotation axes are

If uvw are not integers,
one must find whether there is a net (hkl) normal to

[uvw] by applying the perpendicularity condition (see
under the appropriate crystal system). If there is such
a net (hkl), this net is twin plane. If such a net does not
exist, that is, if the indices hkl of the plane normal to
[uvw] are not integers, the rotation under consideration
must be discarded as a possible twin operation, f
Twin Obliquity
3.1.9.5.
3.1.9.2.
Tx
all
case the net
several rotations exist in the other cases.
sin
the rotations obtained above, at least one is

a rotation of 180, 120, 90 or 60 about a row, or a
rotation of 180 about the normal to a net. In the
lattice (translation
zz
yy
cos r=(cos xx'+ cos yy'+ cos zz' 1)

3.1.9.4.
so that a rotation will bring II to coincidence either
Let xyz be the co-ordinate axes of I, x'y'z' those of

II, chosen so that their positive senses correspond to
each other. Any rotation that brings the lattice of II
on to the lattice of I brings x' on to x, y' on to v,
z on to z
an operation symbolized (x'x, y'y, z'z)
or brings x'y'z' on to some equivalent octant of the
sin
or, if the co-ordinate
from experimental data independently of any theoretical interpretation. Let I and II be two crystals of a
twin. They are either congruent or enantiomorphous,
sin
-=2
tions given permit the twin operation to be derived
The following treatment
with
as a
xx
[5]
Introduction
3.1.9.1.
Graphical Determination of Rotations
on the stereographic net, the poles of the axes

xyz and x'y'z' To find the rotation axis T and the
rotation angle r that will bring, for example, x'y'z' on
to xyz draw the great circles that are the perpendicular
bisectors of the arcs x'x, y'y, z'z. They have a common
intersection, which is T. The rotation angle t is given
the net (hkl)
is the angle u> between the normal to

and the row [uvw] that is quasi-normal to
where
(hkl) is the twin plane or [uvw] the twin
by any one of the three equal angles: x'Tx, y'Ty,

z'Tz. All possible rotations must be determined before
the appropriate rotation or rotations (see below) can
be chosen to define the twin law.
integers; the
The
Plot,
(hkl),
axis.
Let u'v'w' be the indices of the line that is normal to

and h'k'V the indices of the plane that is
the net (hkl)
normal to the row [uvw]. The unprimed indices are

primed indices generally are not. The
obliquity a> is given by the following gerieral formula,
which simplifies in non-triclinic cases:
uh+vk+wl
N_
COS
3.1.9.3.
From
V(uh'+vk'+wl') V(u'h+v'k+w'l)
where
the data calculate the direction cosines of the
uvw
the system xyz, and
Letting
and
be the indices of a straight line in

u'v'w' the indices of the same line in the system x'y'z',
we have, if the coordinate system is orthogonal,
N=^-(au'+bv' cos y+cw' cos

h
N'=(au+bv cos y+cw cos
ua
rotation axis corresponding to the operation
obtained by letting
u'=v, v'=u, w'=w in the above equations and solving
for uvw, the indices of T, which need not be integers.
If the coordinate system is not orthogonal, replace
the direction cosines in the above equations by the
corresponding absolute direction parameters. The
absolute direction parameters of a line OP through the
(x'y, y'x,
origin
z'z),
in section 2.4.4,
from O.
page
is
k'/b
COS y
cos /3
(Cf. equations (7a)
that
and
I'/c
Its
inverse gives u'a,
v'b,
j8)
jS)
u'a
sin 2 a
vb
wc
COS y
COS ]8
COS a
COS a
sin 2
/J
H>'c|cosycosa cos/3 cosjScosy cosa

(Cf.
(2a)
l/c:
l/c
cosacos^ cosy cos y cos a cos j3
v'b cosacos/8 cosy
is
w'c in terms of h/a, k/b,
k/b
h/a
formula for cos
a>
cos/Scosy cosa
sin 2
given in Section 3.1.7.)
t Cases where none of the rotations would lead to a twin

operation, as defined here, have been reported in the literature
(Heterozwillinge, complex twins, etc.). The evidence for their
existence is not incontrovertible.
55.)
rotation angle t
h'/a
is
are the coordinates of the point
at unit distance
The
for example,
N'
h
or corresponding expressions obtained by cyclic permutations.
The following matrix gives h'/a, k'/b, I'/c as linear
combinations of ua, vb, wc
u'a=ua cos xx'+vb cos yx'+wc cos zx'

v'b=ua cos xy'+vb cos yy'+wc cos zy'
w'c=ua cos xz'+vb cos yz'+wc cos zz'
The
oj
Analytical Determination of Rotations
axes x'y'z' with respect to the axes xyz.
obliquity
obtained from the formulae

104
3.1.
3.1.9.6.
of
V be the volume of the cell of the twin

and v that of the smallest cell of the crystal
lattice. The index of the twin is V/v or V/2v, according
as the multiple cell does not carry any lattice point in
the centre of its body or in the centre of any of its
Twin Index
to
The index of the twin is the ratio of the total number

lattice points to the number of lattice points that
are restored by twinning. If the index
is n,
the fraction
The
by twinning is l/.
restored lattice points, considered by themselves, form
the "twin lattice," which pervades the whole edifice but
may suffer a slight deviation as it crosses the composition surface. The cell of the twin lattice is either
a primitive cell of the crystal lattice, in which case the
of
lattice points restored
Twin plane
does carry such a
lattice point.
This depends
on the mode of centring of the crystal lattice itself.

The index of the twin is given for the various possible
cases in Table 3.1.9.
Donnay
[6]
has given examples of twinning cal-
culations where the obliquity
is
calculated
by the
formula of Section 3.1 .9.5. In any triclinic crystal that

has (010) as twin plane the formula of Section 3.1.7
gives the obliquity o>=[010]:[010]* as follows:
cos (o=l/bb*=l/b
ca sin
jS
A
sinj8
where
A=
=
TABLE
in
Let
faces, or
index of the twin is 1, or a multiple cell of the crystal

lattice. This cell, whose symmetry or pseudosymmetry
governs the description of the twin, is defined: (1) in
the case of a twin axis [uvw], by the parameter of the
row that is the twin axis and by the smallest mesh of
the net (hkl) that is normal or quasi-normal to it;
(2) in the case of a twin plane (hkl), by the smallest
mesh of the net that is the twin plane and by the parameter of the row [uvw] that is normal or quasi-normal
Twin Index
it.
lattice
sin a* sin
sin a sin
j8
jS
sin
y=
sin
a sin
j3*
sin
sin y*.
3.1.9
Terms of S=\hu+kv+lw\
(hkl) quasi-normal to
row
[uvw]
or twin axis [uvw] quasi-normal to net (hkl)
Index
The
The
crystal lattice is primitive (P)
Sodd
S even
S/2
Sodd
S
S
S even
S/2
crystal lattice is one-face-centred (say C):
h+k odd
u+ v and w not both even
h+k
even
S/2
u+v and w both even

The
odd
S/2 even
S/2
S/4
crystal lattice is body-centred (/):
h+k+l odd
u, v,
not
odd
all
Sodd
S
S
S even
S/2
S/2 odd
S/2 even
S/2
h+k+l even
u, v,
The
odd
all
S/4
crystal lattice is all-face-centred (F):
u+v+w odd
h, k, I
u+v+w
not
all
odd
Sodd
S
S
S even
S/2
S/2 odd
S/2 even
S/2
even
h, k, I all
odd
105
S/4
3.2.
System
Triclinic
3.2.6.
3.2.1. Cellf
Quadratic Form
Q hkl =h
V=2abc\/{sm
sin
(sa) sin (s ft)
a*
+k
sin (y y)}
and Interplanar Distance d
b* +l c* 2 +2klb*c* cos a*
+2lhc*a* cos p*+2hka*b* cos y*
2
where 2s=a+ft+y.
3.2.2. Direct Lattice
3.2.7.
P; symmetry
I.
Twinning
3.2.7.1.
Only One
Possible Rotation
(x'x, y'y, z'z)
3.2.3. Reciprocal Lattice
be sin a
az sin
dT=-
COS a* =
COS
sin
cos
sin
j8
cos y cos
ft*
sin
COS
COS y
ft
y*= COS
,
aZ>
sin
3.2.7.2.
Plane (hkl) perpendicular to line [uvw]

COS
-{au+bv cos y+cw cos
y
cos
ft
if
a.
ft)
ft
=-(au cos y+&v+cw cos

k
COS y
sin a
V*=a*b*c*
=a*b*c*
=a*b*c*
c*=
sin a
a COS
ft
a)
sm p
=-{au cos ft+v cos <x+cw)
sin a sin j8* sin y*
or
if
sin y*
sin a* sin
ft
sin a* sin
ft*
sin
wa
- sin 2 a+-(cos a cos
ft
COS y)+-(cOS y COS a
cos
ft)
c
3.2.4.
The usual convention

Delaunay reduction
is
to use a primitive
cell.
The
h
-(cos a cos
p. 530J), applied to any

primitive cell, affords the easiest method of arriving at
a unique
(Vol.
I,
The edges of the reduced
cell [7].
cell are
ft
cos
the
we
shortest three lattice translations a, b, c that permit

a,
ft,
y to be
all
be
I
k
y)+7 sin 2 ft+-(cos ft cos y - cos a)
>90 and the direction cosines of [1 1 1]
to be all positive or zero. Uniqueness of setting may be

ensured by additional conventions with regard to a, b
and c. For determinative purposes the convention
c<a<b has been adopted in Crystal Data [7], since no
symmetry considerations are involved in the triclinic
system. In deciding finally on the axes and setting of
the unit cell, structural considerations (atomic arrangements, isostructuralism, etc.) have priority.
h
-(cos y cos
No
necessarily perpendicular to a row.
net
is
cos ft)+-(cos ft cos

b
ft
rational
ab cos y
Angle
<f>=(hkl):(h'k'l') in direct lattice,
cos
Twinning Condition
The following ratios must approach
numbers
:
angle <f>=[hkl]*:
cos a)+-sin 2 y
3.2.7.3.
a 2 :b 2 :c 2 be cos a ca cos
3.2.5. Interplanar
equal to inter-row
[h'k'l']* in reciprocal lattice.
hh'a* 2 +kk'b* 2 +ll'c* 2 +W+lk')b*c* cos cc*+(lh'+hl')c*a* cos p*+(hk'+kh')a*b* cos y*

<f>=
V(Qhki-Qh'k'i')
(For definition of
see Section 3.2.6.)
To
obtain the inter-row angle i(i=[uvw]:[u'v'w'] in

lattice, equal to the interplanar angle
ifj=(uvw)*:(u'v'w')* in the reciprocal lattice, replace in
by 0, hkl by uvw, h'k'l' by u'v'w',
the above formula
and starred elements by unstarred elements. This
the
direct
<f>
holds for
all crystal
systems.
Vol.
t the sign = reads "need not be equal to" (see
I,
Table
2.3.1, p. 11).
% Attention is drawn here to the fact that in some copies of

I, p. 534, the diagrams corresponding to the second and
sixth monoclinic reduced cells have been interchanged. The
lettering, the sixth SQUOTO.
second should have the
Vol.
PQRPTR
Gen.
106
Ed.
3.3.
Monoclinic System
3.3.6.
3.3.1. Cellf
a^b^c; a =y=90;
j8>90;
V=abc
sin
Quadratic
Q hkl =h
j3
Q and Interplanar Distance d

+k 2b* 2 +l 2 c* 2 +2lhc*a* cos j8*
Form
a*
dhki=l/VQhki
Either primitive, P, or centred (C, A, I); symmetry
2/m.
3.3.7.
Twinning
3.3.7.1.
Two
Possible Rotations
(yfx, y'y, z'z), (x'x, y'y, z'2)
a*=l/a sin p, b*=l/b, c*=l/c

a*=y*=90, j3*=180-jS
sin
jS
3.3.7.2.

3.3.4.
The symmetry
direction
called b.
is
Two
-(au+cw cos #)= v=-(au cos jS+ov)

I
k
h
lattice
translations (generally the shortest two, in which case

jS<120) in the net perpendicular to b are taken as c
and
if
Choice of Direct Cellf
or
uaj g-i cos p). vbj\
a.
In order to ensure a unique setting, the angle ft

between the positive senses of the c and a axes is
generally chosen obtuse and one more convention is
necessary: either c<a or c>a. The former choice has
been adopted in Crystal Data for determinative pur-
may
Only one net,
Either choice
comply
with structural considerations. J
sin*
p-*c/ {LA CO s /()
(010), is perpendicular to
a row, [010].
Twinning Condition
The following ratios must approach
3.3.7.3.
finally be necessary to
poses.
if
rational
numbers
a 2 :b 2 :c 2 :ca cos p
3.3.5. Interplanar
2
Angle <t>={hkl):{h'k'V)
2
(cf. 3.2.5)
hh'a* +kk'b* +ll'c* +(lh'+hr)c*a* cos

cos <=VyQhkl-Qh'k'l')
j8*
Remark. If only b 2 :c 2 :ca cos jS are near rational

numbers, only (hQl) nets are quasi-perpendicular to
rows.
t Standard setting, b axis unique (by decision of the Second International Congress of Crystallography,
Gen. Ed.
special purposes, however, the setting c axis unique is permitted (see Vol. I).
Stockholm, 1951). For
% If the chosen setting differs from that used for descriptive purposes in Volume I (labelled "Standard" in Vol. I, Table 6.2.1),
the data given there for equivalent positions, structure factor formulae, diagrams, etc., cannot be applied without an appropriate
transformation.
107
3.4.
Orthorhombic System
3.4.1. Cell
3.4.6.
Form Q and Interplanar

Q hk i=h 2a* 2 +k 2b* 2 +l 2 c* 2
Quadratic
a^b^c; a=^= y =90; V=abc
*hkl'-
Primitive (P); one-face-centred (C, A or B); bodycentred (/) all-face-centred (F) symmetry 2/m 2/m
;
2/m.
'
,*^-R*
=90
P*
3.4.4.
The
Four
Possible Rotations
x'y'z' to coincide
with xyz, xyz, xyz, xyz
3.4.7.2.
symmetry directions are taken as cell

ensure uniqueness of setting for determinative purposes they are labelled in Crystal
Data [7] so
edges.
V(h 2b 2c 2 +k 2c 2a 2 +l za 2b 2)
Twinning
3.4.7.
3.4.7.1.
a*=l/a,b*=\/b,c*=l/c
abc
Distance
a2
three
b2
if
c2
To
c<a<b.
The final choice of
that
setting
structural considerations,
f
may
be determined by
Only three nets are perpendicular to rows,
viz.
(100), (010), (001) perpendicular to [100], [010], [001]

respectively.
Twinning Condition
The ratios a 2 :b 2 :c 2 must approach rational numbers.
3.4.7.3.
3.4.5. Interplanar
cos
Angle
<f>=(hkl):(h'k'I') (cf. 3.2.5)
If only one of these ratios is near a rational number,

only the nets in the corresponding zone are quasiperpendicular to rows.
hh'a* 2 +kk'b* 2 +ll'c* 2

<f>-
V(Qhki-Qh'k'i')
t If the chosen setting differs from that used for descriptive purposes in Vol. I (labelled "Standard" in Vol. I, Table 6.2.1), the
data given there for equivalent positions, structure factor formulae, diagrams, etc., cannot be applied without an appropriate
transformation.
108
3.5.
Tetragonal System
3.5.1. Cell
Q hk iHh 2 +k 2)a* 2 +l 2 c* 2
Form
Quadratic
3.5.6.
a=b*c\ a=j8=y-90; V=a 2 c
ac
hkl
symmetry Ajm 2/m 2/m
(or C), / (or F);
Given h 2 +k 2
3.5.6).
Twinning
3.5.7.
a*=b*=l/a, c*=\[c
Eight Possible Rotations
3.5.7.1.
a * =j8* =y *=90 o
~V{(h 2 +k 2)c 2 +l2a 2}

find h and k (see Table
x'y'z' to coincide with xyz, xyz, xy2, xyz, yxz, yxz,

3.5.4.
yxz, yxz.
The smallest cell with full lattice symmetry is chosen

either
3.5.5. Interplanar
cos
Angle
,
a2
<f>=(hkl):(h'k'l') (cf. 3.2.5)
<f>=-
Given a plane (hkO), find the angle

which it makes with (010) (see Table
(001)
arc tan (h/k)
=<f>
The
TABLE
<j>
Case
12
43
20
6
7
28
11
19
12
14
32
2
15
15
15
57
26
33
48
18
20
21
23
23
26
29
29
30
32
33
35
36
37
38
39
40
45
must approach a rational number.
Zone
h<k
No condition
1.
Case
2.
(h+k) even
020
110
110
10
190
180
170
160
150
190
170
150
290
140
...
280
3110
...
270
130
130
380
250
12
58
34
Twinning Condition
ratio c 2 :a 2
3.5.5
010
if
c2
perpendicular to [001] and (hkO) to [hkO].
in the Tetragonal
^=(010) :(hkO), with

<f>
is
3.5.7.3.
3.5.5).
Interplanar Angles
0'
a2
(hh'+kk')a* 2 +ll'c* 2
V\Qhkl'Qh'k'l')
3.5.7.2.
(not C) or / (not F).
...
370
4 10
370
490
120
...
45
58
590
470
350
41
350
580
230
32
52
52
...
570
680
450
560
36
460
570
340
40
48
240
590
...
670
110
110
109
790
3.5.
TETRAGONAL SYSTEM
TABLE
3.5.6
Tetragonal Quadratic Forms. Given h 2 +k 2 , to find h and k
h 2 +k 2
2
4
2
2
2
h 2 +k 2
90
97
98
13
16
17
4
4
18
20
25
26
29
32
34
36
37
40
41
45
49
50
52
53
58
9
7
100
104
106
109
10
8
10
10
2
5
10
10
117
4
6
121
11
11
122
125
11
10
h 2 +&
+k 2
193
194
196
197
12
13
/*
14
14
200
14
2
10 10
11
9
116
202
205
14
13
208
12
212
14
218
13
221
14
11
10
h 2 +k 2
290
17
k
1
13 11
292
293
296
298
16
17
14 10
17
h 2 +k 2
392
394
397
14 14
400
20
401
20
20
15 13
19
16 12
18
2
9
20
19
305
17
16
306
15
7
9
404
405
409
313
314
317
13
12
410
17
14 11
416
20
320
324
325
16
421
15 14
424
425
20
19
17 11
6
6
128
130
11
136
9
10
137
11
6
5
144
145
12
12
225
15
15
15
328
18
232
233
234
14
18
433
436
20
13
16
15
333
337
338
9
7
441
21
13 13
442
21
19
9
2
241
15
242
244
245
11
11
12 10
11
148
12
6
7
7
4
2
149
10
2
7
153
157
12
256
257
16
11
16
160
162
164
169
12
260
16
10
14
250
15
13
68
72
73
74
80
173
178
81
9
9
9
7
2
6
13
12
170
14
261
15
265
16
12 11
269
13 10
16
15
14
16
13
11
13
7
2
13
272
274
277
180
12
181
10
6
9
281
288
6
15 10
17
340
17
18
13
11
289
12 12
17
15
110
16 13
346
349
15 11
18
353
356
17
360
18
361
19
362
365
17 12
21
449
20
450
3
21
15 15
16 14
21 4
18 11
19
461
19 10
19
20
17 13
369
15 12
370
19
477
21
17
9
481
20
482
484
485
22
22
14 13
386
388
389
452
457
458
16 10
464
466
468
373
377
445
14 12
18
19
16 11
185
18 10
226
229
146
18
18
12
64
65
89
113
61
82
85
101
10
19
18
17 10
5
21
18 12
9
16 15
19 11
1
17 14
488
22
3.5.
TETRAGONAL SYSTEM
TABLE
h*+k*
490
493
21
22
18 13
500
505
22 4
20 10
21
509
22
512
514
16 16
17 15
520
h*+k*
h*+k*
h 2 +k*
h*+k*
592
593
596
24
26
24
800
692
697
23
11
601
22
521
20
11
21
530
23
23
802
808
809
22 18
28 5
904
905
810
818
27 9
23 17
909
914
916
25 17
30 4
922
925
928
929
29
30
27
22
28
23
932
936
937
26 16
30 6
24 19
941
949
29 10
30 7
25 18
953
954
28 13
27 15
701
610
23
706
709
26 5
25 9
22 15
712
26
720
722
724
725
24 12
21 13
625
18 14
522
529
801
626
628
629
25
24 7
20 15
25 1
22 12
25 2
23 10
538
23
22
23
2
7
19 19
821
20 18
26 7
25 10
829
26 12
25 14
27 10
832
833
24 16
28 7
729
730
27
841
19 13
533
23 14
27
21 17
634
637
25 3
21 14
733
738
27
27
640
740
850
857
2
3
541
21 10
641
24
25
544
545
20 12
23 4
648
18 18
745
17 16
650
25
23
746
26 8
22 16
27 4
24 13
25 U
754
27
757
23 15
26 9
548
549
554
557
22
18 15
23
19 14
5
11
19 17
653
656
657
22 13
20 16
24 9
569
576
577
578
21
11
661
23 6
22 9
20 13
666
24
24
673
674
676
23 7
17 17
677
680
580
24
18 16
685
584
585
22 10
24 3
689
586
21 12
19 15
848
853
5
865
29 1
29 2
26 13
22 19
28 8
29 3
27 11
25 15
23 18
29 4
866
765
20 19
27 6
28 9
24 17
29 5
21
769
25 12
872
873
877
26 14
27 12
29 6
25 7
26
24 10
26 1
772
773
776
778
24 14
22 17
881
26 10
27 7
882
884
26 2
22 14
26 3
784
785
19 18
788
761
562
565
842
845
25 6
21 15
18
23 12
25 8
20 17
28
28 1
23 16
28 2
9
5
14
21
12
20
29
21 20
901
21 19
18 17
19 16
900
23 13
11
24
28 4
20 20
24 15
hHk*
21 16
24
22
612
613
617
698
605
30
24 18
30 I
26 15
30 2
29 8
28 11
30 3
20 14
19 12
3.5.6 {continued)
961
31
962
31
964
965
968
970
29 11
30 8
31
2
26 17
22 22
31
23 21
25 16
21 21
28 10
22 20
976
977
24 20
31
4
980
28 14
30 9
29 12
27 16
981
890
898
29 7
23 19
27 13
985
986
31
25 19
793
28 3
27 8
25 13
26 11
794
797
111
997
31
3.6.
Hexagonal System
(Sensu
lato, including trigonal)
Hexagonal Axes xyuz and Bravais-Miller 4-index

Symbolsf hkil, with i=(h+k)
3.6.4.
The

smallest cell with edges parallel to
directions
3.6.1. Cell
an
a=b*c; a=jS=90; y=120; V=abc
sin y.
is
^-lattice is
symmetry
always P (not H) or R. If
referred to hexagonal axes, the obverse
chosen.
orientation (Vol.
It is
p. 20, (a)
I,
and
(b)) is
adopted as
standard.
cos
<f>=-
<f>=(hk.l):(h'k'.l')
[hh'+kk'+$(hk'+kh')]a**+irc* 2
Given a plane
a *=b*=-^-, c*=-; a *=fi*=90, y*=60.
aV3
Angle
3.6.5. Interplanar
P, symmetry 6/m2/m2//n; or R, symmetry 3"2/ra.
(hk.O), find the angle
A
+
tan
0=arc
t Following usage, the superfluous

by a dot.
subsequently replaced
is
which
TABLE
makes with
it
(Qhk.l-Qh'k'.l')
h-k \
l
\V3 h+k)
(11.0) (see
Table
3.6.5).
3.6.5
Hexagonal Zone
^-(1 1.0) :(hk.O), with h>k
Interplanar Angles
Case
*
0
0'
33
40
43
30
35
35
13
5
6
21.0
...
65.0
96.0
32.0
...
85.0
85.0
...
...
...
74.0
95.0
.
73.0
52.0
52.0
83.0
...
31.0
16
10 3.0
47
72.0
51.0
21
47
24
25
61.0
11
81.0
47
17
91.0
10 1.0
42
11 1.0
63.0
94.0
...
...
21
30
54.0
41.0
22
23
24
24
25
25
74.0
6
10
20
by
76.0
53.0
31
divisible
75.0
57
14
16
17
17
19
(-h+k)
43.0
22
54
54
42
2.
11.0
...
13
Case
condition
...
9
10
12
13
No
11.0
<f>
in the
41.0
92.0
112.0
112.0
71.0
71.0
10 1.0
30.0
10.0
112
93.0
3.6.
HEXAGONAL SYSTEM
TABLE
3.6.6
Hexagonal Quadratic Forms. Given h 2 +k 2 +hk, to find h and k

h 2 +k 2 +hk h
1
2
2
7
9
13
16
19
111
10
112
117
121
11
124
127
129
10
133
11
139
9
10
21
25
27
28
5
3
144
147
31
148
36
37
39
43
48
49
52
57
151
156
157
7
5
7
8
9
10
12
163
11
169
13
19
16
241
243
15
11
11
9
10
14
363
364
18
11
12
12 11
13
283
289
291
14
292
16
10 10
15 4
181
11
304
307
309
64
67
183
13
189
12
73
75
76
79
192
9
14
10
193
196
199
13
201
11
208
12
11
12
8
1
13
313
316
16
14
324
325
327
18
84
91
6
9
7
5
1
211
14
217
13
10
17
331
11
10
333
336
337
12
16
13
343
18
14
349
17
14
351
15
12
11
400
403
19
14
15
412
417
18
4
7
421
427
20
19
17
113
16
432
433
436
439
12 12
441
21
444
448
20
9
2
16
453
457
19
17
463
468
469
21
18
20
13 11
14 10
18
13 12
471
15
20
15
15
10
17
13 10
409
17
17
81
397
399
301
300
223
225
228
229
16
2
6
15
10
18
12
6
2
15
19
277
279
387
388
12
14
17
381
11
172
175
372
373
379
171
13
13
16
367
15
10
9
6
16
271
273
219
12 10
14
63
100
103
108
109
361
268
252
256
259
2
7
6
h 2 +k 2 +hk h
13
244
247
12
11
237
61
93
97
h 2 +k 2 +hk h
12
h 2 +k 2 +hk h
475
14 11
15 10
3.6.
HEXAGONAL SYSTEM
TABLE
h
+k +hk
2
481
484
487
489
496
499
19
16
+k +hk
2
3.6.6 (continued)
613
619
19
22
624
625
628
20
25
24
751
756
757
631
633
15 14
763
637
741
21
17
20
18
4
7
16 13
23
21
508
14 12
17 12
511
19
513
516
21
523
525
529
17
20
532
22
18
22
643
18 11
651
25
768
769
772
775
777
15 11
3
16 10
23
541
21
543
547
549
19
553
7
14 13
23
20
22
18
571
21
576
577
579
24
588
652
657
22
24
661
20
669
23
673
675
676
23
20
4
7
15 13
592
597
601
603
604
607
21
793
16 12
21
26
679
25
26
22
873
876
877
24 9
20 14
883
889
21 13
28
27
25
5
8
16 16
17 15
892
22 12
18 14
900
903
30
29 2
23 11
26 7
25
23
5
8
19 13
907
28
20 12
27 2
912
916
919
24
921
19 16
21 11
20 15
27 6
30
25
796
26
925
927
804
22 10
931
811
17 13
813
817
25
28
23
819
27
684
687
688
22
24
691
19 11
709
20 10
26 1
23 6
25 3
711
21
700
703
721
723
724
727
729
732
733
739
4
24 10
28
18 17
6
1
24
18 15
823
829
831
832
837
937
939
29 3
22 13
948
949
26 8
28 5
23 12
19 14
20 13
26
24
5
8
841
844
847
849
29
28 2
22 11
25 7
853
859
27 4
23 10
867
868
26
18 13
961
31
964
967
24
30
27
972
973
29
2
19 12
23 7
114
2
7
18 18
19 17
975
976
25 10
20 16
981
988
21 15
28 6
22 14
991
26
18 16
993
997
999
31
27
26
11
21 12
16 15
17 14
22
9
21 14
17 16
18 12
18 10
23
15 15
17 11
24
27
29
19 15
16 14
14 14
589
784
787
19
22
21 10
24 6
871
17 10
567
25 4
20 11
h*+k*+hk h k
19 10
15 12
16 11
556
559
22
13 13
507
h 2 +k 2 +hk h
17 17
23 13
30 3
HEXAGONAL SYSTEM
3.6.
3.6.6.
Form
Quadratic
Q hk .i=(h +k
2

2
+hk)a* +l c*
Perpendicularity Condition!
3.6.7.2.
Plane Qik.l) perpendicular to line [uvOw]
ILJL) J-( v -\ J- w El
acV3
*hk.r
V{4(h
Given h 2 +k 2 +hk,
+3lW
a }
+k
k +hk)c +3l
find h
and k
(see
h\
Table
3.6.6).
or
(00.1)
Twinning
3.6.7.1.
Twelve
k\
-(h+-\ =-(k+-\ =-/2
if
u\
3.6.7.
if
is
2/
v\
2/
perpendicular to
Ac
[0001]
and
(hk.0)
to
[2h+k,h+2k,0,0].
Possible Rotations
x'y'z' to coincide
3.6.7.3.
with xyz, xu2, yuz, yxz, uxz, uyz,
The
xyz, xu2, yuz, yxz, uxz, uyz.
Twinning Condition
ratio c 2 :a 2
must approach a rational number.
[uvOw] is not the Weber 4-index symbol [UVJW], where U=w-(+v)/3, V=v-(+v)/3, J=-(h+v)/3 = -(U+V),
This means that in effect only three of the four hexagonal axes are used for calculations, namely xyz. With the Weber
symbolism the perpendicularity condition reads
fThe symbol
W=m>,
[8].
U=V
h
and
(hkiO)
is
perpendicular to [hkiO]. Note that, in a
k~
= 2cfW
2
3
Weber symbol.Hhe index

115
is
not superfluous.
Rhombohedral System
3.7.
{Sensu
stricto, trigonal crystals
with rhombohedral lattice)
Given h 2 +k*+l 2 find h,k,l and kl+lh+hk
Rhombohedral Axes and Miller 3-index Symbols
(see
Table
3.7.6).
3.7.1. Cell
a=b=c; 120>a==y^90;
V=a z \/(l 3 cos 2 a+2 cos 3 a).
3.7.7.
Twinning
3.7.7.1.
Six Possible Rotations
x'y'z' to coincide
with xyz, yzx, zxy, xyS, y2x, Zxy.
Primitive, but designated
R; symmetry 3 2/m.
J .1.2.
if
3.7.3. Reciprocal Latticef
a*
COS
2
- U+(V+W) COS a
=-
V+(\V+u) COS a
\a
a
2 cos
sin
a sin a*
=1 w+(u+v)
/
or
3.7.4.
The
h(l
is
3.7.5. Interplanar
Angle
if
rhombohedron
chosen, the lower

culminating edges being labelled xr y r zr so as to
form a right-handed system (Vol. I, p. 20, (a) and ()).
smallest
COS
COS a)(k+l) COS a
<t>=(hkl):{h'k'l')
=- k(l+
COS a)(l+h) COS a
=-
COS a)-(A+^) COS a
/(l
{hh'+kk'+ll'+[h(k'+l')+k(l'+h')+l(h'+k')] cos a*}** 2
COS 0=-
V((W2*'*'l)
3.7.6.
Quadratic
Form
(111)
is
perpendicular to [111] and every

is perpendicular
net containing the row [111]

to a row contained in the net (111).
Q hk i=[(h*+k*+l*)+2(kl+lh+hk) cos a*]a* 2
3.7.7.3.
Twinning Condition
cos a must approach a rational number.
For
alternate formulae cf. Vol.
I,
Table
2.4.1, p. 13.
116
3.7.
RHOMBOHEDRAL SYSTEM
TABLE
3.7.6
2
2
Rhombohedral Quadratic Forms. Given h +k +l\ to find hkl and kl+lh+hk
kl+lh+hk
kl+lh+hk
+k +l
2
h k
h*+k 2 +l 2
1
1
-1
-1
-1
-1
30
5 2
32
4 4
16
-1
33
5 2 2
24
24
5 3
15
4 3 3
33
35
5 3
23
-17
-13
36
4 4 2
32
-16
-16
4 4
34
2 2
2 2
-2
-1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-4
-4
-4
2
1
37
38
10
11
12
2 2 2
12
13
14
3 2
3 2
16
17
6
1
3 2 2
18
3 3
20
4 2
21
4 2
16
9
9
3 3
19
11
15
-3
-5
-4
-6
-7
-4
-8
-7
-9
-9
14
-10
22
3 3 2
21
24
4 2 2
20
-12
25
26
29
12
6 2
6 2
-1
-9
-9
20
40
42
5 4
29
43
5 3 3
39
44
6 2 2
28
45
6 3
18
5
1
19
11
3 3 3
27
5 2
10
4 3 2
26
5
5
-10
-14
-10
-10
-16
-15
4
8
15
-11
-1
-1
-12
-16
-20
-16
-21
-21
-20
-12
12
-18
-18
-15
18
16
-16
-11
-19
-20
-16
-19
20
27
48
4 4 4
48
49
36
-24
-12
4 2
38
5 5
25
5 4 3
47
15
5 5
35
52
6 4
24
53
7 2
14
6 4
34
7 2
23
10
6 3 3
45
5 5 2
45
54
117
50
6 3
12
6 3 2
-3
-4
-11
16
46
-13
9
-16
-18
-22
-21
-16
20
12
1
4 4 3
-1
-12
13
31
41
-4
-12
5 3 2
40
51
3
-4
-4
-4
-8
-6
-9
-4
17
-1
4 3
27
-3
-1
-4
-6
-5
-13
-16
-16
-16
-15
-15
+ + + - + + +- + ++ +
- + +
h k
+ + + - + + +-+ + + +
- + +
-25
-23
-13
-25
-24
-14
-26
-19
-27
-25
8
11
2
9
-25
-17
25
-25
-24
-14
-22
-25
15
24
14
14
9
5
3.7.
RHOMBOHEDRAL SYSTEM
TABLE
3.7.6 {continued)
kl+lh+hk
h 2 +k 2 +l 2
h k
+ + + - + + + - + + + - + +
+
56
6 4 2
44
57
7 2 2
32
5 4 4
56
58
7 3
21
59
7 3
61
31
5 5 3
55
7 3 2
41
6 5
41
31
6 4 3
62
64
65
66
54
-20
80
8 4
81
-16
-21
21
-30
-18
-13
29
82
83
30
7 4
28
6 5 2
52
17
39
5 5 4
65
67
7 3 3
51
68
8 2
16
72
6 4 4
64
8 2
26
7 4 2
50
6 5 3
8 2 2
74
75
63
36
36
6 6
73
24
8 3
6 6
48
8 3
35
7 5
35
7 4 3
61
7 5
5 5 5
47
75
76
6 6 2
60
77
8 3 2
46
6 5 4
74
7 5 2
59
78
+ + + - + + + - + + + +
+
- + 32
-32
-32
32
-36
-40
-36
-28
-16
-36
-16
44
72
6 6 3
72
8 3 3
57
19
7 5 3
71
84
8 4 2
56
85
9 2
18
7 6
42
-28
-32
-15
-31
-25
-33
-16
-32
-22
-34
28
86
-33
-28
-36
-24
-36
-29
-35
-37
-37
-25
-36
-34
-34
-39
29
9 2
7 6
55
6 5 5
85
88
6 6 4
84
89
9 2 2
40
-25
-25
-15
8 5
40
8 4 3
68
16
7 6 2
68
9 3
27
-16
-16
-10
-22
-27
-36
-24
-36
-19
-35
-19
-33
-25
-36
-14
-26
-31
9
9
1
-29
-24
9
1
-28
-28
-39
-17
-41
-40
20
19
17
-18
-42
-25
-43
-35
-36
-32
-40
-44
-44
-18
-42
-27
-43
-43
-33
-46
-39
-45
-27
-37
-27
-13
-21
15
-34
-15
-39
14
-48
-36
-36
-41
-49
-49
-45
-49
-45
-16
-36
-36
-16
-31
-31
23
-11
-41
-25
18
42
7
29
-36
-25
-12
-40
-20
-40
4
40
4
16
-16
6
90
8 5
70
7 4 4
8 4
11
h k
-16
-17
-25
h 2 +k*+l 2
7 4
69
-28
-24
-24
-21
-25
-25
-30
-30
-29
30
6 5
kl+lh+hk
53
7 5 4
83
91
9 3
39
93
8 5 2
66
94
9 3 2
51
7 6 3
81
96
8 4 4
80
97
9 4
36
6 6 5
96
9 4
49
8 5 3
79
7 7
49
9 3 3
63
7 7
63
7 5 5
95
4
36
24
24
27
27
3
3
13
35
23
98
-25
12
99
-14
11
118
36
-24
1
-49
-49
-25
49
9
35
-25
Cubic System
3.8.
of the angles becomes zero;
3.8.1. Cell
a=b=c, a =j3=y=90; V=a*.

P,
I,
F; symmetry 4/m 3 2/m.
a *=6*=c* = l/a; a *=jS*=y*=90.
The
smallest cube
3.8.5. Interplanar
is
chosen.
Angle
<f>=(hkl): (h'k'l') (cf. 3.2.5)
ing d spacings in the appropriate lattice. The

angles under each form symbol contains as
entries as are required by Table 3. 8. 5 A.
Table 3.8.5B is based on the formula
how many
numerically distinct angles does it make with the faces of a given form
{h'k'l'}! The answer to this question is given in Table
Given any plane
(hkl),
omitted
include the nine forms with the largest effective interplanar spacings din each cubic lattice (multiple indices
being used when necessary to express the lattice
criterion: /, "sum even"; F, "all odd or all even").
The numbers appearing in the rows labelled P, I, F at
the head of Table 3.8.5B indicate the order of decreas-
3.8.4.
this trivial value is
from the table.

Given a plane (hkl), what are the numerically distinct angles which it makes with the other faces of the
form to which it belongs and with the faces of other
forms? The answer to this question is given in Table
3.8.5B. In it fifteen forms are considered. They are
2
2
2
and
listed in the order of increasing s=h +k +l
3. 8. 5 A. Let the given pole (hkl) be placed at the centre

of the stereographic projection. It is sufficient to
consider half the poles of {h'k'l'}, namely those of the
upper hemisphere, since this restriction excludes only
the obtuse supplementary angles. The number of
angles to be expected is given in the last column of
Table 3.8.5 A; it is equal to one-half the multiplicity
of the form {h'k'l'}. This number, however, is in many
cases reduced by symmetry. If the given plane is one
of the faces, say (h'k'l'), of the given form {h'k'l'}, one
list
of
many
hh'+kk'-fll'
C S
where
<f>
is
2
V(h +k +l 2) V(h' 2 +k' 2 +l' )
the interplanar angle (hkl):(h'k'r).1[
was constructed with the help of an extended
t Table 3.8.5B
table, compiled by Dr. L. W. McKeehan (private communicalattices. Additional angles

tion), giving angles for the / and
were found in an extension of Bozorth's table [9] submitted by
Dr. K. W. Andrews (private communication). Mrs. Beulah
Decker computed the remaining angles, checked the whole table,
and rearranged
it
in
its
present form.
TABLE 3.8.5A
Number of Distinct Interplanar Angles between any Given Plane and
Form
h'k'k'
h'k'l'
form
110
111
hkO
Given\
hk'O
h'kO
h'kl
hk'k'
h'k'O
100
plane
the Faces of a Given
Given
all
hkk
khh
kk'k'
hkl
h'kk
of
hk'l'
hk'l
hkl'
hemisphere
h'kl'
h'k'l
h'hh
expected
Number
angles
in
100
*!'
110
2'
111
hkO
3'
*6'
hkk
4'
6'
*5
12'
12
11
11
12
3
*2'
2'
6
*1
4
12
12
(h$k)
hkl
*16
23'
24
24
Obtuse angles and zero angles are not counted. A primed number means that one of the angles is equal to 90.
asterisk (*) indicates that the number of expected angles (given in the last column) must be decreased by 1.
The
119
CUBIC SYSTEM
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3.8.
3.8.6.
Quadratic
Form
CUBIC SYSTEM
s. The possible (hkl) triplets appear on the righthand page, near the corresponding s value. An asterisk
(*) on an s value indicates that the preceding integer is
log
Q iHh 2 +k 2 +l 2 )a* 2
dhkl =a/V(h 2 +k 2 +l 2)
hk
not equal to the sum of three squares.

Table 3.8.6C lists the reflections permitted by the 17
cubic aspects shown in Table 3.8.6B.| It is used in
conjunction with Table 3.8.6A, e.g. for indexing a
Given h 2 +k 2 +l 2 find h, k, I. It is useful to consider

s=h 2 +k 2 +l 2 as a number congruent to p (mod 8), i.e.
s=Sn+p, n=0, 1,2,... Table 3.8.6A is divided into
125 rows, =0 to 124, and 7 columns, p=0 to 6. The
only values which s cannot assume are of the form
4m xl (mod 4m x8), w=0, 1, 2,
[10]. For m=0
this expression reduces to 7 (mod 8) and column p=l
is accordingly omitted from the table; for m=l the
,
powder
3.8.7.
Twenty-four Possible Rotations
with xyz, xyz, xyz, xyz, zyx, xzy,

yxz, yxz, yzx, yzx, yzx, yzx, yxz, zyx, xzy, xzy,
zxy, zxy, zxy, zxy, xzy, yxz, zyx, zyx.
x'y'z' to coincide
those for which s=p (mod 8), p=0, 3 and 4. The

/-lattice allows reflections for which s=p (mod 8),
Twinning
3.8.7.1.
expression reduces to 28 (mod 32), so that s cannot

have values 28, 60, 92,
., etc.
The only reflections permitted by the F-lattice are
.
pattern.
3.8.7.2.
even.
In simple structure types the structure factor expresis the same or varies periodically for reflections
whose s values appear in the same column. If observed
intensities are recorded in a table arranged like the
table of s values, simple structure types can easily be
if
= =w
h k l
sion
Every net (hkl)

the
identified [11].
3. 8. 6 A is arranged on two pages facing each
The values of s will be found on the left-hand
page. Below each s value are given \/s and mantissa of
same
is
perpendicular to a row which has
indices [hkl].
Table
3.8.7.3.
other.
f An aspect
Table 4.4.2).
is
Twinning Condition
None.
a set of systematic absences required by one or by several space groups
123
in
a given crystal system (see Vol.
I,
p. 348,
TABLE 3.8.6A
Cubic Quadratic Forms
s=h 2 +k 2 +l 2
\/s
and mantissa of log s, for s=Sn+p^4 m J (mod 4 m .8), m=Q,
1, 2,
100000
2
1-41421
3
1-73205
000 000
301 030
477 121
602 060
9
3-00000
954 243
10
3-16228
11
3-31662
000 000
041 393
079 181
113 943
17
4-12311
18
19
20
4-00000
4-24264
4-35890
4-47214
21
4-58258
204 120
230 449
255 273
278 754
301 030
322 219
25
5-00000
26
27
4-89898
5-09902
5-19615
380 211
397 940
414 973
431 364
32
5-65685
33
5-74456
34
5-83095
35
5-91608
505 150
518 514
531 479
40
41
6-40312
42
6-32456
6-48074
602 060
612 784
48
6-92820
49
2-00000
2-23607
6
2-44949
698 970
778 151
12
13
3-46410
3-60555
14
3-74166
146 128
\^
2-82843
903 090
10
16
24
22
4-69042
342 423
30
29
5-38516
462 398
477 121
600000
37
6-08276
38
6-16441
544 068
556 303
568 202
579 784
44
6-63325
643 453
45
6-70820
653 213
6-78233
623 249
43
6-55744
633 468
7-00000
50
7-07107
7-14143
52
7-21110
53
7-28011
54
7-34847
681 241
690 196
698 970
707 570
716 003
724 276
732 394
56
7-48331
57
7-54983
59
7-68115
61
7-81025
62
7-87401
748 188
755 875
58
7-61577
763 428
770 852
785 330
792 392
64
8-00000
65
8-06226
66
8-12404
67
68
8-18535
8-24621
806 180
812 913
819 544
826 075
832 509
69
8-30662
838 849
70
8-36660
845 098
72
8-48528
74
8-60233
75
8-66025
869 232
875 061
76
8-71780
880 814
77
8-77496
857 332
73
8-54400
863 323
78
8-83176
892 095
80
8-94427
82
9-05539
83
9-11043
84
900000
9-16515
85
9-21954
903 090
908 485
913 814
919 078
924 279
929 419
81
51
124
36
886 491
5-47723
46
662 758
86
9-27362
934 498
TABLE
An
3.8.6A
number is not a sum of three squared numbers; a double

same for the preceding two numbers.
asterisk (*) indicates that the preceding

signifies the
Every s followed by
s
h k
50
2
2 1
2 11
2 2
6
8*
9
51
52
53
2 2
10
11
12
13
14
16*
2 2 2
3 2
3 2 1
17
4
4
54
56*
57
58
59
3 2 2
18
19
3 3
3 3
20
21
22
24*
25
4 2
4 2
3 3 2
29*
66
1
1
5 1 1
3 3 3
5 2
4 3 2
30
32*
33
34
35
36
64*
65
4 3
27
62
4 2 2
4 3
26
61*
5 2
67
68
69
4 4
5 2 2
4 4 1
70
72*
5 3
4 3 3
5 3 1
6
73
6
6
4
2
4
2
86
88*
89
3 3
5 2
90
4 2
2 2
4 4
44
45
6 2 2
6 3
5 4 2
6 3 1
4 4 4
7
6 3 2
82
84
9 4
100
4
3
4
1
4*
5
6
7
8
11
11
5*
7
3 3
7 1
5 5
10
8 6
10 1
9 4 2
8 6 1
7 6 4
10 1 1
7 7 2
10 2
8 6 2
10 2 1
8 5 4
9 5
9 4 3
9 5 1
7 7 3
10 2 2
6 6 6
10 3
8 6 3
11
8*
10 5 1
9 6 3
8 8
112
130
2
3
6*
7
150
2*
3
114
4
160*
1
4
1
3** 10 3 2
140
10 6 2
8*
4 4
114
7
7 1
5 5
7 4
2
4*
12
5 3
2
10 5 4
9 6 5
8 8 4
12 1
10 6 3
9 8
11 6
170
1
1
9 9 3
10 6 6
13 2
12 5 2
13 2
117
10 7 5
12 4 4
13 2 2
8 8 7
13 3
12 5 3
13 3 1
11 7 3
9 9 4
9 7 7
180
1
4*
12 4
12 4
11 6
10 6
9 8
12 3
12
10
12
10
9
10
12
13
12
11
2
5
4
3
13
12 5
12 4 3
9 8 5
6 2
4
5 4
8
7 4
13 3 3
9 9 5
11
7
9*
190
2*
13
12
11
10
4 2
6 3
8 2
8 5
10 9 3
8 8 8
12 7
11 6 6
13 5
13 4 3
11 7
10 9 2
10 7 6
13 4 1
11
6
9
8 6
13 3 2
11 6 5
9 9
8 7 7
9 9 1
12 4 2
10 8
8 8 6
10 8 1
10 7 4
11 6 3
9 9 2
9 7 6
10 8 2
13 1
12 5
11 7
10 7 3
11 5
125
116
8
9 7 1
9 5 5
10 4 4
8 8 2
9 6 4
11 3 2
10 5 3
9 7 2
7 7 6
10 6
8 6 6
9 7 5
3
3
12 3 1
9 8 3
13
11 6 4
10 8 3
12 3 2
8 8 3
7 1
5 5
2 2
6 4
3
7*
8 6
10
10
12
10
12
115
10 6
11 5
8 8 1
8 7 4
11
11
8 8 5
10 3 1
9 5 2
7 6 5
5
6
12 2
12 2
10 7
2
10 5 2
9
8
8
8
7
9
10
11 5
h k
11 5 5
10 7 2
9 6 6
8 7 5
11 3 3
9 7 3
110
4 3
114
11
171
6*
9 7
1
9 8 2
8 7 6
112
10 5
10 4 3
8 6 5
111
8
9 8 1
9 7 4
12
11
10 4 2
110
h k
11 5
9 1 1
7 5 3
8 4 2
7
9
7
7
146
7 7 5
7 6 3
98
9 5 4
8 7 3
8 4 4
9 4
6 6 5
10 4 1
9 6
8 7 2
10 3 3
9 6 1
9 6 2
7 6 6
96*
97
120*
1
9 3
8 5 2
9 3 2
8 3 3
83
6 4
2 2
9 3
9
8 4 1
7 4 4
6 6 3
9 1
5 3 3
5 5
91
81
43
93*
94
99
42
h k
117
8 5 3
4
4 4
5 4
5
2
6
2
8 5
6 5
6 4 3
7 3 2
6 5 1
80*
41
76
77
9
7
9
7
6
6
9
possible (hkl) triplets
7 5 4
3
3 1
5 5 3
8
8 1
7 4
6 5
8 1
7 4
5 5
7 3
8 2
6 4
8 2
7 4
h k
8 5
8 4 3
7 6 2
6 2
6 2
46
48*
49
4 3
78
74
75
5 3 2
40*
85
6 5 3
8 2 2
6 6
8 3
6 6 1
8 3 1
7 5
7 4 3
7 5 1
5 5 5
6 6 2
8 3 2
6 5 4
7 5 2
1
1
7
5
5
7
5
6
7
6
7
6
5
6
7
5
7
7
4 4 2
37
38
h k
all
asterisk
12 7 1
12 5 5
11 8 3
9 8 7
13 5 1
11 7 5
TABLE
s=h +k +l
2
2
,
V*
and mantissa of log
3.8.6A {continued)
s,
for
s*=&n+pM m J (mod
4"\8),
m=0,
1, 2,
9-53939
93
9-64365
954 243
959 041
968 483
94
9-69536
973 128
99
9-94987
995 635
100000
101
10-0499
102
10-0995
986 772
98
9-89949
991 226
000 000
004 321
008 600
104
10-1980
105
10-2470
106
10-2956
107
10-3441
108
10-3923
109
10-4403
10-4881
017 033
021 189
025 306
029 384
033 424
037 426
041393
88
9-38083
89
9-43398
90
91
9-48683
944 483
949 390
96
9-79796
982 271
97
9-84886
n \v
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
100
110
113
114
10-6301
10-6771
115
10-7238
116
10-7703
117
10-8167
118
10-8628
053 078
056 905
060 698
064 458
068 186
071 882
121
120
10-9545
11-0000
122
11-0454
123
11-0905
125
11-1803
126
11-2250
079 181
082 785
086 360
089 905
096 910
100 371
128
11-3137
129
11-3578
130
11-4018
131
132
11-4455
11-4891
133
11-5326
134
11-5758
107 210
110 590
113 943
117271
120 574
123 852
127 105
136
11-6619
137
11-7047
138
11-7473
139
11-7898
140
11-8322
141
11-8743
142
11-9164
133-539
136 721
139 879
143 015
146 128
149 219
152 288
144
12-0000
145
12-0416
146
12-0830
147
12-1244
148
12-1655
149
12-2066
150
12-2474
158 362
161 368
164 353
167 317
170 262
173 186
176 091
152
12-3288
153
12-3693
154
12-4097
155
12-4499
157
12-5300
158
12-5698
181 844
184 691
187 521
190 332
195 900
198 657
166
160
161
12-6491
12-6886
162
12-7279
163
12-7671
164
12-8062
165
12-8452
12-8841
204 120
206 826
209 515
212 188
214 844
217 484
220 108
168
12-9615
169
13-0000
170
13-0384
171
13-0767
172
13-1149
173
13-1529
174
13-1909
225 309
227 887
230 449
232 996
235 528
238 046
240 549
126
TABLE
3.8.6A (continued)
Every s followed by
s
/i
196
14
12
14
12
10
14
13
10
9
/i
221*
6
7
9
2
4
2
7
6
7
9
4*
14 2
10 10
10 8
14 2
13
8
10 10
12 7
11
2
3
4
5
9
5
9
14 2
10 10
14 3
13
6
12 6
11
10
12
14
210
13
11
11
9
14
12
14
10
14
2
6
5
8
9
9
11
13
13
11
230
2*
3
2
2
1
3
8
4
5
3
7
6
7
4
8
8
3
6
14 4
12 6
10 10
12
10
13
12
6
9
7
9
8
3
9
7
7
9
7
7
3
3
6
10
8
5
7
14
13
11
10
12
15
14
12
11
8*
10
10 10
15
1
12 9
9 9
15
1
13
7
11
9
14 4
10 8
15 2
12 9
12 7
5
1
11 10
14 6
12 10
14 7
250
2
6
3
6
3
5
3
7
14
13
2
1
3*
6*
7
5
1
3
7
1
2
6
4
2
4
2
4
6
6
9
260
12
15
13
12
11
11
3
5
11
11
266
6
2
4
2
2
4
13
11
10 10
15
15
13
12
15
13
11
9
12 10
5
15
14 7
13
9
13
7
16
16
1
15 4
14 6
12 8
11 10
16
1
13
8
2
3
2
6
4
5
7
7
8
11
11
15
13
3
3
2
4*
16 2
14 8
12 10
16 2
15 6
14 8
14 7
12 9
15
6
10 9
16 2
14 8
10 10
16 3
15
6
12 11
127
289
4
4
1
13
9
7
11
11
14 6
16 3
14 8
13 10
13
8
12 11
12 10
6
2
3
15 6
14 7
13 10
11 10
16 4
12 8
16 4
13 10
16 3
15 7
12 11
12 9
15 7
15 5
13 9
16 4
14 8
15 6
14 9
15 7
14 9
13 10
11
280*
4
1
2
3
4
6
5*
11
12 10
16 5
16 4
14 9
14 7
12 11
10 10
16 5
13
15
11
16
7
9
5
8
6
2
290
3
5
7
8
2
3
6*
3
7
1
5
5
4
4
8
2
1
300
2
6
7
3
13 10
10
15 6
14 9
13 9
16 4
12 12
8
5
8*
4*
5
9
2
14
4
9
17
15 8
12 12
12 9
17
1
16 5
15 8
15 7
13 11
12 11
1
17
13 11
11
9
2
2
11
2*
3
11
4
9
16 3
15
5
13
9
12 11
11
15
13
/i
270
5
6
11 10
10 9
14 6
15 2
14 6
13
8
12 8
15 3
13
8
13
7
12 9
11
8
15 3
14 6
10 10
14 5
13
8
11 10
15 3
11
9
241** 15
3
5
15
14
13
11
2
6
4
12 10
12 8
15 4
14 7
12 10
10 9
14 7
14 5
11
13
6*
2
2
13
6
12 8
12 7
10 10
9 8
13
11
14
13
4
4
11
11
8*
244
11
11
11
200*
14
14
13
all
11
16 6
12 12
17 2
16 6
15 8
14 9
12 10
17 2
14 7
13 11
13 10
16 6
14 10
14 8
17 2
16 5
15 6
14 10
13 8
12 12
17 3
15 8
17 3
15 7
13 11
13 9
3
1
4
5
1
1
2
1
4
7
1
7
2
5
2
6
2
4
6
1
8
3
3
1
5
3
14 10 2
10 10 10
16 6 3
12 11
6
17 3 2
14 9 5
11 10
9
12 12 4
17 4
16 7
15 8 4
14 10 3
13 10 6
17 4
1
16 7
1
16 5
5
15 9
13 11
12
11
11
TABLE
s=KiJrk'iJrl 2
\/s and mantissa of log
3.8.6A (continued)
s,
for
s=Sn+p^4 m .7 (mod 4 m .8), m=0,
1, 2,
p
1
177
179
181
n \^
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
176
13-2665
13-3041
178
13-3417
13-3791
180
13-4164
13-4536
182
13-4907
245 513
247 973
250 420
252 853
255 273
257 679
260 071
184
13-5647
185
13-6015
186
13-6382
187
13-6748
189
13-7477
190
13-7840
264 818
267 172
269 513
271 842
276 462
278 754
192
13-8564
193
13-8924
194
13-9284
195
13-9642
196
14-0000
197
14-0357
198
14-0712
283 301
285 557
287 802
290 035
292 256
294 466
296 665
200
201
14-1774
202
203
204
205
206
14-1421
14-2127
14-2478
14-2829
14-3178
14-3527
301 030
303 196
305 351
307 496
309 630
311754
313 867
208
209
210
213
214
14-4568
14-4914
211
14-5258
212
14-4222
14-5602
14-5945
14-6287
318 063
320 146
322 219
324 282
326 336
328 380
330 414
217
218
219
14-7309
14-7648
14-7986
221
14-8661
14-8997
334 454
336 460
338 456
340 444
344 392
346 353
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
14-9666
15-0000
15-0333
15-0665
15-0997
15-1327
15-1658
350 248
352 183
354 108
356 026
357 935
359 835
361 728
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
15-2315
15-2643
15-2971
15-3297
15-3623
15-3948
15-4272
365 488
367 356
369 216
371 068
372 912
374 748
376 577
241
15-5242
242
243
244
245
246
15-5563
15-5885
15-6205
15-6525
15-6844
382 017
383 815
385 606
387 390
389 166
390 935
30
31
32
222
216
14-6969
248
249
250
254
15-7797
15-8114
251
15-8430
253
15-7480
15-9060
15-9374
394 452
396 199
397 940
399 674
403 121
404 834
262
256
257
258
259
260
16-0000
16-0312
16-0624
16-0935
16-1245
261
16-1555
151864
408 240
409 933
411 620
413 300
414 973
416 641
418 301
128
TABLE
3.8.6A (continued)
Every s followed by
s
/i
307
8
17 3
15 9
16 6
12 10
17 4
16 7
14 8
/i
329
4
8
2
2
7
18
2
17
6
16 8
15 10
13 12
12 11
2*
3
7*
320*
1
2
3
8*
15
15
14
14
13
12
17
17
16
15
13
13
12
17
15
13
16
14
13
17
14
13
9
7
10
9
12
12
2
6
4
6
5
4
7
8
12
9
3
3
5
2
3
11
8
7
11
5
5
330
6*
7
11
12
5
2
2
11
10
16 8
17 4 4
16 8
1
16 7 4
14 11
2
14 10 5
11 10 10
15 9 4
13 12
3
17
5
3
15 7
7
11 11
9
18
16 8 2
14 8 8
12 12 6
18
1
17 6
15 10
15 8
6
12 10 9
18
1
17 6
15 10
14 11
14 9
13 11
18 2
16 6
340
1
4*
1
1
7
6
17 5
16 7
15 9
13
9
18
2
14 10
349*
2
3
2
4
4
5
5
9
2
6
14
13
18
17
15
16
18
16
12
17
16
15
11
10
6
10
3
3
8
3
2*
3
2
7
6
1
8
13 13
13 12
17
7
17
5
13 13
13 11
18
14
18
17
16
16
15
14
14
18
17
15
14
13
7
1
5
8
1
360*
4
12
6
9
7
10
12
9
7
9
2
6
11
13
2
10
2
2
10
11
11
18
14
12
16
14
16
15
12
17
15
13
12
10
8
18
5
18
4
14 12
13 12
/i
369** 19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
3
3
18
9
12
7
9
350
310
all
2
6
4
1
10
5
7
11
13
17
17
16
13
13
15
15
18
16
16
14
17
16
18
14
4
5
5, 1
6 5
11
10
10
12
11
7
7
13
11
11
3
7
9
4
10
2
3
12
10
11
6*
7
2
8
6
6
19
17
15
15
19
17
15
13
16
18
16
15
19
18
18
17
17
15
14
13
18
14
19
18
16
14
13
19
17
16
15
19
17
2
6
387
19
17
15
13
18
12
18
18
17
17
15
14
7
12
2
13
10 10
12 9
8
9
12
9
11
5
9
11
10
7
9
12
3
7
5
9
7
10
13
13
6
12
6
2
2
2*
2
6
7
3
6
4
6
11
10
12
390
4
7
7
9
7
9
7
13
8
12 10
8
7
10
10
12
10
13
9
8
11
12
3
9
3
3
3
7
8
19
17
14
13
18
16
14
19
17
16
14
15
15
10
2
10 6
14
11
10
11
14
1
13
12 5
13 12 9
19 5 3
17 9
5
15 13
1
15 11
7
18
6 6
14 14 2
14 10 10
19 6
8
3
18
19 6
1
7 5
18
17 10 3
15 13
2
14 11
400*
20
16 12
381*
7
1
5
11
3
5
18
6 2
19
2
18
5
4
16 10 3
14 13
14 12 5
12 11 10
19 2
1
14 13
1
14 11
7
129
370
18
6
16 10
14 10
19
18
6
17
6
15 10
19
1
17
8
16 9
15 11
1*3 12
19
1
17
7
13 13
11
11
11
18
17
15
15
13
12
18
17
16
15
14
2
4*
5
19
16
16
14
14
18
15
16
18
15
19
19
17
16
16
12
4
11
2
2
10
13
11
11
6
8
20
19 6
16 12
16 9
14 14
14 13
2
1
8
3
20
19 5
17 8
16 11
13 13
15 13
20
11
3
7
18
11
11
16 12
14 12
6
12
5
7
5
8
3
TABLE
s=h 2 +k 2 +l 2
y/s and mantissa of log
3.8.6A {continued)
s,
for
s=%n+p^4 m J (mod
p
1
4 m .8),
m=0,
1, 2,
n \.
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
16-2481
16-2788
16-3095
16-3401
16-3707
16-4012
16-4317
421 604
423 246
424 882
426 511
428 135
429 752
431 364
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
16-4924
16-5227
16-5529
16-5831
16-6132
16-6433
16-6733
434 569
436 163
437 751
439 333
440 909
442 480
444 045
280
281
282
283
285
286
16-7332
16-7631
16-7929
16-8226
16-8819
16-9115
447 158
448 706
450 249
451 786
454 845
456 366
288
289
290
293
294
17-0000
17-0294
291
17-0587
292
16-9706
17-0880
17-1172
17-1464
459 392
460 898
462 398
463 893
465 383
466 868
468 347
296
297
298
299
300
17-2047
17-2337
17-2627
17-2916
17-3205
301
17-3494
17-3781
471 292
472 756
474 216
475 671
477 121
478 566
480 007
302
304
305
306
307
310
17-4642
17-4929
17-5214
308
17-5499
309
17-4356
17-5784
17-6068
482 874
484 300
485 721
487 138
488 551
489 958
491 362
317
312
313
314
17-6635
17-6918
17-7200
315
17-7482
17-8045
318
17-8326
494 155
495 544
496 930
498 311
501 059
502 427
320
321
17-9165
322
325
326
17-9444
323
17-9722
324
17-8885
18-0000
18-0278
18-0555
505 150
506 505
507 856
509 203
510 545
511883
513 218
328
329
330
333
334
18-1384
18-1659
331
18-1934
332
18-1108
18-2209
18-2483
18-2757
515 874
517 196
518 514
519 828
521 138
522 444
523 746
342
336
337
338
339
340
18-3303
18-3576
18-3848
18-4120
18-4391
341
18-4662
18-4932
526 339
527 630
528 917
530 200
531 479
532 754
534 026
344
345
346
347
349
350
18-5472
18-5742
18-6011
18-6279
18-6815
18-7083
536 558
537 819
539 076
540 329
542 825
544 068
130
TABLE
3.8.6A (continued)
Every j followed by
s
405
20
2
9
10
10
8*
18
17
16
15
19
18
17
15
20
14
20
18
18
16
12
410
12
6
9
19
17
15
15
19
19
17
11
4*
7
8
6
12 10
7 2
9 3
11
2
10 5
13
7
430
2*
3
11
16 12
8
17 8
14 14 5
14 11 10
20 3 3
16 9 9
15 12 7
19 7 3
17 11
3
17 9 7
5
15 13
13 13
9
20
16
18
15
14
19
18
15
18
18
10
9
14
12
6
7
14
10
20
10
10
13
12
14 2
10 10
5
8
11
4
4
13
11
7
9
2
6
11
10
14
5
18
21
6
19
19
18
17
15
15
14
g** 21
11
1
2
6
1
11
14
11
10
13
9
2
20
3
3
1
20
450
16 12 6
6 1
18
8
7
17 12 2
16 10 9
15 14 4
17 10 7
14 11 11
13 13 10
20
6*
6 2
18 10 4
14 12 10
21
4
4
6
4
8
7
5
7
4*
5
8
3
460
12 12
6 6
10 3
12
12 8
21
20
20
5
8
5
5
5
19
16
15
15
21
19
17
15
20
13
15
12
9
1
9
9
9
1
18
8
8
16 14
20 7 2
17 10 8
16 14
1
21
2
3
18 11
3
18
9 7
15 15 2
16 14 2
16 10 10
14 14 8
21 4
15 14 6
13 12 12
21
4 1
20 7 3
19 9 4
17 13
17 12
5
16 11
9
15 13
8
131
15
21
19
17
17
15
13
13
11
7
3
15
13 11
477*
21
19
18
16
16
21
19
6
10
12
14
4
3
5
11
10
6
9
20
21
6
9
12
19
18
17
15
19
18
9
16 13
16 11
14 14
11
2
7
17 12
16 12
5
8
20
2
9
7
20
440*
20
459
18 11
18 10
21
1
19 9
17 12
21
1
19 9
15 13
21
2
20
5
3
5
19 8
17 12
17 9
16 13
5*
2
2
2
9
18
15 14
15 13
20
19
19
17
16
16
15
18
14
13 12 11
5
19 7
5
17 11
4
9
5
7
20
442
possible (hk:/) triplet s
19 8
16 13
14 13
420
11
13
19
18
16
13
19
18
17
17
14
19
18
17
16
16
15
15
20
20
20
20
425
3*
20
7
6
5
5
11
1
13 11 11
6*
9 6
10 9
2 2
14 4
3
9 2
7 6
12 3
12 11
20
all
18 10
4
21
6
2
20
19
19
18
16
16
14
19
17
10
8
11
480*
1
20
14 3
6
13
12 11
10 1
13 2
20
8
16 12
20 8
20
19 10 2
14 13 10
5
21
4 3
21
15 15 4
5
21
1
19 9
5
17 13
3
15 11 11
20 8 2
18 12
16 14 4
18 12
1
9 8
18
17 12 6
15 12 10
2*
3
10
11
3
5
10
14
20 6
18 12
4
21
9
7
6
2
4
20
21
19
18
17
15
8
18 10
14 14
20 7
19
8
17 13
17 11
16 13
21
5
15 15
15 13
490
2
6
16 15
15 14
22
6 3
21
2
19 11
19 10 5
18
9 9
1
17 14
15 15 6
14 13 11
22 2
18 10 8
16 14 6
22 2 1
21
20
9
7
17 14
8
5
19 8
8
17 14 2
17 10 10
16 13
8
4
7
3
5
22
20
20
20
7
9
5
7
22
18 12 4
14 12 12
8*
470
18 11
6
16 15
16 12 9
21
5 4
20 9 1
19 11
17 12 7
16 15
1
13 13 12
19 11
1
17 13
5
16
15
21
21
19
19
17
7
9
3
15
3
12 11
7
1
5
5
11
3
9 7
9
2 2
14 14 10
22
11
TABLE
s=h*+k 2 +l 2
y/s
and mantissa of log
3.8.6A (continued)
s,
for
s=$n+p>4 m J (mod 4 m .8), w=0,
1, 2,
44
45
353
18-7883
354
18-7617
18-8149
355
18-8414
546 543
547 775
549 003
550 228
551 450
352
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
356
357
18-8680
18-8944
358
18-9209
552 668
553 883
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
18-9737
190000
19-0263
190526
19-0788
19-1050
19-1311
556 303
557 507
558 709
559 907
561 101
562 293
563 481
372
46
47
369
370
19-2094
19-2354
371
19-2614
19-2873
373
19-3132
19-3391
567 026
568 202
569 374
570 543
571 709
572 872
374
376
377
19-3907
19-4165
378
19-4422
19-4679
381
19-5192
19-5448
575 188
576 341
577 492
578 639
580 925
582 063
379
382
384
385
386
387
388
389
390
19-5959
19-6214
19-6469
19-6723
19-6977
19-7231
19-7484
584 331
585 461
586 587
587 711
588 832
589 950
591 065
392
393
19-8242
394
395
396
397
19-7990
19-8494
19-8746
19-8997
19-9249
398
19-9499
593 286
594 393
595 496
596 597
597 695
598 791
599 883
400
401
20-0250
402
20-0499
405
406
603 144
604 226
20-0998
606 381
20-1246
602 060
403
20-0749
605 305
404
20-0000
607 455
20-1494
608 526
408
20-1990
409
410
20-2237
20-2485
411
20-2731
413
20-3224
20-3470
610 660
611723
612 784
613 842
615 950
617000
416
417
420
20-4206
418
20-4450
419
20-3961
20-4695
20-4939
421
20-5183
619 093
620 136
621 176
622 214
623 249
624 282
414
422
20-5426
625 312
424
425
426
20-6398
428
20-6882
430
20-6155
427
20-6640
429
20-5913
20-7123
20-7364
627 366
628 389
629 410
630 428
631444
632 457
633 468
432
433
20-8087
434
435
436
437
20-7846
20-8327
20-8567
635 484
636 488
637 490
638 489
20-8806
639 486
20-9045
640 481
438
20-9284
641 474
132
TABLE
3.8.6A {continued)
Ever} s followed by
r
//
493
22
3
6 4
18 13
18 12 5
4
22 3 1
21 7 2
18 13
1
18 11
7
17 14 3
17 13 6
15 13 10
7** 22 3 2
20 9 4
19 10 6
18 13
2
17 12 8
16 15 4
8
20 7 7
19 11 4
16 11 11
9
21
7 3
15 15 7
510
22
5
10
14
11
10
21
2*
3
22 4
20 10
20 8
6
16 12 10
4*
9*
22 4
20 10
17 14
16 14
22 3
21
6
18 13
15 14
22 4
20 10
18 12
21 8
19 12
18 10
21
8
21 7
20 9
19 12
19 9
16 15
16 13
19 11
17 13
16
22 5 2
21
6 6
20 8 7
16 16
1
15 12 12
14 14 11
21
8 3
19 12 3
17 15
17 12 9
15 15 8
21
7 5
17 15
1
15 13 11
22 4
20 10
16 16
16 14
500
19
17
17
16
20
18 12
16 15
22 5
19 11
18 13
17 15
528*
9
530
9
1
5
1
8
5
9
5
13 13 13
22 5
22 4 3
21
8 2
20 10 3
19 12 2
18 13
4
18 11
8
14 13 12
23
22
/i
545
23
22
21
21
5
3
12
15
15
4
7
11
11
11
15
12
6
7
6
17
16
22
21
20
11
19
18
17
16
16
15
21
12 4
14 1
14 6
16 3
12 11
14 10
20
11
9
1
17 13
8
21
9
1
19 9 9
17 15 3
22 6 2
18 14 2
18 10 10
22 5 4
20 11 2
20 10 5
19 10 8
16 13 10
21
9 2
21
7 6
18 11
9
541*
23
22
22
2
2
4
16 16
21
9 4
15 13 12
23 3 1
21
7 7
19 13
3
17 15
5
17 13 9
6
6
7
21 10
19 10
11
8
7
20 10
15
12
16
14
9
2
4
5
550
2*
3
6
7
21
18
17
15
10 3
1
15
15 6
15 10
2
8
16 14 10
20 12 3
2
18 15
23 5
23 4 3
21
7
8
19 12 7
17 16 3
17 12 11
23 5 1
19 13
5
22 6 6
18 14 6
22 8 3
21 10 4
20 11 6
19 14
18 13
8
23 5 2
22 7 5
21
9 6
19 14
1
18 15
3
17 13 10
22
20 12
133
8*
9
7
16 12 12
20
18 13
15 14 11
4*
19
19
17
16
14
21
23
22
22
23
8
1
16
13 11
23 3 3
21
9 5
22 8
20 12 2
16 16 6
18
18
17
17
21 10
21
8
19 12
13
561
8
5
23 2
22 7
20 11
23
22
19 13 2
17 14 7
14 13 13
22 6 4
20 10 6
18 14 4
14 14 12
23
2
7
12 10
14 9
2 1
7
1
5
23 4
20 11
19
19
17
16
13
23
22
18
18 11 10
17 16
16 15 8
23
6
10
12
9
14
18 13
20
20
9
13
3
6
5
3
3
21
19
19
17
15
18
4
4
2
A:
6
18 14
23
18 14
9
2
2
6
8
16 16
6*
22
20
19
19
17
16
520*
A:
20 11
20 9
5
3
/i
7
3
all
560*
20 12
k
4
14 2
10 10
16 4
16 7
14 13
11
16 15 9
23 5 3
21 11
1
19 11
9
17 15 7
15 13 13
22 8 4
20 10 8
23 6
22 9
18 15 4
15 14 12
23
22
6
9
21
21
19
19
11
10
14
5
3
23
22
22
6
9
7
2
2
6
21
20 13
20 12
13
6
18 11 11
17 14 9
18 12 10
19 12 8
18 14 7
16 13 12
570
23
20 13
20 11
1
3*
7
5
17 16
21 11
3
21
9 7
15 15 11
22 8 5
20 13
19 14 4
16 14 11
23 6 3
22 9 3
18 15
5
18 13
9
6*
24
24
16 16
21 10 6
17 12 12
TABLE
s=h 2 +k 2 +l 2
\/s and mantissa of log
3.8.6A (continued)
s,
for
s=Sn+pM m J
(mod 4 m .8), m=0,
1, 2,
443
21-0476
445
21-0950
21-1187
645 422
646 404
648 360
649 335
449
450
21-1896
21-2132
451
21-2368
21-2603
453
21-2838
21-3073
652 246
653 213
654 177
655 138
656 098
657 056
441
21-0000
442
20-9762
21-0238
643 453
644 439
n \v
55
440
56
57
58
60
61
64
65
462
456
457
458
21-4009
459
460
21-3776
21-4243
21-4476
461
21-4709
21-4942
658 965
659 916
660 865
661 813
662 758
663 701
664 642
464
465
21-5639
466
467
468
469
470
21-5870
21-6102
21-6333
21-6564
21-6795
667 453
668 386
669 317
670 246
671 173
672 098
473
21-7486
474
475
477
21-7256
21-7715
21-7945
21-8403
673 942
674 861
675 778
676 694
678 518
478
21-8632
679 428
480
481
21-9317
482
21-9089
21-9545
483
21-9773
681 241
682 145
683 047
488
22-0907
688 420
489
490
22-1133
472
484
485
486
683 947
22-0000
684 845
22-0227
685 742
22-0454
686 636
491
22-1585
492
22-1359
22-1811
22-2261
689 309
690 196
691 081
691 965
493
22-2036
692 847
497
498
22-3159
499
22-2935
22-3383
500
22-3607
501
22-3830
696 356
697 229
698 100
698 970
699 838
504
22-4499
505
22-4722
506
22-4944
507
22-5167
509
22-5610
702 431
703 291
704 151
705 008
706 718
512
22-6274
709 270
513
22-6495
514
22-6716
516
22-7156
517
22-7376
710 117
710 963
515
22-6936
711 807
712 650
713 491
518
22-7596
714 330
520
22-8035
521
22-8254
716 838
522
22-8473
523
22-8692
718 502
524
22-8910
719 331
525
22-9129
720 159
526
22-9347
720 986
62
63
454
21-3542
21-5407
666 518
59
452
446
716 003
717 671
134
494
693 727
502
22-4054
700 704
510
22-5832
707 570
TABLE
3.8.6A {continued)
Every s followed by
24
593
24
23
21
11
h
578
20 13
580
3
17 17
17 15 8
23 7 1
23 5 5
19 13
7
17 17
1
17 13 11
24 2
20 12
18 16
1
24 2
23 6
22 9
20 10
4
4
9
18 16
1
17 16 6
16 15 10
4*
23
22
7 2
7 7
19 14 5
19 11 10
2
17 17
24 2 2
22 10
22 8 6
18 16 2
18 14 8
24 3
22 10
12
20 13
600*
21
20 11
8
9
590
8
18 15
6
17 14 10
24 3 1
21 12
1
21
9 8
19 15
19 12 9
23 7 3
21 11
5
19 15
1
17 17 3
22 10 2
14 14 14
24 3 2
21 12 2
18 16
3
18 12 11
23
22
6
9
21 10
5
5
7
19 15 2
15 14 13
2*
24
4
23 8
22 10
24 4
20 14
609
18 16 4
16 14 12
23 8 2
22 8 7
20 14 1
21 11
6
18 15 7
22 10 4
20 14 2
20 10 10
24 5
24 4 3
23 6 6
22 9 6
21 12
18 14
24
23
20
23 8
22 11
22 10
17 16
4
2
626
25
24
24
23
24
23
21
21
13
12
23
21
21
19
19
13
11
25
23
15
13
5
9
17
17
24 6
22 8
20 14
21
18
18
17
17
13
2
1
17
13 11
24
23
19 16
1
23 9 3
21 13
3
15 15 13
11
620
1
22 11
21 12
20 14
11
19
19
16
21
19
18
21 10 8
20 14 3
20 13 6
19 12 10
18 16
5
22 11
5** 25
19 14 7
17 14 11
4
8
2*
3
20 11 10
630
22 10
6
18 14 10
24 6 3
16 2
14 8
14 13
10 9
15 6
17 3
7*
135
10
1
24
22
25
24
2
7
23 10
23 8
22 12
22 9
640*
641
2
6
18 17 4
7
18 16
17 14 12
25 2
23 10
22 11
8*
19 13 10
18 15 9
22 12 2
20 14 6
25 2
23 10
22 10
20 13
24
2
2
7
8
19 16 4
16 16 11
25 3
24 7 3
21 12 7
20 15 3
1
?s 3*
25
1
23 9 5
21 13 5
19 15 7
17 15 11
s
94 fi
24
6 5
22 12 3
21 14
18
i
8 13 12
25 3 2
23 10 3
21 14
1
19 14
J 9
J
is
s
18 17
17
5
25 4
24 8
24 7
22 11
6
21 14 2
21 10 10
20 15 4
18 14 11
7 7
17 7
13 13
6 4
12
24 7
20 15
20 12
9
16 15 12
20 15
17 6
15 10
24 6 2
18 16 6
3
7
19 16
18 17 2
15 14 14
8
9 4
21 13 4
8
21 11
20 15 1
19 16 3
19 12 11
17 16 9
24 4
20 12
18 12 12
16 16 10
24 6 1
18 17
8
18 15
23 9 2
23 7 6
22 11
22 9
6*
(Jikl) triplets
20 13
5
8
610
19 15 4
17 13 12
16 15 11
23 7 5
21
9 9
19 11 11
5
17 17
24
22
possible
3
20 12 7
19 14 6
18 13 10
16 16 9
24 3 3
23 8 1
23 7 4
21 12 3
20 13 5
19 13
8
17 17 4
17 16 7
16 13 13
15 15 12
19 15 3
17 15 9
all
rsn
25 4
23 8
20 11
7
11
19 16
5
17 17 8
25 3 3
21 11
9
24 8 2
22 12 4
20 12 10
18 16
8
25 4 2
23 10 4
20 14 7
17 16 10
23 9 6
22 9 9
21 14 3
21 13 6
15 15 14
24 6 6
22 10 8
18 18
16 14 14
24 8 3
21 12 8
19 12 12
18 18
1
18 17 6
i 8 15 10
9S
?W
n
?
23
S
JO
11
\\
15
20 13
J
9
)l )l 2
? \l ,5
l
l
\
3
\* i 1
?? ,?
?J 7
2 }I ,
11
*
"
?? ]l
?T } A
21
4
19 16
15
4a
TABLE
s=h +k +l
2
\
n
2
,
V-y and mantissa of log
3.8.6A (continued)
s,
for
s=$n+p^4 m J (mod 4 m .8),
/w=0,
1, 2,
p
4
531
532
23-0651
724 276
23-0434
725 095
533
23-0868
726 727
534
23-1084
727 541
537
23-1733
538
23-1948
539
23-2164
541
23-2594
542
23-2809
729 165
729 974
730 782
731 589
733 197
733 999
544
23-3238
545
23-3452
547
23-3880
548
23-4094
549
23-4307
23-4521
735 599
736 397
546
23-3666
737 193
737 987
738 781
739 572
740 363
552
23-4947
553
23-5160
554
23-5372
556
23-5797
557
23-6008
741 939
742 725
743 510
555
23-5584
744 293
745 075
745 855
558
23-6220
746 634
560
562
23-7065
563
23-7276
564
23-7487
565
23-7697
566
23-7908
748 188
561
23-6854
748 963
749 736
750 508
751 279
752 048
752 816
568
23-8328
569
23-8537
570
23-8747
23-8956
573
23-9374
754 348
755112
755 875
756 636
758 155
23-9583
758 912
576
240000
577
24-0208
578
24-0416
579
24-0624
580
24-0832
581
24-1039
582
24-1247
760 422
761 176
761 928
762 679
763 428
764 176
764 923
584
24-1661
585
24-1868
586
24-2074
587
24-2281
588
24-2487
589
24-2693
766 413
767 156
767 898
768 638
769 377
770115
590
24-2899
770 852
592
593
24-3516
594
24-3721
595
24-3926
596
24-3311
24-4131
597
24-4336
772 322
773 055
773 786
774 517
775 246
775 974
600
24-4949
778 151
601
24-5153
603
24-5561
778 874
602
24-5357
779 596
608
24-6577
609
24-6779
610
24-6982
783 904
784 617
785 330
611
24-7184
786 041
530
23-0217
722 634
529
23-0000
723 456
536
23-1517
N.
66
67
68
69
70
528
22-9783
23-6643
71
72
73
74
75
76
725 912
571
605
24-5967
781 755
780 317
136
612
24-7386
786 751
613
24-7588
787 460
550
574
598
24-4540
776 701
606
24-6171
782 473
614
24-7790
788 168
TABLE
3.8.6A {continued)
Every s followed by
s
654
25
23
23
22
22
6*
2
2
670
25
11
10
13
11
7
19 17 2
17 14 13
24 8 4
20 16
16 16 12
25 4
24 9
23 8
22 13
20 16
660
1
24
18 16
25 6
22 13
21
21
18
18
4*
g*
14
11
2
1
21
21
19
19
17
21
19
2
6
6
9
3
5
10
7
13
6
6 3
21 15 2
18 15 11
20 16 4
24 9 4
23 12
21 14 6
18 18
5
25 7
24 7 7
23 12 1
23 9 8
21 13
8
20 15 7
19 13 12
25 7 1
25 5 5
23 11 5
21 15 3
19 17 5
15 15 15
26
24
24
26
25
24
23
22
20
685
8*
9
26 3
25 6
23 11
22 11
699
3
6
9
7
8
8
701*
A*
5
26 2
24 10
22 14
26 2
22 14
20 16
690
2
4
1
1
19 16
17 14 14
16 16 13
24 9 5
23 12 3
21 15 4
25 7 3
21 11 11
17 15 13
26 2 2
22 14 2
22 10 10
18 18
25 8 1
25 7 4
20 17 1
20 13 11
23 9 9
21 15
21 13
5
8
714
26 5
23 13
22 13
24
26
5
25 8
22 14
25
21 15
26 6
6*
26
24
22
20
26
25
24
23
20
10
12
16
9
10
6
8
17 2
18 15 12
26 3 3
19 18 3
18 17 9
710
26 4 2
22 14 4
20 14 10
25 6 6
24 11
21 16
18 18
25 8
24 11
23 13
23 12
21 16
20 17
19 16
137
2*
3
5
1
7
6
8
2
4
22 15
19 16 10
720*
1
4
7
3
7
3
4
5
6
9
22 15
18 18
8
1
4
2
4
21 16
20 13 12
18 17 10
8
3
1
19 18
25
24
11
23 12
21 16
25 7
23 13
7
5
19 19 1
24 12 2
20 18
18 16 12
26 7
25 10
25 8 6
24 10 7
23 14
22 15 4
20 18 1
20 17 6
20 15 10
26 7 1
26 5 5
25 10 1
23 14 1
22 11 11
19 19 2
24 10
24 12
20 16
26 6
24 12
24 9
5
19 19
17 17 12
9,2
26 6
24 11
22 15
21 14 9
18 15 i3
7
23 10
26
2
6
18 14 14
26 5 4
22 13 8
20 14 11
16 16 14
23 12 6
22 15
22 12 9
26
25
25
8
5
8
13
3
7
21 16
21 12 11
20 15 9
16 15 15
25 9 1
23 13 3
19 15 11
26
21 13 10
19 18 5
17 15 14
7
1
20 17
20 16
25 9
24 11
24 9
22 14
2
5
25 8
23 13
23 11
20 17
16 2
14 8
18 4
14 12
16 11
19 17
17 16
22 11 10
26 5
26 4
24 11
24 10
21 15
26 1
25 7
23 10
22 13
25 7
23 13
23 11
21
21
19
19
18
12 4
14 3
13
6
17 o
15 8
19 18 2
18 14 13
17 16 12
7
19 17 7
19 13 13
17 17 11
14
1
18
17 6
15 10
20 12 12
26 3 2
25
24
23
22
22
20
20
18 16 10
26 3
24 10
21
19
19
19
21 12 10
19 18
17 17 10
680*
10
5
19 14 11
15
12 9
17 4
16 7
16 11
15
1
15 9
22 13 4
22 11 8
20 13 10
6 4
10 1
12 2
12 7
14 9
18 17
8
16 15 14
8
5
10 6
10 9
16 3
12 11
5 4
9 3
11
17
13
22 12
18 18 4
18 14 12
25
24
23
22
20
20
25
24
23
17 15 12
25 5 3
23 11 3
23 9 7
21 13 7
19 17 3
17 17 9
20 16
20 14
25 6
24 9
24 7
20 15
19 14 10
3
18 18
8
2*
all
19 14 13
8*
26 6 4
22 12 10
20 18 2
TABLE
s=h 2 +k z +l 2
>v
77
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
s,
for
s=8n+p^4 m J (mod 4 m .8), m=0,
1, 2,
616
24-8193
617
24-8395
618
24-8596
619
24-8797
620
24-8998
621
24-9199
24-9399
789 581
790 285
790 988
791 691
792 392
793 092
793 790
625
25-0000
626
25-0200
628
25-0599
629
25-0799
25-0998
795 880
796 574
627
25-0400
797 268
797 960
798 651
799 341
632
25-1396
633
25-1595
634
25-1794
635
25-1992
637
25-2389
638
25-2587
800 717
801404
802 089
802 774
804 139
804 821
640
25-2982
641
25-3180
642
25-3377
643
25-3574
25-3772
645
25-3969
25-4165
806 180
806 858
807 535
808 211
808 886
809 560
810 233
652
654
25-5734
815 578
78
79
3.8.6A (continued)
648
25-4558
644
622
630
646
649
650
25-4951
651
25-5147
25-5343
653
25-5539
811575
25-4755
812 245
812 913
813 581
814 248
814 913
656
25-6125
816 904
657
25-6320
817 565
658
25-6515
818 226
659
25-6710
660
25-6905
25-7294
818 885
819 544
661
25-7099
820 201
664
25-7682
822 168
665
25-7876
666
25-8070
667
25-8263
669
25-8650
670
25-8844
822 822
823 474
824 126
825 426
826 075
672
25-9230
827 369
673
25-9422
828 015
674
25-9615
828 660
675
25-9808
676
26-0000
677
26-0192
678
26-0384
829 304
829 947
830 589
831 230
680
681
26-0960
682
26-1151
683
26-1343
684
26-0768
26-1534
685
26-1725
261916
832 509
833 147
833 784
834 421
835 056
835 691
836 324
688
26-2298
837 588
689
26-2488
691
26-2869
839 478
692
26-3059
693
26-3249
838 219
690
26-2679
838 849
840 106
840 733
26-3439
841 359
696
26-3818
697
26-4008
698
26-4197
699
26-4386
842 609
843 233
843 855
844 477
701
26-4764
845 718
702
26-4953
846 337
138
662
820 858
686
694
TABLE
3.8.6A (continued)
Every s followed by
hkl
729
741
27
26
25
24
23
23
22
7 2
10 2
12 3
14 2
10 10
14 7
21 12 12
18 18
9
730
27
4*
27 1
25 9
23 11
21
21
19
19
3*
21 16
20 18
27
26
25
23
23
22
22
21
19
18
6*
7
24
27
26
23
21
20
16
8
740
26
24
22
20
20
755
2
6
2
2
8
16
14
10
16
18
760*
1
770
27
25
25
24
23
20
20
3
7
1
26
24
22
20
26
24
12 6
16 4
16 10
26 7 5
25 11 2
25 10 5
23 14 5
23 11 10
19 17 10
25 8 8
22 13 10
20 17 8
19 14 14
27 5
3
3
4
2
6
6
4
23 14
22 14
6
9
5*
8*
9
25
23
20
27
23
27
26
22
13
19
5
15
6
5
5
21 18
20 19 2
20 14 13
27 6 1
26 9 3
1
21 18
21 17 6
21 15 10
19 18 9
16 16 16
27 6 2
25 12
24 12 7
21 18 2
20 15 12
18 18 11
8
5
6
7
10
14
24
11
21 16
27 7
27 5
23 15
23 13
139
5
5
9
7
21 17
21 13 13
780
26
22
27
24
24
10 2
14 10
6 4
14 3
13
6
2
5
28
28
1
26 10
25 12
23 16
8
3
19 18 10
7
7
7
9
9
27 7
26 9
25 11
22 17
24 12
5
21 18 4
21 14 12
14 12
4*
12 2
14 1
12 10
17
15
8
18
7
3
19 15 14
18 17 13
11
18 16 14
26 10 1
22 17 2
20 19 4
20 16 11
27 7
25 12 3
3
3
24 14 2
24 10 10
22 16 6
16
782
12
1
17
13 11
21 18
3
18 15 15
17 17 14
26 10
26 8 6
11
13
15 4
19 3
17 9
17 16 15
25 11 5
26
25
24
23
22
22
20
27
26
25
23
22
22
19 19 7
19 17 11
24 14
22 12 12
9
18 17 12
27 5 2
26 9 1
23 15 2
22 15 7
21 14 11
19 19 6
20 18
27 4
26 9
26 7
25 10
24 13
24 11
23 11
9
10
21 16 8
20 19
19 16 12
19 18
8
18 16 13
27 4
24 13
23 15
23 12
27 5
25 11
25 9
23 15
9
21 13 12
21 15 9
19 19
5
17 17 13
26 6 6
18 18 10
27 4 2
26 8 3
24 13 2
22 16 3
22 12 11
750
20 18
21 17 5
19 15 13
27 3
25 11
23 13
19 19 4
19 16 11
27 3 1
21 17 3
17 15 15
4
4
4
21 17 4
21 16 7
20 15 11
6
6
3
27
25
24
20
20 13 13
27
25
26
22
22
27
24
24
22
27 4
25 11
24 13
24 11
7 3
10 3
14 3
13
6
15 5
13 9
17 2
18 7
17 11
12 4
2 2
6 5
12 8
14 10
16 9
16 15
3
8
7
9 9
17 7
13
12 5
15 6
18 15 14
17
1
13 11
19
3
17 9
27 2
24 11
26 8
26 7
25 10
23 14
22 16
17 16 14
21 17
21 15 8
19 15 12
1
all
790
2*
28
1
23 16
20 19
5
19 19 8
19 16 13
27 7 3
25 9 9
21 15 11
28 2
24 14 4
20 18 8
28
26
25
23
23
22
22
20
8
7
10 8
16 2
14 8
17 4
16 7
17 10
27 6
23 15
22 15
6
9
21 18
5
28 2 2
26 10 4
20 14 14
18 18 12
28
27
26
28
27
27
25
25
24
23
23
21
20
19
25
25
3
8
3
8
7
13
12
13
1
1
4
5
7
3
16
12 11
17
8
15 13
17 12
13
1
11
7
TABLE
s=h +k +P,
2
>v
88
90
92
93
97
98
s=8n+p=4 m J (mod 4 m .8), m=0,
1, 2,
705
26-5518
848 189
706
26-5707
848 805
707
26-5895
708
26-6083
709
710
26-6271
26-6458
849 419
850 033
850 646
851 258
712
26-6833
852 480
713
26-7021
714
26-7208
715
26-7395
716
26-7582
717
26-7769
718
26-7955
853 090
853 698
854 306
854 913
855 519
856 124
720
722
26-8701
723
26-8887
859 138
724
26-9072
725
26-9258
857 332
721
26-8514
857 935
859 739
860 338
726
26-9444
860 937
728
26-9815
729
27-0000
27-0185
731
27-0370
733
27-0740
734
27-0924
862 131
862 728
863 323
863 917
865 104
865 696
736
27-1293
738
27-1662
739
27-1846
27-2029
741
27-2213
27-2397
866 878
737
27-1477
867 467
868 056
868 644
869 232
869 818
870 404
744
27-2764
745
27-2947
747
27-3313
748
27-3496
749
27-3679
27-3861
871 573
872 156
746
27-3130
872 739
873 321
873 902
874 482
875 061
753
27-4408
755
27-4773
756
27-4955
757
758
27-4591
27-5136
27-5318
876 795
877 371
877 947
878 522
879 096
879 669
762
27-6043
763
27-6225
765
27-6586
766
27-6767
880 814
761
27-5862
881 385
881 955
882 525
883 661
884 229
768
27-7128
769
27-7308
770
27-7489
771
27-7669
772
27-7849
773
27-8029
27-8209
885 361
885 926
886 491
887 054
887 617
888 179
888 741
776
27-8568
889 862
777
27-8747
890 421
778
27-8927
780
890 980
779
27-9106
891 537
27-9285
892 095
781
27-9464
892 651
27-9643
893 207
784
28-0000
785
28-0179
786
28-0357
787
28-0535
788
28-0713
280891
894 316
894 870
895 423
895 975
896 526
897 077
704
26-5330
760
27-5681
96
for
94
95
s,
26-8328
91
-vA and mantissa oflog
3.8.6A {continued)
847 573
89
858 537
730
754
140
740
789
742
750
774
782
790
28-1069
897 627
TABLE
Every
h
797*
28 3
27 8
26 11
24 14
2
2
809
28
28
27
24 13
22 18
24 11 10
22 13 12
800*
26
25
23
22
28
11
21 18
20 20
8
16
8
8
20
12 6
15 2
18 9
18 16 15
26 11 3
26 9 7
25 10 9
23 14 9
21 19 2
21 14 13
19 18 11
24 14 6
22 18
822
26
25
23
22
22
11
837
14
17
17
13
19
6
12
18
14
18
28
25
24
22
27
26
19
4*
28 5
27 9
25 13
25 11
4
8
3
5
15 12
19
7
17 11
9
1
19 3
17 9
15 15
24 15
23 16
21
20
20
27
21
21
19
2
3
17 16 16
28 3 3
27 8 3
24 15 1
21 19
27 7 5
25 13 3
23 15 7
21 19
1
19 19 9
17 17 15
28
26
22
20
25
24
20
810
20 20
20 16 12
28 4 1
27 6 6
26 11 2
26 10 5
24 15
24 12 9
23 16 4
22 14 11
6*
26 10
22 18
28 5
26 11
19 16
9
7
21 18
27
27
6
2
2
4
14
2
6
7
4
4
20 20 4
24 15 4
23 12 12
22 18 3
28
18 18 13
28 5 3
27 g 5
25 12 7
24 ii ii
23
23
2i
21
27
25
23
23
28
26
24
28
26
26
25
24
23
22
20
20
20
27
24
24
27
25
21
9*
28
27
27
26
21
19
2
7
13
10
2
2
4
12
10
10 7
14 2
10 10
14 10
20
840
*
830
27
25
25
22
21
2*
3
24
28
27
26
25
24
22
21
20
28
28
23
23
17
10
14
27 9
23 15
21 15 13
28 6
26 12
24 16
24 14
20 20
4
4
2
8
6
18 16 16
141
850
29
27
25
25
24
27
27
26
25
23
23
23
22
22
?8 7 3
?7 8 7
?3 13 12
4
.
?9
?5
o
9
!
,
3
f1
17
f3
\* *
22 18
"
6
14
\* 18>
29
28
27
26
26
24
22
2
6
10
26
26
25
25
23
22
21
19
8*
28
24
29
28
28
26
23
22
22
20
13
7
14 5
11 10
14 11
1
19
18 9
17 14
8
16 4
2 2
1
8
7 4
2
13
16 8
19 2
14 13
20 7
15
12
15
1
1
1
11
10 5
3
13
15 2
18
1
17 6
15 10
19 3
17 9
19 18 13
6*
7
13
12 5
13 10
19
21 20 2
20 18 11
29 2 1
27 9 6
21 19 7
21 17 11
28 8 2
20 16 14
24 14 9
23 18
22 15 12
29 3 2
?A
20 ?2
19
11
29 3
27 11
25 15
f
fj
9
7
21 20 3
20 15 15
?6 } *
22 16 10
29
7 2
14 4
15 6
17 8
10 3
9 9
21 19 6
18 17 15
6
13
15 11
17 10
16
7
10 2
6
11
12 8
1
16
5
18
14 14
17 12
7 1
5
5
17 4
16 7
17 16
19 8
16 13
9 4
15
5
13
9
7 7
9
11
17 3
19 5
6 3
10
8
6
12 3
18 8
18 12
J ,?
?4 12 11
21 20
21 16 12
6
12
12 10
6 1
12
1
9 8
14
14 7
16 6
16 9
15 14
28
26
22
22
20
28
26
25
25
23
20
23
13 11
19 17 13
820
15
8
19 4
16 11
9 3
13
5
all
18 17 14
13 2
13 10
5
17
22 17 6
22 15 10
20 20 3
21 16 10
20 19 6
8
followed by
3.8.6A (continued)
6
12
25
20
29
27
27
25
11
861*
2
!
29
26
26
22
22
20
23
6
6
4
8
8
10
14
16
18
18
21 20
29 4
28 7
28
26
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
13
17
3
11
9
15
4
13
3
8
9
6
5
2
7
4
1
5
8
13
3
3
7
3
2
4
11
19
16
19
18
21 15
28 8
24 12
4
11
10
3
14
12
20 20 8
TABLE
s=h 2 +k 2 +l*,
y/s
and mantissa of log
3.8.6A {continued)
s,
for
s=Sn+p^4 m J (mod
4 m .8),
m=0,
1, 2,
p
1
28-1425
793
28-1603
794
28-1780
898 725
899 273
800
28-2843
795
28-1957
797
28-2312
798
28-2489
899 821
900 367
901 458
902 003
801
28-3019
802
28-3196
803
28-3373
804
28-3549
805
28-3725
28-3901
903 090
903 633
904 174
904 716
905 256
905 796
906 335
808
28-4253
809
28-4429
810
28-4605
811
28-4781
813
28-5132
814
28-5307
907 411
907 949
908 485
909 021
812
28-4956
909 556
910 091
910 624
816
28-5657
817
28-5832
818
28-6007
819
28-6182
820
28-6356
821
28-6531
28-6705
911690
912 222
912 753
913 284
913 814
914 343
914 872
824
28-7054
825
28-7228
826
28-7402
827
28-7576
830
28-8097
915 927
916 454
916 980
917 506
829
28-7924
918 555
832
28-8444
833
28-8617
834
28-8791
836
28-9137
837
28-9310
838
28-9482
920 123
920 645
921 166
835
28-8964
921 686
922 206
922 725
923 244
840
28-9828
924 279
841
290000
843
29-0345
925 828
844
29-0517
926 342
845
29-0689
926 857
29-0861
924 796
842
29-0172
925 312
927 370
848
29-1204
849
29-1376
850
29-1548
851
29-1719
852
29-1890
853
29-2062
854
29-2233
928 396
928 908
929 419
929 930
930 440
930 949
931 458
856
29-2575
857
29-2746
932 981
858
29-2916
859
29-3087
861
29-3428
862
29-3598
933 487
933 993
935 003
935 507
864
29-3939
936 514
865
29-4109
866
29-4279
867
29-4449
868
29-4618
869
29-4788
29-4958
937 016
937 518
938 019
938 520
939 020
939 519
872
29-5296
873
29-5466
874
29-5635
875
29-5804
876
29-5973
877
29-6142
878
29-6311
940 516
941 014
941 511
942 008
942 504
943 000
943 495
n \.
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
792
932 474
108
109
142
806
822
919 078
846
870
TABLE
3.8.6A {continued)
Every s followed by
s
865
/*
A:
877
28 9
27 10
24 17
24 15
21 18 10
29
29
28
27
25
24
24
23
21
21
21
19
4
9
11
15 4
17
1
13 11
16 9
20
5
19
8
16 13
19 12
29 5 1
25 11 11
23 17 7
23 13 13
8
870
2*
17 17
24 16
20 18
28 9
28 7
26 12
25 12
24 17
23 18
23 14
18 17
29
26
25
22
26
24
22
29
28
27
26
22
19
18
6
12
2
6
7
10
2
12
14
1
17 10
16 16
18 15
9 3
12
1
8
3
21 17 12
29 5 3
27 11 5
25 15 5
25 13 9
23 15 11
19 17 15
26 14 2
26 10 10
22 14 14
29
28
27
25
24
23
21
20
3
21
21
28
28
26
22
22
28
25
25
23
22
20
29
27
25
4
12
16
5 2
13
5
14 7
19
5
14
14 10
18
8
28
27
27 9
24 17
19
21
21
8*
29 6
27 12 2
21 20 6
29 6 1
27 10 7
26 11 9
23 18 5
22 15 13
881** ?Q
28
26
26
25
24
24
22
20
20
17
891
29
29
27
23
21
21
19
3*
2
4
3
13
16
17
16
19
21
20
6*
7
20
900
6
6
2
15
21
18 11
10 2
14 4
23 18
22 18
7
9
2
4
2
6
9
5
3
16
12 11
17 5
19
21 20 7
29
27
27
25
23
23
21
17 14
6 3
11
29
26
25
23
23
22
22
24
28
26
26
25
27
27
23
21
20
16 12
10
1
16 2
14 8
16 10
(Jikl) triplets
905
3
16 14
20 18 13
7
6
9
16 15
18 14
5
4
7 7
12 3
16
1
15 9
17 8
21
19 11
21
1
19 9
10
8
6
12 8
7
1
5
5
9 9
19
1
21
3
15 15
19 13
6 4
10 3
10 8
14 11
6
9
14
28
26
22 20
27 12
29
28
25
25
24
23
possible
29
28
27
24
22 20
24 13 12
890
all
30
28
24
22
20
30
28
26
26
24
24
24
30
29
27
26
25
23
21
18
4*
30
24
18
143
2
13
7
13 10
19 2
7
14 13
19 7
17 11
16
8
8
7
14 5
11 10
16 4
13
12
5
15 12
21
4
7 3
13
1
11
7
15
7
19 3
17 9
17 13
7
8
910
2*
4
4
9 6
15
12 9
18
1
17 6
15 10
1
6 5
13 2
15
1
14 9
18
7
19 10
17 17
2
18 2
18 16
30 2 1
29 8
28 11
26 15 2
22 15 14
917
21 20 8
20 19 12
29
29
28
25
23
23
11
16 5
19 4
16 11
19 17 16
27 13 3
21 21
5
30
26
22
30
29
28
28
27
26
24
22
22
22
2
14
920*
3
11
2
2
10
12
13
18
20
5
8
3
5
8
30 4
26 15
25 16
23
22
30
26
25
23
21
30 3
27 10
26 15
20
30
29
25
24
29
28
28
27
27
25
25
24
24
20
29
25
25
23
30
24
24
16 16
3 2
6 6
12 12
16 9
8
3
11
3
9 7
13 4
11
5*
17
15
8
17 7
13 13
17 15
7
5
17
1
13 11
19
5
4
18 4
14 12
6
18
8
17 12
3
3
11
11
30
28
26
22
20
29
28
26
25
23
20
29
27
24
10 6
12 10
20 6
18 14
8
11
4
4
14 7
14 10
14 14
20
11
9
12 7
15 11
21 20 9
21 16 15
29 9 1
5
3
23 15 13
3
19 18 15
28 8 8
17 2
17 10
21
6
19 19 14
2
6
18 10
27 13
25 17
18
20 4
20 10
19
16 13
21 18 12
10
21 19 11
30 5
30 4 3
27 14
24 18 5
22 21
30
29
29
27
26
26
23
22
22
21
8*
9
28
30
28
28
27
27
24
23
23
22
22
9
7
14
15
5
9
13
6
1
19 6
21
1
19 9
17 14
12
5 2
12
1
9 8
14 2
10 10
17 8
20
16 12
21
2
18 11
TABLE
s=h +k +P,
2
<vA
and mantissa of log
110
881
29-6816
944 976
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
s,
for
s=Sn+p^4 m J (mod 4 m .8), w=0,
1, 2,
p
1
111
3.8.6A (continued)
882
29-6985
945 469
883
29-7153
884
29-7321
885
29-7489
886
29-7658
945 961
946 452
946 943
947 434
893
29-8831
894
29-8998
950 851
951 338
30-0333
888
29-7993
29-8161
890
29-8329
948 413
948 902
949 390
891
29-8496
949 878
896
29-9333
897
29-9500
898
29-9666
899
29-9833
30-0000
952 308
952 792
953 276
953 760
954 243
901
30-0167
954 725
889
900
902
955 207
904
905
906
907
910
30-0832
30-0998
30-1164
908
30-1330
909
300666
30-1496
30-1662
956 168
956 649
957 128
957 607
958 086
958 564
959 041
912
913
30-2159
914
30-2324
915
30-2490
916
30-1993
30-2655
917
30-2820
918
30-2985
959 995
960 471
960 946
961 421
961 895
962 369
962 843
920
921
30-3480
922
926
30-3645
923
30-3809
925
30-3315
30-4138
30-4302
963 788
964 260
964 731
965 202
966 142
966 611
928
929
930
30-4631
30-4795
30-4959
931
30-5123
30-5287
933
30-5450
967 548
968 016
968 483
968 950
969 416
969 882
934
30-5614
970 347
939
932
936
937
30-5941
30-6105
938
30-6268
30-6431
940
30-6594
941
30-6757
30-6920
942
971 276
971 740
972 203
972 666
973 128
973 590
974 051
944
945
946
947
950
30-7409
30-7571
30-7734
948
30-7896
949
30-7246
30-8058
30-8221
974 972
975 432
975 891
976 350
976 808
977 266
977 724
952
953
30-8707
954
955
957
30-8545
30-8869
30-9031
30-9354
978 637
979 093
979 548
980 003
980 912
958
30-9516
981 366
961
31-0000
962
310161
963
31-0322
31-0483
965
31-0644
982 723
983 175
983 626
984 077
984 527
144
964
966
31-0805
984 977
TABLE
3.8.6A {continued)
Every s followed by
h
930
29 8 5
28 11 5
25 17 4
25 16 7
23 20 1
20 19 13
29 9 3
27 11 9
25 15 9
21 21
30
28
26
24
28
26
23
22
30
27
27
23
22
22
942
29
25
22
28
20
30
29
26
25
24
23
22
20
28
24
24
4*
5
12 2
16
16 10
10 7
16
1
20
20
5
30
26
26
24
22
30
28
27
26
24
2
7
3
18
8
940
1
29
25
24
23
29
25
23
23
30
30
29
29
28
27
26
26
24
24
22
10
8
11
6
6
14 4
16
3
12 11
19 2
14 13
21
4
21 20 10
19 18 16
17 13
12 4
20 12
6 3
10 2
13 10
16
15 12
20
957*
29
28
26
20
30
29
27
25
950
2*
30
30
29
27
27
26
25
25
25
23
22
30
22
30
28
28
26
25
24
7
5
10
14
961** 31
30 6
27 14
22 21
~6
31
29
28
27
25
24
23
3
18 12
7 2
13
12 5
14 9
2
18
19 4
16 16
29
28
28
27
27
23
23
23
27
8
13
11
21
15
12
981
31
8
13
11
17
30
28
26
26
25
24
23
30
26
9
14
22
22
30
30
29
27
25
24
22
31
29
28
28
26
22
22
20
31
22
4
2
1
17 14
20 13
3
?3
?1
21
3
29 11 3
29 9 7
27 11
15 11
?5
21
21 20 11
1
31
1
?3
9 9
?3
19 13
?1
30 6 6
26 14 10
22 22 2
29
27
25
25
18 18 18
30 8 3
2 7 12 10
24 19 6
11
15
17
13 13
30 8
28 12 6
26 12 12
24 18 8
31
2
30 8 1
30 7 4
28 10 9
26 17
26 15 8
25 18 4
?5 14 12
24 17 10
23 20 6
22 20 9
22 16 15
31
1
2
29 1 2
29 10 5
3
7
27 14
26 17
7
3
5
24 2Q
22 22
22 lg
4
31
29
2g
25 1?
23 20
2Q
M
u
31
2?
2?
^
^^
980
30 8
28 14
24 20
2
1
4
7
10
9
14
1
9
10
2
10
4
20 10
9
7
12
16
2
6
18
12
9
9
16
1
19
19
7
17 11
4
21
21 17 16
20 19 15
1
31
5
29 11 5
25 19 1
23 17 13
30 8 5
29 12 2
28 14 3
28 13 6
27 16 2
27 14 8
26 13 12
22 21 8
22 19 12
n
1
11
5
g
990
3
20
4
2
20 18 16
145
29
29
28
27
25
24
24
23
24 20
24 16 12
4
31
29 10 6
3
23 15 15
5
19
8
16 13
15
1
17 15
31
31
18
21
2
18 11
21
7
19 18 17
6*
20 3
21 20 12
25
23
23
22
11
26 6 6
24 14 14
22 22
17
16
16
18
16
9
15
21 21
28 14
28 10
?4
,
13
3
13
8
16 9
19
5
17 12
*
?7 \{
15 13
11
26 3
22 19
23 18 10
21
969
6
6
21 18 14
10
15 7
18
1
17
6
15 10
15 14
21
5
970
5
3
11
10 4
13 2
16
5
19 14
7 3
9 6
15 2
18
3
21 21
20
3
7
7
17
5
19
7
17 11
19 17 17
10 1
14 11
30 7
25 18
24 18 7
20 18 15
6
16 2
14 8
18
6
16 14
1
6
12 3
12 8
15
6
19
18 17
9 4
13 12
19
1
19 10
17 16
9 9
19 3
17 9
8
21 21
21 19 12
29 9 5
27 13 7
19 19 15
28 10 8
26 16 4
22 20 8
14 3
13
6
18 9
21
3
15 15
21 18 13
6*
possible ihkl) triplets
all
31
30
29
27
26
25
25
9
10
15
17
3
7
24 20
5
19
2
14 13
23 19 10
21 18 15
28 12 8
TABLE
s=h 2 +k 2 +l 2
3.8.6A {continued)
s,
for
s=%n+pM m J
p
1
(mod 4 M .8), m=0,
1, 2,
972
n N.
121
122
123
124
968
969
970
31-1127
31-1288
31-1448
971
31-1609
31-1769
973
31-1929
31-2090
985 875
986 324
986 772
987 219
987 666
988 113
988 559
980
981
31-3209
31-3369
991 669
992 111
976
977
31-2410
31-2570
978
31-2730
979
31-2890
989 450
989 895
990 339
990 783
31-3050
991 226
974
982
984
985
987
31-4166
990
31-3847
986
31-4006
989
31-3688
31-4484
31-4643
992 995
993 436
993 877
994 317
995 196
995 635
992
31-4960
993
31-5119
994
995
31-5436
996
997
998
31-5278
31-5595
31-5753
31-5911
996 512
996 949
997 386
997 823
998 259
998 695
999 131
TABLE
3.8.6A {continued)
Every s followed by
all
possible {hkl) triplets
993
31
26
23
22
29
27
27
25
31
25
25
23
28
26
22
20
31
30
24
23
8
31
30
29
27
25
22
21
146
k
4
14 11
20 8
22 5
12 3
16 3
12 11
15 12
5
3
19 3
17 9
21
5
14 4
16 8
16 16
20 14
6
9 4
15 14
18 12
6 1
7 7
6
11
13 10
18
7
17 15
19 14
TABLE
3.8.6B
Space Groups in Each of the 17 Cubic Aspects

2
P4 2
...
3
.
P4 V
Pn
Pm3m
5
.
.n
Pn.n Pa.
Pn3m Pniin Pn3n

PA
32
2^
P432
IAX
..
10
11
la.
I..d
\P43 32
Pa3
F43m
Fm3
Ia3
\123
P2 X 3
Fd3m Fm3c Fd3c

F4X 32
FA32
lA3d
Im3
17
Fd.c
Fd.. F..c
Fm3m
/4 X 32
/43m
P43n
F ... FAV
.d
16
15
14
13
12
la
Ia3d
7432
Pn3
P23
Im3m
Ml32
P43m
Pm3
F43c
Fd3
F23
1/2x3
TABLE
Reflections Permitted by
3.8.6C
Each of the 17 Cubic Aspects
s=h 2 +k 2 +l 2
s
h k I
(h>k>l)
2
2 1
2 1
2 2
5
6
*8
[3
10
2 2
3
11
12
2 2 2
3 2
3 2 1
4
13
14
*16
i3
2 2
4
18
3 3
20
4 2
4 2
21
22
*24
26
27
29
3 3 2
4 2 2
(5
-
i4
[5
4 3
3 3 3
5 2
30
*32
33
|
3 3
19
25
[4
17
4 3 2
5 2 1
4 4
5 2 2
4 4 1
P...
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
2
P42
3
..
PA,.. Pn.. P..n Pn.n
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Pa.
/...
14,..
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
10
la.
11
12
l..d
Ia.d
14
15
16
F... FA,..
Fd..
F..c
13
17
Fd.c
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
h k
(h<k<l)
2
1 2
1 2
2 2
4
5
6
8*
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
X
+
+
X
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
2 2)
3
10
11
2 2 2
2 3
1 2 3
4
1 4
2 2 3J
1 1 4
3
+
+
+
+
12
13
14
16*
3 3
19
20
2 4
2 4
2 3 3
2 2 4
5
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
indicates presence of reflection.

indicates absence of reflection. * indicates that preceding
indicates that only half of the planes contribute, viz. (hkO), (Ohk), (kOh) with h even.
147
number
is
not
3j1
3 41
1
5|
3 41
5|
3 3 31
2 5)
2 3 4
1 2 5
4 4
2 2
5)
4J
21
22
24*
25
26
27
29*
30
32*
33
sum of three squares.
TABLE
hk
12
(h>k>l)
P... P4,.. P4i.. Pn.. P,.n
10
11
12
/...
74i..
la.
I..d
Ia.d
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
+
+
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
+
+
+
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
+
+
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
+
+
44-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
+
+
4-
4-
+
+
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
+
+
+
4-
4-
4-
4-
+
+
+
+
4-
4-
4-
14
15
16
F/.. F..c
17
Fd.c
hk
(h<k<l)
4-
4-4-4-4+
4-
4-
4-
+
+
+
4-
+
X
4-
41
4-
4-
4-4-4-4-4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
+
+
+
+
4-
13
F... F4i..
4-
+
+
4-
45
4-
4-
41
Pn,n Pa.
3.8.6C (continued)
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
45
+
+
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-4-4-4-4-
4-
49
50
61
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
+
+
+
+
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
65
66
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
49
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
50
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
54
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
+
-
4-
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
6V
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
4-
+
+
+
+
+
+
X
X
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
65
+
+
+
+
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-4-4-
4-
4-
66
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
148
4-4-4-4-
of reflection.
indicates absence of reflection. * indicates that preceding
4- indicates presence
+
+
+
+
+
54
+
+
+
number
is
not
sum of three
squares,
TABLE
h k I
(h>k>l)
69
8 2 1
7 4 2
70
*72
6 5 3
8 2 2
(
6 6
8 3
73
6 6
8 3
74
7 5
7 4 3
7 5 1
5 5 5
6 6 2
8 3 2
6 5 4
7 5 2
76
77
78
*80
9
(
8 4
"
7 4 4
,6
6 3
(9
[8
3 3
[9
82
83
[7 5 3
8 4 2
84
2
17 6
9 2 1
7 6 1
6 5 5
6 6 4
2 2
f9
(9
85
86
*88
8 5
89
8 4 3
17 6
[9 3
8 5
90
2
1
7 5 4
9 3 1
8 5 2
(9 3 2
(7 6 3
8 4 4
91
*93
94
*96
99
100
{
3
..
+
+
44-
+
+
4-
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
4-
4-
+
4-
444444-
+
4-
+
44-
+
4-
+
4-
4-
4-
+
+
+
4444-
4-
4-
6 6 5
4-
4-
8 5 3
4-
[770
(9 3 3
7 7 1
(7 5 5
+
+
+
+
10
4-
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
8 6
4-
P4x.. Pn.. P..n
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Pn.n Pa.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
+
+
+ +
+ +
+
+ +
+ +
_ +
+
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+
+
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+
+
+ +
+ +
+ +
+
+
+
+ +
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
X
10
11
12
/...
/*!..
la.
I..d
Ia.d
14
15
16
Fd.. F..c
17
Fd.c
hk
(h<k<l)
128
69
w
2 4 7/
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
4-
+
+
+
70
3 5 6
+
+
~
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
72 *
066}
3 8)
6/
I:>
16
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
3 8]
5 7
4 7
57
_
+
_
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
74
75
5 5 5/
2
2
4
2
76
6 6
3 81
"
5 6/
5 7
4
4
78
80*
81
4 4 7
+
+
_
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
X
X
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
X
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
3 6 6)
+
+
+
+
+
_
_
+
+
+
+
+
_
_
+
+
+
+
0l9
+
+
+
+
82
+
_
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
_
_
+
+
_
_
+
+
3 3 8/
1
83
3 5 7/
2 4 8
'
84
29
85
6 7/
1 2 9]
16 7
5 5 6j
4 6 6
86
88*
229^
5 8
3
89
4 8
2 6 7;
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
3 91
158
90
4 5 7j
13 9
2 5 8
2 3 9)
3 6 7/
4 4 8
4 9j
91
93*
96*
y/
5 6 6/
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ indicates presence of reflection. indicates absence of reflection.

x
13
F... F4i..
9}
+
+
4-
(9 4
98
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
2
P4t
(9
97
1
P...
3.8.6C (continued)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
7 7)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
* indicates that preceding

149
4 9]
3 5 8
+
+,
+
-
+
+
3 3 9)
7
17
99
5 5 7j
001G
6
number is not sum of three
lioo
1UU
8/
squares,
Hexagonal-rhombohedral Transformations*
3.9.
Transformation of Cell Constants
3.9.1.
The following symbols
The obverse rhombohedral axes in terms of the

hexagonal axes (Vol. I, Table 2.5.1, p. 21) are given by:
3.9.2.
are used (see stereographic
projection, Fig. 3.9.1):
R=0+!*+c> bR =-\a+\b+\c, cK =-\a-lb+\c
edges of the hexagonal cell

aR edge of the rhombohedral cell
a: angle between the rhombohedral axes
a': supplement of a (a'=180 a)
p x interfacial angle (0001 :10Tl)
p 2 interfacial angle (0001 :01l2)
A: interfacial angle (1011 :Tl01)
a, c:
The rhombohedral
h R ^(2h+k+l), k R ^(-h+k+l), lR =\(-h-2k+l)
The rhombohedral criterion takes the form

"(-h+k+l) divisible by 3." Table 3.9.2 consists of one
column of hexagonal indices hkilQ (/ =0, 1 or 2)
The
obeying the criterion, for successive positive h,k values
quantities given in Table 3.9.1 were calculated
by means of the following
indices in terms of the hexagonal
indices likewise are expressed:
up to h+k=20; and a second column of corresponding rhombohedral indices hRkR lR Given hkil where
/=3n+/ the corresponding rhombohedral indices
will be h R +n, kR +n, lR +n.
relations:
tan p 2 =- tan Pl
c
V3
^ V3
tan pi
Example. To transform
indices, note that
a'
cos
sin
/3
1t-=-v
C S P *
Hence the desired

rhombohedral indices will be (2+4, 0+4, 1+4); and
(2.1.3.13) becomes (643).
The transformation of rhombohedral to hexagonal
indices is best carried out directly by means of the
sin p,
relations
I,
V( 3 )
h=hR -kR k=kR -lR

,
whom we
l=hR +kR +lR
h Q =h, kQ =h+2k, lQ =l
obverse has been selected for use in Table
* Section 3.9.1 was contributed by A. Pabst, to

the whole of Section 3.
i=lR -hR
p. 19) is used:
the two possible rhombohedral settings (Vol.
p. 20) the
Transformation of hexagonal indices hkil to orthohexagonal indices h^c l can also be done by inspection.
For example, if the setting O x (Vol. 1, Fig. 2.5.2,
Transformation of Indices
From
to (21 31), Table 3.9.2 gives (20T).
cos p 2
On the chart (Fig. 3.9.1) angles and ratios are plotted
as functions of p v
3.9.2.
rhombohedral
=1, =4. Next
(2.1.3.13) to
13=3+/ where
are further indebted for
150
many
critical
comments and suggestions on
3.9.
HEXAGONAL-RHOMBOHEDRAL TRANSFORMATIONS
a'
2-5
60
30
110
70
35
100
80
40
jI 101 \
90
90
45
Pz
80
100
50
70
10
55
60
120
60
10
50
130
65
0-9
40
140
70
30
150
75
0-7
20
160
80
0-6
10
170
85
t
aR /a
180
90
120
a',
x,
a'
1-6
20
a'/2
<
1-5
J 010
1-4
111
C^
X
oooi
Pa
Ss
1-3
*n
y^
Pi
100V [V\
1-5
110
0112
loTiA
1-2
^^**\^
J"*"*^^
11
A=(ioii A rioi)
/
da
10
0-8
Pi
On/a
0-5
t
cja
A
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Pi
Fig. 3.9.1.
Correlation of axial elements and angles of rhombohedral and hexagonal
151
cells.
3.9.
TABLE
3.9.1
Hexagonal and Rhombohedral Constants

Contributed by A. Pabst
Pi
Pi
0 00'
30'
15
30
30
45
00
30
3
30
4
30
5
30
6
15
30
45
2
2
2
2
3
30
7
30
8
30
9
30
10
30
11
30
12
30
13
30
14
30
15
30
16
17
18
30
19
30
20
30
21
15*
31
46
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
30
30
30
24
171
33
191
6
6
7
7
7
7
35
501
61
22
38
531
91
251
411
571
9
9
9
10
10
10
11
131
30
46
21
19
351
52
81
11
25
42
11
59
12
16
33
50
12
30
311
47
2\
11
23
161
481
4
10
22
15
301
451
001
30
00
30
25
12
13
71
cja
0-00000
0-00756
0-01512
0-02268
0-03024
0-03781
0-04539
0-05297
0-06056
0-06816
0-07577
0-08339
0-09102
0-09867
0-10633
0-11401
0-12171
0-12943
0-13716
0-14492
0-15270
0-16051
0-16834
0-17619
0-18408
0-19199
0-19994
0-20791
0-21593
0-22397
0-23205
0-24017
0-24833
0-25653
0-26477
0-27306
0-28139
0-28977
0-29820
0-30668
0-31521
0-32379
0-33243
0-34114
0-34990
0-35872
0-36760
0-37656
0-38558
0-39467
0-40384
120 00'
120
119
119
119
119
119
119
119
119
119
119
119
119
119
119
119
119
119
119
119
119
119
118
118
118
118
118
118
118
118
00
591
0 00'
52
1
59
58
57
56
541
53
51
49
46
44
44
36
28
20
12
9
10
31
551
471
391
311
231
41
11
15
38
12
34
12
7
59
31
13
27
23
14
6
8
19
16
501
421
34
26
14
17
18
91
41
591
18
10
19
11
53
54
48
42
36
20
291
23
16
118
118
81
117
117
117
117
117
117
117
116
116
116
116
116
116
115
115
115
115
115
531
46
152
a R /a
371
29
20
15
19
21
22
23
24
25
25
26
27
28
29
30
33
37
25
13
00
111
54
45
32
00
481
541
46
371
29
20
31
2
52
101
191
111
31
11
42
32
211
45
361
28
34
35
36
37
37
38
39
40
361
271
181
10
1
511
421
331
24
41
15
42
42
51
56
0-57735
0-57736
0-57737
0-57740
0-57744
0-57749
0-57755
0-57762
0-57770
0-57779
0-57790
0-57801
0-57815
0-57828
0-57844
0-57860
0-57877
0-57896
0-57916
0-57936
0-57959
0-57982
0-58007
0-58033
0-58060
0-58088
0-58118
0-58149
0-58182
0-58215
0-58251
0-58287
0-58325
0-58364
0-58406
0-58448
0-58492
0-58537
0-58584
0-58632
0-58683
0-58735
0-58789
0-58844
0-58901
0-58960
0-59021
0-59084
0-59148
0-59215
0-59284
3.9.
TABLE
Pi
25
13
30'
26
13
13
30
27
30
28
30
29
30
30
30
31
30
32
30
33
30
34
30
35
30
36
30
37
30
38
14
14
14
14
15
15
15
16
16
16
17
17
17
17
30
30
40
30
41
30
42
30
43
30
44
30
45
30
46
30
47
30
48
30
49
30
50
30
71'
25
42*
00
171
351
531
111
291
471
6
241
431
2
21
40
18
591
181
38
18
18
58
19
171
19
371
19
58
18
20
20
20
21
39
51
/>2
21
22
22
22
23
23
23
24
24
25
25
25
26
26
26
27
27
28
28
29
29
29
30
30
31
31
381
591
201
411
21
24
451
71
291
52
14
37
00
23
461
10
34
58
221
47
12
37
21
281
541
201
471
141
411
3.9.1. (continued)
c/a
0-40384
0-41308
0-42239
0-43178
0-44127
0-45083
0-46047
0-47022
0-48005
0-48997
0-50000
0-51013
0-52036
0-53070
0-54116
0-55172
0-56241
0-57321
0-58414
0-59520
0-60640
0-61773
0-62921
0-64082
0-65260
0-66453
0-67662
0-68887
0-70129
0-71389
0-72668
0-73965
0-75283
0-76620
0-77977
0-79356
0-80759
0-82183
0-83631
0-85104
0-86603
0-88127
0-89679
0-91260
0-92873
0-94509
0-96182
0-97886
0-99628
1-01394
1-03213
1-05058
1-0694
aR/a
115 00'
42 56'
114
114
114
114
113
113
113
471
34
201
43
113
112
48
49
112
112
112
111
53
38
53
50
371
51
19
21
52
52
53
54
55
56
57
57
58
59
9
59
231
111
111
13
110
110
110
109
109
109
108
108
108
107
107
107
106
106
105
105
105
104
104
103
103
102
102
102
55
361
101
32
21
321
100
100
99
98
98
97
97
96
96
95
94
153
18
81
59
49
39
29
41
471
301
101
44
45
46
47
47
47
37
28
18
481
38
271
17
61
56
19
58
60
45
34
23
61
12
371
161
541
321
62
62
63
64
65
66
66
67
68
69
70
70
581
39
10
47
231
591
35
10
441
181
52
71
491
38
261
15
3
51
39
27
141
21
50
37
24
58
72
73
30
73
58
45
30
58
251
52
74
75
76
77
77
78
79
80
80
18
81
431
82
83
83
84
251
11
11
321
56
11
31
18
4
50
36
211
7
521
371
221
71
511
36
0-59284
0-59354
0-59427
0-59502
0-59579
0-59659
0-59741
0-59825
0-59912
0-60001
0-60092
0-60187
0-60284
0-60385
0-60487
0-60593
0-60702
0-60815
0-60930
0-61049
0-61171
0-61297
0-61427
0-61560
0-61697
0-61838
0-61984
0-62134
0-62287
0-62447
0-62610
0-62779
0-62953
0-63132
0-63316
0-63506
0-63703
0-63904
0-64114
0-64328
0-64552
0-64778
0-65014
0-65258
0-65511
0-65771
0-66040
0-66317
0-66605
0-66900
0-67209
0-67525
0-67854
3.9.
TABLE
Pi
30'
52
30
53
30
54
30
54 44'
8"
30
56
30
57
30
58
30
59
30
94 56'
84 36'
32
32
33
33
34
34
35
9
37
1-0888
94
93
18*
41
5*
34
1-1286
1-1703
32
1-1920
93
92
91
91
1-2141
90
85
86
86
87
88
88
89
1-224745
90 00' 00"
90 00' 00"
0-707107
32
2
33
1-2368
90
4
35*
1-3084
1-3594
0-70943
0-71397
0-71868
0-72357
0-72865
0-73393
0-73943
0-74515
0-75110
0-75730
0-76376
0-77050
0-77751
0-78486
0-79252
1-1084
1-1492
1*
35 15'
52"
40
1-3859
13
1-4133
46
1-4413
1-4703
1-5000
81
1-5307
55*
2*
8*
1-2840
1-3336
41
42
42
1-5623
30
384
43
14*
1-5950
1-6287
80
80
79
78
1-6330065
78
62
3'
42"
22*
42*
2
20
89
88
88
87
86
85
85
84
83
82
1-2601
30
61
62
1-0694
19*
53*
28
60
aR /a
31 41*'
35
36
36
37
37
38
38
39
39
40
40
55
c/a
P2
51
3.9.1 (continued)
43 18'
37*
54*
91
10
91
25*
39*
92
93
93
94
95
95
96
97
97
53
5*
17
28
38
47
98
99
99
14
0-67854
0-68194
0-68546
0-68911
0-69288
0-69679
0-70085
0-70506
20
4
48
31*
14*
57*
40
22*
4*
46*
28
9
50*
31
11*
51*
31*
11
50
28*
7
45
(Simple
(cube
[Hex.
50"
8"
99 49'
50"
0-7934915
close-
[packing
30
43
44
45
45
46
47
47
48
48
49
50
63
30
64
30
65
30
66
30
67
30
68
51
30
51
69
52
53
53
54
30
70
30
70 31'
44'
18
21
100
23
101
00
23*
25
25
24*
22*
101
37
19*
15*
10*
104
49*
25
9*
35
105
105
9*
43*
1-7370
43
1-7756
21
00
1-8156
1-8572
77
76
75
74
73
72
39
1-9003
71
19
1-9451
59*
40
21*
3*
46
29
1-9917
70
69
68
67
65
64
63
62
49
39*
29
61
17
51
1-6636
28
1-6997
2-0402
2-0908
2-1435
2-1985
2-2561
2-3163
2-3794
2-4456
13
57
41*
54 44'
8"
2-4495098
60
4*
57
4*
60 00'
102
102
103
104
106
106
107
107
108
108
109
0-80052
0-80892
0-81766
0-82683
0-83644
0-84651
0-85707
0-86818
0-87987
0-89210
0-90501
0-91860
0-93295
0-94809
0-96408
0-98101
0-99893
13*
17
50
22
54
25*
56
26*
109 28'
[Cubic
16"
1-0000
close-
[packing
71
30
72
30
73
55
56
56
57
58
27
59
46
33
2-5151
2-5883
2-6654
2-7467
2-8327
58
57
56
55
53
154
50
35
18*
1*
43
109
110
110
111
111
56*
25*
54
22
49*
1-0180
1-0381
1-0596
1-0824
1-1068
3.9.
TABLE
Pa
Pi
73
58 33'
30'
59
211
10
30
60
60
74
75
61
30
76
30
77
30
78
30
79
30
80
30
81
30
82
30
83
30
84
30
85
30
86
30
87
30
88
30
89
30
90
62
63
64
65
66
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
59
49
39
30
21
13
5*
58
511
45*
391
341
291
251
211
18
15
12
10
8
41
31
21
11
1
01
01
00
00
00
00
3.9.1 {continued)
c/a
2-8327
2-9237
3-0202
3-1228
3-2321
3-3487
3-4735
3-6073
3-7512
3-9064
4-0743
4-2567
4-4554
4-6727
4-9115
5-1752
5-4679
5-7947
6-1621
6-5782
7-0532
7-6010
8-2397
8-9937
9-8987
11-004
12-385
14-160
16-525
19-835
24-800
33-072
49-615
99-238
a R /a
53 43'
111
491'
1-1068
52
23
161
1-1327
51
21
401
171
531
28
2
112
112
113
113
113
114
114
115
115
115
116
116
116
117
117
117
117
118
118
118
118
118
119
119
119
119
119
119
119
119
119
119
119
120
421
1-1605
1-1903
33
57
1-2223
201
431
51
27
48
71
27
451
31
20
36
511
1-2939
49
48
46
45
44
42
41
39
38
36
35
33
31
341
6
361
6
341
2
281
54
30
28
27
25
23
22
20
191
43
18
51
61
281
50
11
311
17
10
15
13
29
461
12
10
4
221
381
55
111
28
44
00
155
1-2567
1-3338
1-3772
1-4244
1-4757
1-5318
1-5934
1-6611
1-7360
1-8192
38
1-9118
2-0160
2-1336
2-2677
2-4212
2-5986
2-8066
3-0531
3-3497
3-7133
4-1686
4-7551
44
49
5-5381
6-6370
6
191
32
44
551
6
15
231
31
53
8-2866
56
58
11-039
591
33-177
00
16-538
TABLE
3.9.2
Hexagonal-to-Rhombohedral Transformation of Indices
Given
hkil
hkil,
where /=3w Il-/
the corresponding rhombohedral indices are hR +n,
hkil
Ar&r'r
13
hR
hkil
^r^r/r
kR +n, lR +n.
Mr
6 TO
7 TT
T2
9 13
8 TO
4 10 T4
TO
10
TO"
9 TT
11
TT
2 10 T2
4 12 T5
4 13 T7
4 14 T8
4 TO
8
8
4TT
412
12 T2
11
T3
T3
2 12 T4
14 T4
2 13 13
510
2 14 T5
13
15
13
4 15 19
4 TO
4 16 20
16 T6
6 TO
2 15 T7
5 nr
17 17
6 TT
2 16 T8
5 TT
6 T2
2 17 T9
7 T2
2 18 20
7 13
18 18
19
T9
V 20
Am\f 20
^\J
2
1
5 12
16
6 T2
3
1
11 13
14
5 TO
6 TT
V/
3
J
4
5
712
8 T3
911
5 10 13
9
9
7 TO
5 11 T5
TT
5 12
9H
5 13 T8
3 TO
3TT
4TT
"TO
3 10 T3"
5 14
3 11
T4
5 15 20
T3
19
10 TT
11 T2"
3 12
12
3 13 T5"
13 13
3 14
T7
4 TO
17
14
3 15 T8
4 TT
15 T5
16 T7
TO
3 16
T9
5 TT
5 TT
3 17
20
5 T2
4 TO
5 TT
17 18
6 TT
18
T9
6 T2
19 20
6 13
15
156
6 12
713
3.9.
hkil
TABLE
3.9.2 (continued)
hkil
^R JcrIr
Ar^r'r
T4
9 T3
4 13
13
14
13
13
213
13
3 15
6 T3
6 11 17
71
6 13 19
6 14 2D
17
2 ID
9 18
3 TT
115
10
ID
13
7 2D
ID
10
TT
3 TD
10
2 T2
6 13
8 T3
915
T4"
7 10 17
7 11 18
7 12 19
2
1
7 13 2D
5 T8
13
9 11 2D
10
6 19
T2
13
13
417
10
4 TT
10
315
10
4 1?
2
1
T4
10
T3
10
4 18
11
14
519
11
14
6 2D
12
15
13
10
11
11
11
7 17
10
8 18
10
10
ID
10
TT
T2
15
15
15
15
3 18
15
4 T9
12
15
2D
12
T5
11
2 TI
16
19
11
T4
16
2 TD
11
4T3
16
2 18
TT
11
16
19
415
11
6 T7
10
16
4 2D
5 T3
15
11
18"
10
11
8 T9
10
17
17
17
2 19
17
7 13
0S
11
9 2D
11
8 IB
9 17
12
on
8 10 18
12
III
ID
12
2 14
8 11 T9
8 12 2D
10
12
12
9
9
9
1
TD
2 TT
312
2
1
3 13
4 T5
10
11
11
12
12
12
17
T7
12
T8
12
12
13
12
5
7
2D
18
18
18
19
13
18
2 2D
13
T9
13
13
14
10
10
12
5 17
12
6 18
12
7 19
11
12
2D
11
157
2 17
14
14"
10
15
11
11
11
10
2 IT
11
11
11
2 TD
17
6 1?
10
10 10 2D
2 15
10
14
14
10
10
9 19
10
5 T3
10
14
14
Ar r'r
14
9 10 T9
13
6 10 15
6 12 18
hkil
19
19
20
2D
2D

[1]
Niggli, P. Geometrische Kristallographie des Diskon-
[6]
tinuums, p. 13. (Leipzig, 1919.)

[2]
Barker, T. V.
[7]
Graphical and Tabular Methods in

(Thomas Murby and Co.,
Terpstra, P.
Kristallometrie,
Groningen-Batavia, 1946.)
[4]
Pardillo, F.
[5]
Friedel,
Donnay,
J,
D. H., and Nowacki, W. Crystal Data,
Patterson, A.
p.
84.
Mem. Real. Acad. Ciencias

Barcelona, 19, 15, 1926.
G.
D. H. Naturaliste Canadien,
Geol. Soc. Am.,
1922.)
[3]
J.
67, 145-54,
1940.
Crystallography, p. 61.
London,
Donnay,
Lecons de Cristallographie,
p.
Mem.
60, p. 138, 1954.
and Love, W. E. Acta
Cryst., 10,
111-16, 1957.
[8] Weber, L. Z. Krist., 57, 200-3, 1922.
[9] Bozorth. Phys. Rev., 26, 393, 1925.
[10] Landau, E. Handbuch der Lehre von der Verteilung
der Primzahlen, Vol. 1, p. 550. (Teubner, Leipzig
(Wolters,
L.,
Artes,
and
245.
(Berger-Levrault, Paris, 1926.)
[11]
Berlin, 1909.)
Ebert, F. Acta Cryst.,
Nicholas,
1, 338, 1948.
F. The Simplicity of Miller-Bravais

Indexing. Acta Cryst., 21, 880, 1966.
158
J.
Section 4
DIFFRACTION GEOMETRY
4.1-4.6.
4.7.
H. T. Evans,
W. Parrish and A.
J.
Jr., and
K. Lonsdale
C. Wilson, with assistance from E. R. Pike
page
4.1.
Classification of Diffraction Methods
161
4.2.
Fixed-crystal Methods
164
4.3.
Moving Single-crystal Methods
175
4.4.
Weissenberg Method
185
4.5.
Buerger Precession Method
194
4.6.
202
4.7.
Precision Measurement of Lattice Parameters of Polycrystalline Specimens
216
This section classifies the standard methods for resolving, recording and
geometrically interpreting diffraction effects from crystals, and presents tables
and charts which have proved most useful in connection with these methods.
4.1. Classification of Diffraction

In order to describe any diffraction method comit is necessary to specify
relative to the incident
pletely
(c)
wavelength or range of wavelengths used,

together with the geometry of the incident
beam.
[A description of the source of radiation (e.g.
nature of anticathode, size and uniformity of focus,
conditions of running X-ray tube), and details of
monochromatization or filtering, collimation (diameter of pinholes, width of slit, amount of divergence or convergence), all help to specify the nature
of the incident beam more exactly.]
I.
of technique
Fixed-crystal
The type and geometry of the recording device
movement, and to the incident beam.

The principles and application of various methods
and techniques are treated at length in a number of
well-known textbooks (General References). They are
briefly described here,
with reference to the tables
applicable to each.
TABLE
Name
to the recording
(Geiger counter with automatic recording, ionization spectrometer, photographic plane film or plate
in front-, side- or back-reflection position, cylindrical camera of stated diameter, etc., position and
geometry of screens, pressure and nature of gas in
camera) and its position and conditions of movement (if any) relative to both the crystal and crystal
The texture of the crystal specimen, its temperature

and pressure, orientation and conditions of movement (stationary, oscillating, rotating or precessing)
Classification of the
beam and
device.
(a) the
(b)
Methods
4.1.1
Main X-ray
Diffraction Techniques
Radiation
Condition of specimen
Detecting device
White (range of A);
Single crystal; stationary
Photographic
Methods
Laue
collimated
Used
early analysis of simple structures crystal symmetry (see

or mosaic or both in parts, and type of mosaicity) and shape;
distinguishing between optical isomers (enantiomorphous, see Vol. I, 4.4), absolute configuration [15, 23].
Geiger-counter techniques are usually unsuitable because the diffracted beams have a wide range of wavelengths
(see Section 4.2 and Tables 4.2. 1.1 A, 4.2.1. IB, 4.2.1.2; general references [8] [9]).
Vol.
I,
for determination of axial ratios
and angles
3.7); crystal orientation; texture (ideal
Monochromatic
Stationary crystal
(or
Photographic or Geiger
counter
filtered characteristic);
collimated
Small unit
cell:
used for observation of single diffraction
for example, change of temperature or strain
Large unit
cell: direct
Diffuse-spot
observation of reciprocal
Monochromatic
effects in
order to observe transformation point under,
[2].
lattice,
(or
collimated
which
is
of very small mesh

in
a succession of
[9].
counter
positions
Used for observation of "non-Bragg" effects (diffraction outside reciprocal-lattice points), e.g. thermal- vibration
waves, incipient crystallization in new phase, disorder, distortion [25] [26]. Interpretation as for 4.3 or individual
to each case.
Kossel or divergent-beam
Monochromatic
(usually
plus white); divergent
Photographic; usually
plane film
Precision measurements of spacing, texture, symmetry, orientation, Renninger effect [27].

161
4.1.
CLASSIFICATION OF DIFFRACTION METHODS
TABLE
Name
of technique
4.1.1 {continued)
Radiation
Detecting device
Moving Single Crystal and Stationary Film or Detector
II.
Monochromatic
Rotation
{or
filtered characteristic)
collimated
Repeat distance
Single crystal, rotating
Photographic or Geiger-
about zone axis or other
counter, or other ionization
principal direction
technique
(identity translation) along rotation axis. Bravais lattice.
very simple structures (see Section 4.3 and Tables 4.3.2, 4.3.3
Monochromatic
Oscillation
{or
collimated
Axial lengths. Complete analysis of
[9] [35]).
Single crystal, oscillating
Photographic, usually a
through
pack of cylindrical films
etc.,
5, 10, 15,
with overlapping
settings
Used
sities
for crystal setting, for improved resolution as compared with rotation method, for observation of intenfor three-dimensional structure analyses (see Section 4.3, Tables 4.3.2, 4.3.3 [9] [35]).
Monochromatic
Inclined
{or
collimated
Resolution improved, but suitable only for very simple structures.

rotated about normal to plane of plate. See [5] [16].
Random
Monochromatic
rotation
{or
Photographic, usually a
or oscillating about a
cylindrical film
Determination of system by multiplicity measurements (Vol. I,

ground sphere) for purposes of setting
tion of crystal (especially
Multiple exposure
Monochromatic
(or
collimated
Useful for studying plate-shaped crystals
Single crystal, rotating
random
collimated
Photographic
about axis at known

angle to a zone axis
direction
3.5).
Identification of rare specimen.
Orienta-
[28].
Single crystal or powder;
Photographic. Cylindrical
under changing
film pack, behind screens
conditions
moved by
regular steps
Variation of unit-cell size or intensities with change of conditions. Measurement of phenomena such as
"Renninger effect" which depend on crystal orientation. Making of intensity scales [22] [30].
Geiger-counter diffracto-
Monochromatic
meter. Ionization
filtered characteristic) or
{or
Single crystal, rocked
through each reflecting

characteristic^- continuous, position. {Also powders
Collimated, sometimes
and fibrous materials,
spectrometer
by special
slit
systems
see
IV below.)
One- or two-circle Geiger

counter, with or without
automatic recorder or
proportional counter,
ionization chamber,
scintillation counter
Most accurate determination of positions,

ment of wavelengths using standard
III.
integrated intensities
and
profiles of diffraction spectra.
Measure-
crystals [9] [31].
Moving Single Crystal and Moving Film or Detector

Monochromatic {or
Single
Weissenberg
collimated
crystal; rotating
or oscillating about
zone-axis normal or
inclined to incident
beam
Cylindrical film {pack)
moving behind screens, to

and fro parallel to, and
synchronously with
rotation about the zone
axis; sometimes with
integrating
mechanism or
Geiger-counter attachment
dimensions, lattice type, symmetry, intensities, with or without integrating mechanism)

all systems. Making of intensity scales. Most suitable for crystals where large range of
reflections in high-order region is required. See Section 4.4 and Tables 4.4.1^1.4.2 [3] [6] [7] [9]. The Sauter and
Schiebold methods are variations of the moving-film technique, less commonly used [3].
Complete data
(cell
for structure analysis in
162
4.1.
CLASSIFICATION OF DIFFRACTION METHODS
TABLE
Name
III.
of technique
4.1.1 {continued)
Detecting device
Radiation
Moving Single Crystal and Moving Film or Detector {continued)
Buerger precession
Monochromatic
{or
filtered characteristic) ;
collimated
about two mutuallyperpendicular zone

axes
Plane film {pack) moving

behind screens, coupled
with crystal so as to be
stationary relative to
{and parallel
to) reciprocal
lattice
Most powerful method
for determining crystal orientation.
Gives data for complete structure analysis,
and lower atomic numbers. Gives undistorted image of reciprocal lattice.

See Section 4.5, Figs. 4.5.4, 4.5.5, and Tables 4.5.1-4.5.5 [4] [6] [20] [21]. The De-Jong-Bouman method also
gives undistorted image of reciprocal lattice, but usually with severely distorted spots (see [3] [19] and Section
especially for crystals of large unit cells
4.5,
Table
4.5.6).
IV. Random-orientation Methods
Powder
{rotating).
Debye-Scherrer. Hull
Monochromatic
Rotating powder or
{or
polycrystalline specimen
collimated
counter. Focusing camera
may be used {SeemannBohlin)
Simple structures (especially metals). Intensity of strong lines (to minimize extinction). Axial ratios of highstructures. Partial analysis of low-symmetry structures only available as powders. Crystallite size.
Transformation conditions. Thermal expansion. Effect on structure of physical changes of other kinds (e.g.
ferroelectric, magnetic, antiferromagnetic, pressure, chemical, etc.). Precision data. Comparison of isomorphous
crystals. Measurements on series, such as long-chain compounds (variation of lengths of chain, or position of
side substituents). Alloys of varying composition. Phase diagrams. Identification of member of series or of
mixture. Identification problems in general (finger-print method). See Sections 4.6-4.7 and Tables 4.6,
symmetry
4.6.2A,B
Powder
[1] [2] [5] [6] [7] [8] [11] [12].
{stationary)
{transmission)
Principal neutron-diffraction technique [14].
Monochromatic
Powder or other
{or
Stationary
collimated
Preferred orientation. Grain
size.
polycrystalline specimen.
Photographic {usually
plane film) or Geiger
counter
Strain measurements. Crystallite size in fine powder, dimensions
< 10 -5 cm.
[1] [2] [6] [7] [8] [11] [12] [13].
Back-reflection
method
Monochromatic
{or
Massive polycrystalline
specimen
Plane film surrounding

incident
beam
collimated
Distortion, grain size, preferred orientation.
hardness
Correlation with physical properties such as microstructure or
[1] [2] [8].
Fibre method
Monochromatic
{or
collimated
rotating about fibre axis
Photographic, usually on
plane film, normal to the
normal
incident
Fibrous, stationary or
to incident
beam,
beam
or about a normal to
the fibre axis
Identity period along fibre axis; size, structure and arrangement of micelles; preferred orientation ^nd determination of orientated textures [6] [8] [9].
;
Small-angle {low-angle)
Monochromatic
Any
method
collimated
special camera.
texture, but in
Non-
crystalline material alto
Reference
[24].
163
counter
Methods
4.2. Fixed-crystal
measurements made on an optical

goniometer, standard projection methods, as well as
special projection methods, have been extensively used.
For
4.2.1.
these, as for
of the Bragg angle
in Vol.
PL =rtan20
P G =pcot0
Ps=P
Section 3.7.
I,
page
Two
Tables
4.2. 1.1
PL Ps P G
,
..-.(2)
(3)
reflected ray
PR =ptan0
and B give corresponding
for the front-
.,..(4)
values of
and back-reflection regions
respectively over a range of angles of deviation of 20.
25).
cases need to be considered
Plane
...-0)
1+ sin0
For the stereographic projection of the

on to the equatorial plane
This method has been superseded by the use of

(a) gnomonic projection or 1 of the normals to
(b) stereographic projection} the reflecting planes
films, front
or back reflections, normal to
incident beam.
Cylindrical films, cylinder axis normal to incident
2.
are required
cos
Laue patterns were originally studied by stereographic projection of the reflected rays (W. L. Bragg
1.
6,
Laue Method
All reflections are in general due to different X-ray

wavelengths, but all orders of the same spectrum give
one single reflection. The symmetry of Laue patterns
corresponding to the various point groups is given
[31],
to another, the following relationships, given in terms
beam.
For Table
4.2.1.1 A:
For Table
4.2. 1
(p=15 cm for Ps
r=5 cm
lp=2 cm for P G
cm
B r= 5 cm fp=15
[p=50cm
for
for
Ps
PG
These values of p are chosen because they give convenient ranges of P s and of P G , but if other values of
r or p are used, appropriate adjustments must be made.
These tables are not intended for direct use. They
plotted as graphs; or straight stereographic
or gnomonic rulers may be constructed for suitable
values of r and p. Such a ruler has PL to the left,
PS (P G) to the right of a pivot which is placed at the
centre of the photograph (origin of the projection).
may be
*k
k-
Corresponding poles L, St(G) are numbered to correspond to each other, and it is therefore simple to
transform the Laue pattern directly to the stereographic or gnomonic projection without intermediate
measurements. If either projection is subsequently to
be used with a. stereographic or gnomonic net, the
scale must be adjusted. For a stereographic net of
2xcm the P s numbers in Tables

and B must be multiplied by x/15.
diameter
The use of a stereographic net is described in many

textbooks, and in general the charts commercially
available (Sec. 1.2, p. 1) are excellent, being much more
Projection pole
Fig. 4.2. 1.1(1) Geometrical principles of the spherical,

stereographic, gnomonic and Laue projections.
4.2.1.1.
4.2. 1.1
accurate than most people can draw them. They are,

however, of particular sizes and are therefore not
suitable for every use without accurate enlargement.
description of the stereographic, gnomonic and
Plane Film
shows the graphical relationships involved, for the case of Laue patterns on a plane film,
between the incident beam direction SN, which is also
the normal to the plane Laue pattern, the Laue pole L
and the spherical, stereographic and gnomonic poles,
S p St and G, and the stereographic projection S r of
the reflected beam. If p, the radius of the sphere of
other nets and types of projection and a comparison

of their advantages and disadvantages are given by
Fig. 4.2.1.1(1)
Henry, Lipson and Wooster [9].

Various nets may be constructed as follows:
Polar Stereographic Net
gnomonic projection and of
Concentric circles of radii p tan </2, where p is the

radius of the projection circle and $ the angle between the directions (CN, CS P in Fig. 4.2.1.1(1)) of
the film coincide. The lines producing the various projection poles for any given crystal plane are coplanar
with the incident and reflected beams.
In order to transform from one type of projection
the projection diameter and the projected radius.

is usually varied by 2 from 0 to 90.
(b) Intersecting these circles are a set of regularlyspaced diameters at, say, 2 intervals.
projection,
is
taken equal to
tance, then the planes of
r,
(a)
the crystal-to-film dis-
<f>
164
4.2.
FIXED-CRYSTAL METHODS
TABLE
4.2.1.1A
Table for Conversion of Front-reflection Laue Patterns to Stereograpbic or Gnomonic Projections

See page 164 for explanation of this table
20
P L(f)
Ps
Pg
r=5cm
p=15 cm
p=2cm
0
1
2
3
4
5
0-0873
0-1746
0-262
0-350
15
14-87
14-74
P L(!)
Ps
Pg
r=5 cm
p=15 cm
p=2cm
30
2-887
11-51
7-464
31
3-004
3-124
11-41
7-212
11-30
3-247
11-20
6-975
6-752
3-373
11-10
6-542
20
oc
229-2
114-6
14-61
76-38
14-48
57-27
32
33
34
35
3-501
11-00
6-343
36
37
38
39
3-633
10-90
6-155
3-768
10-80
5-977
3-906
10-70
5-808
4-049
10-60
5-648
4-195
4-346
10-50
5-495
10-41
5-349
4-502
10-31
5-210
5-077
4-950
0-437
0-526
0-614
14-36
45-81
6
7
14-23
38-16
32-70
0-703
13-99
0-792
13-87
10
0-882
0-972
13-74
11
12
1-063
13-51
13
1-154
13-39
14
1-247
13-27
22-86
20-77
19-029
17-554
16-289
15
1-340
13-15
16
1-434
13-04
17
1-529
12-93
13-382
18
1-625
12-81
12-628
19
1-722
12-70
20
1-820
21
1-919
22
23
24
2-020
2-122
2-226
25
26
27
28
29
14-11
13-62
28-60
25-41
40
41
42
43
44
4-663
10-21
4-828
10-12
15-192
45
5-000
10-02
4-828
14-231
5-178
9-93
4-712
11-952
46
47
48
49
12-59
11-343
12-48
10-791
12-37
10-289
5-362
9-83
5-553
9-74
5-752
9-65
4-600
4-492
4-389
50
5-959
9-56
4-289
51
6-174
9-46
4-193
6-400
6-635
6-882
9-37
4-101
9-28
4-011
9-19
3-925
12-26
9-830
12-15
9-409
52
53
54
2-332
12-04
9021
55
7-141
9-10
3-842
2-439
2-548
11-93
8-663
7-413
9-01
3-761
11-83
8-331
7-699
8-92
3-684
2-659
11-72
8-022
8-002
8-84
3-608
2-772
11-61
7-733
56
57
58
59
8-321
8-75
3-535
165
4.2.
TABLE
4.2.1.1B
Table for Conversion of Back-reflection Laue Patterns to Stereographic or Gnomonic Projections

See page 164 for explanation of this table
P L(b)
Ps
r=5 cm
p=15 cm
P L(b)
r=5 cm
Ps
Pg
p=15 cm
p=50cm
120
8-660
4-019
121
8-321
3-949
28-868
28-289
150
2-887
1-975
13-398
151
2-772
1-908
122
8-002
3-877
12-931
27-716
152
2-659
1-842
123
7-699
12-467
3-809
27-148
153
2-548
1-775
12-004
124
7-413
3-740
26-586
154
2-439
1-709
11-544
125
7-141
3-671
26-029
155
2-332
1-643*
11-085
126
6-882
3-601
25-477
156
2-226
1-577
10-628
127
128
6-635
3-532
1-510
10-173
3-463
9-719
3-394
2-020
1-919
1-444
129
157
158
159
2-122
6-400
6-174
24-929
24-387
23-849
1-378
9-267
20
Pg
p=50 cm
20
130
5-959
3-326
23-316
160
1-820
1-312
8-817
131
5-752
3-257
22-787
161
1-722
1-246
8-367
132
133
5-553
3-188
1-625
1-181
7-919
3-120
163
1-529
1-115
7-473
134
5-178
3-052
22-262
21-741
21-224
162
5-362
164
1-434
1-049
7-027
135
5-000
2-984
20-711
165
1-340
0-983
6-583
136
4-828
2-916
166
1-247
4-663
2-848
167
1-154
0-917
0-852
6-139
137
20-202
19-696
138
4-502
2-780
19-193
168
1-063
0-786
5-255
139
4-346
2-713
18-694
169
0-972
0-720
4-815
140
4-195
4-049
2-645
18-199
170
0-882
17-706
171
0-792
0-655
0-589
4-375
2-578
142
143
144
3-906
2-510
17-217
0-703
2-443
16-730
3-633
2-376
16-246
0-614
0-526
0-524
0-458
0-393
3-497
3-768
172
173
174
2-621
141
5-697
3-935
3-058
145
3-501
175
0-437
0-327
2-183
3-373
2-309
2-242
15-765
146
15-287
176
9-262
1-746
147
3-247
2-175
14-811
177
0-350
0-262
0-196
1-310
148
3-124
2-108
14-338
178
0-175
0-131
0-873
149
3-004
2-041
13-866
179
0-087
0-065
0-437
166
4.2.
Wulff Stereographic Net
Two
sets
of circles or arcs of circles, each
collinear centres, the lines of centres being
each other, through the centre

radius p.
(a) Centres at p cosec
has to be constructed for a particular crystal-toand it consists essentially of two sets of

curves, the formulae of which are given by Bernalte,
A. (1965), Acta Cryst., 19, 916 together with a halfIt
film distance,
having
set
normal to
of the projection
circle protractor (Fig. 4.2.1.1(2)) [32].
circle,
(b)
Centres at
cot
cf>
from O, radius p cot

from O, radius p cosec
An
<f>.
<f>
<f>.
4.2.1.2.
Gnomonic Net
p tan from
an equatorial line (through
and normal to the
plane of the paper in Fig. 4.2.1.1(1)), intersected by
Symmetrical coplanar hyperbolae of equations
(a) Parallel straight lines at intervals
<j>
(b)
>
where
y=0
excellent description of the use of this chart
given by C. S. Barrett
is
normal to
set (a)
is
pages 167-72.
Cylindrical Film
special chart
is
used for the interpretation of a
Laue pattern on a cylindrical film, cylinder axis normal to the incident beam. The data for the construction of such a chart, given in Tables 4.2.1.2A, B, C, D,
are obtained as follows.
= p2( 1+ ^2) tan 2
equatorial line of set
[2],
x=0
and
is
the
(a).
detailed discussion of the construction of stereographic and gnomonic nets, suitable for self-teaching,
is to be found in W. P. Davey's Study of Crystal
Structure and
its
Applications (McGraw-Hill,
York and London,
1934), which, however,
of print. See also H. Tertsch
is
New
now
out
[34],
Greninger Chart
used for reading angular relations on backLaue photographs. It provides a quick way
of determining the orientation of a single crystal, or
the relative orientations of two individual grains in
an aggregate or of the components of a twin.
This
is
reflection
Fig. 4.2.1.2(1). Geometrical principles of Laue photography on to a cylindrical film with axis normal to the
incident beam.
In Fig. 4.2.1.2(1),
PO
is
the incident
the normal to the reflecting plane,
~~\
\
^LTÊr:
f4-l4-f~n/~^+^f
z
:
ted
y -W44=R=P F
beam
Y being the point in
(S),
beam
(S
),
CN
and CY the diffracwhich CY intersects
the cylindrical film, giving a Laue spot.
PXO
&.
axis.
to
is
Let
the equatorial plane,
normal to the cylinder
YX be normal to PXO; XT and YT normal
CO. Then ZOCY=20, where 6 is the Bragg angle.

is coplanar with PO, CN and CY, and therefore
YT
ZXTY=0
^%4'
is
the angle between the equatorial plane
and the plane of incidence. The direction CN is fully

specified by 6 and 0, and if these are known, the posi80
9
1
tions of the
uiwVwwSs*^^
plotted
When
is
normals to the
on a stereographic
the film
specified
is
reflecting planes
can be
net.
laid flat, the position of each spot
by Cartesian co-ordinates x
and y=YX. Let the cylinder radius be
r.
(arc
OX)
Note
that
^YCX=x> ZXCT=y*in Buerger's notation (see Table

Fig. 4.2.1.1(2).
Greninger chart
4.3.1,
[32].
167
page
175).
4.2.
Y=
cos 20=cos x-cos
cos
tan -1 - j cos -
y=XT tan 0=r sin _.tan
Also
of the film limited by y=0, y=80 mm, x=0 and x=

45 mm. Reference to Fig. 4.2. 1 .2(3) shows how the rest
of the chart for
up to 360 and 6 to 90 is obtained
by symmetry operations on this unit. The accuracy of
.... (1)
(2)
the tabulated figures varies
mm
For a cylindrical camera of radius 28-65

and if
x and y are measured in mm. these equations reduce to
cos
20= cos
cos 2x
28-65
h-'dv)
y=28-65
sin
..(4)
size.
The angles 6 and 0, read off from the chart laid

over the film, can be used to plot a stereogram as
the angles being expressed in degrees.
given in terms of x and

for
For lines with 0-51 to 0=90
In Table 4.2.1.2A, y
0=1
0=70.
to
is
the separation of points to be plotted which have
x values
(5, 10, 15,
20
increases rapidly as
mm) is large, and this
culties in plotting lines in this region,
gives x in terms of y
For
less
follows
low
separation
To overcome
increases.
mm.
a camera of any other radius is used, either x and

y can be corrected to correspond to a camera of radius
28-65 mm, or equations (1) and (2) can be used to give
new figures, or the chart can be enlarged to the required
If
..(3)
2x.tan0
from place to place on the
chart but should be within 0-02
diffi-
Table 4.2.1.2B
and 0, for 0=51 to 0=90.
than 71, Table 4.2.1.2B by
itself gives
mm
widely separated points in the region x=35

to
x=45 mm. The range y=0 to y=80mm covers the
size of films normally used.
Table 4.2.1.2C gives x in terms of y and 6, for 0=0
to 0=45. Extra points to facilitate drawing are given
in Table 4.2.1. 2D, where y is tabulated for x=0 and
x=5
for 0=0 to 0=45.
mm
The
families of curves (a) of constant 6
0.
The
and
(b)
showing the
planes having
defined by the angles (90 -0) and 0.
Fig. 4.2.1.2(2). Stereographic projection
chart obtained from these tables consists of two
direction of the reflected
of constant
the
figures given in the tables cover the one-eighth
TABLE
normal
is
the direction
CY in
beam
R from
Fig. 4.2.1.2(1).
4.2.1.2
Tables for Conversion of Cylindrical Laue Patterns to Stereographic Projections
Prepared by
M. Canut and checked by
I.
E.
Knaggs and G. Bullen
For layout see Fig. 4.2.1.2(3). The tabulated figures give a convenient scale for drafting, but the chart
reduced photographically to any required diameter size of camera, for direct use with film.
TABLE
4.2.1.2A. Table of y in terms of x and 0. (x
and y in
mm and
in degrees. r=28-65
10
may be
mm.)
11
12
\s^
0-09
0-17
0-26
0-35
0-44
0-52
0-61
0-70
0-79
0-88
0-97
1-06
10
0-17
0-34
0-51
0-69
0-86
1-03
1-20
1-38
1-55
1-73
1-91
2-08
15
0-25
0-50
0-75
1-00
1-25
1-51
1-76
2-01
2-27
2-53
2-79
3-05
20
0-32
0-64
0-97
1-29
1-61
1-94
2-26
2-59
2-92
3-25
3-58
3-92
25
30
35
40
45
0-38
0-77
1-15
1-54
1-92
2-31
3-48
3-87
4-27
4-67
0-87
1-30
1-74
2-17
2-61
2-70
3-05
3-09
0-43
3-49
3-93
4-38
4-82
5-27
0-47
0-94
1-41
1-88
2-36
2-83
3-31
3-78
4-75
5-23
5-72
0-49
0-99
1-48
1-97
2-47
2-97
3-46
3-97
4-27
4-47
4-98
5-49
6-00
0-50
1-00
1-50
2-00
2-51
3-01
3-52
4-03
4-54
5-05
5-57
6-09
168
4.2.
TABLE
13
14
15
16
4.2.1.2A {continued)
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
2-21
N.
1-15
1-24
1-33
1-43
1-52
1-62
1-71
1-81
1-91
2-01
2-11
10
15
2-26
2-44
2-63
2-81
3-00
3-18
3-38
3-57
3-76
3-96
4-16
4-36
3-31
3-57
3-84
4-11
4-38
4-66
4-93
5-22
5-50
5-79
6-08
6-38
20
4-25
4-59
4-94
5-28
5-63
5-99
6-34
6-71
7-07
7-44
7-82
8-20
25
30
35
40
45
5-07
5-47
5-88
6-30
6-71
7-13
7-56
7-99
8-43
8-87
9-32
9-77
5-73
6-19
6-65
7-12
7-59
8-06
8-55
9-03
9-53
10-02
10-53
11-05
6-22
6-71
7-22
7-72
8-23
8-75
9-27
9-80
10-34
10-88
11-43
11-99
6-52
7-04
7-56
8-09
8-63
9-17
9-72
10-27
10-83
11-40
11-98
12-57
6-62
7-15
7-68
8-22
8-76
9-31
9-87
10-43
11-00
11-58
12-16
12-76
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
3-61
^v
5
2-32
2-43
2-54
2-65
2-76
2-87
2-99
3-11
3-23
3-36
3-48
10
15
4-57
4-78
4-99
5-21
5-43
5-66
5-89
6-13
6-37
6-61
6-86
7-12
6-68
6-99
7-30
7-62
7-94
8-27
8-61
8-95
9-31
9-67
1003
10-41
20
8-59
8-99
9-39
9-80
10-21
10-63
11-07
11-51
11-96
12-43
12-90
13-39
25
30
35
40
45
10-23
10-71
11-18
11-67
12-17
12-68
13-19
13-72
14-26
14-81
15-37
15-95
11-57
12-11
12-65
13-19
13-76
14-32
14-91
15-51
16-12
16-74
17-38
18-03
12-56
13-13
13-72
14-32
14-93
15-54
16-18
16-83
17-49
18-17
18-86
19-57
13-16
13-76
14-38
15-01
15-65
16-29
16-96
17-64
18-33
19-03
19-76
20-51
13-37
13-98
14-60
15-24
15-89
16-54
17-22
17-91
18-61
19-33
20-06
20-82
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
3-75
3-89
4-03
4-18
4-33
4-48
4-64
4-80
4-97
5-15
5-33
5-52
7-39
7-66
7-94
8-22
8-52
8-83
9-14
9-47
9-80
10-15
10-51
10-89
\
5
10
15
10-80
11-19
11-60
12-02
12-46
12-90
13-37
13-84
14-33
14-84
15-37
15-91
20
13-88
14-39
14-92
15-45
16-02
16-59
17-18
17-78
18-42
19-08
19-75
20-46
25
30
35
16-54
17-15
17-78
18-42
19-09
21-20
21-96
22-74
20-10
21-58
21-04
22-05
22-39
21-81
23-14
25-11
26-32
26-72
23-96
26-00
27-25
27-67
24-81
20-29
21-27
21-60
20-82
22-59
23-68
24-04
26-93
28-22
25-69
27-89
29-23
28-65
29-68
23-54
26-61
28-88
30-26
30-73
24-37
19-39
19-77
22-35
24-25
25-41
25-80
20-47
18-70
40
45
22-86
23-21
23-41
24-53
24-91
169
27-56
29-91
31-35
31-83
4.2.
TABLE
49
50
52
51
4.2.1.2A (continued)
54
53
55
56
57
60
59
58
N^^
5-72
5-93
6-15
6-37
6-60
6-85
7-11
7-38
7-66
7-96
8-28
8-62
10
11-27
11-68
12-11
12-55
13-01
13-49
14-00
14-53
15-09
15-69
16-31
16-98
22-07
28-37
22-93
23-84
24-81
29-48
30-66
31-91
33-80
38-21
35-12
36-52
38-01
39-71
41-47
43-46
43-09
45-17
41-29
44-81
42-98
46-64
46-97
44-13
45-85
48-89
49-62
15
16-48
17-08
17-69
18-34
19-01
19-72
20-46
21-24
20
21-19
21-96
22-75
23-58
24-44
25-35
26-31
27-31
25
30
35
40
45
25-25
26-16
29-57
27-11
28-10
29-13
30-21
30-64
31-76
32-93
34-15
31-34
35-44
32-54
28-55
30-97
32-09
33-25
34-46
35-74
37-06
38-46
32-46
33-63
34-85
36-12
37-46
38-84
40-31
32-96
34-15
35-38
36-68
38-03
39-44
40-93
39-92
41-84
42-48
36-79
47-68
X.
62
61
64
63
65
66
67
68
12-32
24-26
70
69
N.
8-98
9-36
9-77
10-20
10-67
11-18
11-72
10
17-68
18-43
19-24
20-10
21-02
22-02
23-09
12-96
13-67
26-93
15
25-84
26-94
28-11
29-38
30-73
32-18
33-75
35-46
25-54
37-33
20
33-23
34-64
36-15
37-77
39-50
41-37
43-39
45-59
47-98
50-60
25
30
35
39-59
41-27
46-67
43-07
48-70
45-00
50-88
47-06
57-17
64-64
52-84
55-21
57-75
51-70
58-45
63-43
54-32
61-42
50-64
49-29
55-73
60-47
60-30
44-76
48-57
66-65
70-15
50-91
53-08
55-39
57-86
60-52
63-39
66-48
69-85
73-52
77-54
51-69
53-89
56-23
58-75
61-45
64-36
67-50
70-93
74-64
78-72
40
45
TABLE
4.2.1.2B.
51
0-lines. Table of
52
53
54
y and 0.
in terms of
55
53-21
56
(x
and y
57
58
in
mm
and
in degrees.
39-37
68-17
73-98
r=28-65 mm.)
59
60
61
62
63
2-55
4-06
3-92
3-78
3-64
3-51
3-38
3-26
3-13
3-01
2-89
2-78
2-66
10
8-21
7-92
7-63
7-35
7-08
6-81
6-55
6-30
6-06
5-82
5-58
5-35
5-13
15
12-55
12-08
11-62
11-19
10-76
10-34
9-94
9-56
9-17
8-80
8-44
8-09
7-74
20
17-22
16-53
15-87
15-24
14-64
14-05
13-48
12-94
12-41
11-89
11-39
10-90
10-42
25
30
35
22-49
21-50
20-56
19-68
18-84
18-04
17-27
16-53
15-82
15-13
14-47
13-83
13-21
29-00
40-80
27-45
26-05
24-77
23-57
22-47
21-42
19-50
18-60
17-74
16-92
16-13
36-33
33-52
31-29
29-41
27-75
35-19
26-25
32-53
20-44
24-89
30-38
39-48
23-62
28-52
35-35
22-43
21-32
25-36
30-26
20-26
23-98
28-33
19-26
22-69
26-59
37-67
34-06
31-39
39-00
40
45
38-94
50
55
170
26-86
32-55
4.2.
TABLE
64
65
66
67
68
4.2.1.2B (continued)
70
69
71
72
74
73
75
76
2-44
2-34
2-23
2-13
2-02
1-92
1-82
1-73
1-63
1-53
1-44
1-34
1-25
10
4-90
4-69
4-47
4-26
4-06
3-85
3-65
3-45
3-26
3-07
2-87
2-69
2-50
15
7-40
7-07
6-74
6-43
6-11
5-80
5-50
5-20
4-90
4-61
4-32
4-04
3-75
20
9-96
9-50
9-06
8-62
8-19
7-78
7-36
6-96
6-56
6-17
5-78
5-39
5-02
25
30
35
12-60
12-01
11-44
10-88
10-33
9-79
9-26
8-75
8-24
7-74
7-25
6-77
6-29
15-36
14-62
13-90
13-20
12-52
11-85
11-21
10-57
9-95
9-34
8-74
8-15
7-57
18-29
17-37
16-48
15-62
14-79
13-99
13-21
12-44
11-70
10-97
10-26
9-56
8-87
40
45
21-47
25-01
20-32
19-22
18-18
17-17
16-21
15-28
14-37
13-49
12-64
11-81
10-99
10-19
23-56
22-19
20-92
19-70
18-55
17-44
16-38
15-35
14-36
13-39
12-45
11-53
50
55
60
65
70
29-17
27-24
31-77
25-49
29-36
23-90
22-42
25-44
21-03
16-12
15-02
13-94
12-90
19-29
17-97
16-71
15-49
14-30
34-41
18-47
20-69
23-08
17-27
38-79
19-72
22-17
24-84
21-44
19-90
18-45
17-07
15-74
27-84
31-40
25-69
28-64
23-75
20-29
22-24
18-72
17-23
26-28
21-96
24-17
20-45
18-77
36-17
32-17
37-02
29-14
32-57
26-58
29-31
24-32
26-61
22-28
24-22
20-37
22-07
84
85
86
87
88
34-71
27-30
31-38
37-20
33-22
23-74
26-75
30-29
40-41
34-86
28-89
75
80
\
\
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
89
1-16
1-07
0-97
0-88
0-79
0-70
0-62
0-53
0-44
0-35
0-26
0-18
0-09
10
2-31
2-13
1-95
1-77
1-59
1-41
1-23
1-05
0-88
0-70
0-53
0-35
0-18
15
3-48
3-20
2-92
2-65
2-38
2-11
1-84
1-58
1-32
1-05
0-79
0-53
0-26
20
4-64
4-27
3-90
3-54
3-18
2-82
2-46
2-11
1-75
1-40
1-05
0-70
0-35
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
5-82
5-35
4-89
4-43
3-98
3-53
3-08
2-64
2-19
1-75
1-31
0-88
0-44
7-00
6-43
5-87
5-32
4-78
4-24
3-69
3-16
2-63
2-10
1-58
1-05
0-53
8-19
7-53
6-87
6-22
5-58
4-94
4-32
3-69
3-07
2-45
1-84
1-23
0-61
9-41
8-64
7-88
7-13
6-39
5-66
4-94
4-22
3-51
2-80
2-10
1-40
10-64
9-76
8-89
8-04
7-21
6-38
5-56
4-75
3-95
3-16
2-36
1-58
0-70
0-79
11-88
10-89
9-92
8-96
8-02
7-10
6-19
5-29
4-39
3-51
2-63
1-75
0-88
13-16
12-05
10-96
9-89
8-85
7-83
6-82
5-82
4-84
3-86
2-89
1-93
0-96
14-46
13-22
12-01
10-84
9-69
8-56
7-45
6-36
5-28
4-21
3-15
2-10
1-05
15-80
14-42
13-09
11-79
10-53
9-30
8-09
6-90
5-73
4-57
3-42
2-28
1-14
17-17
15-65
14-18
12-76
11-39
10-04
8-73
7-44
6-17
4-92
3-68
2-45
1-22
18-59
20-07
16-91
15-30
13-74
12-25
10-79
9-38
7-99
6-62
5-28
3-94
2-63
1-31
18-22
16-45
14-76
13-13
11-56
10-03
8-54
7-08
5-64
4-21
2-80
1-40
171
90
4.2.
TABLE
4.2.1.2C.
0-lines.
\
1
1-00
Table of x in terms of y and
2-00
2*
3-00
~l-65
6.
(x
and y
in
mm and 6 in degrees.
10
11
4-00
5-00
6-00
7-00
8-00
9-00
10-00
11-00
3-14
4-34
5-48
6-57
3-42
4-99
6-32
7-56
8-74
9-87
~3-25
5-27
6-87
8-28
~2-75
5-43
-0-7
n
10
\
y\
r=28-65 mm.)
5
10
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
12-00
13-00
14-00
15-00
16-00
17-00
18-00
19-00
20-00
21-00
22-00
23-00
11-00
12-08
13-17
14-24
15-30
16-35
17-39
18-44
19-48
20-52
7-31
8-90
10-37
11-74
13-04
14-29
15-5J
16-71
17-88
19-04
21-55
20-19
22-58
21-31
~2-33
5-64
7-79
9-56
-2-36
6-10
8-42
10-32
12-02
13-60
15-07
16-49
17-86
19-18
~3-24
6-87
8-04
10-44
12-50
14-35
16-04
-4-71
8-66
11-39
15
17*
9-28
~4-67
20
25
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
27-00
26-69
25-75
24-22
22-11
28-00
27-71
26-84
25-43
23-50
29-00
28-73
27-93
26-64
24-86
30-00
29-75
29-01
27-82
26-22
31-00
30-77
30-09
29-00
27-54
32-00
31-79
31-17
30-18
28-84
32-24
31-34
17-66
26-00
25-67
24-65
22-99
20-68
34-00
33-83
33-31
32-49
20
25-00
24-64
23-54
21-74
19-19
33-00
10
15
24-00
23-61
22-44
20-48
30-14
31-41
25
30
35
13-68
15-72
17-60
19-36
21-04
13-47
15-84
17-96
10-95
14-01
16-61
25-03
12-24
15-41
21-09
18-14
30-09
28-58
26-87
8-08
25-30
23-11
20-59
28-67
26-96
6-82
21-80
18-94
25-73
23-59
27-21
10-72
22-65
19-94
24-21
7-16
4-67
10-70
14-53
17-65
22-84
20-39
24-98
22-89
9-57
14-05
9-20
17-54
20-55
23-26
14-16
17-91
21-11
9-64
14-80
18-73
10-88
16-00
4-24
12-71
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
32-81
35
35-00
34-84
34-38
33-65
32-67
31-50
30-16
28-66
27-01
25-22
8-28
75
172
4.2.
TABLE
4.2.1.2C (continued)
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
37-00
36-88
38-00
37-89
37-58
40-00
39-93
39-70
39-35
38-89
41-00
40-94
40-76
40-48
40-12
42-00
41-96
41-82
41-61
41-34
43-00
42-97
42-89
42-74
42-56
44-00
43-99
43-94
43-87
43-78
45-00
45-00
45-00
45-00
45-00
41-02
40-65
40-25
39-83
39-39
42-34
42-10
41-84
41-56
41-27
43-68
45-00
45-00
45-00
45-00
45-00
36
36-00
35-86
35-45
37-08
20
33-93
35-94
35-18
39-00
38-91
38-64
38-22
36-42
37-66
25
30
32-89
34-27
30-40
28-97
27-44
32-11
33-77
37-72
37-04
3919
35
36-99
36-24
35-42
39-68
33-24
35-64
34-75
38-34
31-71
38-66
30-88
32-73
34-54
36-33
38-09
29-57
31-62
33-62
35-57
37-49
28-17
26-69
25-12
30-44
32-64
31-62
34-78
36-87
29-21
33-96
36-23
38-94
38-46
40-97
40-66
42-99
42-84
27-92
26-57
25-15
30-57
33-12
32-25
35-58
37-98
29-49
28-35
34-91
37-49
42-68
42-52
31-36
34-22
36-99
40-34
40-02
39-69
42-36
45-00
45-00
45-00
45-00
45-00
30-44
29-50
33-52
32-81
36-49
39-37
39-03
42-19
42-03
45-00
45-00
10
15
36-52
34-79
40
45
25-78
50
55
24-00
22-09
60
65
70
19-99
17-66
23-44
21-65
75
80
15-00
19-71
23-65
27-18
11-78
17-58
22-07
25-96
TABLE
4.2.1.2D.
0-lines.
Table of y in terms of x and
6.
(x
35-97
and y
in
43-55
43-42
43-29
43-14
mm and 6 in degrees.
r=28-65 mm.)
e
1
10
11
2-00
3-01
4-03
5-05
6-09
7-15
8-22
9-31
10-43
11-58
3-38
5-00
6-39
7-71
9-00
10-27
X \^
1-00
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
x \^
12-76
13-98
15-24
16-54
17-91
19-33
12-83
14-17
15-52
16-92
18-38
20-82
19-90
22-39
11-55
21-49
24-04
23-15
25-80
24-93
27-67
26-80
29-68
28-80
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
31-83
30-95
34-15
36-68
35-77
39-44
38-52
42-48
41-53
45-85
44-89
49-64
48-64
53-89
52-84
58-75
57-64
64-36
70-93
78-72
33-26
63-18
69-66
77-36
173
4.2.
ABA'
is also given on page 638 of Vol. II, Internationale
Tabellen zur Bestimmung von Krystallstrukturen, to
which reference is made for various other configurations
of crystal, beam and film [33].
a circle centre C, radius r,

Let A,A' and B be the points of intersection of this circle with the circles PXO and PNO
respectively (equatorial plane and plane of incidence).
in Fig. 4.2.1.2(1) is
normal to
PC!.
ZPCN=9O-0
Hence
ZNCB=0
and
No
If the cylinder axis is
taken as the projection diameter and PAO as the plane of the stereogram, then
E is the stereographic projection of (Fig. 4.2.1.2(2)).
The pattern is obtained on a plane or cylindrical

and may be compared with a calculated pattern.
For this purpose gnomonic, orthogonal (Kossel),
cylindrical or stereographic-projection methods may
in Fig. 4.2. 1 .2(3) is similar to
[2], page 164, but he uses

a instead of <Z>. As reproduced for sale, p is sometimes
used instead of 90- 6,
instead of O. A similar chart
be used. Reference should be made to original papers

[27].
<f>
^k/
8 ==40
0=40
=90
\ /\
\/
60
>-~^y
+--Zj
T
80
i4
15
no
100
v\ \a
i3(
J--3 >--L
70
/ A
'
IK /
80
Jkj
Y\
/l20
70
*'
is
film
that given by C. S. Barrett
50
method, which
tables are presented for this
not in wide use.
Note. The chart shown
Divergent-beam Method
4.2.2.
/BCA= ,/ YTX=
50
\
A
60
x/'
<^y^
XT>o^V^\av^
f-160
170.
-90
%=^X^--y
IDA
T~--4--^=3P
'^=-A----
\~
^^^^^^^^^zz\^
V^J^5<%^^7^
rrjr2io xî/x//7^w\ l\^vv^v^vN?î rW\\X/xNt 320 tC~~/
T^-V220 yy\//nfJ /
190
200
33(
^23(>V/
\ 240
//V
X/
250
V\\ N(
\ Y
/\^
310
n/
300
\J\
J^jL
290
\//ff
y
/
/ \/
280
260
270
/ \
/'
Fig. 4.2. 1 .2(3).
Chart for Laue photo on cylindrical film curves of 6 from 90^0^90,

:
174
<
\J
II.
from 0-*l 80->360(0)
4.3.
Moving
Methods
Single-crystal
The interpretation of rotation and oscillation diffraction data, including those of techniques involving
<f>
Rotation and Laue photographs:
The angular
cylin-
measured as the acute

angle between the plane containing o and the
rotation axis and the plane containing S and the
rotation axis.
goes from 0-90 on either side of
the negative direction of S The complement of
drical co-ordinate of
moving films, is best carried out in terms of the reciprocal lattice (P. P. Ewald [37], J. D. Bernal [35]) and
almost always with the use of Charts.
<f>
<f>
4.3.1.
Symbols
in
Use
charts for cylindrical films are labelled

'^-charts' but actually give values of <j>.
Since authors of different standard works have in

cases used different symbols for the same quanti-
Weissenberg photographs (Buerger): The angular

cylindrical co-ordinate of P relative to the rotation
some
Table 4.3.1 lists the symbols used, their meanings,

and the author using them in each case. Where a
symbol is in fairly common usage no reference is
ties,
given.
Some
is <.
The Greek alphabet
is
axis
and some
specified direction in the crystal,
normally along the positive direction of S projected on to the equatorial plane, at the beginning
of the oscillation.
goes from
to 360. (In Bernal's notation the angular coordinate of P is w,
Buerger uses to for the angular rotation of a
crystal corresponding to any given translation
of the film holder.) The angle 4> is sometimes
,
given on page 435.
<f>
TABLE
4.3.1
Symbols used to specify Quantities on Diffraction

Patterns and in Reciprocal Space
Bragg angle
6:
(0/2
according to usage of von Laue
referred to as r (see Section 5.2.5.3, page 267).

axis of cylindrical co-ordinates in this case is
The
[39]).
20:
Angle of deviation
(0
the normal to the levels being recorded, and the

origin line for t is the horizontal axis of a preces-
according to usage of von
Laue).
S
S
o
sion camera.
Vector length K/A in direction of incident beam.

Vector length K/A in direction of diffracted beam.
H (Buerger) The
:
Reciprocal-lattice-point vector, length K/d, where

is interplanar distance (spacing) in direct
space.
This quantity (which must equal S
-S
for the
fulfilment of the
Bragg relation) is called p by

Bernal [35], a by Buerger [3] and d* h ki by Henry,
Lipson and Wooster [9].
The constant of proportionality
(Vol.
I,
2.4) (k
which
X (Buerger): The
nal's notation this is
is,
the
on the plane
(sinx= if K=A.
projection
axis).
(In Ber-
also.)
p (Buerger): Angle between o and the rotation axis

(tan p=tj/0. (In Bernal's notation this is a.)
v.
Angle between generator of th layer line and the

equatorial plane. (=x for normal-beam methods.)
d* Interplanar distance (spacing)

:
in reciprocal lattice.
Symbols applying to the precession method
to the point 000 as origin and the rotation axis as

axis of cylindrical co-ordinates; that is, perpendicular distance of P from a plane normal to the
in par-
ticular are given in Section 4.5.

4.3.2. Relationships
rotation axis through the reciprocal-lattice origin.

: Radial co-ordinate of P; that is, radius of a cylinder
between cylindrical co-ordinates
<f>,
of reciprocal-lattice point P (relative to rotation

axis and trace of incident beam on zero layer plane as
origins), and the position of the corresponding diffraction spot, under various conditions.
i,
and passing
Lines of constant on any diffraction pattern or chart

are called layer lines. (Buerger, following some
German
its
Incident
Axial co-ordinate of reciprocal-lattice point P corresponding to any particular reflection hkl, relative
axis,
S and
normal to the rotation axis

beam normal to rotation
taken either as unity (which is

more convenient in considering the Laue technique,
with wavelength variable) or as A, in which case the
radius of the Ewald sphere (sphere of reflection) is
unity. The latter will be assumed hereafter in this
Section unless otherwise stated.
having the rotation axis as

through P.
inclination angle of S; that
angle between
in Bernal's notation) is
angle of inclination of S to the plane
normal to the rotation axis. (Bernal's #)

y(Buerger): The azimuth angle of S; that is, the angle
between the projections of S and S on the plane
normal to the rotation axis. (Bernal's <.)
is
General Case
beam makes angle p. with equatorial plane
(normal to rotation axis). Assume K=A.
Let v= angle between generator of nth layer line and
4.3.2.1.
Incident
authors, calls these layer lines of the
1st kind.)
Lines of constant are called row lines. (Buerger

refers
to these as layer lines of the 2nd kind.
This practice is not recommended, as it is
liable to lead to
confusion.)
(NCR or PCM in Fig. 4.3.2.1 (a) and

y= angle between projections of incident beam
equatorial plane
(c)),
and
and diffracted beam on

Then sin v = sin /*+
175
equatorial plane (A'CM).

(Fig. 4.3.2.1 (a)) ... .(1)
4.3.
MOVING SINGLE-CRYSTAL METHODS
Equatorial plane
Projection of
incident
(a) Elevation of sphere of reflection.

origin of redprocal lattice. Incident beam in the plane.
(b)
beam
Plan of sphere of reflection.
tion axis
on the equatorial
R projection
of rota-
plane.
Projection of
incident
beam
V&&
(c)
reflecting position, , f,
diffracted
beam,
v,
Stereogram to show direction of diffracted beam,

Y: with DD', normal to incident beam and in equatorial plane, as projection diameter.
BB' direction of rotation
Perspective diagram.
axis through crystals.
id)
reciprocal lattice point in
v,
Angular co-ordinates of
<f>.
Y.
Fig. 4.3.2.1. Geometrical principles of reflection in the reciprocal lattice for the general case of a crystal rotating
about an axis not necessarily normal to the incident beam. Table
cos Y=
COS 2 v + COS 2
fx
2 cos v cos
meaning of symbols.
Diffraction observed on Sphere with crystal
4.3.2.2.
at centre (ionization-spectrometer or Geiger-counter
/x.
techniques with universal movement).
(Fig. 4.3.2.1 (b))
v, Y as given by (1) and (2) above are sufficient to

locate any diffraction position either as in the perspective diagram Fig. 4.3.2.1 (c) or on a stereogram as in
2 sin jx 2 2
2 cos fJL\/(cos 2 [m 2 sin p 2)
2 cos 2
4.3.1 gives
\i
(2)
Fig. 4.3.2.1 (d).
cos 2 fx+t; 2 cos 2 v

cos<f>=
n>=0:
2cos/x
(Fig. 4.3.2.1 (b))
sin
v=
+ 2 +2sin/x
v=x in Buerger's notation,
normal beam)
(3)
2$ cos
(in this case
(5)
/x
+P=d* 2 =4 sin 2 6
cos 1"=
(4)
(0= Bragg angle)

176
2- 2 - 2
2V(i- 2)
(6)
4.3.
If>=+v:
L be the point where the trace of the incident beam

CL=D and IL=D tan ^.
If
=0
hits the film,
(anti-equi-inclination)
x=D tan Y
cosY=l
2 cos
If
2 cos 2
(7)
-2gsin/n-S 2 -g 2
2
2
\i -2 sin \i - )
/x
=D tan cos -1 2 cos /x\/(cos
/*=
....(12)
= 2
sin /x=2 sin v
cosr=i
(equi-inclination)
(8)
..(9)
2 cos 2
y+D tan /x=D sec Y tan v

2Dcos/x(sin/x+0
y= ^
D tan ft+
2cosV-2sin - -f
.,..(13)
fl
lfv=0:
If/Lt=0:
= -sin
cos
(flat
/x
cone)
1+cosV-P
Y=
2 cos,*
....(10)
2- 2
2V(1-C 2)
torial
incident
beam so
Alternatively
that /a= sin
it
-1
and diffracted beams always
in
2D
2- 2 -! 2
y=
is
( ).
may be desirable to have the incident

one plane (say horizon-
....(14)
2V(i-H
....(11)
brought to the equaposition by adjustment of the direction of the
In this case each layer line
2- 2 -g 2
x=D tan cos _,
....(15)
Film parallel to rotation axis but making angle a

in Fig. 4.3.2.3(2)) with trace of incident beam on
equatorial plane, x, y measured, as before, from I,
(b)
(CLL'
or vertical), the direction of the incident beam

being fixed. In this case the crystal must be adjusted
(e.g. by the use of an "Eulerian cradle" as described by
Furnas and Harker [38]) to bring the d* direction into
the fixed plane for each reflection, the crystal and Geiger
counter then being set at the appropriate 6, 2d angles
perpendicular and parallel to rotation axis.
tal
D sin Y
sin a sin
....(16)
(a+ Y)
(17)
sin a
respectively.
4.3.2.3.
Diffraction observed on Plane Film, distant
D from crystal.
Film parallel to rotation axis and normal to trace
of incident beam on equatorial plane (Fig. 4.3.2.3(1)).
Let x, y, the co-ordinates of the diffraction spot, be
measured from I, the point where the incident beam
hits the film, y being parallel and x perpendicular to
(a)
the rotation axis direction.
Fig. 4.3.2.3(2).
Case where film makes an angle a in
the equatorial plane with the trace of the incident beam.
These equations are cumbersome and would in

seldom be necessary.
If
fx=0 they reduce to
Dsin Y
x=
sin
y=
a sin (a+V)
as before,
D
sin(a+YV(l- 2 )
where Y=cos~
.,
.(18)
2- 2 - 2
2V0-
(as in (6))
If <x=90 they reduce to (12)
Fig. 4.3.2.3(1). Geometrical principles of photography
4.3.2.4.
normal to trace of incident beam on
parallel
on
to plane film
equatorial plane. (Angle
CLL'
is
177
and
(13).
Cylindrical Stationary Film, radius r, axis

to rotation axis, and incident beam inclined
to equatorial plane at angle
a right angle.)
fact
/a.
; :
4.3.

Crystal on circumference of cylinder. Only the case
beam normal to rotation axis) is of
interest here, and only the zero layer line. The advan-
(a) Crystal on axis of cylinder, co-ordinates measured

from point where incident beam strikes film, x round
the film, y parallel to the axis (Fig. 4.3.2.4(1)).
Measuring angles in degrees
(b)
(j.=0 (incident
tage of this
x=
radiation
...09)
360
where
method
is
that since the angle in a segment
constant, if the position of the source of incident
is
is
fixed (at
A in Fig. 4.3.2.4(2)) the position of
the diffraction will occur at
Y is
y= r tan
given by
+r tan
/u.
(2).
VTcos 2 /* 2
sin
(Seemann-Bohlin method).
diffraction line
sin/n+
B where AB=2R sin 20
(R radius of cylinder), whatever position the crystal

takes up on the circumference. A divergent beam and
powdered crystal will therefore give a sharply focused
tan/x
(20)
/a 2)
Crystal
Fig. 4.3.2.4(2).
on circumference of cylinder
(Seemann-Bohlin method).
4.3.2.5.
Alternative Expressions for
and
useful also to be able to express and in terms

of the position of the diffraction spot: \i, v, Yor \i, x, y.
It is
(a)
General case:
=sin v sin
Fig. 4.3.2.4(1). Geometrical principles of photography
on to a cylindrical film, axis and rotation axis of
crystal coinciding. Incident
beam making
angle
\i
= V(cos v+
x= y as
where, from
(6),
cos
2- 2 -g 2
(b)
For
a.
Y cos v)
.... (26)
y+D tan
V{D 2 +x 2 +(y+Dtan^) 2}
/u.
sin
v=sin/x+
(21)
(27)
(28)
Hence
y+D tan /*
V{D 2 +x 2 +(y+D tan ^) 2 }
(Note that Table 4.3.2 is derived from these expressions

for x and y.)
If^v:
= ^(cos 2 v +
y=0
y=2rtanv=
cos
plane film, with a =90 (usual case):
2VX1-C 2)'
V(l- 2)
v-2
These expressions cover the case of diffraction

measured on a sphere.
before
Y=
(24)
fji)
....(25)
cos 2
IfjLt= v\
Y cos v cos
=sinv
= ^/(l +
/i=0
cos 2 [m2 cos
K>=0:
with
equatorial plane.
If
(23)
/x,
2r
V(4-C 2)
where cos
.(22)
The case /u.==90 will not normally give any diffracted

beams for any one given A.
and
178
cos 2
Y=
v=
cos 2 fji2 cos
sin
Vcos
D
V(D 2 +x 2)
D
D +x
2
+x 2
+(y+Dtanfi) 2
ft
V COS
fi)
..(29)
4.3.
Hence
lf>=0:
$= //cos 2 /*
i-
+x 2 -2D
cos /xV(D 2 +x 2 +(y+D tan
D +x +(y+D tan
2
2
/*) }
2r
<-jh +y
/*)
...(30)
"())
values of x, y,
(36)
have been
For a
may
...(31)
be found in the original paper, and is not reprohere. The charts are commercially available.
Table 4.3.2 gives data for constructing a Bernal chart
for a cylindrical film, normal beam setting, radius
28-65
(Fig. 4.3.2.4(3)) (see 4.3.2, equations (21)).
duced
...(32)
mm
cylindrical film, crystal on axis:
y+r
tan
4.3.3.
/t
sm/i
V{r 2 +(y+rtan/*) 2}
-VI
V(r 2 +y 2)
plotted by Bernal [35] on a series of charts. The table

for plotting the Bernal chart for a plane film or plate
V(D 2 +x 2 +y 2)
D 2 +x 2 -2DV(D 2 +x 2 +y 2)^
1+>-;(
D 2 +x 2 + y
C-
The corresponding
lf>=0
(c)
(35)
V(r 2 +y 2)
COS 2
fJL+
...(33)
Identity Distances
on Stationary Films
For plane or cylindrical films, the repeat or identity

period (translation i) along the rotation-axis direction
[uvw]
r 2 +(y+rtan/x) 2
t(uvw)=y
2rcos
[i
V{r 2 + (y + r tan
2
/*) }
cos
....(1)
/360x\l
...(34)
{Continued on page 184)
\2ttv J)
Fig. 4.3.2.4(3). Bernal chart for reading $
and I co-ordinates for
cylindrical camera.
179
reflection
on a rotation or
oscillation
photograph,
TABLE
4.3.2
Co-ordinates for Construction of Bernal Chartf
Camera
in terms of
x
y
and of ,
=
=
=
radius 2-865 cm.
distance of point on layer line from central axis of chart in cm.

co-ordinate parallel to rotation axis (layer height) in cm.
cylindrical co-ordinates of reciprocal lattice.
it
u
CO
4>
=0
0-05
0-10
0-15
0-20
0-25
0-30
0-35
0-40
0-45
y=0
0-143
0-288
0-435
0-585
0-740
0-901
1-070
1-250
1-444
005
0-143
0-143
0-143
0-287
0-574
0-574
0-575
0-260
0-419
0-572
0-229
0-403
0-20
0-276
0-427
0-576
0165
0-15
0-287
0-430
0-132
0-284
0-057
0-287
0-430
0-140
0-287
0-431
0-576
0-113
0-10
0-563
0-545
0-319
0-513
0-25
0-718
0-718
0-723
0-718
0-707
0-687
0-867
0-870
0-873
1-010
1-013
1-017
1-157
1-160
1-164
1-169
1-173
0-872
1-025
1-177
0-866
0-40
0-863
1-008
1-154
0-724
0-872
1-020
0-723
0-863
1-008
1-154
0-720
0-865
0-722
0-30
0-45
1-300
1-301
1-304
1-308
1-313
1-318
1-325
1-330
1-335
0-853
1-016
1-177
1-337
0-50
1-448
1-449
1-451
1-456
1-462
1-469
1-476
1-484
1-492
1-498
1-649
1-659
1-820
O
*3
a,
O
o
4>
0-35
0-431
0-431
0-577
1-023
0-373
1-023
1-179
Xi
13
0-55
1-596
1-597
1-600
1-605
1-612
1-620
1-629
1-639
<u
0-60
1-746
1-747
1-750
1-756
1-763
1-773
1-783
1-795
1-808
0-65
1-897
1-898
1-901
1-908
1-916
1-926
1-938
1-953
1-967
1-983
0-70
2-049
2-050
2-054
2-061
2-070
2-081
2-095
2-111
2-128
2-147
0-75
2-202
2-215
2-372
2-225
2-383
2-238
2-396
2-253
2-413
2-271
2-291
2-358
2-204
2-359
2-208
0-80
2-433
2-455
2-313
2-480
0-85
2-517
2-676
2-522
2-682
2-542
2-703
2-557
2-720
2-575
2-740
2-763
2-622
2-791
0-95
2-836
2-838
2-844
2-530
2-691
2-854
2-597
0-90
2-515
2-674
2-867
2-885
2-906
2-932
2-962
1-00
3-002
3-008
3-019
3-033
3-052
3-136
3-169
3-176
3-202
3-223
3-278
3-339
3-346
3-358
3-375
3-397
3-076
3-248
3-424
3-104
3-187
1-10
3-000
3-167
3-337
3-314
3-495
1-15
3-510
3-512
3-533
3-551
3-574
3-603
3-639
1-20
3-687
3-690
3-520
3-698
3-711
3-731
3-756
3-787
3-825
3-680
3-870
1-25
3-868
3-871
3-880
4-066
3-894
3-915
3-942
3-975
4-016
4-065
O
s
o
t-l
CO
J
"<fr
2-364
2-650
2-822
2-996
"3
1-05
*3
o
CO
3
4-259
4-082
4-275
4-446
4-651
4-457
4-662
4-475
4-681
4-863
5-085
5-318
4-875
5-098
5-333
4-896
1-35
4-054
4-245
4-057
4-249
1-40
4-443
1-45
4-647
2
O Xi
1-50
4-859
CO
1-55
5-081
CO
P3
O
o
1-30
xOh
X)
23
Vh
3-923
4-104
4-299
4-500
4-709
4-133
4-169
4-330
4-534
4-744
4-369
4-213
4-416
4-265
4-473
4-575
4-626
4-688
4-122
4-327
4-540
4-761
4-790
4-845
4-912
4-992
4-925
5-153
5-013
5-074
5-314
5-146
5-235
5-248
5-394
5-490
5-496
5-568
5-656
5-760
5-840
5-939
5-764
6-060
6-046
6136
6-247
6-386
-m
X! a,
-4->
3-456
3-174
3-355
3-540
3-729
X! Cm
1-65
5-559
5-564
5-580
5-607
5-645
1-70
5-821
5-827
5-845
5-874
5-917
4-964
5-195
5-438
5-696
5-973
1-75
6-105
6-111
6-131
6-164
6-212
6-276
6-358
6-462
6-591
6-755
6-484
6-539
6-613
6-833
7-004
7-487
8-220
6-990
7-485
8-246
7-193
6-848
6-710
7-122
7-651
1-60
5-313
5-121
5-357
5-391
-4->
-t->
c/T
co
CO
X
a. o
3 X
1-80
6-416
1-85
1-90
6-767
7-181
6-424
6-776
7-192
6-446
6-802
7-225
7-282
6-914
7-368
1-95
7-716
7-732
7-781
7-968
8-005
2-00
9-000
Checked by
I.
t-
Oh
3
+2
X
4mi
Cm
Woodward.
180
8-636
7-278
7-881
7-774
TABLE
4.3.2 (continued)
Co-ordinates for Construction of Bernal Chartf
Camera
x
in terms of y
and of g,
=
=
=
radius 2-865 cm.
on layer line from central axis of chart in cm.

co-ordinate parallel to rotation axis (layer height) in cm.
cylindrical co-ordinates of reciprocal lattice.
distance of point
JO
o
1
<-
=0-50
y =1-654
0-55
0-60
0-65
0-70
0-75
0-80
0-85
0-90
0-95
1-887
2-149
2-451
2-808
3-249
3-820
4-623
5-915
8-717
o
0-05
0-10
IS
Oh
0-15
0-208
0-20
0-458
0-25
0-651
0-591
0-481
0-229
0-30
0-829
0-718
0-35
1-001
0-686
0-313
T3
0-40
0-45
M68
1-150
0-924
1-117
0-592
0-840
0-308
0-788
0-973
1-057
1-335
1-324
1-302
1-261
0-953
1-187
0-753
1-050
0-765
0-50
1-500
1-497
1-484
1-457
1-405
1-307
1-117
0-639
0-55
1-666
1-668
1-664
1-649
1-614
1-545
1-410
1-113
0-60
1-831
1-840
1-843
1-838
1-819
1-773
1-678
1-472
0-891
0-65
1-998
2-012
2-023
2-027
2-021
1-931
1-788
1-416
0-70
2-166
2-185
2-202
2-216
2-221
i-995
2-213
2-177
2-081
1-829
0-75
2-336
2-360
2-537
2-714
2-895
3-079
2-384
2-566
2-750
2-938
3-128
2-405
2-422
2-363
2-638"
1-553
2-624
2-544
2-145
2-911
2-879
2-655
2-984
3-182
3-033
2-417
2-657
2-896
3-136
3-379
2-198
2-596
2-789
3-183
3-208
3-457
3-537
3-129
3-590
3-266
3-321
3-736
4-022
4-316
4-622
4-944
4-051
3-519
3-627
3-880
4-141
4-410
4-691
3-871
3-457
4-212
4-566
4-937
5-334
4-523
5-285
6-906
8-079
6-058
5-765
6-250
6-826
6-519
7-602
o
o
Oh
T3
<L)
0-355
J3
O
B
o
0-670
CO
s
+*
0-80
2-507
0-85
2-681
0-90
2-857
0-95
3-035
1-00
3-217
3-402
1-05
t5
CO
M0
M5
O
-
3-241
2-864
3-084
3-307
3-384
3-454
3-534
3-589
3-671
3-767
3-894
4-123
4-005
4-360
4-505
4-472
4-713
4-964
4-605
4-862
5-132
4-771
5-229
5-418
5-663
4-986
5-298
5-634
6-000
5-510
5-726
6-009
6-411
7-077
5-813
6-144
6-060
6-434
6-395
6-842
6-894
7-869
6-514
6-944
6-866
7-403
9-000
7-405
8-253
8-313
3-592
3-652
3-721
3-800
3-786
3-851
3-928
1-20
3-985
4-057
4-141
4-017
4-240
1-25
4-189
4-401
4-361
1-45
4-620
4-848
5-087
4-268
4-487
4-715
4-952
5-202
o
3 O
O -E3
1-50
5-339
5-466
5-621
00
1-55
5-607
5-748
5-923
1-60
5-894
6-208
6-055
6-255
1-65
6-393
1-70
6-558
6-778
6-629
7-069
1-75
6-964
7-241
1-80
7-467
7-872
1-85
8-247
2
on
e
o
O
1-30
.
-5
Oh
1-35
1-40
TO
4>
J3
*-H
o O
H-J
X!
4-590
4-827
5-077
5-340
2-430
2-646
2-827
7-486
4-251
5-050
5-346
oo
00
j=
Oh.O
45
JO
afting
8-386
7-638
9-000
1-90
1-95
u
2-00
Fordi
C4
O
t
Checked by
I.
Woodward.
181
7-516
5-652
5-019
5-556
6-163
TABLE
Data
for
Bunn Chart
for Indexing of Rotation
4.3.4
Zero Line of Rectangular Lattice
(Scale of chart should allow 1-0 table unit
b/a (axial ratio of net)

log 10(l0b/a)
25
cm
(see
1-0
0-9
0-8
0-7
0-6
1-0
0-9542
0-9031
0-8451
0-7782
(tetragonal)
h,
10
20
30
40
50
hk curves
(Fig. 4.3.7)
1-9031
0-5773
0-7614
(hexagonal)
2 log10
0-6990
1-3010
1-6532
page 184)
or more)
constant
log10 10 (h*-k 2 )
from
Ma?
distance of points
on
(b/a)*+l
reference abscissa along b/ a ordinates
0-6507
1-2529
1-6050
1-8549
0-5913
0-5171
1-1934
1-1190
0-4228
1-0249
1-5456
1-4713
1-3770
1-7954
1-9893
1-7211
1-6269
1-9149
1-8207
60
70
80
90
1-0000
1-6021
1-9791
1-9542
1-0000
1-4771
10,0
11,0
12,0
01
11
21
31
41
0-6990
1-0000
1-3979
1-6990
1-9294
0-7423
1-0000
1-3697
0-7852
1-0000
1-3365
0-8268
1-0000
1-2981
0-8665
1-0000
1-2538
1-6609
1-6151
1-5600
1-4938
1-8872
1-8353
1-7733
1-6964
1-9490
1-8665
1-8451
1-4771
51
61
71
81
91
10,1
11,1
02
1-3010
1-3444
1-3872
1-4288
1-4685
12
1-3979
1-4245
1-4516
1-4790
1-5059
22
32
42
1-6021
1-6021
1-6021
1-6021
1-6021
1-8129
1-7950
1-7746
1-7516
1-7262
2-0000
1-9717
1-9387
1-9002
1-8559
03
1-6532
1-6965
1-8207
1-6990
1-8129
1-7340
1-7394
1-7692
1-7810
13
1-8041
1-8301
1-8481
1-8666
1-9542
1-9542
1-9542
1-9542
1-8377
1-8852
1-9542
1-9031
1-9464
1-9893
04
1-8451
1-9804
52
62
72
82
23
33
43
1-6021
182
1-8451
1-9542
TABLE
Data
for
Bunn Chart
4.3.4 {continued)
for Indexing of Rotation
Zero Line of Rectangular Lattice
(Scale of chart should allow 1-0 table
b/a (axial ratio of net)
log 10 (lOb/a)
unit=25
cm
01
0-4
0-3
0-2
0-6990
0-6021
0-4771
0-3010
2 log10
constant
log10 l0
Uhi - k ^^^r +k2

l
hk curves
10
20
30
40
50
0-3010
0-9031
(Fig. 4.3.7)
0-1396
0-7417
1-0939
distance of points
on
0-1998
0-3936
00
OO
OO
OO
OO
1-5850
0-5519
0-6858
0-8018
0-9041
0-9956
oo
OO
OO
OO
OO
1-6678
1-0784
1-7434
1-1540
oo
oo
0-9957
1-0000
1-0000
1-0000
1-0127
1-0000
-0-0830
-0-4150
0-1870
0-5392
0-7892
0-9830
1-6990
1-5376
1-8573
1-6960
1-4731
1-1413
1-9912
1-8298
1-6070
1-2752
1-9458
1-7228
1-8252
1-3912
1-4935
10,0
1-9168
11,0
1-9996
60
70
80
90
OO
from reference abscissa along b/a ordinates
0-5188
0-8710
1-1209
1-3147
1-2553
1-5052
page 184)
or more)
0-5
h,k
(see
1-3438
12,0
-1-0044
-0-4023
-0-0501
0-9356
1-0000
1-1505
0-9626
1-0000
1-0961
0-9830
1-0000
1-0474
1-3228
1-2176
1-1165
1-0331
1-0000
41
1-4150
1-6021
1-4870
1-3499
1-1978
1-0599
1-0000
51
1-7634
1-6345
1-4744
1-2840
1-0925
1-0000
61
1-9031
1-7655
1-5899
1-3703
1-1292
1-0000
1-8820
1-6957
1-4542
1-1688
1-0000
1-9863
1-7925
1-5344
1-2105
1-0000
1-8811
1-6103
1-2533
1-0000
1-9625
1-6819
1-2967
1-0000
1-7494
1-3401
1-0000
01
0-9031
11
10000
21
1-2041
31
71
81
91
10,1
11,1
1-5052
1-5315
1-5376
1-5647
1-5850
1-5977
1-6021
1-5547
1-5743
1-5893
1-5988
1-6021
22
32
42
1-6021
1-6021
1-6021
1-6021
1-6021
1-6021
1-6990
1-6711
1-6447
1-6224
1-6074
1-6021
1-8062
1-7524
1-6982
1-6495
1-6148
1-6021
52
62
72
82
1-9138
1-8386
1-7584
1-8223
1-6819
1-6241
1-6021
1-7185
1-6352
1-6021
1-8873
1-7582
1-6479
1-6021
1-9520
1-7999
1-6622
1-6021
03
1-8573
1-8898
1-9168
1-9372
1-9499
1-9542
13
1-8692
1-9211
1-9391
1-9504
1-9542
23
33
43
1-9031
1-8974
1-9196
1-9339
1-9449
1-9518
1-9542
1-9542
1-9985
1-9542
1-9542
1-9542
1-9542
1-9804
1-9670
1-9576
1-9542
02
12
1-9250
1-9542
04
183
4.3.
For the usual case (/x=0 and a =90):

t(uvw)=
(2)
Separate
is the order of the layer line.
rotation photographs about crystal axes, face diagonals
and a body diagonal will give the unit-cell dimensions
where n
and
lattice
Anomalous
type directly.
results
may indi-
a twin.
To give a quick measure of t(uvw), a set of curves
may be constructed relating / and y for n=\, 2,
and for given values of r and A. The measurements
will not be very accurate, however, because high-order
layer lines correspond to very oblique angles of intercate that the crystal
is
ception on the film.
4.3.4.
Indexing of Zero-layer Line
If the primitive translations in the reciprocal lattice
normal to the rotation axis are known from rotation

photographs, and goniometric information is available,
from optical or Laue measurements, concerning reciprocal-lattice angles, the spots on the zero-layer line
may usually be indexed directly.

Unknown primitive translations
in
90IOO-
an orthogonal
by methods
zero-layer net can sometimes be determined
similar to those used for the powder technique (Section 4.6.2). Table 4.3.4 gives data for the construction
of a Bunn chartf for indexing the orthogonal hkO net
on a rotation or
Fig. 4.3.4. Bunn chart for indexing an orthogonal net

from the zero row of a rotation photograph.
photograph taken with
oscillation
[001] as rotation axis.
The
The value of C, which is unknown, is independent of

h,k and is taken care of by being able to move the
chart consists of discrete curves, each characa particular hk combination of indices, the
terizing
paper ruler, which is kept parallel to the ordinate axis,

not only (1) along the b/a axis, but also (2) normal to
the b/a axis (thus changing 2 log into 2 log +Q>
until a match is found for a particular value of b/a,
after which the h,k values can be read off the chart
(Fig. 4.3.4 and [5], page 142).
This chart assumes a>b, but can of course also be
used for a<b by interchanging h and k.
The chart can only be applied with accuracy if
drawn on a large scale and if sharp and accurately
measurable reflections are available.
Using a Bernal chart of suitable scale, reflections on
higher-layer lines can usually be indexed by inspection.
The oscillation method does not require separate
ordinates being
log 10
\b/a) 2 +l
+W
and the abscissae b/a (Fig. 4.3.4) or preferably

log(106/a); the factor 10 merely being a constant
which avoids most negative quantities in the table.
This chart
is
used in conjunction with a paper
on which are recorded the observed 2 log
ruler,
values
for all zero-layer line reflections ( =2 sin 0, where

0=(18O/2ir)(x/r), in degrees, for a cylindrical film;
_1
tan (x/D) for a plane film).
This ruler is drawn to the same scale as the chart
ordinates, which are based on the equation
0=|
"1
*2
2
2
2
f 2=/,2 fl +A: Z>* =A
Hence
2 log
A2
log
10 [a
+
or
11
(b/a)
2+
lb
21og +C=logl0
(h
and
is
described in references
If the reciprocal-lattice nets are
[9]
and
[35].
not orthogonal, a
moving-film method will give axial angles as well as
"!
lengths.
t The construction and use of this chart are described by

C. W. Bunn on pages 132-35, 142-43 and Appendix 3 of his
Chemical Crystallography [5]. The following misprints should,
however, be noted in earlier editions of the book:
should be XN/MN.
Page 380, last line:
2
Page 381, lines 24 and 27: 1/a 2 in numerator should be 1/c ;
2
2
.);
line 33: MX=4/3a H-(.
.) should be MX/MN=l/c +(.
2
s
last line: 4/3a in numerator should be 1/c
log 10 (A 2 -* 2)
tables
Q -k 2) (b/a) 2 +l +k''
(h 2
-k
a) 2 +
+k
l
MX
(bh
184
Weissenberg Method
4.4.
Experimental Details
4.4.1.
The principles of this technique are very adequately

described by M. J. Buerger [3]. Three arrangements
are in common use.
Normal-beam. X-ray beam perpendicular to crystal rotation axis. Screens adjusted to record only one
layer line (constant ) for any one exposure. Crystal
usually oscillated through about 200.
Using Buerger's notation (Table 4.3. 1), ^=/x N =0.
(a)
(b) Equi-inclination.
/*=/ae, such that
given
it
X-ray beam inclined at angle

lies on the cone generator for the
central
yw
is
1=2
<f>
sin
x w cos
/i
<=C 2y w
A nomogram
(1)
....(2)
for the determination of is shown

and Table 4.4.2A gives data for its
in Figure 4.4.2(1),
construction.
jh
e = v.
-10
T
oi
10--20
X-ray beam inclined to plane normal to

the rotation axis at an angle F such that the level
desired emerges in an equatorial plane normal to the
/u,
30
20
Using Buerger's notation, v=0.

Table 4.4.1 A gives /uE and layer-line screen setting
s E for the equi-inclination method, in terms of , for
a Weissenberg camera diameter 2r=5-73 cm, having
screens of diameter 2r8 =5 cm.
=rB
tan
E =rs
/t*
V(4- 2)
4.4. IB gives setting
That
is,
=2
constants
0-5
0-8
-0-9
30--60
-10
70
sin
/x
-1-2
40
-1
/x
1-3
-1-4
90
-
60
1-6
1-1-7
120
M-8
M-9
70 1-140
-150
Fig. 4.4.2(1).
ordinates.
mm
pages 261-68) has described a conscales and measuring devices

directly for each spot, but
for
greater accuracy is obtained by the use of standard
millimetre scales and measuring instruments. If care
is taken to maintain the film truly cylindrical in the
can be expected for
film holder, a precision of 0-3
ordinary Weissenberg methods. Precision can be
greatly increased either by the use of a calibrating
pattern (e.g. Ag powder pattern on edge of film, [36]),
or by the provision of special Straumanis film arrangements (Buerger [3], Chapter 21).
Weissenberg patterns of known lattices are indexed
Buerger
<f>
C 1 =360/2ttt.
C1 -27mm, x w =Y/2.
2r=5-73 cm,
to the
and
([3]; see
method involving
determining and
venient
Nomogram for transforming Weissenberg
film co-ordinates to cylindrical reciprocal-lattice co-
In order to construct the reciprocal lattice from a

it is necessary to determine the
cylindrical co-ordinates and <f> (Table 4.3.1) from the
x y
co-ordinates measured on the film in
( being known and constant for the given pattern).
First consider the instrumental constants C l9 C 2 of
the camera. C x depends on the camera diameter and
is the ratio of the reflection angle Y (=26) for the zero
colayer line of a normal-beam pattern, to the x
ordinate measured round the film from the incident-
a*
-2-0
160
180
Weissenberg pattern
C 2 is the ratio of the crystal rotation

corresponding traverse of the camera y
1-5
-no
w w
1-
100
50
-130
C 1 =Y/\W
0-7
Interpretation of Weissenberg Patterns
generally also
0-4
50
Appropriate factors must be applied for cameras of

other dimensions.
In general,
0-6
{y=r/V0- 2)}.
trace as origin.
+ 40
e
r.l.u.
1;
)
F (= sin
for the flat-cone method (s F =0), and s N {=r8 tan v
=rs /V0- 2)} f r tne normal-beam method (ju N =0),
for a range of values of , and corresponding
values of yrot, the height in cm of the layer line
on a rotation photograph; for the same size camera
Table
f0 . 2
rotation axis.
If
then inclined at
(direction of
values
photographs.
beam
is
direction
measured from a central row as origin line.

have the following
/* E and
In terms of x w y w and
(c) Flat-cone.
4.4.2.
traverse).
This method doubles the range of the reciprocal

lattice that can be recorded, using successive n-layer-
sK
the
to
level.
Using Buerger's notation,
line
row of the pattern
tan -1 2=63 26'
is
2/mm.
185
4.4.
WEISSENBERG METHOD
of symmetry or listing
Sketches of the indexed Weissenberg
patterns on transparent overlays are very useful in this
connection.
template showing a series of equally
spaced row lines in the reciprocal-lattice plane transformed to Weissenberg co-ordinates (for the abovementioned camera dimensions) is reproduced full size
in Fig. 4.4.2(2). Buerger has given a table for the con-
on Cartesian
directly for the determination
struction of this chart
intensities.
on the curves
from the zero line along axes parallel to
the central row line (at an angle of 63 26' for the
previously described camera arrangement). Table
the
work
is
co-ordinates, but
greatly simplified if points
are laid off
4.4.2B gives these distances for row lines at equal intervals of 0-10 r.l.u., for axes erected at equal intervals of
<
(5
or 2-5
mm)
along the zero row
line.
With the bottom line of the chart

placed on the trace of the direct beam, and the sloping sides along a chosen central lattice row, the curves show
the apparent shape of a set of lattice rows parallel to the central row.
Fig. 4.4.2(2). Equi-inclination Weissenberg transform of parallel lattice rows.
186
4.4.
WEISSENBERG METHOD
TABLE
4.4.1A
Equi-inclination Weissenberg
Method
Camera diameter =
Screen diameter
/x
B
sE
000
Ê
(cm)
000'
=
=
=
layer height in reciprocal-lattice units
0-35
Se
(cm)
/*E
10 05'
17
0013
0-36
10 22
0-02
34
52
09
0-025
0-038
0-37
10 40
0-38
10 57
0-050
0-39
11
0-063
0-075
0-40
11 32'
43
0-41
11
0-088
0-100
0-113
0-42
0-09
2 00
2 18
2 35
0-10
2 52'
0-11
0-14
09
3 26
3 44
4 01
0-15
4 18'
0-04
0-05
126'
006
0-07
0-08
0-12
013
cm
cm
5-73
5-00
camera-inclination angle
layer-line screen setting (cm)
0-01
0-03
Setting Constants
15
/*E
Se
(cm)
0-444
0-458
0-471
0-484
0-497
0-70
20 29'
0-71
0-74
20 48
21 06
21 25
21 43
0-934
0-949
0-965
0-980
0-996
0-510
0-524
0-537
0-550
0-564
0-75
22 02'
1-011
0-76
1-027
0-78
22 20
22 39
22 57
0-79
23
1-075
0-72
0-73
0-44
50
12 07
12 25
12 43
0-125
0-138
0-150
0-45
13 00'
0-577
0-80
23 35'
1091
0-46
13
18
0-591
0-81
23 54
1-107
0-47
13
13
0-49
14
11
0-604
0-618
0-632
0-84
24 12
24 31
24 50
1-123
0-48
36
53
0-82
0-163
0-175
0-50
14 29'
0-645
0-85
25 09'
1-174
0-659
0-673
0-86
1-191
0-687
0-701
0-88
0-89
25
25
26
26
0-90
26 45'
0-91
0-94
27
27
27
28
0-43
0-77
0-83
16
1-043
1-059
1-140
1-157
0-17
4 35
4 53
0-18
10
0-188
0-201
0-213
0-226
0-19
5 27
0-238
0-54
15 40
0-20
5 44'
0-251
0-55
15 58'
0-21
6 02
0-56
16
0-22
0-57
16 34
0-23
6 19
6 36
0-58
16
0-24
6 54
0-264
0-277
0-289
0-302
0-59
17 09
0-715
0-729
0-743
0-758
0-772
0-315
0-328
0-341
0-353
0-366
0-60
17 27'
0-786
0-95
28 22'
1-350
0-61
17 46
0-801
0-96
41
1-368
0-62
18 04
0-97
01
1-387
0-63
18
0-815
0-830
0-844
20
40
1-405
0-99
28
29
29
29
0-859
0-874
0-889
0-904
0-919
1-00
30 00'
1-443
1-01
30 20
30 40
1-482
0-16
0-25
7 11'
0-26
7 28
0-27
0-28
7 46
8 03
0-29
0-30
8 38'
20
0-31
0-32
0-33
9 12
9 30
9 47
0-34
55
0-379
0-392
0-405
0-418
0-431
0-51
14 46
0-52
15 04
0-53
15 22
16
51
0-64
22
18 40
0-65
18 58'
0-66
19
0-67
34
19 52
20 11
0-68
0-69
16
19
187
0-87
0-92
0-93
0-98
1-02
1-03
31
1-04
31
28
47
06
25
1-208
1-225
1-242
1-260
04
1-277
23
43
1-295
02
1-331
00
20
1-313
1-424
1-463
1-502
1-522
4.4.
WEISSENBERG METHOD
TABLE
Me
(cm)
1-05
31 40'
1-06
1-09
32
32
32
33
1-10
33 22'
1-11
33
34
34
34
1-07
1-08
1-12
113
1-14
36 52'
1-875
1-35
42 27'
2-287
1-900
1-36
51
2-319
1-925
1-37
1-38
14
38
2-351
1-950
1-976
1-39
42
43
43
44
02
2-417
00
1-21
21
1-583
1-22
41
01
1-604
1-23
1-625
1-24
37 14
37 35
37 57
38 19
1-646
1-25
38 41'
2-002
43
03
1-668
1-26
2-028
1-690
1-27
24
45
1-712
1-28
1-734
1-29
39 03
39 25
39 48
40 10
2-138
2-167
2-196
1-757
1-30
40 33'
27
48
09
1-780
1-31
40 55
1-803
1-32
1-827
1-33
41
41
31
1-851
1-34
42 04
?5 06'
Se
(cm)
1-20
35
35
36
36
119
(continued)
Se
(cm)
Me
1-562
1-16
1-18
1-542
115
1-17
4.4.1
18
41
188
2-055
2-083
2-110
2-226
2-256
Me
2-383
4.4.
WEISSENBERG METHOD
TABLE
4.4.1B
Normal-beam and Flat-cone Weissenberg Methods Setting Constants
Camera diameter =
Screen diameter
=
y rot =
fi F =
sN =
cm
cm
5-73
5-00
layer height in reciprocal-lattice units
on rotation film from same camera

camera-inclination angle for flat-cone method (s F =0)
layer-line screen setting (cm) for normal-beam method
layer height (cm)
Mf
sN
Yrot
(cm)
(cm)
0<35
034'
0-025
0-36
0-050
0-075
0-100
0-37
1-141
0-38
1-177
0-39
1-213
Yrot
(cm)
0-00
(/a
n =0)
/*F
(cm)
1-071
20 29'
1-105
21
0-934
0-965
0-996
06
21 43
22 20
22 57
0-02
0-029
0-057
003
0086
0-04
0-115
0-05
0-143
2 52'
0-125
0-40
1-250
23 35'
1091
0-06
26
0150
0-41
1-288
1-124
4 01
4 35
0-175
0-201
0-226
0-42
1-326
1-365
0-44
1-404
50
28
06
1-157
0-43
24
24
25
26
12
009
0-172
0-201
0-230
0-259
010
0-288
5 44'
0-251
0-45
1-444
26 45'
0-11
0-317
6 19
6 54
7 28
8 03
0-277
0-46
1-484
0-302
0-47
1-525
0-328
0-48
1-568
0-353
0-49
1-610
27
28
28
29
8 38'
0-379
0-405
0-431
0-50
1-654
30 00'
1-443
0-51
1-699
1-482
0-52
1-744
0-457
0-53
1-791
0-484
0-54
1-838
30 40
31 20
32 00
32 41
0-510
0-537
0-564
0-591
0-618
0-55
1-887
33 22'
1-646
0-56
1-937
1-988
0-58
0-59
2040
2094
03
45
27
1-690
0-57
34
34
35
36
09
1-827
0-01
0-07
0-08
0-12
0-13
0-14
0-15
0-16
0-17
0-18
0-19
0-346
0-376
0-405
0-435
0-464
0-494
0-524
0-554
1
1
9
9
10
10
09
43
18
10
12
47
22
57
1-027
1059
1-191
1-225
1-260
23
02
1-295
41
1-368
20
1-405
1-331
1-521
1-562
1-604
11 32'
0-24
0-585
0-615
0-646
0-677
0-708
0-25
0-740
14 29'
0-646
0-60
2-149
36 52'
1-875
0-26
0-771
15 04
0-673
0-61
2-206
1-925
0-27
0-803
15 40
0-701
0-62
2-264
0-28
16
16
0-729
0-63
2-324
0-29
0-836
0-868
16
51
0-758
0-64
2-386
37 35
38 19
39 03
39 48
0-30
0-901
17 27'
0-786
0-65
2-451
40 33'
2-138
0-31
18
04
18 40
41
0-67
2-517
2-586
19
16
0-68
2-657
2-195
2-256
2-318
0-34
1-036
19
52
0-815
0-844
0-874
0-904
0-66
0-33
0-934
0-968
1-002
0-69
2-731
0-20
0-21
0-22
0-23
0-32
12 07
12 43
13
13
18
53
189
18
42 04
42 51
43 38
1-735
1-780
1-976
2-029
2-083
2-383
4.4.
WEISSENBERG METHOD
TABLE
Data
Nomogram
for
4.4.2A
for Conversion of Equi-inclination Weissenberg Film Co-ordinates to
Reciprocal-lattice
Cylindrical Co-ordinates
For layout see Fig. 4.4.2(1). Tabulated figures give a convenient scale for drafting, but the chart may be
reduced photographically for use. x w y w Weissenberg film co-ordinates, x, y co-ordinates on nomogram.
,
A. Scale for film co-ordinate, x w
xw
(cm)
Scale
(cm)
Origin at 00; scale extends vertically
xw
downward
(cm)
(cm)
x
(cm)
Scale
to
x=0,
y= 45 cm.
y
Scale
(cm)
3-0
22-47
6-0
38-97
0-79
3-1
6-1
39-36
0-2
1-58
3-2
6-2
0-3
2-36
3-3
23-16
23-84
24-51
0-4
3-14
3-4
25-16
6-4
39-73
40-10
40-45
0-5
3-92
3-5
25-81
6-5
40-78
0-6
4-70
3-6
26-45
6-6
41-11
0-7
5-48
3-7
27-08
6-7
0-8
6-26
3-8
27-71
6-8
0-9
7-04
3-9
28-32
6-9
41-42
41-72
42-01
1-0
7-81
4-0
28-93
7-0
42-29
1-1
8-59
4-1
29-52
7-1
1-2
9-36
4-2
30-11
7-2
42-55
42-80
1-3
10-13
4-3
30-69
7-3
1-4
10-89
4-4
31-26
7-4
1-5
11-65
4-5
31-82
7-5
1-6
12-40
4-6
32-37
7-6
7-7
0-1
6-3
43-03
43-25
1-7
13-16
4-7
32-91
1-8
13-91
4-8
33-44
7-8
43-46
43-66
43-85
44-01
1-9
14-65
4-9
33-96
7-9
44-17
2-0
15-39
5-0
34-47
8-0
44-32
2-1
16-13
5-1
34-97
8-1
2-2
16-86
5-2
35-46
8-2
44-45
44-56
2-3
17-58
5-3
44-66
18-30
5-4
35-94
36-41
8-3
2-4
8-4
44-75
2-5
19-02
5-5
44-83
19-72
5-6
36-86
37-30
8-5
2-6
8-6
2-7
20-43
5-7
37-74
8-7
2-8
21-13
5-8
38-16
8-8
2-9
21-82
5-9
38-57
8-9
44-89
44-94
44-97
44-99
9-0
45-00
190
4.4.
WEISSENBERG METHOD
TABLE
Scale for inclination setting, /z E Origin at x=33 cm, j>=-30cm; scale extends diagonally upward and
towards 0-0, the origin of scale A.
B.
left
4.4.2A {continued)
ME
Scale
Me
Scale
Me
Scale
(deg.)
(cm)
(deg.)
(cm)
(deg.)
(cm)
15
5-62
30
16-35
0-03
16
6-28
31
17-04
0-11
17
6-97
17-72
0-26
18
7-66
0-45
19
8-38
32
33
34
5
6
0-70
20
9-10
1-00
21
9-83
1-36
1-75
2-20
22
23
24
10-57
10
2-68
40
3-21
25
26
27
28
29
12-77
11
13-51
41
14-23
42
43
44
23-73
45
25-29
12
3-77
13
4-36
14
4-98
11-30
12-04
14-94
15-64
35
36
37
38
39
18-38
19-03
19-66
20-30
20-91
21-51
22-08
22-64
23-20
24-27
24-78
C. Scale for radial reciprocal-lattice co-ordinate, . Origin at x=7-20 cm, >>=-6-55 cm (on line of scale B
extended); scale extends vertically downward to >>=-41-75 cm. Scale marked for intervals of of 001 from to
2-00, at equal intervals of y of 0-176 cm.
191
4.4.
WEISSENBERG METHOD
TABLE
4.4.2B
Data for Row-line Indexing Chart for Weissenberg Equi-inclination Photographs
For layout see Fig. 4.4.2(2). For drafting purposes the chart should be constructed to a scale magnified to 5 times
or more, then reduced photographically to the scale of the table.
Entries are distances in cm from base (x axis) along axes parallel to zero row-line (d*=0) (inclination angle
63 26'). Coupling ratio: 1 mm/2 deg. camera diameter 5-73 cm (r F =2-86 cm), d* is in reciprocal-lattice units.
Table entries are 0-01951 x2-86Y", where sin (Y/2)=d*/2 sin^.
;
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
0-25
0-50
0-75
1-00
1-25
1-50
1-75
2-00
2-25
2-50
1-872
1-246
0-940
0-759
0-642
0-454
0-418
2-541
1-901
1-531
1-290
0-559
1-122
0-499
3-931
1-001
0-908
0-839
3-960
5-657
2-324
1-952
1-695
1-508
1-370
1-263
0-4
2-908
4-002
3-159
2-636
2-282
2-027
1-837
1-692
0-5
8-385
5-251
4-054
3-354
2-889
2-559
2-316
2-130
6-854
5-056
4-122
3-526
3110
2-806
2-578
0-7
6-251
3-688
3-317
0-8
7-957
4-968
5-940
4-302
4-968
3-852
4-419
3-040
3-520
4-023
f-
X =
0(cm)
d*
(r.l.u.)
0-10-063
0-1
0-2
0-3
0-6
3-913
6-680
0-9
7-173
4-204
4-944
5-778
1-0
10063
6-782
5-709
5-031
4-556
8-219
6-576
7-711
5-709
5-131
1-1
6-489
5-765
1-3
7-471
6-490
1-4
9-154
7-383
1-2
8-749
1-5
1-6
1-7
1-8
1-9
2-0
192
4.4.
WEISSENBERG METHOD
TABLE
Column on
f-
X=
right gives values of
4.4.2B (continued)
for y=180, for the values of
d* given on the
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
2-75
3-00
3-25
3-50
3-75
4-00
4-25
4-50
d*
left.
x(Y"=180)
(r.l.u.)
01
0-2
0-3
0-4
0-391
0-784
1-180
1-580
0-370
0-353
0-341
0-741
0-708
1-115
1-066
1-493
1-426
0-683
1-027
1-375
0-5
1-987
0-6
2-403
0-7
2-829
3-268
3-725
1-876
2-266
2-665
3-076
3-500
4-206
4-718
5-266
3-942
4-407
4-903
1-4
5-872
6-564
1-5
7-412
6-707
1-6
8-675
7-544
8-826
0-8
0-9
1-0
1-1
1-2
1-3
1-7
1-8
1-9
1-336
0-325
0-652
0-979
1-310
0-332
0-664
0-998
0-322
0-644
0-968
1-295
0-321
0-642
0-965
1-290
0-143
0-287
0-431
0-577
1-790
1-726
1-677
1-645
1-625
1-619
2-161
2-083
2-023
1-983
1-960
1-952
2-540
2-928
3-328
2-446
2-819
2-376
2-735
3-104
2-328
2-680
2-300
2-646
3-002
2-291
0-724
0-873
1-024
2-636
1-179
2-990
1-337
3-743
3-597
4-008
3-485
3-411
1-500
3-881
3-796
3-731
1-668
4-635
4-440
4-122
1-843
5-437
5-124
4-554
4-533
5-654
4-897
5-388
4-197
4-619
6-029
4-293
4-728
5-192
3-369
3-747
4-140
3-354
4-177
5-065
4-991
4-968
2-027
2-221
6-244
5-926
5-694
5-546
5-461
5-433
2-429
6-929
7-793
6-531
6-251
6-073
5-973
5-940
2-656
7-250
8-207
6-891
6-671
7-385
6-548
7-224
6-508
7-681
7-173
8-895
8-354
8104
8-029
2-910
3-208
3-590
10-063
4-500
9-308
3-201
2-0
193
3-040
Buerger Precession Method
4.5.
The Buerger
camera
precession
(Buerger
[3])
registers layers of the reciprocal lattice in true shape.
prepared for a photograph! by means of

settings:
various
p., inclination of crystal translation
to X-ray beam; rs layer-screen annular radius; s,
screen-to-crystal distance setting; Fd*, upper-level film
The camera
is
the crystal-to-film axis setting, d* the

upper-level height). They are related by the expression
(F
setting
are related to the level height d* by

Table 4.5.3 may
equation (1) by replacing rs with r
to d* values
be used to convert r-, readings in
in reciprocal-lattice units, providing screen-to-crystal
distance s is fixed at 40-0 mm.
the circles, r x
mm
</*=cos
p.
-{s/^rf+s*)}
is
All of the settings and transformations based
cot cos
-1
(cos fid*)
(1)
For the common case where d*=0 (zero4evel photography), equation (1) reduces to
s=rs cot
on
may
be conveniently determined from a

nomogram given in Fig. 4.5.4, which is modified from
Adams and Evans [40]. Table 4.5.4 gives data for the
construction of this nomogram.
equation
s=rs
-(3)
(1)
(2)
p,
Table 4.5.1 gives screen settings s for zero-level photographs as given by equation (2), for two practical
choices of screen radius rs 15 and 20 mm. For upper
levels, Table 4.5.2 gives the trigonometric part of
equation (1), and these values must be multiplied by
,
the chosen screen radius to yield the screen setting, s.

Care must be exercised to select a screen radius (and
inclination angle) which will not cause the screen to
interfere with the film holder
TABLE
on the camera.
4.5.1
Layer-screen Settings for Zero-level Photographs with

the Buerger Precession Camera
Table values give screen setting s in

radius
/% is
in
(deg.)
mm;
screen
mm.
rs =15
rs =20
20
41-2
21
39-1
22
37-1
23
24
35-3
25
26
27
28
29
32-2
42-9
30-8
41-0
29-4
39-3
33-7
28-2
37-6
27-1
36-1
Fig. 4.5.4. Nomogram for determination of setting

constants of the Buerger precession camera for photographing a given lattice plane.
A valuable application of the precession instrument

the orientation of crystals. Fig. 4.5.5 shows
the appearance of a mis-set zero-level plane with error
angle less than p in (a) and greater than p in (b). The
direction of displacement of the zero-level trace per-
is
30
When
26-0
a film in an envelope
holder, the pattern obtained
is
34-6
mits the tilt error to be associated with one or both of

the setting arcs of the goniometer head or the spindle
dial. Let the difference of the distances (in mm) from
the centre of the pattern to the opposite edges of the
trace in the direction of displacement be called FA,
inserted in the screen
from an oriented
made in
crystal
of a concentric series of circles of spots

("cone-axis" photograph), corresponding to the
various upper levels parallel to the film. The radii of
consists
194
4.5.
BUERGER PRECESSION METHOD
TABLE
Data
Screen setting s
Fd* given in
is
given in
4.5.2
for setting the Buerger Precession
mm by
Camera
Upper Levels
for
multiplying tabulated values by screen radius rs in
mm.
(See equation 4.5(1).)
mm for F=600 mm.
d*
(r.l.u.)
Fd* (mm)
p,
0-03
0-04
0-05
0-06
0-07
0-08
1-20
1-80
2-40
3-00
3-60
4-20
4-80
2-658
2-556
2-452
2-282
2-213
1-910
1-965
1-865
2-289
2-145
2-140
2-080
2-022
2-017
2-368
1-914
1-819
1-862
1-774
1-812
1-728
15
3-732
3-257
2-915
16
3-487
3-084
2-788
17
3-271
2-926
2-459
18
3-077
2-783
2-665
2-552
2-365
2-210
2-078
1-963
19
2-904
2-649
2-444
2-276
2-135
2-012
1-906
20
2-748
2-343
2-190
2-061
1-949
1-850
1-762
1-683
2-109
2-031
1-990
1-887
1-795
1-712
1-638
1-922
1-827
1-741
1-664
1-594
1-957
1-857
1-769
1-689
1-617
1-552
2-246
2-524
2-408
2-302
2-203
2-109
1-886
1-795
1-712
1-638
1-571
1-509
25
26
27
28
29
2-145
2-022
1-914
1-819
1-734
1-658
1-589
1-525
1-467
2-050
1-939
1-841
1-754
1-676
1-606
1-541
1-481
1-426
1-494
1-438
1-387
30
22
23
24
(r.l.u.)
Fd* (mm)
p,
0-02
0-60
(deg.)
21
d*
0-01
2-605
2-475
2-356
2-246
2-156
2-072
1-990
1-862
1-774
1-693
1-620
1-555
1-881
1-789
1-708
1-634
1-567
1-505
1-449
1-396
1-347
1-804
1-721
1-646
1-578
1-516
1-458
1-405
1-355
1-309
1-732
1-656
1-587
1-523
1-466
1-412
1-362
1-315
1-272
0-09
0-10
0-11
0-12
0-13
0-14
0-15
0-16
0-17
8-40
9-00
9-60
10-20
1-963
5-40
6-00
6-60
7-20
7-80
1-816
1-731
1-656
1-586
1-523
1-465
1-412
1-361
1-315
16
1-775
1-695
1-622
1-556
1-495
1-439
1-387
1-339
1-294
17
1-734
1-658
1-589
1-525
1-467
1-413
1-363
1-317
1-273
18
1-693
1-620
1-555
1-494
1-438
1-387
1-338
1-293
1-250
1-313
1-269
1-228
(deg.)
15
19
1-652
1-584
1-520
1-462
1-409
1-360
20
1-611
1-546
1-486
1-431
1-380
1-332
1-287
1-245
1-205
21
1-571
1-509
1-452
1-399
1-350
1-304
1-261
1-221
1-182
22
23
24
1-531
1-472
1-418
1-367
1-320
1-276
1-235
1196
1-159
1-491
1-435
1-384
1-336
1-291
1-248
1-209
1-171
1-136
1-452
1-399
1-350
1-304
1-261
1-221
1-182
1-146
1-112
25
26
27
28
29
1-413
1-363
1-317
1-273
1-232
1-193
1-156
1-121
1-088
1-375
1-328
1-283
1-242
1-202
1-165
1-130
1-096
1-064
1-338
1-293
1-250
1-211
1-173
1-138
1-104
1-071
1-040
1-302
1-259
1-218
1-180
1-144
1-110
1-077
1-046
1-017
1-266
1-225
1-186
1-150
1-116
1-082
1-051
1-022
0-993
30
1-231
1-192
1-155
1-120
1-088
1-056
1-026
0-997
0-970
195
4.5.
TABLE
d*
0-18
0-19
0-20
0-21
0-22
0-23
0-24
0-25
0-26
10-80
11-40
12-00
12-60
13-20
13-80
14-40
15-00
15-60
15
1-271
1-230
1-191
1-155
1-120
1-087
1-056
1-025
16
17
1-251
1-212
1-174.
1-138
1-104
1-072
1-041
1011
1-232
1-193
1-156
1-121
1-088
1-057
1-027
18
1-211
1-173
1-138
1-104
1-071
1-040
1-011
0-998
0-983
19
1-190
1-153
1-118
1-086
1-054
1-024
0-996
0-968
0-997
0-984
0-970
0-956
0-942
20
1-168
1-133
1-099
1-067
1-036
1-007
21
1-146
1-112
1-079
1-048
1-018
22
1-124
1-091
1-059
1-029
1000
23
1-102
1-070
1-039
1-010
24
1-079
1-048
1-018
0-990
0-982
0-963
0-990
0-973
0-955
0-937
0-979
0-963
0-946
0-929
0-911
0-952
0-937
0-920
0-904
0-887
0-927
0-911
0-896
0-880
0-863
25
26
27
28
29
1-057
1-027
1-005
0-970
0-950
0-930
0-870
1-034
(r.l.u.)
Fd* (mm)
/z
(deg.)
30
d*
1-011
0-983
0-998
0-977
0-956
0-988
0-961
0-935
0-966
0-939
0-914
0-910
0-889
0-943
0-917
0-893
0-869
0-944
0-924
0-905
0-886
0-866
0-847
0-835
0-847
0-830
0-813
0-862
0-843
0-894
0-876
0-858
0-840
0-821
0-818
0-800
0-796
0-779
0-824
0-803
0-782
0-762
0-34
20-40
0-35
21-00
0-918
0-900
0-881
0-853
0-27
0-28
0-29
0-30
0-31
0-32
0-33
16-20
16-80
17-40
18-00
18-60
19-20
19-80
15
0-969
0-943
0-917
0-957
0-944
0-931
0-893
0-882
0-869
0-858
0-847
0-835
0-823
0-846
0-836
0-824
0-814
0-802
0-824
0-813
0-803
0-792
0-781
0-803
16
0-761
0-782
0-772
0-763
0-752
0-741
0-811
0-769
0-757
0-790
0-777
0-761
0-751
0-738
0-749
0-738
0-725
0-713
0-700
0-730
0-719
0-707
0-695
0-682
0-669
0-657
0-643
0-630
0-616
0-603
(r.l.u.)
Fd* (mm)
p,
4.5.2 (continued)
(deg.)
0-793
0-930
0-916
0-905
0-892
0-906
0-894
0-881
0-868
0-902
0-887
0-872
0-857
0-841
0-878
0-855
0-864
0-849
0-834
0-819
0-841
0-827
0-812
0-798
0-832
0-819
0-805
0-791
0-777
25
26
27
28
29
0-825
0-809
0-792
0-776
0-759
0-804
0-788
0-772
0-756
0-740
0-783
0-767
0-752
0-736
0-721
0-763
0-748
0-733
0-717
0-702
0-743
0-728
0-714
0-699
0-684
0-724
0-710
0-696
0-681
0-667
0-705
0-692
0-679
0-664
0-649
0-687
0-674
0-660
0-647
0-633
30
0-742
0-723
0-705
0-686
0-669
0-652
0-635
0-618
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
0-918
0-870
0-858
0-845
196
0-798
0-784
0-771
0-757
0-745
0-732
0-719
0-783
0-772
4.5.
TABLE
Reciprocal-lattice
4.5.3
Layer Heights from Cone-axis Photographs with the Buerger Precession Camera
Screen-to-crystal distance, s=40-Q
mm
Table values give d* for upper level in reciprocal-lattice units (equation

Radius of trace of upper level, r, given in
4.5(3))
mm
(mm)
/x=5
10
15
Zero-layer circle:
1
3-50
(mm)=
7-05
10-72
0-001
0-004
0-007
0-011
0-016
0-021
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
0-026
0-032
0-038
0-045
0-052
0-004
0-009
0-015
0-021
0-002
0-027
0-034
0-041
0-008
0-015
0-022
M=5
10
15
35
36
37
38
39
0-244
0-253
0-262
0-271
0-280
0-232
0-213
0-241
0-223
0-251
0-232
0-241
0-250
40
0-289
0-278
41
0-298
42
43
44
0-307
0-315
0-323
0-286
0-295
0-304
0-312
45
46
47
48
49
0-332
0-340
0-348
0-356
0-364
0-320
0-329
0-336
0-344
(mm)
0-260
0-269
0-353
0-259
0-268
0-276
0-285
0-293
0-302
0-310
0-318
0-326
0-334
0-060
0-068
0-048
0030
50
0-371
0-056
0-037
51
0-379
0-360
0-368
0-341
16
17
18
19
0-076
0-084
0-093
0065
0-046
0-054
0-063
52
53
54
0-387
0-394
0-375
0-383
0-401
0-390
0-356
0-364
0-371
20
0-102
0-111
0-120
0-129
0-139
0-090
0-072
0-397
0-404
0-411
0-417
0-424
0-378
0-081
55
56
57
58
59
0-408
0099
0109
0-430
0-436
0-443
0-449
0-411
0-430
0-455
0-436
0-472
0-461
0-478
0-484
0-489
0-495
0-467
0-472
0-478
0-483
0-442
0-448
0-453
0-459
0-464
0-500
0-489
0-470
15
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
0-148
0-073
0-082
0-118
0-127
0-090
0-099
0-108
0-415
0-422
0-428
0-435
0-118
0-128
0-137
60
0-441
61
0-448
0-454
0-177
0-137
0-146
0-156
0-166
0-147
63
0-187
0-175
0-156
64
0-196
0-206
0-215
0-224
0-234
0-185
0-194
0-204
0-213
0-223
0-166
0-176
0-185
0-194
0-204
65
66
67
68
69
0-158
0-167
62
70
197
0-460
0-466
0-349
0-385
0-392
0-398
0-405
0-417
0-424
4.5.
so that for the horizontal goniometer-head arc and the

dial:
-Fârc =:v Rt
Xu
(For the case of Fig. 4.5.5 (b), ^ Dn is negative.) The

corresponding angle of tilt e is given by
J=-
sin 4e cos
Crystal spindle axis
.Vup
p.
...-(4)
cos 2e
2
sin
|n
y Dn
Table 4.5.5 gives the setting error e in terms of A

FA for the customary film-to-crystal distance
<l
and
F=
4.5.4
for Construction of Buerger Precession Setting
Nomogram
(Fig. 4.5.4)
Tabulated figures are based on a circle 30 cm

reduced photographically for use.
A. rs scale, lower semicircle, origin at right. Circle diameter, 30 cm.
in diameter, a convenient scale for drafting; the chart
r,
deg.
(mm)
10
deg.
28 56'
5
8
55
52
12
11
48
14
42
34 24
37 06
39 44
14 42'
15
42 19'
17 36
20 28
23 20
26 08
16
18
44 52
47 22
49 50
19
52
2 58'
7
8
B.
s scale,
11
13
17
r,
deg.
20
54 36'
21
56 54
59 10
61 22
63 32
22
23
24
(mm)
25
26
27
28
29
deg.
(mm)
deg.
65 39'
30
75 28'
67 42
69 44
71 42
73 36
31
77
79
80
82
32
33
34
18
06
50
36
(mm)
35
36
may
be
deg.
84 10'
37
38
39
85 46
87 20
88 52
90 22
40
91 48'
14
horizontal diameter, origin at right.
Scale
Scale
Scale
Scale
Scale
(mm)
(cm)
(mm)
(cm)
(mm)
(cm)
(mm)
(cm)
(mm)
(cm)
25
26
27
28
29
11-769
14-241
18-111
65
66
67
68
69
18-798
16-755
55
56
57
58
59
17-604
14-859
15-051
45
46
47
48
49
16-122
12-846
35
36
37
38
39
30
13-095
40
15-243
50
16-908
60
18-231
70
19-314
15-426
15-606
15-783
51
17-052
61
18-351
52
53
54
17-193
62
18-465
17-334
17-469
63
18-579
64
18-690
Scale
(mm)
(cm)
10
6-156
20
10-215
21
10-548
10-869
22
23
24
31
(mm)
trace
negative).
TABLE
(mm)
beam
Fig. 4.5.5. Appearance of disoriented zero-level lattice

plane on Buerger precession orientation photograph:
(a) /x=5, arc error and dial error about 1; (b) /x=5,
no arc error, dial error about 20 (x R t=*Lt; ^dh * s
60 mm. If the goniometer-head arcs are not approximately parallel and perpendicular to the film, e ar c
must be resolved between the two arcs.
Table 4.5.6 gives setting constants for the de-Jong
and Bouman method. (Buerger [3], chapter 17.)
Data
Direct
(b)
(a)
11-178
11-478
12-051
12-324
12-588
31
13-338
41
32
33
34
13-572
42
43
44
13-803
14-025
14-451
14-658
15-957
16-287
16-446
16-605
198
17-736
17-862
17-988
18-906
19-011
19-113
19-215
4.5.
TABLE
C.
p,
scale, for
interval
p,
D. x
zero level settings only; inside upper semicircle, given in degrees measured from origin at right.
degree, linear scale interval 2 deg.
from
scale (transfer
Scale
4.5.4 (continued)
scale
Scale
(deg.)
along arcs)
=0, scale =180 deg., to
p>
(deg.)
180 00'
0-90
128 19'
0-99
163 47
0-89
0-98
0-88
0-87
125 45
123 17
120 55
0-96
157 02
151 52
147 30
0-86
118 38
0-80
0-79
0-78
0-77
0-76
0-95
143 36'
0-85
116 26'
0-75
97 10'
0-94
0-84
0-74
0-73
131
00
0-81
10
12
0-72
0-91
114
112
110
108
17
12
0-92
140 06
136 52
133 51
95
93
92
90
0-93
E.
0-83
0-82
scale intervals of 0-30
F.
/x
deg.,
scale=110 deg.
22
32
42
56
28
46
06
28
Scale
0-70
0-69
0-68
0-67
0-66
88 52'
0-60
73 44'
87
85
84
82
16
0-59
44
08
36
0-58
0-56
72 19
70 54
69 30
68 08
0-65
0-64
81 05'
0-55
66 44'
79 35
78 06
76 38
75 10
0-54
65 22
64 00
62 40
61 20
0-63
0-62
0-61
Scale
(deg.)
(deg.)
0-57
0-53
0-52
0-51
60 00'
0-50
up from origin at right end of horizontal diameter on

c=30-00 cm, at x intervals of 0-01, corresponding to linear
scale (arbitrary units) ; vertical scale extending
x runs from 0-50
circle,
0-71
106 12'
104
102
100
98
Scale
(deg.)
1-00
0-97
=35
outside upper semicircle, origin at right.
Scale
(deg.)
/z
scale,
j sc =30-00
cm
2
3
to 1-00 at
j> S
cm.
Scale
H-
30-000
29-968
29-905
29-779
29-620
c= 15-00 cm
extending vertically along line through centre of circle (xsc =- 15-00 cm),
j; sc =8-796.
(cm)
j> S
p.
runs from
deg. at
to 30 deg. at
Scale
/*
at
6
7
8
(cm)
29-399
29-130
28-813
28-465
28-054
Scale
/*
10
11
12
13
14
Scale
(cm)
27-595
27-088
26-535
25-950
25-299
15
16
17
18
19
(cm)
24-603
23-877
23-085
22-263
21-375
Scale
Scale
/*
20
21
22
23
24
(cm)
20-457
19-494
18-480
17-421
16-314
/*
(cm)
25
15-174
26
27
28
29
13-986
12-753
11-472
10-158
30
8-796
extending vertically along line parallel and to right of scale E (* sc =3-41 cm), d* (right side of
r.l.u. at j> sc =30-00 cm to 0-50 r.l.u. at j> S c=H-50 cm, at d* intervals of 0-01 r.l.u., corresponding to linear scale intervals of 0-370 cm.
G. d*
scale,
scale) runs
H. Fd*
to 30
from 0-00
F=6-00 cm, coincident with scale G. Fd* (left side of scale) runs from
c=l 1-50 cm at intervals of 1 mm with linear scale intervals of 0-617 cm.
scale, for
mm at
,y S
199
mm at
j> sc
=30-00
cm
4.5.
TABLE
4.5.5
Angular Setting Error in Terms of Displacement of Zero-level Lattice Plane on the Buerger Precession Photograph
A = displacement in reciprocal-lattice
Table entries
e,
FA
(cm)
(r.l.u.)
0-1
0-2
0-3
0-4
0-5
0-6
0-7
0-8
0-9
1-0
1-1
1-2
1-3
1-4
1-5
1-6
1-7
1-8
1-9
2-0
2-1
2-2
2-3
2-4
text,
/*
0-0167
0-0333
0-0500
0-0667
014'
014'
0-0833
0-1000
0-1167
111'
25
39
0-1333
0-1500
53
2 05
0-1667
0-1833
0-2000
0-2167
0-2333
0-2500
0-2667
0-2833
0-3000
0-3167
3 31'
3 29'
3 26'
45
3 59
4 13
4 27
43
3 56
4 10
40
33
44
58
4 24
3 52
4 06
4 20
4 11
4 25'
28
43
57
20
25
013'
013'
15
014'
41
24
36
55
53
51
48
107'
1
2 06
2 21'
2 20'
2 35
2 49
3 03
2 34
2 47
3 01
17
24
38
52
3-0
0-5000
7 00'
19
33
6 28
47
6 42
6 55'
200
51
2 10'
12
3 06
2 24
2 34
2 47
3 00
3 20'
3 13'
14
27
5 41'
5 47'
6 01
6 15
39
2 14'
05
2 28
2 39
2 52
0-3667
0-3833
0-4000
5 51'
2 32
2 44
2 58
4 34'
19
33
26
2 18'
4 47
5 00
56
4 38'
14
4 52
5 05
5 37
4 55
09
18
47
4 41'
102'
2 00
0-3333
0-3500
5 23
105'
21
33
30
44
15
012'
25
38
23
1
36
1
50
2 04
110'
30
26
40
27
28
42
56
109'
2-9
2-8
p. = camera-inclination angle.
equation 4.5(4), and Fig. 4.5.5).
6-00 cm, film-to-crystal distance;
10
6
6
6
6
2-7
F=
0-4167
0-4333
0-4500
0-4667
0-4833
2-5
2-6
units;
angular correction to appropriate goniometer arc (see
2 04'
4.5.
TABLE
4.5.6
De Jong and Bouman Method

Fixed level-cone angle, v=45. Sin
n=
Setting Constants
sin v-t, (sin v=l/\/2).
A=(D cos /i)/sin v
= layer height in reciprocal-lattice units

= layer height (cm) from rotation pattern (camera diameter 5-73 cm)
= camera-inclination angle
A = film rotation-axis displacement (film-to-crystal distance D=l cm)
A = ditto for D=3 cm
yrot
fjL
^0
Yrot
(r.l.u.)
(cm)
(deg.)
45 00'
1-000
3-000
0-01
44 12
43 24
42 37
1013
3-039
1-028
1-041
0-04
0-029
0-057
0-086
0-115
41
0-05
0-143
006
0-172
0-201
0-230
0-259
0-12
0-288
0-317
0-346
13
0-14
0-376
0-405
0-15
0-435
0-464
0-494
0-524
0-554
0-02
0-03
0-07
0-08
0-09
0-10
0-11
0-16
0-17
0-18
0-19
0-20
0-21
0-22
0-23
0-24
0-25
0-26
0-585
0-615
0-646
0-677
0-708
H-
(deg.)
0-35
1-071
20 55'
1-321
3-963
0-36
1-105
1-326
3-978
3-084
0-37
1-141
1-331
3-123
0-38
1-177
1-053
3-159
0-39
1-213
20 19
19 42
19 06
18 29
1-341
3-993
4-008
4-023
41 05'
1-066
3-198
0-40
1-250
17 55'
1-346
4-038
40 20
1-078
3-234
0-41
1-288
17
17
1-350
39 35
38 50
38 06
1090
3-270
0-42
1-326
1-355
1-102
0-43
1-365
1-113
3-306
3-339
16 41
16 06
0-44
1-404
15 30
1-363
4-050
4-065
4-077
4-089
37 25'
51
1-359
3-369
0-45
1-444
14 54'
1-367
4-101
1-134
4-110
4-122
15
33
1-155
3-465
0-48
1-568
1-377
4-131
1-165
3-495
0-49
1-610
14 19
13 43
13 08
12 33
1-370
1-145
0-46
0-47
1-484
57
3-402
3-435
1-380
4140
33 52'
1-174
3-522
0-50
1-654
11 57'
1-384
33 10
32 29
31 49
31 08
1-184
0-51
1-699
1-386
0-52
1-744
22
10 47
1-389
1-202
3-552
3-579
3-606
0-53
1-791
10
1-392
1-211
3-633
0-54
1-838
12
9 37
1-394
4-152
4-158
4-167
4-176
4-182
30 28'
1-219
3-657
0-55
1-887
9 02'
1-397
4-191
1-227
3-681
0-56
1-937
28
1-399
1-235
3-705
0-57
1-988
1-401
4-197
4-203
2-040
2-094
7 53
7 18
6 44
1-403
4-209
1-404
4-212
1-406
4-218
4-224
4-227
4-230
4-233
29
29
28
27
1-193
49
09
30
1-243
3-729
0-58
51
1-250
3-750
0-59
0-60
0-29
26
25
25
24
1-265
0-30
0-901
24
0-31
0-934
0-968
1-002
23 24
22 47
22 09
21 32
1-036
1-336
1-123
1-258
0-32
0-33
0-34
D=lcm D=3-0cm
40
36
35
35
34
27 12'
0-28
Yrot
(cm)
0-740
0-771
0-803
0-836
0-868
0-27
^0
I
(r.l.u.)
D=lcm D-3-0cm
34
55
1-272
17
1-279
3-774
3-795
3-816
3-837
39
1-285
3-855
0-64
or
1-292
3-876
3-894
3-912
3-930
3-945
0-65
1-298
1-304
1-310
1-315
0-61
0-62
0-63
0-66
0-67
0-68
0-69
201
1-525
2-149
2-206
2-264
2-324
2-386
2-451
2-517
2-586
2-657
2-731
11
6 09'
1-374
34
1-408
5 00
4 25
1-410
1-411
51
1-409
3 17'
1-412
2 42
2 08
1
33
59
1-413
1-413
1-414
1-414
4-236
4-239
4-239
4-242
4-242
4.6.
The powder method has been
often convenient to make an estimate, with a
of the 20 values for certain lines and to convert
these quickly to approximate d values. Comparison
of angles for different wavelengths is also needed when,
for example, a contaminating radiation is suspected
fully described in
It is
various textbooks (References [1, 11, 12], etc.).

Many published tables are available for transforming from measured 20 angles to interplanar spacings
ruler,
in A. These are convenient, but the wavelength values
of having introduced spurious lines into the powder

Similar information is frequently useful in
the study of single crystals. Table 4.6 is therefore
included here as an aid in this approximate procedure.
used depend to a certain extent on an arbitrary selecand of the still uncertain

value of the kX/A conversion factor. (The information
available will be" brought up to date in Volume III.)
They should only be used to give spacings in A correct
to three decimal places.
tion of experimental data
[1]
pattern.
4.6.1.
When
SWITZER, G., AXEllROD, J. M., LlNDBERG, M. L.,

and Larsen, E. S., 3rd, Tables of d Spacings for
Angle 20; CuKoc, CuKoct, CuKoc 2 , FeKa, FeK<x u
FeKa 2 U.S. Geological Survey Circular 29
Ka
Tables for Conversion of X-ray Diffraction Angles in

Interplanar Spacing. U.S. National Bureau of
Standards
CoK ai
MoKa h CuKa
(1950).
FeKa,,
CrK ai
l5
0=0(0-1)89-99;
known,
or the d values to be expected may

be compared with those of the observed powder diffraction lines and each line thus identified and indexed.
The calculations of d are best carried out by evaluating
the reciprocal components x, y, and z for each {hkl)
from the Cartesian matrix according to the relationf
Ka
the lattice constants of a crystal are
either the sin 2
(1948). 20= 2-0(0- 1)1 50-9 for Ka; 20=90-0(0-1)

175-9 for
x and
2 ; 5 sign. figs.
[2]
Indexing Powder Patterns, given Lattice Constants
NiKa 1?
CuK ai
={xyz)
,
FeKa l5
[3]
20=0(0-02)179-99; 5 sign. figs.

Parrish, W., and Irwin, B. W. Charts for the Solution of Bragg''s Equation (d versus 0, 20). Philips
Technical Library, Eindhoven (1953). Graphs of
Then
The
9 and 20 graduated at intervals 001 in 0,

Ka, Ka x Ka 2 K/? lines of Cr, Fe, Cu and
vs.
for
Beatty, Suzanne. Table of Interplanar Spacings in

Angstrom Units in Terms of 29 for Different Target
Materials. Westinghouse Research Laboratories,
East Pittsburgh, Penna. (1948): Research Report
R-94602-10-C, Ka x for Mo, Cu, Co, Fe and Cr,
20=5O(O1)85O, 4 sign, figs.; Research Report
R-94602-10-E, same except 20=85-0(01)176-9.
System
tfn
six
2
2
2
V(* +y +z )
non-zero elements of the Cartesian matrix
depend on the lattice constants according to the scheme

set out below
Mo.
[4]
-*"
t The actual coefficients of this matrix will depend on the

orientation of the Cartesian axes a', b', c' relative to the original
axes a, b, c. The matrix given here corresponds to b' coincident
with b, a' in the obtuse y angle in the ab plane and c' perpendicular to a' and b' (and hence coincident with the reciprocal
axis c*). In Section 2 another convention is adopted. There is
no standard convention, and therefore care must be taken to
observe consistency.
023
22
21
13
033
0o
00
Cubic
O
<*0
(V3K
(V3K
0o
Co
Hexagonal
Tetragonal
bo
Orthorhombic
O
cotjS
a sin P
Co
cotjS
Monoclinic
Triclinic
sin
Co
202
l_
Co
Vj
Vi
v 2 sin
COt ft COS a
c v2
Co
4.6.
RANDOM-ORIENTATION METHODS
where
cos
COS a COS
Vl=
sirTjS
V2
~ VX1+2
COS a COS
COS
j8
COS 2
a-
COS 2 jS cos 2 y)
form equivalent to the following:
siniS
The
determined. The method has been applied in Section

4.3.4 to the indexing of the zero-layer line corresponding to an orthogonal (hkO) net. It is now extended to
the three-dimensional case. C. W. Bunn ([5] but see
footnote to 4.3.4, p. 184) writes the formula for d in a
tables given in Section 3 (3.5.6, 3.6.6, 3.8.6A)
2
2
2
for h 2 +k 2 h 2 +k 2 +hk, h +k +l
,
may also be
log
used for
(?)-
log [/>+(/-
1)/
]+ log
0)
(2)
high-symmetry structures.
p=h 2 +k'
4.6.2.
Determining
Unknown
Cubic patterns are distinguished by the
P^
fact that
reciprocal spacings are equal to a constant (the

reciprocal unit-cell axis) multiplied by the square root
is
d
The
sum of
the
V(h +k +l
2
+ k2+hk \ for
r=
three squares
hexagonal
q(c/a) 2
(1)
values of hkl and of a are therefore easily found.
All methods of determining hkl and the lattice

constants for structures of lower symmetry depend on
some sort of trial-and-error routine. The problem can
be solved in general for tetragonal and hexagonal
crystals because only
4=4/3
all
of an integer which
for tetragonal
<7=1
Lattice Constants
one variable parameter need be
Tables 4.6.2A and B give data for the construction

of charts of the type of Figs. 4.6.2(1) and (2). These
represent the variation of 2 log (l/d) with c/a for all
(hkl) within the given range. Any useful function of
c/a may be used for the abscissae (compare, for
instance, Fig. 4.3.4, which was drawn with a linear
scale of bid). The method of using the chart has
already been described in Section 4.3.4.
i.o A.
20
Fig. 4.6.2.(1).
body-centred
2.5
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Layout of Bunn chart for indexing tetragonal powder photographs; dashed

To be effective, this chart must be drawn to very large scale.
lattice.
203
8.0
lines
correspond to
4.6.
TABLE
Quick-reference Table of
A,
d (Spacings)
vs.
4.6
Bragg Angle for Various Mean Wavelengths
CrKa
FeKa
CoKa
NiKa
CuKa
MoKa
RhKa
AgKa
2-290(9)
1-937(3)
1-790(2)
1-659(1)
1-541(8)
0-710(7)
0-614(7)
0-560(9)
20
00
131-3
111-0
102-6
95-1
88-3
40-7(2)
35-2(2)
32-1(4)
65-6(3)
55-5(0)
51-2(9)
47-5(3)
44-1(7)
20-3(6)
17-6(1)
16-0(7)
43-7(6)
37-0(0)
34-1(9)
31-6(9)
29-4(5)
13-5(7)
11-6(9)
10-7(1)
32-8(2)
27-7(6)
25-6(5)
23-7(7)
22-0(9)
10-1(8)
8-81
8-04
26-26
22-21
20-52
19-02
17-67
8-15
7-05
6-43
21-89
18-51
17-10
15-85
14-73
6-79
5-87
5-36
18-76
15-87
14-66
13-59
12-63
5-82
5-03
4-59
16-42
13-89
12-83
11-89
11-05
5-09
4-41
4-02
14-60
12-35
11-41
10-57
9-83
4-53
3-92
3-57
10
13-14
11-11
10-27
9-52
8-85
4-08
3-53
3-22
11
11-95
10-11
9-34
8-65
8-04
3-71
3-21
2-93
12
10-96
9-27
8-56
7-94
7-38
3-40
2-94
2-68
13
10-12
8-56
7-91
7-33
6-81
3-14
2-72
2-48
14
9-40
7-95
7-34
6-81
6-33
2-92
2-52
2-30
15
8-78
7-42
6-86
6-36
5-91
2-72
8-23
6-96
6-43
5-96
5-54
2-55
2-355
2-208
2-148
16
17
18
7-75
6-55
6-06
5-61
5-22
2-40
7-32
6-19
5-72
5-30
4-93
2-27
19
6-94
5-87
5-42
5-03
4-67
20
6-60
5-58
5-15
4-78
21
6-29
5-32
4-91
4-55
22
23
24
6-01
5-08
4-69
5-75
4-86
5-51
25
26
27
28
29
2-015
1-793
2-15
2-079
1-965
1-862
4-44
2-046
1-770
1-615
4-23
1-950
1-687
1-539
4-04
1-862
1-611
1-470
4-49
4-35
4-16
3-87
1-782
1-542
1-407
4-66
4-31
3-99
3-71
1-709
1-478
1-349
5-29
4-48
4-14
1-296
3-98
3-562
3-427
1-420
4-31
3-833
3-688
1-642
509
1-580
1-366
1-247
4-91
4-15
3-83
3-553
1-522
1-316
1-201
4-73
4-00
3-70
3-429
3-302
3-187
1-469
1-270
1-159
4-57
3-87
3-58
3-313
3-079
1-419
1-228
1-120
30
4-43
3-743
3-458
1-084
3-625
3-349
2-979
2-885
1-188
4-29
3-205
3-104
1-373
31
1-330
1-150
1-049
32
33
34
4-16
3-514
3-247
3-009
1-289
1-115
4-03
3-411
3-152
2-921
2-797
2-714
1-251
1-082
3-92
3-313
3-062
2-837
2-637
1-215
1-051
1-017
0-987
0-959
35
36
37
38
39
3-809
3-221
3-135
2-977
2-897
2-821
3-518
2-975
1-091
2-902
2-564
2-495
2-430
2-368
2-309
1-022
0-995
0-969
0-944
3-431
2-759
2-684
2-614
2-548
2-485
1-182
3-707
3-610
1-065
0-921
3-053
2-749
2-681
204
1-150
1-120
1-897
1-699
0-933
0-908
0-884
0-861
0-840
4.6.
TABLE
4.6 (continued)
CrKa
FeKa
CoKa
NiKa
CuKa
MoKa
RhKa
AgKa
2-290(9)
1-937(3)
1-790(2)
1-659(1)
1-541(8)
0-710(7)
0-614(7)
0-560(9)
3-349
3-271
2-832
2-766
2-617
2-556
2-254
1039
2-201
1-015
0-899
0-878
0-801
42
43
44
3-196
2-703
2-498
2-151
0-992
0-858
0-783
3-125
2-643
2-103
2-586
0-970
0-949
0-839
3-058
2-442
2-389
2-425
2-369
2-315
2-263
2-214
0-820
0-766
0-749
45
46
47
48
49
2-993
2-931
2-531
2-339
0-733
2-291
0-787
0-718
2-873
2-429
2-245
0-771
0-703
2-817
2-762
2-381
2-201
2-336
2-158
0-929
0-909
0-891
0-874
0-857
0-803
2-479
0-756
0-741
0-689
0-676
50
2-292
2-118
1-963
1-824
0-841
2-250
2-210
2-171
2-134
2-079
2-042
1-927
1-791
0-651
1-892
1-759
0-825
0-810
0-727
0-714
52
53
54
2-710
2-661
2-613
2-567
2-523
2-006
1-972
1-859
1-728
1-827
1-698
55
56
57
58
59
2-481
2-440
2-401
2-363
2-326
2-098
2-063
1-939
1-797
1-669
1-907
1-767
1-642
2-030
1-876
1-739
1-616
1-998
1-846
1-711
1-590
1-967
1-818
1-685
1-566
A,
20
40
41
51
2-058
2-168
2-123
2-014
2-080
2-040
2-001
1-933
1-973
1-895
1-859
60
2-291
1-937
1-791
1-659
1-542
61
2-257
1-909
1-764
1-634
1-519
62
63
64
2-224
2-192
2-162
1-881
1-738
1-611
1-497
1-854
1-713
1-588
1-476
1-828
1-689
1-565
1-455
65
66
67
68
69
2-132
1-803
1-666
1-544
1-435
2-103
1-779
1-644
1-523
1-415
2-075
2-048
2-022
1-755
1-622
1-503
1-397
1-732
1-601
1-483
1-379
1-712
1-581
1-464
1-361
70
1-997
1-689
1-561
1-446
1-344
71
1-973
1-668
1-542
1-429
1-328
72
73
74
1-949
1-648
1-523
1-412
1-312
1-926
1-628
1-505
1-395
1-296
1-903
1-610
1-487
1-378
1-281
0-796
0-783
0-770
0-757
0-745
0-733
0-722
0-689
0-677
0-663
0-640
0-629
0-618
0-666
0-607
0-655
0-597
0-644
0-587
0-634
0-624
0-578
0-569
0-711
0-700
0-690
0-680
0-670
0-615
0-606
0-597
0-588
0-580
0-661
0-652
0-643
0-635
0-627
0-572
0-564
0-557
0-550
0-543
0-508
0-502
0-496
0-620
0-612
0-604
0-597
0-590
0-536
0-529
0-489
0-483
0-523
0-477
0-517
0-511
0-471
0-466
0-505
0-499
0-494
0-488
0-483
0-461
0-456
0-451
0-446
0-441
0-478
0-436
75
76
77
78
79
1-882
1-591
1-470
1-362
1-266
1-861
1-573
1-454
1-347
1-252
1-840
1-556
1-438
1-332
1-238
1-820
1-539
1-422
1-318
1-225
1-801
1-523
1-407
1-304
1-212
0-584
0-577
0-571
0-565
0-559
80
1-782
1-507
1-393
1-291
1-200
0-553
205
0-701
0-820
0-561
0-553
0-545
0-537
0-529
0-522
0-515
4.6.
f-7.0
1-60
0.3
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
2.0
1.5
1.0
rhombohedral
4.0
5,0
6.0
7.0
80
lines
correspond to
first calculated and if they actually occur on the

photograph they can be recognized by this symmetry
and will allow the determination of the j8* angle as
method exists for interpowder diagrams for systems of lower symmetry. A general method devised by Ito [42] is as
value
follows.
follows:
entirely satisfactory
The formula
for
in terms of the reciprocal-lattice
cosjS*
Aa*c*
is
2
+22fc#>*c*
4-=2/iV
2
Any pair
cos a*
of hOl, hOl can be similarly used.
l/dh0l 2 -l/dh0l 2
cos j3*=4hla*c*
Let any triplet of lines be taken as corresponding to

first-order reflections 100, 010, 001.
would probably take the
first
(In practice
one
is available, a different triplet of

chosen
as the axial reflections 100,
reflections must be
010, 001 or as the higher orders of these reflections.
If
three lines of largest
These fix a*, b*, c*, since l/d10 =a*, etc.

Suppose *=90. Then the 101 and 101 reflections
would occur with a spacing given by
spacing.)
=a* 2 +c* 2 +2a*c*
cos p*
=a* 2 +c* 2 2a*c* cos
also a*
and
y*.
2
values will
show whether the constants of the reciprocal lattice

have been correctly determined and whether the
corresponding direct lattice is a Bravais lattice or is a
more primitive or more complex lattice. This method
can be applied also to random-rotation photographs,
but it depends for its application on the accuracy of
'101
1
suitable pair
A survey of observed and calculated l/d
however, *^90, the actual spacings will be

1
no
Hence
2
d
"101
If,
30
lattice.
preting
constants
2.5
Layout of Bunn chart for indexing hexagonal powder photographs; dashed

To be effective, this chart must be drawn to very large scale.
Fig. 4.6.2(2).
No
0.4
the measured data and it is not easily applied when

there are systematic space-group absences. Reference
should be made to the original papers, and also to
/?*
The l/d2 values of the 101, 10T reflections will be

symmetrical with respect to the hypothetical (j8*=90)
[41] [43] [44] [45].
206
4.6.
TABLE
Data for Construction of
Bunn Chart
4.6.2A
for indexing Tetragonal
Powder Patterns
Tabulated values are 2 log (lid) + constant

denotes a reflection in a body-centred lattice
Scale of chart should allow 1-0 table unit = 30 cm or more
I
c/a
log (c/a)
001
002
003
0-6
-0-6990
-0-5229
-0-3979
-0-3010
-0-2218
0-9830
0-9626
0-9355
0-9031
0-8665
0-8
-00969
0-7852
0-6990
0-4881
0-3010
0-1397
0-2
0-3
0-4
0-5
1-0
1-5
0-1761
2-0
0-3010
0-3979
2-5
3-0
0-4771
4-0
0-6021
0-6990
5-0
6-0
8-0
c/a
-0-2305
008
009
006
007
1-5376
1-5052
1-8573
1-4685
1-8203
1-3872
1-7394
1-3010
1-6532
1-9031
1-0902
1-4424
1-6922
1-8861
0-9031
1-2553
1-5052
1-6990
1-8573
0-7417
1-0939
1-3438
1-5376
1-6960
1-8299
0-6021
0-3716
0-9542
0-7238
0-5393
0-3860
0-1412
1-2041
1-3979
1-5563
1-6902
0-9737
0-7891
0-6360
0-3911
1-1675
1-3258
1-4597
0-9830
0-8298
0-5849
1-1413
1-2752
0-9881
0-7432
1-1220
0-8772
100
101
102
103
104
-0-2110
0010
005
1-5646
0-1871
0-0338
0-7782
0-9031
004
I
1-0000
0-2
0-3
-0-0832
0-4
0-1397
0-3010
0-4228
0-5
0-6
0-8
0-5931
0-6990
1-0
0-8403
0-9031
0-9355
1-5
2-0
2-5
1-9458
3-0
1-8062
1-9085
4-0
1-5757
50
60
1-3912
1-6780
1-4935
1-7695
1-5849
1-2381
1-3403
1-4319
8-0
0-9932
1-0954
1-1870
0-9542
0-9737
0-9830
0-9881
0-9933
207
1-0000
1-0000
1-5546
1-0000
1-5315
1-8692
1-0000
1-5059
1-8377
1-0000
1-4517
1-7692
1-0000
1-0000
1-3979
1-6990
1-2840
1-5393
1-0000
1-2041
1-4150
1-6031
1-0000
1-1504
1-3229
1-4870
1-0000
1-1139
1-2553
1-3979
1-0000
1-0000
1-0000
1-0706
1-1674
1-2747
1-0474
1-0338
1-1165
1-1978
1-0850
1-1478
1-0000
1-0195
1-0504
1-0901
1-9294
1-7494
4.6.
TABLE
Data
for Construction of
4.6.2A (continued)
Bunn Chart
Powder Patterns
Tabulated values are 2 log (l/d) + constant

I denotes a reflection in a body-centred lattice
c/a
105
106
1-5
107
109
108
1-9235
2-0
1-7634
2-5
1-6345
1-7655
3-0
1-5315
1-6532
1-7634
1-8633
4-0
1-3823
1-4855
1-5824
1-6726
1-9542
1-7563
1-6103
1-9031
1-8820
5-0
1-2840
1-3703
1-4542
1-5344
60
1-2171
1-2892
1-3612
1-4319
8-0
1-1364
1-1870
110
111
112
113
c/a
114
115
116
117
0-2
-0-1139
1-0164
0-3
1-0344
0-5
0-2178
0-4407
0-6021
1-0792
1-5710
1-5563
1-8808
0-6
0-7238
1-1020
1-5404
1-8541
0-8
1-1430
1-5078
1-1761
1-4771
1-7972
1-7404
1-9542
1-5
0-8923
1-0000
1-1413
1-2285
1-4175
1-6184
1-7999
2-0
1-2041
1-2553
1-3802
1-5315
1-6812
1-8195
1-9445
2-5
1-2366
1-2700
1-3571
1-4721
1-5942
1-7137
1-8254
1-9285
1-4314
1-3823
1-6335
1-5254
1-4601
1-7324
1-6020
1-3558
1-5315
1-4508
1-4045
1-8261
1-6780
1-5806
1-3403
1-3763
1-4186
0-4
1-0
1-0561
3-0
1-2553
1-2788
4-0
1-2747
1-2881
5-0
1-2838
1-2926
1-3424
1-3258
1-3174
6-0
1-2891
1-2951
1-3126
208
1-5195
118
I
1-9138
1-7518
4.6.
TABLE
Data
for Construction of
4.6.2A (continued)
Bunn Chart
Powder Patterns

I
cja
200
0-1871
1-0474
0-3
0-5189
0-7417
0-9031
1-0292
1-0961
0-8
1-0
1-5
0-4
206
1-1504
1-2041
1-6021
1-6021
1-9031
1-2538
1-6021
1-8852
1-1934
1-3366
1-6021
1-8481
1-3010
1-3979
1-6021
1-8129
1-4423
1-4881
1-6021
1-7434
1-8821
2-0
1-5052
1-5315
1-6021
1-6990
1-8062
1-9138
2-5
1-5376
1-5546
1-6021
1-6711
1-7524
1-8386
1-9250
3-0
1-5563
1-5682
1-6021
1-6532
1-7160
1-7853
1-8573
4-0
1-5757
1-5825
1-6021
1-6329
1-6745
1-7189
0-5
0-6
c/a
210
211
212
0-2
213
214
215
0-6
0-8
1-2903
1-4084
1-6425
1-8715
1-0
1-3979
1-4771
1-6532
1-8451
1-5
1-5393
1-5763
1-6714
1-7945
1-9235
2-0
1-6021
1-6233
1-6812
1-8573
1-9542
2-5
1-6348
1-6482
1-6868
1-7634
1-7417
1-8141
1-8898
3-0
1-6532
1-6628
1-6902
1-7324
1-7853
1-8451
4-0
1-6726
1-6780
1-6939
1-7190
1-7518
0-4
0-5
1-9294
216
0-2840
0-6158
0-8386
1-0000
1-1217
0-3
207
0-2
205
204
203
202
201
1-0621
1-1240
1-1908
1-6167
1-2553
1-6233
1-9138
1-3136
1-6299
1-8999
209
1-9085
4.6.
TABLE
Data
4.6.2A (continued)
Bunn Chart
for Construction of
Powder Patterns

I denotes a reflection in a body-centred lattice
c/a
220
221
0-2
222
223
300
301
302
303
I
1-1035
0-4
0-4881
0-8199
1-0428
1-1980
1-2934
1-6582
1-2041
1-3802
1-6812
1-9445
1-2553
1-3229
1-4150
1-6711
0-5
1-6990
1-9542
0-6
1-3259
1-4553
1-7040
1-9413
1-3770
1-4938
1-7262
1-9542
0-8
1-4944
1-5719
1-7451
1-9350
1-5456
1-9542
1-6021
1-6532
1-7782
1-9294
1-6532
1-6151
1-6990
1-7746
1-0
1-8129
1-9542
1-5
1-7434
1-7669
1-8305
1-9195
1-7945
1-8155
1-8728
1-9542
2-0
1-8062
1-8195
1-8573
1-9138
1-8573
1-8692
1-9031
1-9542
2-5
1-8386
1-8472
1-8721
1-9105
1-8898
1-8974
1-9196
1-9542
3-0
1-8573
1-8633
1-8808
1-9085
1-9085
1-9138
1-9294
1-9542
310
320
400
410
330
420
500-430
510
0-3
c/a
0-2
0-5393
0-8711
1-0939
1-1165
1-2203
0-5850
0-9168
0-6990
0-7891
0-8860
0-9830
1-0000
1-0308
1-1209
0-8155
1-1462
0-8403
0-3
1-1721
1-2178
1-3148
1-3318
0-4
1-1397
1-2537
1-3439
1-3701
1-3949
1-4407
1-5432
1-5517
0-5
1-3010
1-4150
1-5052
1-5315
1-5563
1-6021
1-6990
1-7160
0-6
1-4228
1-5411
1-6269
1-6532
1-6780
1-7238
1-8207
1-8378
0-8
1-5913
1-7053
1-6954
1-8218
1-8466
1-8924
1-0
1-6990
1-8129
1-9031
1-9294
1-9542
1-9542
440
530
600
610
540
630
1-1871
1-1978
1-5189
1-2382
1-5700
1-7417
1-5296
1-7525
1-9031
1-9138
1-5
1-8403
2-0
1-9031
2-5
1-9355
3-0
1-9542
c/a
520
0-2
1-0474
1-0902
1-1165
1-1413
0-3
1-3792
1-4219
1-4483
1-4731
0-4
1-6021
1-6448
1-6711
0-5
1-7634
1-8062
1-8325
1-6960
1-8573
0-6
1-8852
1-9279
1-9543
210
620
I
1-1532
1-4850
1-7079
1-8692
1-7929
1-9542
4.6.
TABLE
Data
for Construction of
4.6.2A (continued)
Bunn Chart
Powder Patterns

I
311
321
401
411
331
421
c/a
501^31
511
1-1291
1-1648
1-1978
1-2082
1-2185
1-2499
0-3
1-2413
1-2991
1-3499
1-3657
1-3808
1-4098
1-4744
1-4863
0-4
1-3505
1-4241
1-4870
1-5061
1-5244
1-5588
1-6345
1-6481
0-5
1-4472
1-5315
1-6021
1-6233
1-6435
1-6812
1-7634
1-7782
0-6
1-5292
1-6208
1-6964
1-7189
1-7404
1-7803
1-8665
1-8818
0-8
1-6544
1-7546
1-8359
1-8600
1-8828
1-9250
1-0
1-7404
1-8451
1-9294
1-9542
441
531
601
611
621
502-432
512
0-2
1-5
1-8592
2-0
1-9138
2-5
1-9424
c/a
521
0-3
1-5200
1-5514
0-4
1-6868
1-7223
1-7417
1-7655
1-7756
0-5
1-8195
1-8573
1-8808
1-9031
1-9138
1-9445
0-6
1-9249
322
402
412
332
422
c/a
312
0-4
1-6837
1-7194
0-5
0-6
1-7160
1-7473
1-7634
1-8050
1-7524
1-8062
1-8559
0-8
1-8022
1-8758
1-9387
1-0
1-8451
1-9294
1-5
1-9114
2-0
1-9445
1-7629
1-8295
1-8716
211
1-7731
1-7929
1-8325
1-8573
1-8868
1-9157
1-9138
1-9243
4.6.
TABLE
Data
for Construction of
Bunn Chart
4.6.2B
for indexing
Hexagonal Powder Patterns

a reflection in a rhombohedral lattice (h+k+l=3n)
Scale of chart should allow 1 -0 table unit = 30 cm or more
R denotes
00-1
c/a
log (c/a)
0-2
0-6
-0-6990
-0-5229
-0-3979
-0-3010
-0-2218
0-9774
0-9508
0-9160
0-8751
0-8297
0-8
-0-0969
0-3
0-4
0-5
1-5
0-1761
2-0
0-3010
2-5
0-3979
-0-1140
1-8293
1-7840
1-3341
1-6863
1-9362
1-2341
1-5863
1-8361
1-0000
1-3522
1-6021
1-7959
1-9542
0-8004
0-6320
1-1526
1-4023
1-5963
1-7547
1-8885
0-9842
1-2341
1-4279
1-5863
1-7202
1-5762
0-4881
0-2531
5-0
0-6990
0-7782
0-9031
0-0663
-0-0882
00-9
00-10
0-8403
0-6052
0-4185
0-2640
0-0178
00-11
0-3
0-4
0-5
0-6
0-8
1-0
1-5
2-0
1-8361
1-9384
3-0
1-6922
1-7945
1-8861
4-0
1-4572
1-5595
1-6510
1-7381
5-0
1-2705
1-3727
1-4643
1-5471
8-0
1-2840
1-4423
1-0489
1-2073
1-3412
0-6684
0-5139
0-2676
0-8622
0-7077
1-0206
1-1545
0-8660
0-6198
0-9999
0-7537
10-0
10-1
10-2
10-3
R(01-2)
0-2956
0-0299
0-2450
0-3979
0-5110
0-2
6-0
1-0901
0-8551
2-5
1-1159
0-8697
1-2182
0-9720
00-7
1-4771
0-4771
00-8
00-6
1-4318
0-6021
c/a
00-5
1-5181
3-0
8-0
00-4
1-5528
4-0
6-0
00-3
0-7320
0-6320
0-3979
0-1984
0-0299
1-0
00-2
1-3097
1-3925
1-0635
1-1463
212
0-4614
1-0000
1-0000
1-5657
1-0000
1-5406
1-0000
1-5119
1-8451
1-0000
1-4810
1-8065
0-6632
0-7570
0-8751
0-9254
0-9508
1-0000
1-4181
1-7256
1-0000
1-3591
1-6463
1-0000
1-2430
1-4771
10000
1-1684
1-3547
1-0000
1-1211
1-2688
0-9652
0-9801
0-9872
0-9911
0-9950
1-0000
1-0902
1-2083
1-0000
1-0547
1-1390
1-0000
1-0364
1-0910
1-0000
1-0000
1-0258
1-0657
1-0384
1-0148
4.6.
TABLE
Data
for Construction of
c/a
10-5
R(01-5)
1-9587
1-0
1-8709
Bunn Chart
for indexing

denotes a reflection in a rhombohedral lattice (-h+k+l=3n)
10-4
0-8
4.6.2B {continued)
10-6
10-7
10-8
R(01-8)
10-9
10-10
11-8
1-5
1-6767
1-8451
2-0
1-5274
1-6803
1-8147
1-9334
2-5
1-4162
1-5528
1-6767
1-7883
1-8893
3-0
1-3332
1-4542
1-5673
1-6714
1-7669
1-8545
1-9353
1-8861
1-4982
1-5821
1-6610
1-7350
1-7582
1-5224
1-4203
1-5892
11-5
11-6
4-0
1-2231
1-3169
1-4094
5-0
1-1574
1-2302
1-3052
1-3799
1-4525
6-0
1-1160
1-2966
1-3590
1-0695
1-1730
1-1064
1-2340
8-0
1-1477
1-1918
1-2380
11-0
11-1
11-2
11-3
11-4
c/a
0-2
0-6
0-1816
0-5071
0-7222
0-8751
0-9881
0-8
1-0
1-4800
1-0419
1-0843
1-5903
1-1309
1-5825
1-1761
1-5740
1-8751
1-2171
1-5654
1-8485
1-1403
1-2835
1-5489
1-7950
1-2341
1-3310
1-5351
1-3522
1-3979
1-5119
1-7460
1-6532
1-9331
1-5
2-0
1-4025
1-4288
1-4995
1-5963
1-7035
1-9294
1-8111
1-9144
2-5
1-4279
1-4449
1-4923
1-5614
1-6427
1-7289
1-8153
0-3
0-4
0-5
11-7
1-7959
1-8992
3-0
1-4423
1-4542
1-4881
1-5393
1-6021
1-6714
1-7434
1-8155
4-0
1-4772
1-4640
1-4836
1-5143
1-5542
1-6004
1-6510
1-7041
5-0
1-4643
1-4686
1-4813
1-5612
1-5978
1-6375
1-4682
1-4712
1-4800
1-5017
1-4945
1-5287
6-0
213
4.6.
TABLE
Data
for Construction of
c/a
0-2
20-0
4.6.2B (continued)
Bunn Chart
for indexing

denotes a reflection in a rhombohedral lattice (-h+k+l=3n)
Scale of chart should allow 1*0 table unit = 30 cm or more
20-1
20-2
R(02-l)
20-3
0-3065
0-6319
1-0614
0-3
1-1211
1-6021
0-4
0-8471
1-1840
1-6021
0-5
1-0000
1-2430
1-6021
0-6
1-1130
1-2951
1-6021
0-8
1-2652
1-3590
1-3768
1-6021
1-8259
1-0
1-4337
1-6021
1-7884
20-4
20-5
R(02-4)
20-6
20-7
R(02-7)
1-8893
1-8680
1-5
1-4771
1-5119
1-6021
1-7202
2-0
1-5274
1-5473
1-6021
1-6803
1-7704
1-8642
2-5
1-5528
1-5657
1-6021
1-6566
1-7231
1-7959
1-8709
1-8451
3-0
1-5623
1-5763
1-6021
1-6419
1-6922
1-7494
1-8103
1-8780
4-0
1-5822
1-5872
1-6021
1-6257
1-6568
1-6937
1-7350
1-7792
5*0
1-5892
1-5925
1-6021
1-6176
1-6384
c/a
21-0
21-1
21-2
21-3
21-4
30-0
30-1
R(12-2)
1-3128
1-6356
1-6559
1-3979
1-6767
1-9294
1-3561
1-4692
1-6966
1-9218
0-6587
0-9842
1-1993
1-3522
1-4652
0-8
1-5083
1-5755
1-7309
1-9074
1-6174
1-0
1-6021
1-6463
1-7569
1-8953
1-7112
1-5
1-7202
1-7404
1-7959
1-8751
2-0
1-7705
1-7819
1-8147
2-5
1-7959
1-8033
1-8247
0-2
1-1152
0-5
0-5495
0-8751
1-0902
1-2430
0-6
0-3
0-4
1-2156
30-2
1-1477
1-3814
1-4771
1-5556
1-6886
1-7995
1-8893
1-2688
1-7202
1-7499
1-9661
1-8293
1-6706
1-7460
1-8451
1-8642
1-9254
1-8796
1-8885
1-9144
1-8582
1-9011
1-9050
1-9107
1-9276
1-9195
1-9235
1-9353
3-0
1-8103
1-8221
1-8305
1-8545
1-8861
4-0
1-8252
1-8281
1-8367
1-8506
1-8694
214
1-8362
4.6.
TABLE
Data
for Construction of
4.6.2B (continued)
Bunn Chart
for indexing
Tabulated values are 2 log (\jd) + constant

a reflection in a rhombohedral lattice (-h+k+l=3n)
R denotes
cja
30-0
22-0
31-0
40-0
32-0
41-0
R
1-1024
1-1359
1-3522
1-4279
1-4613
1-5673
1-6430
1-6765
1-7202
1-7959
1-8293
1-8332
1-9089
1-9423
0-6
1-9542
1-5902
1-6249
1-7151
0-8
1-9542
1-7423
1-7771
1-8673
1-9419
1-0
1-9542
1-8361
1-8709
1-5
1-9542
1-9542
1-9542
2-0
2-5
1-9542
3-0
1-9542
cja
42-0
43-0
52-0
61-0
0-7836
1-1091
0-8184
1-1439
0-9085
0-3
0-4
1-3243
1-3591
0-5
1-4771
1-5119
1-4492
1-6021
60-0
1-2341
R
0-2
1-1516
1-1958
1-2607
1-2726
1-2955
1-3379
0-3
1-4771
1-5213
1-5863
1-6210
1-6634
0-4
1-6923
1-7364
1-8014
1-5982
1-8133
0-5
1-8451
1-8893
1-9542
c/a
22-1
31-1
40-1
32-1
R(13-l)
1-8361
41-1
50-1
33-1
R(05-l)
0-2
1-1923
1-2062
1-2454
1-2813
1-3037
1-3454
1-3648
0-3
1-3382
1-3590
1-4162
1-4666
1-4973
1-5528
1-5782
0-4
1-4675
1-4927
1-5608
1-6548
1-7176
1-7460
0-5
1-5740
1-6021
1-6767
1-6196
1-7404
1-7782
1-8451
1-8751
0-6
1-6597
1-6895
1-7682
1-8349
1-8743
1-9437
1-8980
31-2
40-2
0-8
1-7828
1-8146
1-0
1-8625
1-8953
42-1
51-1
R(24-l)
c/a
22-2
0-2
1-3743
1-4012
0-3
1-5902
1-6247
0-4
1-7595
1-7976
1-6864
1-7329
1-7468
0-5
1-8893
1-9294
1-7782
1-7959
0-6
1-8192
1-8400
0-8
1-8855
1-9108
1-0
1-9331
215
32-2
41-2
R(23-2)
1-7860
1-8451
1-8972
33-0
1-0266
0-9832
1-3087
1-5246
1-6767
1-7897
0-2
51-0
50-0
1-8220
1-8893
1-9476
1-8444
1-9165
Precision
4.7.
Measurement of Lattice Parameters of Polycrystalline Specimens

By W. Parrish and A.
4.7.1. Introduction
The
dealing
is
tage of extending the
method
mono-
and trichmc substances (see Buerger [3],

Farquhar and Lipson [53], and Weisz, Cochran and
clinic
Cole
The film methods have been so extensively studied

and the techniques are now so well known that lattice
parameters can be measured with moderate precision
(0-02-0-1%) in routine fashion. The highest credible
o.ioo
z
z
o
UJ
a.
A20*
).I0
-
0.040
0.05
-
0.030
\0.025
-
\0.0I0
0.020
-
\^
\j >.00S?
0.010
^\-
0.000
20
40
60
80
is
100
120
140
160
ISO
20
Percentage precision of d (spacing measurement) as a function of reflection angles for various

errors A26. (\Ad\jd=cotd\Ae\.)
Fig. 4.7.1.
In all methods the highest accuracy is normally

obtained from lines with the largest reflection angles.
The reason for this can be seen by differentiating the
Bragg equation, which gives the well-known relation

\Ad\/d= cot 6\Ad\
....(1)
Fig. 4.7.1 shows the percentage error of the ^-spacing

measurement as a function of reflection angle for
various values of AO. This is the minimum error caused

by the limited accuracy with which the reflection angle
can be measured. In, practice there are usually several
measurements may
choose the most convenient
equipment which is known to give measurements of
the accuracy required for the problem; (2) use the
most careful experimental technique for instrument
alignment, specimen preparation, temperature control,
etc., consistent with the time available and the requirements of the problem (3) wherever possible, use the
strategy in precision
sources of systematic errors inherent in the method

and equipment which further decrease the accuracy.
(1)
4.7.2.
Photographic Methods
three commonest methods for the photographic

determination of lattice parameters are based on the
use of the cylindrical Debye-Scherrer camera, the
symmetrical back-reflection focusing camera, and the
back-reflection flat-plate camera. The principal systematic errors inherent in each procedure are described
The
lines occurring at the higher reflection angles, give

select the
final result.
and
0.060
0.050
the mathematical corrections with confidence in the
greatest weight,
0.070
most careful experimental techniques (Straumanis

[74]) or making mathematical corrections of the experimental data (Cohen [49]). Clearly both approaches
must be combined for measurements of the highest
accuracy; even in problems requiring only moderate
accuracy, reasonably good equipment and careful
experimental methods are required in order to apply
them the
\\
0.080
required to estimate the ultimate accuracy.

There are many factors which contribute to the
precision of lattice-parameter measurements, and the
methods chosen will depend on the accuracy required
for any given problem. There is much discussion in
the literature regarding the relative merits of using the
The general
In principle, the newly developed

counter diffractometer should give precision greater
be outlined as follows:
0.090
[81]).
than the film methods, but further experience
accuracies reported are usually of the order of 1 part

in 50,000 (0-002%), although occasionally there are
reports of even higher precision (e.g. Straumanis [74],
Weyerer
would be
lattice parameters are

to a high degree of accuracy, in order to check
the reliability of the chosen procedure.
[80]).
It
make some measurements
on a few substances whose
and has the advan-
to orthorhombic,
with the systematic errors.
known
practically identical except that
single-crystal goniometers are used,
Wilson
C.
desirable, of course, first to
measurement of lattice parameters by

photographic methods has been extensively described
by Straumanis and levins [73], Azaroff and Buerger [1],
Klug and Alexander [11] (Chapter 8), and Edmunds,
Lipson and Steeple [51]. These books should be read
for many of the details and additional literature
references which cannot be given here. This review
deals with the methods used for powder and other
polycrystalline specimens and hence is useful mainly
for substances of higher symmetry. The application
precision
to single crystals
J.
X-ray wave-
lengths so that at least one line occurs at 20>15O;

(4) apply a graphical or mathematical procedure for
later.
216
PRECISION MEASUREMENT OF LATTICE PARAMETERS OF POLYCRYSTALLINE SPECIMENS
4.7.
Debye-Scherrer Method
4.7.2.1.
may be
by use of a
to the way of mounting the film in the
by reference
camera according
method of van Arkel (ends of
film in the front-
This method
to the
further subdivided
reflection region), Bradley- Jay (ends of film in back-
Straumanis (ends of film around

For cameras of the same diameter the three
mountings lead to approximately equal accuracy of
reflection region), or
90 20).
specimen.
Divergence of the primary
lattice-parameter determination.
due to proIn all film methods

cessing and ageing is so large that corrections must
be made for this factor, and it is usually handled by
one of the following procedures, which assume the
shrinkage to be uniform along the entire film.
the film shrinkage
(a)
The Straumanis
film
effective
of the primary beam, or the specimen diameter if the

determining the divergence. Divergence of the beam in the plane parallel to the specimen
axis (axial or "vertical" divergence!) shifts the back-
latter is the factor
mounting has the great advan-
camera diameter.
If there are
lines in the back-reflection region, the
Wilson
reflection lines to higher angles
no
[84]
veniently long strips of film.
The van Arkel and Bradley- Jay
film
mountings
require that the distance between the reference
known by a previous
independent mechanical or optical measurement.
knife-edges be accurately
(c)
Hagg
[54]
has proposed that a complete scale be
front-reflection
measuring the position of a diffraction line, the particular characteristic of the line to be measured must
be chosen consistently to minimize subjective errors.
It is well known that different observers may choose
printed on the film prior to development.

(d)
and
lower angles (Lipson and Wilson [58], Eastabrook [50]). Unlike most of the other errors, this error
Fortunately the
is not eliminated by extrapolation.
error is normally very small and may be minimized by
decreasing the aperture of the primary beam in the
plane of the specimen axis.
Although by using careful experimental technique
the width of the reflection can be kept small, there is
an unavoidable broadening of the lines in the backreflection region due to the finite spread of waveThus, in
lengths in the characteristic radiation.
lines to
modification of the Straumanis film mounting may

be used. For large cameras (diameter >12 cm.)
the Straumanis film mounting requires incon-
(b)
beam in the plane perpen-
dicular to the specimen axis shifts the lines toward

higher angles. The error decreases with increasing 26.
It can be minimized by reducing the angular aperture
tage of permitting direct measurement of each film

in order to obtain the corrections for film shrinkage
and
carefully centred, highly absorbing cylindri-
specimen of diameter approximately the same as

that of the primary X-ray beam emitted in this direction at the centre of the camera. If the line profiles of
the same powder ring on both sides of the direct beam
are not identical, the specimen and film axes are not
coincident. The error should be minimized by accurate camera construction and careful centring of the
cal
Use of a standard substance mixed with the speci(see Bacon [47] and Andrews [46]). Data for
men
the calculation of reflection angles of standard
different points as the position of the line (see for
such as Al and Si, for several commonly used radiations will be listed in Vol. Ill of
specimens,
example Ekstein and Siegel

observer
the International Tables.
same
Absorption in the specimen modifies the line profile

and shifts the lines towards higher 20. This error
decreases with increasing 20, and there is a nearly
linear relation between line displacement and \-n-6
for the larger reflection angles. It is one of the commonest sources of systematic error and may be reduced
by using a smaller-diameter specimen and/or diluting
the specimen with a weakly absorbing non-crystalline
[52]),
and the same
may
film.
inadvertently use different points on the

The differences between the centre of
.
blackening, the centre of intensity (centre of gravity)

and the peak intensity are appreciable for precision
work. It is difficult to give specific rules for determin-
ing the position of a line on a film (see [70]), but this

problem is simpler in diffractometer recordings because
the entire line profile is available (cf. 4.7.3). For effects
of dispersion and of the Lorentz-polarization factor
see [70].
substance.
The systematic errors of greatest practical importance are listed in Table 4.7.2.1. It will be noticed that
to a first approximation all these errors (except knifeedge calibration and axial divergence) vary as [\tt 6] 2
By plotting the apparent value of the lattice parameter
against the function appropriate for the experimental
specimen rotation axis is not exactly coincident with the film axis and is displaced parallel to the
primary beam, the lines will be shifted from their
correct position toward higher or lower angles, depending on the direction of this displacement. The
error decreases with increasing 26. Jf the displacement
is perpendicular to the primary beam it may lead to an
incorrect determination of the effective camera diameter in the Straumanis method. Displacement in
intermediate directions leads to errors combining these
two effects. The camera may be tested for the displacement error (except parallel to the primary beam)
If the
t Some cameras and diffractometer goniometers are arranged

for horizontal operation and others for vertical operation. Thus
the term "vertical" divergence is confusing because it may
actually be "horizontal," depending on the arrangement of the
instrument. The term "axial" divergence is used instead to refer
to the divergence parallel to the axis of specimen rotation
regardless of whether the camera or goniometer is horizontal or
vertical.
217
4.7.
TABLE
4.7.2.1
Systematic Errors in the Debye-Scherrer Method
Source of error
Effect
Variations of terror
on0f
with0
(kir-d) cot 9
Film shrinkage
Remarks
Affects
only
van
Arkel
film
mounting without low-angle

knife edges.
High-angle knife-edge calibration
or
only Bradley-Jay film

mounting. Not eliminated by
extrapolation. Requires accurate
9 cot 9
Affects
calibration.
Specimen absorption
cos 9 cot 9 or cos 2 9/29
Minimized by reducing specimen

diameter and/or by dilution.
Specimen displacement
(a) toward entrance port
(b) toward exit port
cos 2 9
Minimized by accurate camera

construction and careful centring
cos 2 9
(c)
Beam
-0
sideways
divergence
(a)
1 specimen axis
(b)
||
specimen axis
Dispersion
cos 9 cot 6 or cos 2 0/20
polation to 0=|t7.
See Pike and Wilson
Important at high angles only.
2d,
2\sin0
found to give good
plots
down
results in practice
with linear
and has some
eliminated
20.
finally the film is measured with a precision device.

Straumanis claims that systematic errors are eliminated
by the careful experimental technique and he does not
use an extrapolation method. However, even when all
these precautions are taken, there are probably some
systematic errors remaining. For example, it is not
possible to obtain good reflections from highly absorbing materials which have been diluted to the point
where the absorption error is negligible. The importance of careful experimental procedures is that the
systematic and random errors are reduced and there is
greater confidence in the measurements.
....(2)
to small values of 9
Not
by extrapolation.
and
linear extra-
cos 2 9 \
9
illuminated.
[70].
- = toward lower
The function
l/ cos 2
Decrease collimator aperture

or specimen diameter.
Decrease length of specimen
(b)
+ = toward higher
on
(a)
Complex. See equation (11) of

Lipson and Wilson [58] and
Eastabrook [50].
error expected to be largest, the remaining systematic

errors will be effectively reduced
is
of specimen.
theoreti-
and Sinclair [75]). Values of

this function calculated by Nelson and Riley [59] are
given in Table 4.7.4A. The function cos 2 9 is also useful,
and values may be obtained from Table 4.7.4B.
The importance of careful experimental technique
has been stressed by Straumanis [73] [74]. Film
shrinkage is determined by direct measurement of the
film; careful centring and accurate camera construccal justification (Taylor
4.7.2.2.
Symmetrical Back-reflection Focusing
Method
In this method measurements are more conveniently
expressed in terms of the complement of 9
reduce specimen eccentricity; small-diameter

specimens are used to obtain sharp lines; absorption
errors are reduced by the small-diameter specimen
and dilution when required accurate temperature control is maintained during the exposure; radiation is
chosen to give one or more very-high-angle reflections
tion
4>=\n-d
....(3)
The corrections for film shrinkage are usually done by
means of previously calibrated knife-edges on the low-
angle ends of the film. Some cameras are also equipped

with high-angle knife-edges and a number of equally
218
4.7.
spaced notches on the circumference of the camera to

certain that differential film shrinkage has not
taken place. Standard substances mixed with the specimen are sometimes used for calibration. Errors due to
penetration of the beam into low-absorbing specimens
may be minimized by the use of very thin samples,
longer wavelengths, or both. Care must be exercised
in specimen preparation to make certain the specimen
has the correct curvature and that its front surface lies
on the same circle as the front surface of the film.
Divergence of the primary beam in the plane normal
to the camera diameter (axial divergence) should be
kept small, since errors due to shifts of lines from
this cause increase with decreasing
Good camera
construction is required to minimize errors due to
displacement of the entrance slit from the focusing
to obtain parallelism of the knife-edges, to

ensure good contact of the film round the focusingcircle and to reduce errors from similar factors.
circle,
make
Double-coated film gives images on the two sides which

coincide. The back image should therefore be
stripped or its development prevented, for example by
an adhesive strip which is removed prior to fixing [64].
Single-coated film is more convenient but is usually
slower and not easy to obtain.
The systematic errors are listed in Table 4.7.2.2. To
a first approximation all the errors listed (except
2
axial divergence) vary as
and tan
appears to
be the most acceptable extrapolation function. A
linear plot is used for all lines with <<30. Values of
tan $ are given in Table 4.7.4C. (See also Saini [72],
Jette and Foote [56], and Cohen [49].)
do not
<f>
cf>.
<f>
<f>
</>
TABLE
4.7.2.2
Systematic Errors in the Symmetrical Back-reflection Focusing Method
Source of error
Effect
on
Variations of terror with
</>f
Film shrinkage
Low-angle knife-edge calibration
or
(b)
Beam
Outside true circumference

Inside true circumference
divergence in plane l to camera diameter
+=toward
larger
<f>,
-=toward
TABLE
smaller
<f>.
<f>
tan<
tan 2
Specimen displacement
(a)
tan<
Specimen transparency
(f>
<f>
<
tan
2</>
tan
<f>
tan
2<f>
tan
<f>
(<f>=in-d.)
4.7.2.3
Corrections to Measurements with Flat-plate Back-reflection
Source of error
Cameraf
Correction
Film shrinkage
Use low-angle knife-edges or other ^fiducial marks.
Specimen-to-film distance
Use accurate mechanical gauge or calibrating substance.
Specimen transparency
Decrease D by 2 tan 2<f>/fx(l + sec

specimen or longer wavelength.
Inclination of incident
beam
to specimen
normal
2<f>),
or
use
Construct camera so that inclination of central ray

than 0-1.
less
Beam
divergence
D= measured ring
Limit to small values or reduce
diameter, 4>=\tt-Q,
thin
p = linear absorption
219
coefficient,
D by D tan 2 a.
a = semi-angle of divergence.
is
4.7.
4.7.2.3.
PRECISION MEASUREMENT OF LATTICE PARAMETERS OF POLYCRYS ALLINE SPECIMENS

1
Flat-plate Back-reflection Method
different Bragg angles. The zero-angle calibration is

done with a knife-edge (Tournarie [78]) or pinhole
(Parrish and Lowitzsch [63]) placed in the specimen
holder and scanning the direct beam, preferably at
small angular steps. The accuracy may be as great as
0-001 26. The techniques of using Geiger, proportional and scintillation counters have been reviewed
recently, with emphasis on linearity, efficiency, pulseamplitude discrimination, counting statistics and
The small number of lines recorded by a flat-plate

camera ordinarily makes extrapolation techniques impractical. If accurate lattice parameters are required by
this
method, accurate instrument construction and care-
ful calibration are required.
are listed in Table 4.7.2.3.
The principal corrections

The corrections can be
minimized by coating the surface of the specimen with a
(~O002 cm thick) of a calibrating substance

such as aluminium or silver and measuring one ring from
the standard and one from the substance under investigation. The angle
is then found from the relation
thin film
related topics [65, 66].
The
is obtained when the specimen

curved in the form of a section of a cylindrical surface to fit the focusing circle. The radius of the
focusing circle r decreases with increasing Bragg angle
according to the relation
surface
<f>
tan 2<f>=(DID c ) tan
2<\> c
(4)
where D c and c refer to the calibrating substance.

For best results the standard should be chosen so that
D c is nearly equal to but slightly greater than D. In
calculating c allowance must be made for the variation of dc with temperature. The double coating of the
film again leads to displaced images, and this error
should be eliminated, as mentioned in the previous
section. Great care must be taken to prevent buckling
of the film. (See also Thomas [77] and Edmunds,
Lipson and Steeple [51].)
</>
best focusing
is
r=R/2
sin
(5)
where R is the radius of the goniometer. Hence the

specimen would have to be prepared in a flexible
mount whose curvature could be accurately and continually varied in synchronism with the movement of
the receiving slit. This is difficult to do in practice, and
flat specimens are normally employed.
</>
Method
The following description of this relatively new
method applies to focusing instruments employing
4.7.3. Counter-diffractometer
counter-tube detectors, such as Geiger, proportional

or scintillation counters (Parrish and Hamacher [60]).
At the time of writing very little has been published on
the application of the method to precision lattice-
parameter measurements, and
it
is
likely that this
survey will require some modifications during the next

decade. The possible major sources of errors are
reviewed below and listed in Table 4.7.3. These
generally have their origin in the geometrical aberrations caused
by limitations of the practical X-ray optical
system, improper specimen preparation, imperfections

in the goniometer, its alignment
and
calibration,
and
accuracy of the intensity measurements.

The precise alignment of the counter diffractometer
can be made with simple mechanical devices (Parrish
and Lowitzsch [63]). This is important not only to
obtain the highest intensity and best resolution but
also to minimize errors due to geometrical aberrations caused by several possible small misalignments,
such as inequality of source-specimen and specimenreceiving- slit distances, small errors in the counter
tube (20)
specimen (0) setting, commonly called the
2 1 setting; and so on.
These aberrations are further minimized by setting the
centre of gravity of the primary beam (rather than the
geometrical middle of the irradiated specimen length)
on the goniometer axis of rotation. This reduces
residual misalignment errors and profile distortions
due to non-uniform intensity of the primary beam and
variations in the length of specimen irradiated at
limijted
87.70
88.50
88.00
20'
specimen aberration shown by change

of intensity (I) distribution. Profiles replotted from
step-scan recording at 0-01 2d steps, probable error
0-8% (6400 counts), angular aperture 2a=l (darker
line), 2a =4 (lighter line) and normalized for equal
Fig. 4.7.3(1). Flat
peak intensity of Ka x Silicon powder specimen (422),

CuKa, two sets of parallel slits each with angular
aperture 4 35', receiving slit 0-05 26, R=\l cm.
.
220
PRECISION MEASUREMENT OF LATTICE PARAMETERS OF POLYCRYST ALLINE SPECIMENS
4.7.
c
o o
s-l
4>
-t->
H->
C
4>
O
T3
o3
O
co
E 'x
J
d c
bjj
o
o3
E
t*
l-H
N Oh
s o
c
<D
l
60
"<3
03
X
S-H
7i
<~"3
S
H->
e
6
4>
4>
03
6
a
co
o
4)
3 o
.S
03
<^*
03
5e
4)
a
fci
03
v.
3
O
o
03
4)
'3
4)
4)
|5
4)
13
_o
C
-t->
4>
Oh
d a
O 4)
O 00
4)
Oh
rr,
a,
03
03
oo
4)
43 S
3
c3
* u
<N
Oh0_
03
j3
03
ffiHH J2
OO
_
3
IO aco
6
co
60
*i
J3
03
co
C
4)
2
co
*-!
C
4)
(N
J3
co
gC!
03
4>
N
-
co
P
.3
c
o ^ O
O
4)
O O rj
-3
X3
O D
03
+->
<T>
oo
4>
X^
03
03
fc
4)
co
<D
4)
(H
03
h->
dod
60
fe
<l>
"o
4)
CO
(->
4)
Oh
s-
2
03
4>
*o3
X>
'3
lo
is
4)
N
O n
4)
(N
03
60
X)
T)
4)
4)
03
'
O
3 s
60
->
T3
>> 60
CO
X>
c
"3
T3
o
4)
>>
4>
4)
co
4)
"3
4>
o
VH
03
X>
o3
4>
4-j
-o
"C
'2
o3
4>
03
X>
60
<L>
03
H>
03
i-
4>
4=
60

03
'"
Z>
Ch
Oh
V-,
a6
T3
O >
X- O
o
03
4)
60
03
t3
S-h
2
Oh
fc
<L)
H-J
CO
o
o3
CO
o3
c
o
>
U
O
03
o
o
C
O
CO
"60
c
03
o
OS
i2
I
H->
X
^H
o
OS
o
Oh
rt
Sco
4)
'to
u|
4>
o3
O
3 O g
Mx
ts
Qi
<N
03
su ^bo
JS
^^^
4)
-M
r*
c
o3
c
os
03
<r>
CO
o
o
e O
tr>
13
S
o3
ON
O
o
OS
c3
<^
4)
03
c
4)
60
4>
60
c
3
o
00
o
c
^4>
4>
t.
'feb
c3
Oh
03
4)
60
!
4>
>
*o
CO
03
!-
Mh
221
a
X
<
60
4)
-o
03
Oh
4>
CO
5
C
a
E
a
N
c
4>
o
T3
03
t.
4>
4>
O
o
4)
4)
Oh
00
03
C*
'~
xl
?p
43
H->
o3
O
C
H-l
"T3
pj
+->
03
t-i
^> o
12 T3
O O

3
g
O *-* o3 o3 O3 Oh
60
CI
4> T3
c3
X 4) o
<ti
4)
4)
60 -^
60
*o .S
^
4)
Oh
4.7.
The use of a
specimen gives
flat
rise to
small geo-
metrical aberrations which broaden the line profile
asymmetrically and
shift the position
to smaller angles, as
shown in
of the reflection
Fig. 4.7.3(1). In addition,
penetration of the primary beam into specimens of

low absorption and reflections from below the surface
(transparency error) produce similar aberrations.
Wilson
falling to zero at 0
and 1 80 29, and is another source

of systematic error. It should be noted that high
specimen absorption is usually the source of largest
error in the Debye-Scherrer method, whereas low
specimen absorption may cause major aberrations in
the focusing methods.
has developed the following expression for
[85]
the shift of the centre of gravity (c.g.)f of the diffraction maximum to smaller angles (expressed in 20
L2
A29
20
sin
12R 2
(e.g., rad.)
sin 29
0.060-
two aberrations
radians) due to these
/jT=25\
It cos
i?[exp(2^csc0)-l]
2/ztf
0.050-
....(6)
where
is
the length of specimen illuminated (L
=2<xR/sin 9, 2a is the full angular aperture of the

primary beam in the plane of Bragg focusing), n the
linear absorption coefficient and t the specimen thickness. The first term, due to the flat specimen, is plotted
in Fig. 4.7.3(2) for various values of 2a, R= 17 cm, with
A 29 expressed in degrees. The shift increases with 2a
and falls to zero at 180'29, giving rise to a systematic
error. The parabola is for the case L=2 cm for all
0's (2a increasing with 9).
A20
50
0.030-
0.020100
150
250
0.070
wffi
Ittoo
\2a=5
\4
0.000
=
i
7^mr^
30
0.060
20
3>
-
\l_=2cm.
transparency aberration (sin 29/2/jlR

various values of fx.
0.050
due to specimen-
i?=17cm)
for
0.040
A 20
The effects of these aberrations on the peak position

more difficult to derive, and Wilson [85] gives a
are
solution which
0.030
is
probably satisfactory for the smaller

The shift of the peak to smaller
angles O<20<4O.
\
20 expressed in radians is given by the smallest value

of the three expressions
1/
0.020
=L 2 sin 29J4R 2
\\
'
ZI20
(Peak, rad.)
0.010
Ao.5
\v\
0.000
'
60
30
90
120
150
=0-428
=2? cos
sin 26/
0/7?
(a)
pR
(b)
(7)
(c)
where the symbols have the same meaning as above.

In most practical cases expression (lb) is dominant.
For example, at 20=20, L=2cm, )u=100, ?=0-l cm,
the shifts in degrees 20 are 0-068, 0-005 and 0-664
r^"l
180
20
Fig. 4.7.3(2).
Shift of centre of gravity due to flatspecimen aberration (L 2 sin 20/1 2R 2 R=ll cm) for
various values of 2a.
for equations (la), (b), (c) respectively.
The second and
t There is some difference of opinion as to whether it is

possible to define the position of the centre of gravity of a
diffraction maximum (especially if it has long "tails") with sufficient exactness to warrant the use of this position as representing
the true or, at least, a reproducible location of the diffraction
maximum. The authors claim that the "tails" do fall off rapidly
enough for the centre-of-gravity position to be used, at least in
the case of well-crystallized polycrystalline specimens and a
diffractometer of good resolution, and that no other measure is
third terms of equation (6) give
the shift due to specimen transparency. In
most prac-
term drops
out. Fig. 4.7.3(3) shows a plot of the second term for
tical cases
^t esc 9
various values of
is
large, so that the third
/x.
The
shift is greatest at 90 29,
at present suitable for accurate
222
work.
General Editor.
4.7.
The divergence of the primary beam perpendicular

to the plane of Bragg focusing, sometimes called the
axial divergence, is limited in the newer diffractometers by thin parallel slits (Soller slits). Usually one
set is placed between the source and specimen and
another set between the specimen and counter detector.
These
at small
are required to obtain good line shape

large diffraction angles with an extended
slits
and
line source of X-rays.
broadens the
line
Increasing the axial divergence

asymmetrically as shown in Fig.
and shifts the peak and e.g. of the reflection in a

complex manner. The peak shift is usually less than
4.7.3(4),
that of the e.g.
If the surface of the
specimen is displaced a distance

the goniometer axis of rotation, the peak and
e.g. of the reflection are both shifted by
S from
A29 = 2S cos
(Peak,
6j
....(8)
e.g., rad.)
to higher angles if the specimen
is inside the focusing

outside (Wilson [85]).
The shift decreases with increasing reflection angle,
becoming zero at 26= 180, and thus can be eliminated
circle,
and to lower angles
if
by extrapolation. The displacement may be caused

by inaccurate machining of the banking surface of the
specimen holder of the goniometer, and hence is a
constant of the instrument and/or the specimen preparation; in the latter case it varies from one specimen
to another.
shift may also occur if the surface of
the specimen
is not planar or if the specimen surface

not parallel to the goniometer axis.
The finite width of the source and receiving slit have
no effect on the e.g. of the reflection and only broaden
the line. Where the maxima are unsymmetrical, as in
the case of Ka x 2 doublets, a narrow receiving slit
will give the "true" peak position but a wide slit may
cause the peak to shift toward the centre of gravity
of the two lines. If receiving slits with different widths
are used, the zero-angle calibration must be made with
is
the
slit
actually in use.
Ordinarily different
slits
will
somewhat different angles, because of the difficulty

of making the distance between the centre of the slit
opening and the reference surface exactly the same
from one slit to another.
From this summary it appears that for most of
give
22.00
21.80
20
Fig. 4.7.3(4).
2 2.90
Change in line profile caused by increasing
beam in plane of parallel slits. Curves

normalized for equal peak intensity. Heavy line profile
obtained with one set of parallel slits between source
and specimen, one set between specimen and detector,
each having angular aperture 2 18'.
Light line
obtained with slits removed and angular aperture
limited by specimen width to approximately 6-5. Lead
nitrate curved powder specimen, CuKa (200), r=43-3
cm, 2a=l, receiving slit 0-05 26, R=17 cm.
divergence of
The
shift is
toward smaller angles in the front-
reflection region, but
changes sign in the region 90 to
120 20, above which the shift
is toward larger angles.

and the angle at which the
shift changes sign have no simple expression but
depend in a complicated way on the axial lengths of
source, specimen and receiving slit, and whether one
or two (or no) sets of parallel slits are employed.
The magnitude of the
Eastabrook
counter diffractometry, except axial

extrapolation function is either
cot 6 cos 6 or cos 2 6, depending on whether the specimen surface displacement or flat specimen and transparency error is larger. Extrapolation may be avoided
by the procedure described below, but the difficulty of
measuring the surface displacement S makes extrapolation desirable for many specimens.
In counter diffractometry the accuracy of the angular
measurements is dependent on the accuracy of the
intensity measurements. In routine analysis with a
rate-meter and strip-chart recorder, the peak and e.g.
of the lines are shifted toward the scanning direction
the
errors
in
divergence,
shift
by an amount dependent on the product of the scanning speed of the goniometer and time constant of the
circuits (Parrish [62]; Tournarie [79]; Parrish and
Hamacher [60]). For example, if this product is
increased from 1 to 32 the shift increases nearly
linearly from 0-01 to 0-10 26 in a typical practical
case. The amount of shift is also dependent on the
line shape and width of the receiving slit. This electronic aberration can be the source of a large error,
and in work of higher precision it is desirable to
eliminate this error by the use of a step-scanning
has considered the limiting case when

the spacing of the parallel slits is small. Pike [67] has
given a fuller theoretical treatment and presents data
for shifts that occur under various experimental
line breadth,
conditions.
are used.
[50]
the
method. The steps should be small compared to the

and normally steps of 0-01 to 0-05 26
223
fixed-time or fixed-count (preselected
4.7.
probable error) intensity measurement can be used.
The former has the advantage of requiring much less

time and gives sufficient precision if a reasonable
number of counts is obtained at each step. The time
required to record the entire profile may be greatly
reduced by using larger steps (and/or reducing the
fixed count) in the tails. If the detector is non-linear,
the intensities must be corrected. It is often easier to
determine the approximate integration limits from a
preliminary rapid rate-meter recording.
has been shown above that the geometrical

aberrations have been worked out only for the e.g.
(centroid or first moment) of the line profile. The
observed distribution is a convolution of the spectral
distribution and the aberrational distributions. Since
It
the c.g.'s of the individual aberrations are additive, it

is easy to subtract the effect of their displacements of
the line profile and thus obtain the e.g. of the angular
representation of the spectral distribution h(0). In
cases where the dispersion is not too great, the e.g. of
the spectral distribution on an angle scale then corre-
sponds to the e.g. on a wavelength scale

Bragg equation
h(A),
d=n\/smd
yields the interplanar spacing where A
the c.g.'s of the spectral distribution. A
and the
and
is
6 refer to
defined as
...(10)
is described which is valid

which are not too high (>140 20), or too
low ( < 60 26). For this procedure the limits are chosen
symmetrically about the e.g. by successive approximations on both A and 6 scales, and the exact range used is
simplified procedure
not
critical,
provided
Jh(A)dA
it is
the area between the lines
The
parameter determination.
Where dispersion d0/dA
jdh(6)d6
..(11)
fh(0)d0
is
significant (say
> 125
26),
and other aberrations are small, the angle which

equivalent to A is given by 6B where
^- Sin
is
.(12)
!h(6)d6
In practice the e.g. of the observed distribution 1(6) is

6, the e.g. of the spectral distribution, by
subtracting the known displacements due to the
reduced to
6B is then determined by adding the displacement due to dispersion, 6 B -6, which has been
aberrations.
mined by
'
of the total
taken as the
of the entire distribution is neglected.

error of approximation in both procedures is
small compared with the measurable diffractometer
error (<O-OO120) at angles important for lattice-
only 2-3
[57]
known
spectral distributions
and from approximate models of spectral
butions
[68].
The
interplanar spacing
is
distri-
then deter-
d=n\/2smdB
difficulty is
is
10%
are
abscissae where the upper line intersects the profile

Thus
c-.g. is calculated between these limits.
decay too slowly and for other obvious reasons. This
ing negligible dispersion,
about
limits
and the
calculated for several
overcome by truncating the distribution in

a manner that preserves its basic features. To maintain the correspondence of the spectral and observed
distributions, the latter is truncated in the same
manrter. The e.g. of the observed distribution, assum-
is
The
integrated intensity.
the integrals in equation (10) should be

over the whole recorded spectrum. It is impractical to
work with such limits because the tails of spectral lines
The range of
sufficiently large.
and Taylor [57] preserve the

basic features of the distribution by neglecting part of
the tails. The integrated intensity is measured and a
line is drawn parallel to the background line so that
Ladell, Parrish
(ii)
..-.(9)
JAh(A)dA
A=
for angles
....(13)
The important part of the Lorentz factor, 1/cos 6, also

changes rapidly in this region and its effect must be
subtracted in high-precision work. The combination
of dispersion and Lorentz factors distorts the profile
and shifts the e.g., but the peak position is very much
less affected. Pike [68] gives for the combined effect
of dispersion and the Lorentz factor the general
expression
truncation methods have been proposed and

tested 'in a limited manner
(i) Pike and Wilson [69] define arbitrary limits in the
tails of the spectral profile, make a "horizontal"
Two
A26 = V^tan 3
(e.g., rad.)
....(14)
V is the variance (mean-square breadth) of the

spectral profile over the range actually used in the
centre-of-gravity determination. Neither the disper-
where
truncation between them and use the e.g. of the truncated "line" as A in the Bragg equation. The corre-
sion nor the Lorentz corrections extrapolate to zero,

and, in fact, they become the largest source of error at
very high 26. Other trigonometrical factors produce a
spondence of the spectral and observed distributions

is ensured by finding the value of d which transforms
and the e.g. of this "line" to points on the

observed distribution which have the same property,
i.e. the observed e.g. is that of the truncated distribution between the observed limits. Such a value of d is
found by successive approximations. The effects of
geometrical aberrations, dispersion, and the Lorentzpolarization factor are allowed for in the comparison.
the limits
very small shift of the
e.g. at
very high angles.
A procedure which eliminates extrapolations and is

based on the principles described above has been used
All the individual aberrations for
conditions are added and a
experimental
the particular
plot is made of the shift of e.g. against 26. The
successfully [57].
224

4.7.
observed c.g.'s of the lines in the back-reflection region

are then corrected from the plotted aberrational data
yielding d values free of systematic errors.
The
numerical average (without weighting) of these d's is
calculated to reduce the effects of random errors. This
average d is then corrected for the usual factors such
as temperature and refraction to obtain the final d. This
procedure works only when all the significant aberrations are known, and hence is applicable at present
only to e.g. measurements of the lines. In the case of
CuKa radiation, silicon powder, 2a =4, two sets of
parallel slits each with 4-5 aperture, the geometrical
aberration correction is -0-045 at 105 20 and
-0-001 at 160 20.
There are several advantages

(b) in
(a)
using the
The
reflection
e.g.
(a)
and disadvantages
rather than the peak position.
e.g. is a more accurate determination of the

maximum, since it is based on many points
across the entire line profile rather than the few points
around the peak. It gives an accurate measurement
regardless of the Ka doublet separation, line asym-
metry or breadth, whereas there is always some doubt

peak position in these cases. The
in the choice of the
corrections required for certain geometrical aberra-
most easily expressed in terms of the e.g.,

but the expressions for the shift of peak position are
known accurately for only a few limited conditions. It
is preferable to work with a displacement of the e.g.
whose angular variation is known, rather than the displacement of the peak whose angular variation is unknown, even if the latter is somewhat smaller. The
unfolding operation to eliminate errors is reduced to
a simple subtraction.
tions can be
(b) The measurement of the

more time than the peak and is
e.g.
takes a great deal
errors. There are two general approaches to extrapolation graphical (Bradley and Jay [48]) and analytical
:
based on the least-squares method (Cohen [49] Hess

[55]). The advantage of the graphical method is its
simplicity and the ease with which the highest-angle
determinations or those with the most favourable
indices (see below) may be weighted.
For cubic crystals the simplest and probably best
method of extrapolation is to plot the apparent value
of the lattice parameter a against the chosen extrapola;
and draw the best extrapolation
tion function
line
through the points to 180 29 with the aid of a transparent straight-edge. Tables of %(h 2 +k 2 +l 2)*\ are
available to facilitate the calculation of the provisional
a for each reflection (Parrish, Ekstein and Irwin [61]).
For tetragonal and hexagonal crystals the same method
may be used with the following modification. An
approximate value for the axial ratio is chosen, the
values of a are calculated from lines with low / index
and c from lines with low h and k indices (Wilson and
Lipson [83]). If the axial ratio of the extrapolated
values differs significantly from that chosen the process
is repeated, and the final axial lengths are thus found
by one or more steps of successive approximation. If
only one (00/) reflection is present, the method of
Taylor and Floyd [76] may be useful.
The selection of a fairly good value of the axial
ratio may be facilitated by measuring a pair of lines at
moderately high 29 angles with good experimental
technique (Straumanis [74] Klug and Alexander [11]).
If h lt k lt l lt 9 1 refer to one reflection and h 2> k 2 l 2 6 2
to the other, we may combine the quadratic forms of
the Bragg equations for each reflection and obtain for
,
usually asymmetric, the e.g. is usually more sensitive

than the peak and hence has a larger systematic error.
In the lower-symmetry substances overlapping of
may make
the extrapolation depends on the

presence of several well-spaced good lines in the backreflection region with one or more above 160 20, and
the magnitude of the random as well as the systematic
desirable only in cases
where high accuracy is required. Since the broadening

of the lines due to the aberrations mentioned earlier is
impossible to measure the e.g. It is

also likely that when the diffractometer is better understood through studies of the e.g. method, some empirical methods of using peaks with high precision may
be discovered.
lines
The accuracy of
tetragonal crystals
a=
A"
7iW+
~2\_
lx
sin
2
2
)-/ 2 W+A:i 2)'
2
2
-/ 2 2
..(15)
sin 2 9 1
it
from which
may
be calculated from any reflection
c=Aal[4a 2 sin 2 0-A 2 (/i 2 +A: 2)]*
For hexagonal
.... (16)
crystals the corresponding expressions
are
4.7.4.
a=X
General Problems
(a) Extrapolation.
l1
(h 2 2
+h 2k 2 +k 2 2)-l 2 2 (h 1 2 +h 1 k 1 + k 1 2 )
3(/ x
Many
of the errors vary in a

systematic fashion, decreasing with increasing reflection angle, and hence some form of extrapolation is
often desirable. Since not all the errors conform to
any one function, the choice of the function depends
on a knowledge of the relative importance of each
source of error for any given method. The most likely
functions for each method have been described above,
but these may require modification, depending on the
special characteristics of the experimental conditions.
sin 2
-/ 2 2
]'
sin 2
X)
....(17)
Xal
c=-
2 \j>a 2 sin 2 9-X 2 (h 2 +hk+k^
'
-08)
If the two reflections were obtained with different

wavelengths (<x 2 a l5 p or another target), equation (15)
may be modified to
,
'W, +k
2
a=2
225
Axî sin
-/W+*! 3'
-A
sin 9
1 )'
2 )-
2 /2
....(19)
..
4.7.
and equation
(17) to
'
a=\ 1\< h
(h 2
crystal (A') differs slightly
+h 2 k 2 +k 2 )-l 2 (h 1 +h 1 k 1 +k 1 y
2
2
2
2
2
sin 2 6
/! sin
2 -A 2 / 2
2
observed reflection angle
3CA!
analytical
methods become more
use as the crystal symmetry decreases, and

generally single-crystal methods are easier for orthorhombic and lower-symmetry substances. In ortho-
difficult to
rhombic
different, therefore,
is
equally likely to cause an
increase or a decrease in reflection angle
k*
P_l_
the extrapolation function appropriate to
(Wilson
(where
the index of refraction)
is
calculating
A' = A/TV
may be used in
Either the corrected wavelength
[82]).
is/(0):
h 2 k 2 / 2 4sin 2
^
2
-,+T,+-,
^r- =* sin
and hence
causes only a slight line broadening. Thin plates or

needles require a special correction. Ordinarily in
powder work only the first effect has to be considered
(21)
if
is
small, roughly spherical crystals with negligible ab-
sorption, the second effect
crystals
h*
so that
(8')
from the 8 calculated from the Bragg equation, for

two reasons: (i) A' is slightly larger than A, (ii) the
X-rays are changed slightly in direction due to refraction on entering and leaving the crystal. In the case of
....(20)
The graphical and
The wavelength of X-rays within a

from that in air (A). The
(c) Refraction.
2
d from
8,
or, as is the
commonest
practice,
.(22)
6f(6)
with refraction neglected
d' calculated
may be
in-
creased by
where
of measureThis equation has four adjustable constants

a, b, c, K; and the best values can be found by the
usual least-squares methods. Values of sin 2 8 are
given in Table 4.7.4B. Five-figure tables of sin 2 8 for
every hundredth of a degree from 2 to 87 have been
prepared by H. Anne Plettinger [71]. Equation (22)
can be modified for crystals of higher or lower
symmetry.
The analytical method can be extended to cover
cases where there are important errors with different
dependence on 8. The right-hand side of equation (22)
A' is a constant for a particular set
(1
ments.
is
-N)d' =2-70 x 10- 6A VSZ/S/4
which for cubic

venient form
(1
and
K K
2,
in
(1 N)a'x 10 6
.]
Some
are:
MoKa
8[K1 f1 (8)+K2 f2 (8)+K3 fs (8)+
.... (26)
the lattice parameter in the fifth decimal place).

typical values of
CuKa
CrKa
7-2
33-7
74-4
21-1
99-1
219-0
33-4
157-0
347-0
.(23)
are treated as additional adjustable con-
Aluminium
Lead
the least-squares
(d)
Thermal Expansion.
The
aT
X-ray
Wavelengths.
Due
to continuing un-
certainty concerning the precise absolute values of
lattice
=a Ti +*a T (J2 -Td
nitrate
Tungsten
parameter a
varies with the coefficient of thermal expansion a and
temperature T according to the relation
(b)
be put in the more con-
In these equations A is in
and p in g/cm 3 SZ is
the sum of the atomic numbers and 2 A the sum of the
atomic weights of the atoms in the unit cell. The
correction is usually small (a few parts to be added to
solution.
Experimental
accuracy is rarely sufficiently great to make this worth
while, but if there is doubt about the high-angle knifeedge calibration of a Bradley- Jay camera or the zeroangle calibration of a diffractometer, a term with
f2 (8)=8 cot 8 or cot 8 respectively might be included.
stants
may
-/V)a'=4-48 x 10- 6 (A/a) 2 SZ
replaced by
sin 2
crystals
.... (25)
X-ray wavelengths, it is recommended that the values

used in precision measurements should be explicitly
stated. Confusion arises from three sources: (i) uncertainty in the value of the factor for converting kX
.(24)
for a may range from a few parts to nearly

00 parts per million per degree C. Some representa6
tive approximate values of 10 a are tungsten 4, sodium
and variable precision in the

and (iii)
the asymmetric spectral distribution of the small band
of wavelengths comprising the "monochromatic"
X-rays, which may cause the peak value to differ from
the centre of gravity or any other type of weighted
mean.
The existing state of knowledge concerning absolute
X-ray wavelengths and the conversion factor will be
discussed in Volume III. Meanwhile it may be pointed
The values
to
units,
(ii)
limited
original determinations of the wavelengths,
thallium chloride 55. It is therefore

necessary to control the temperature of the specimen
to well within the limits set by the desired precision
of the lattice-parameter measurement. Small fluctuations around the desired temperature cause a small
longersymmetrical broadening of the lines on film.
chloride 40,
range gradual change in temperature causes unsymmetrical broadening on film and may lead to a
systematic error in counter diffractometry.
out that,
quired,
226
if
spacings of the highest precision are re-
peak measurements of
diffraction
maxima
4.7.

been used to locate wavelength maxima, especially as
information concerning the method employed is not
always clearly given in the literature; and in the case
of CuKa, for example, there is a difference of about
0-0045
between the e.g. of the 04 and <x 2 components
and the weighted mean of the peak wavelengths [57].
should be combined with peak measurements of

wavelength, or centre-of-gravity measurements with
centre-of-gravity measurements, and so on. Whatever
method of location of exact intensity maxima is used,
it should be the same in each case. This may involve
further consideration of the methods that have hitherto
227
4.7,
TABLE
4.7.4A
'cos 2 6
cos 2
-*)
\[ sin d
'
0-0
0-1
10
5-571
11
5-035
12
13
4-585
4-202
14
3-872
5-513
4-986
4-544
4-167
3-842
0-2
0-3
0-4
0-5
0-6
0-7
0-8
0-9
5-456
5-399
4-892
4-464
4-098
3-782
5-344
4-846
4-425
4-065
3-753
5-290
4-800
4-386
4-032
3-724
5-237
4-756
4-348
3-999
3-695
5-185
4-712
4-311
3-967
3-667
5-134
4-669
5-084
4-627
4-238
3-428
3-192
2-981
2-792
3-404
3-379
3-170
2-961
3-148
4-938
4-504
4-133
3-812
15
3-584
3-558
3-531
3-505
3-479
3-454
16
3-331
3-283
3-215
3-105
2-903
3-001
2-828
19
2-721
2-884
2-704
3-063
2-865
3-022
18
3-260
3-042
2-847
3-237
17
3-307
3-084
2-687
2-670
2-653
2-810
2-636
20
2-556
2-405
2-509
2-362
2-267
2-140
2-022
2-128
2-241
2-115
2-334
2-202
2-321
22
23
24
2-080
2-068
2-177
2-056
2-011
2-000
2-105
1-989
2-494
2-348
2-215
2-092
2-464
2-391
2-524
2-376
2-479
21
1-978
1-967
1-956
1-945
25
26
27
28
29
1-913
1-903
1-892
1-882
1-872
1-861
1-851
1-812
1-802
1-792
1-782
1-773
1-763
1-754
1-717
1-708
1-698
1-689
1-681
1-672
1-628
1-619
1-611
1-602
1-594
1-545
1-537
1-529
1-521
30
1-466
1-459
1-451
31
1-392
1-385
1-378
32
33
34
1-322
1-316
1-256
1-194
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
4-274
3-935
3-639
3-903
3-612
2-942
2-756
3-355
3-127
2-922
2-738
2-588
2-572
2-434
2-294
2-164
2-045
1-934
2-419
2-280
2-152
2-033
1-924
1-841
1-831
1-821
1-744
1-735
1-726
1-663
1-654
1-645
1-637
1-586
1-577
1-569
1-561
1-553
1-513
1-505
1-497
1-489
1-482
1-474
1-444
1-436
1-429
1-421
1-414
1-407
1-399
1-371
1-364
1-357
1-350
1-343
1-336
1-329
1-309
1-302
1-296
1-289
1-282
1-276
1-269
1-263
1-250
1-244
1-237
1-231
1-225
1-218
1-212
1-206
1-200
1-188
1-182
1-175
1-169
1-164
1-158
1-152
1-146
1-140
1-134
1-128
1-123
1-117
1-111
1-106
1-100
1-083
1-072
1-067
1-061
1-056
1-050
1-045
1094
1040
1-089
1-078
1-034
1-024
1-019
1-013
1-008
1-003
0-998
0-988
0-983
0-972
0-923
0-967
0-919
0-962
0-914
0-958
0-909
0-953
0-905
0-948
0-900
0-993
0-943
0-895
0-938
0-933
0-886
1-029
0-977
0-928
0-881
0-859
0-815
0-850
0-806
0-765
0-725
0-687
0-802
0-761
0-721
0-694
0-854
0-810
0-769
0-729
0-690
0-683
0-757
0-717
0-679
0-657
0-622
0-588
0-556
0-524
0-654
0-619
0-585
0-552
0-522
0-650
0-615
0-582
0-549
0-518
0-647
0-612
0-578
0-546
0-515
0-643
0-608
0-575
0-543
0-512
0-877
0-832
2-540
2-254
2-228
0-872
0-868
0-863
0-828
0-785
0-823
0-781
0-819
0-777
0-745
0-741
44
0-789
0-748
0-709
0-706
0-702
0-737
0-698
45
46
47
48
49
0-672
0-636
0-601
0-568
0-537
0-668
0-632
0-598
0-565
0-534
0-665
0-629
0-595
0-562
0-531
0-661
0-625
0-591
0-559
0-528
0-773
0-733
228
2-620
2-189
2-774
2-604
2-449
2-307
0-891
0-845
0-841
0-798
0-836
0-794
0-753
0-713
0-676
0-639
0-605
0-572
0-540
0-509
4.7.
TABLE
4.7.4A {continued)
2
1/'cos
cos 2 e \
sin^
'
-)
0-0
0-1
0-2
0-3
0-4
0-5
0-6
0-7
0-8
0-9
50
0-503
0-498
0-469
0-441
0-415
0-495
0-466
0-438
0-412
0-428
0-402
0-389
0-387
0-489
0-460
0-433
0-407
0-382
0-480
0-452
0-425
0-3^9
0-397
0-492
0-463
0-436
0-410
0-384
0-486
0-458
0-430
0-404
54
0-500
0-472
0-444
0-417
0-392
0-483
0-455
53
0-506
0-477
0-449
0-423
0-379
0-377
0-375
55
56
57
58
59
0-372
0-349
0-367
0-344
0-365
0-342
0-363
0-358
0-351
0-298
0-317
0-296
0-277
0-275
0-292
0-272
0-330
0-309
0-288
0-268
0-328
0-319
0-356
0-333
0-311
0-290
0-270
0-353
0-322
0-300
0-279
0-360
0-337
0-315
0-294
0-274
0-258
0-239
0-256
0-237
0-254
0-236
0-247
0-228
0-220
0-218
0-213
0-211
0-203
0-201
0-187
0-185
0-250
0-232
0-214
0-198
0-182
0-248
0-230
0-221
0-204
0-188
0-252
0-234
0-216
0-199
0-183
0-196
0-180
0-179
0-168
0-154
0-140
0-127
0-115
0-167
0-152
0-139
0-126
0-114
0-165
0-151
0-137
0-125
0-112
51
52
0-326
0-304
0-474
0-447
0-420
0-394
0-370
0-346
0-324
0-339
0-335
0-313
0-306
0-286
0-266
0-284
0-302
0-282
0-264
0-245
0-227
0-209
0-193
0-262
0-243
0-225
0-208
0-191
0-260
0-241
0-223
0-206
65
66
67
68
69
0-177
0-162
0-176
0-173
0-171
0-170
0-155
0-147
0-158
0-144
0-157
0-148
0-174
0-159
0-145
0-143
0-141
0-135
0-122
0-132
0-120
0-131
0-121
0-130
0-117
0-128
0-116
70
0110
0099
0088
0-109
0-107
0-102
0-101
0-091
0-085
0-075
0-066
0-104
0-093
0-083
0-074
0-065
0-092
0-082
0-081
0-077
0-068
0-106
0-094
0-084
0-074
0-065
0-103
0-078
0-108
0-097
0-086
0-076
0-067
0-073
0-064
0063
0-090
0-080
0-071
0-062
0-100
0-089
0-079
0-070
0-061
0-058
0-057
0-056
0-055
0-055
0054
0-053
0-050
0-043
0-036
0049
0-048
0-041
0-048
0-035
0-029
0-034
0-028
0-034
0-028
0-046
0-039
0-033
0-027
0-046
0-041
0-047
0-040
0-024
0-018
0-014
0-010
0-022
0-017
0-013
0-022
0-017
0-013
0-010
0-007
60
61
62
63
64
71
72
73
74
0069
0-161
0-133
0-098
0-087
75
76
77
78
79
0060
0052
0059
0-045
0-044
0-037
80
0-026
0-021
0-017
0-038
0-032
0-051
0-031
82
83
84
0013
0-009
0-026
0-021
0-016
0-012
0-009
85
86
87
88
0-006
0-004
0-002
0-001
0-006
0-004
0-002
0-001
81
0190
0059
0051
0-043
0-037
0-031
0-118
0096
0030
0-025
0-020
0-016
0-012
0-025
0-020
0-015
0-012
0009
0-008
0-006
0-004
0006
0002
0-002
0-001
0-001
0-003
0-042
0-035
0-029
0-072
0-024
0-019
0-015
0-011
0-008
0-015
0-011
0-023
0-018
0-014
0-011
0-008
0-007
0-007
0-007
0-005
0-003
0-002
0-001
0-005
0-003
0-002
0-001
0-005
0-003
0-001
0-000
0-005
0-004
0-003
0-001
229
0019
0-023
0-003
0-001
0-000
0010
0000
0195
0-164
0150
0-136
0-123
0111
0039
0-032
0-027
0-004
0-002
0-001
0-000
4.7.
TABLE
sin
6 (read
4.7.4B
down) and cos 2
6 (read up)
Differences
00
01
0-0000 00000
0003
0004
0-2
0-3
0-4
0000 00001 00001

0007
0008
0006
0019
0021
0018
0037
0039
0035
0062
0064
0059
0001
0099
0136
0180
0229
0284
0012
0013
0000
0004
0015
0-6
0-5
0-7
0-8
0-9
01
(+1-0)
00002 00002 00003
02
0027
0029
0031
0049
0051
0054
0000
0005
0016
0033
0056
0076
0079
0109
0113
0128
0132
0149
0153
0170
0175
0194
0199
0218
0224
0245
0250
0089
0124
0166
0213
0267
0095
0085
0120
0161
0208
0261
0092
0082
0117
0157
0203
0256
0272
0278
10
0302
0308
0338
0345
0351
0358
0364
79
0371
0391
0397
0404
0411
0418
0425
0432
78
12
0432
0439
0320
0384
0454
0529
0610
0332
0364
0314
0377
0447
0326
11
0461
0468
0476
0491
0498
0506
77
0537
0545
0553
0483
0561
0569
0577
0585
76
0618
0627
0635
0644
0653
0661
0670
75
0696
0788
0884
0986
0705
0797
0714
0723
0751
0760
74
0816
0835
0845
0855
73
0894
0996
0904
0914
0732
0826
0924
0741
0807
0934
0945
0955
72
1007
1017
1028
1039
1049
1060
71
1092
1103
1114
1125
1136
1147
1159
1170
70
0009
0022
0042
0067
03
04
05
89
0010
0011
0012
88
0024
0026
0027
87
0044
0046
0049
86
0070
0073
0076
85
0102
0106
0109
84
0140
0144
0149
83
0184
0189
0194
82
0234
0239
0245
81
0290
0296
0302
80
Interpolate
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
6
6
6
6
7
13
0506
0514
0521
14
0585
0593
0602
15
0670
0679
16
0760
0769
17
0855
0865
18
0955
0965
19
1060
1071
0687
0778
0874
0976
1082
20
1170
1181
1192
1204
1215
1226
1238
1249
1261
1273
1284
69
21
1284
1296
1308
1320
1331
1343
1355
1367
1379
1391
1403
68
2
2
22
23
1403
1415
1428
1440
1452
1464
1477
1489
1502
1514
1527
67
1527
1539
1552
1565
1577
1590
1603
1616
1628
1641
1654
66
24
1654
1667
1680
1693
1707
1720
1733
1746
1759
1773
1786
65
25
1786
1799
1813
1826
1840
1853
1867
1881
1894
1908
1922
1922
1935
1949
1963
1991
2005
2019
2033
2047
2061
2061
2075
2089
2104
1977
2118
2132
2146
2161
2175
2190
2204
64
63
62
26
27
28
29
2204
2219
2233
2248
2262
2277
2291
2306
2321
2336
2350
61
4
4
4
4
2350
2365
2380
2395
2410
2425
2440
2455
2470
2485
2500
60
30
2500
2515
2530
2545
2561
2576
2591
2607
2622
2637
2653
59
31
2653
2668
2684
2699
2715
2730
2746
2761
2777
2792
2808
58
32
2808
2824
2840
2855
2871
2887
2903
2919
2934
2950
2966
57
33
2966
2982
2998
3014
3030
3046
3062
3079
3095
3111
3127
56
34
3127
3143
3159
3176
3192
3208
3224
3241
3257
3274
3290
55
2
2
2
2
2
35
3290
3306
3323
3339
3356
3372
3389
3405
3422
3438
3455
54
36
3455
3472
3488
3505
3521
3538
3555
3572
3588
3605
3622
53
37
3622
3639
3655
3672
3689
3706
3723
3740
3757
3773
3790
52
38
3790
3807
3824
3841
3858
3875
3892
3909
3926
3943
3960
51
39
3960
3978
3995
4012
4029
4046
4063
4080
4097
4115
4132
50
49
48
47
46
45
40
4132
4149
4166
4183
4201
4218
4235
4252
4270
4287
4304
41
4304
4321
4339
4356
4373
4391
4408
4425
4443
4460
4477
42.
4477
4495
4512
4529
4547
4564
4582
4599
4616
4634
4651
43
4651
4669
4686
4703
4721
4738
4756
4773
4791
4808
4826
44
4826
4843
4860
4878
4895
4913
4930
4948
4965
4983
5000
(+10)
0-9
0-8
0-7
0-6
0-5
0-4
0-3
0-2
01
00
cos 2 d (read up)
230
3
3
3
3
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
9
9
9
9
9
3
3
4.7.
TABLE
sin 2 8 (read
4.7.4B (continued)
down) and cos 2
6 (read up)
Differences
00
01
0-2
0-3
0-4
0-5
5087
5262
5279
5297
5314
5436
5453
5471
5488
0-7
0-6
0-8
0-9
(+1-0)
5157
0-5174
44
5331
5349
43
5505
5523
42
01
02
2
2
2
2
2
03
04
05
45
0-5000
5017
5035
46
47
48
49
5174
5192
5366
5540
5713
5209
5052
5227
5384
5401
5070
5244
5418
5557
5575
5592
5609
5627
5644
5661
5679
5696
41
5730
5748
5765
5782
5799
5817
5834
5851
5868
40
50
5868
5885
5903
5920
5937
5954
5971
5988
6005
6022
6040
39
51
6040
6057
6074
6091
6108
6125
6142
6159
6176
6193
6210
38
52
6210
6227
6243
6260
6277
6294
6311
6328
6345
6361
6378
37
53
6378
6395
6412
6428
6445
6462
6479
6495
6512
6528
6545
36
54
6545
6562
6578
6595
6611
6628
6644
6661
6677
6694
6710
35
2
2
2
2
2
55
6710
6726
6743
6792
6808
6824
6841
6857
6873
34
6873
6889
6905
6759
6921
6776
56
6938
6954
6970
6986
7002
7018
7034
33
57
7034
7050
7066
7081
7097
7113
7129
7145
7160
7176
7192
32
58
7192
7208
7223
7239
7254
7270
7285
7301
7316
7332
7347
31
59
7347
7363
7378
7393
7409
7424
7439
7455
7470
7485
7500
30
60
7500
7515
7530
7545
7560
7575
7590
7605
7620
7635
7650
7650
7664
7679
7694
7709
7723
7738
7752
7767
7781
7796
62
63
7796
7810
7825
7839
7854
7868
7882
7896
7911
7925
7939
7953
7967
7981
7995
8009
8023
8037
8051
8065
8078
64
8078
8092
8106
8119
8133
8147
8160
8174
8187
8201
8214
25
4
4
4
7939
29
28
27
26
61
65
8214
8227
8241
8307
8320
8423
8435
8448
8473
8486
8498
8511
8548
8560
8572
8585
8597
68
8597
8609
8621
8633
8645
8657
8669
8680
8692
8704
8716
21
69
8716
8727
8739
8751
8762
8774
8785
8796
8808
8819
8830
20
2
2
4
4
4
4
4
8397
8523
24
23
22
8372
8333
8461
8346
8359
8280
8410
8536
8293
8346
8254
8384
8267
66
67
70
8830
8841
8853
8940
8951
8961
72
9045
9066
73
9145
9165
9184
8886
8993
9096
9193
74
9240
9055
9155
9249
8864
8972
9076
9174
8875
71
9259
9268
9277
9286
8897
9004
9106
9203
9295
75
9330
9339
9347
9415
9431
77
9494
78
9568
9582
9365
9447
9524
9596
9455
9532
9603
79
9636
9423
9502
9575
9642
9356
9439
9517
9589
9373
76
9649
9655
9662
80
9698
9704
9755
9761
82
9806
9811
9722
9776
9825
83
9851
84
9891
9856
9894
9710
9766
9816
9860
9898
9716
81
9930
9956
9976
9990
9998
9933
9958
9978
0-8
5349
5523
5696
85
9924
86
9951
87
9973
88
9988
89
9997
9927
9954
9974
9989
9998
(+1-0)
0-9
9509
9771
9820
9864
9901
8983
9086
9868
9905
9936
9961
5105
0-5122 0-5140
8473
3
3
8908
8918
8929
8940
19
9014
9024
9045
18
9145
17
9212
9222
9240
16
9304
9313
9321
9330
15
2
2
4
4
4
4
9126
2
2
9116
9035
9135
9231
9382
9463
9539
9609
9390
9398
14
9494
13
9546
9553
9561
9568
12
2
2
2
9479
9407
9486
9415
9471
9616
9623
9636
11
9668
9674
9680
9686
9629
9692
4
4
4
4
9698
10
9728
9782
9830
9872
9908
9733
9787
9834
9876
9911
9739
9744
9750
9755
9792
9797
9801
9806
9938
9963
9981
9991
9979
9992
9999
9999
9999
0-7
0-6
0-5
9993
1
9839
9843
9883
9847
9887
9851
9880
9891
9915
9918
9921
9924
9941
9944
9946
9949
9951
9965
9982
9967
9969
9971
9973
9984
9985
9987
9996
0000
9988
9997
1-0000
01
00
9995
9996
9994
0000 10000 10000
0-4
0-3
cos 2 6 (read up)
231
0-2
Interpolate
5
5
4.7.
TABLE
<f>
00
0-0000
0-1
0-2
0-3
tan
4.7.4C
<f>\
0-4
0-5
0-6
0-7
0-8
0-9
0-0000
0004
0-0001
0-0001
00002
0-0002
0005
0-0000
0006
0-0001
0003
0-0000
0004
0-0000
0007
0008
0009
0012
0013
0015
0016
0018
0021
0022
0010
0024
0026
0011
0027
0029
0031
0033
0035
0019
0037
0040
0042
0044
0046
0049
0051
0054
0056
0059
0062
0065
0067
0070
0073
0076
0110
0079
0083
0086
0089
0092
0096
0099
0103
0106
0114
0118
0121
0125
0129
0133
0137
0142
0146
0150
0154
0159
0163
0168
0172
0177
0182
0186
0191
0196
0201
0206
0211
0232
0238
0243
0249
0254
0260
0266
0222
0277
0227
0216
0272
0283
0289
0295
0302
10
0308
0314
0320
0327
0333
0340
0346
0353
0373
0387
0394
0401
0408
0416
0423
12
0445
0380
0453
0460
0468
0476
0484
0492
0500
13
0524
0532
0540
0549
0557
0566
0574
0583
0360
0430
0508
0592
0366
11
0600
14
0609
0618
0627
0636
0645
0654
0664
0673
0682
0692
0438
0516
15
0701
0711
0721
0731
0740
0750
0760
0770
0780
0791
16
0801
0811
0821
0832
0842
0853
0864
0874
0885
0896
17
0907
0918
0929
0940
0952
0963
0974
0986
0997
1009
18
1021
1033
1044
1056
1068
1093
1105
1117
1129
19
1142
1154
1167
1180
1192
1080
1205
1218
1231
1244
1257
20
1270
1284
1297
1311
1324
1338
1351
1365
1379
1393
21
1407
1421
1435
1449
1464
1478
1493
1507
1522
1537
22
23
24
1551
1566
1581
1596
1611
1627
1642
1657
1673
1688
1704
1720
1735
1751
1783
1800
1816
1832
1848
1865
1882
1898
1915
1767
1932
1949
1966
1983
2000
2017
25
26
27
28
29
2035
2052
2070
2087
2105
2123
2141
2159
2177
2195
2213
2232
2250
2269
2287
2306
2325
2344
2363
2382
2401
2420
2459
2479
2499
2518
2538
2558
2578
2598
2619
2440
2639
2660
2680
2701
2722
2742
2763
2784
2806
2827
2848
2870
2891
2913
2935
2957
2979
3001
30
3023
3045
3068
3090
3113
3136
3158
3181
3205
3228
31
3251
3274
3298
3321
3345
3369
3393
3417
3441
3466
32
33
3490
3514
3539
3564
3589
3614
3639
3664
3689
3715
3740
3766
3792
3818
3844
3870
3896
3923
3949
3976
34
4003
4030
4057
4084
4111
4138
4166
4194
4221
4249
35
36
37
38
39
4277
4306
4334
4362
4391
4420
4448
4477
4506
4536
4565
4595
4624
4654
4684
4714
4744
4774
4805
4835
4866
4897
4928
4959
4991
5022
5086
5117
5149
5182
5214
5247
5279
5345
5411
5445
5478
5512
5546
5580
5614
5312
5649
5683
5054
5378
5718
5753
5788
5823
6037
6073
6110
6147
6183
6408
6446
6484
6523
6562
6958
40
5858
5894
5929
5965
41
6220
6258
6295
6333
42
43
44
6600
6639
6678
6718
6998
7039
7459
7080
7502
7122
7416
45
7854
7899
7944
6797
6837
6877
6917
7205
7632
7247
7373
7676
7289
7720
7331
7545
6001
6370
6757
7163
7589
7765
7809
7990
8035
8081
8127
8173
8220
8267
t Calculated
by Marian
Mack and Jeanne
232
Taylor.

[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
Azaroff,L. V., and Buerger, M.J. (1957). ThePowder

Method in X-ray Crystallography. McGraw-Hill,
[30]
New York.
Barrett, C. S. (1952). Structure of Metals. McGrawHill, New York, 2nd edition.
Buerger, M.J. (1942). X-ray Crystallography. Wiley,
New York.
Idem (1944). Photography of the Reciprocal Lattice.
American Crystallographic Association (formerly
4.2
ASXRED) Monograph
No.
[6]
Cullity, B. D. (1956). Elements of X-ray Diffraction. Addison- Wesley, Reading, Mass.

Flugge, S. (1954). Handbuch der Physik ; Encyclopedia
of Physics; 32, "Structural Research." Springer-
[7]
[34]
Chemical Crystallography.
Press,
London.
[35]
Guinier, A. (1945). Radiocristallographie. Dunod,

Paris. English translation, X-ray Crystallographic
Technology. Hilger and Watts, London. (1956)
Theorie et Technique de la Radiocristallographie,
[10]
[11]
Klug, H.
VEB Verlag Technik,
Diffraction Procedures. Wiley,
man and
[12]
[13]
[16]
[17]
(1954).
New
[18]
P. P. (1921). Zeit.f. Krist., 56, 199.
(1955).
Rev. Sci.
von Laue, M.
(1948).
2nd
Rontgenstrahle Interferenzen.
edition.
4.5
[40]
Adams, D.
and Evans, H. T., Jr. (1949). Rev. Sci.

Evans, H. T., Jr., Tilden, S. G.,
and Adams, D. P. Ibid., 155.
P.,
Instr., 20, 150.
X-ray
4.6
York; Chap-
(1955). Neutron Diffraction.
[41] Hesse,
R. (1948). "Indexing Powder Photographs of
Tetragonal, Hexagonal and Orthorhombic Crystals,"
Acta
Cryst., 1, 200.
X-ray Studies ofPolymorphism. Maruzen Co. Ltd., Tokyo.

[43] Lipson, H. (1949). "Indexing Powder Photographs of
Orthorhombic Crystals," Acta Cryst., 2, 43.
[44] Stosick, A. J. (1949). "A Method for Indexing Powder Photographs, using Linear Diophantine Equa[42] Ito,T.(1950).
Clarendon
tions,
and some Tests for Crystal Classes."
Ibid.,
2, 271.
(1954). Nature, 173, 888.
Rev. Sci.
Soc, A, 113, 117.
Min., 41, 569.
Furnas, T. C, and Harker, D.
Leipzig,
[45]
Brtndley, G. W. (1956). Zeit.f Krist., 107, 4.

Clifton, D. F., Filler, A., and McLachlan, D.
(1951).
Am.
Ewald,
Hall,
M.
(1926). Proc. Roy.
[38]
Press, Oxford.
[15] Bijvoet, J.
D.
[37]
[39]
London.
Peiser, H. S., Rooksby, H. P., and Wilson, A. J. C.
(1955). X-ray Diffraction by Polycrystalline Materials. Institute of Physics, London.
Taylor, A. (1952). An Introduction to X-ray Metallography. Chapman and Hall, London.
Bacon, G. E.
J.
Instr., 26, 449.
4.1
[14]
Bernal,
Berlin.
and Alexander, L. E.
P.,
I.
Tertsch, H. (1954). Die stereographische Projektion

in der Kristallkunde. Verlag f. angew. Wissenschaften, Wiesbaden.
[36] Christ, C. L. (1956).
2nd edition. Dunod, Paris.

Henry, N. F. M., Lipson, H., and Wooster, W. A.
(1951). The Interpretation of X-ray Diffraction
Photographs. Macmillan, London.
Kleber,W. (1956). Einfuhrung in die Kristallographie.
[9]
Crystalline State, Part
4.3
Verlag, Berlin.
[8]
Bragg, W. L. (1933). The

Bell, London.
Greninger, A. D. (1935).
turen, Vol. II, p. 617.
Bunn, C. W.
Oxford University
(1939). /. Sci. Instr., 16, 155.
Zeit. f Krist., 91, 424;

Trans. A.I.M.E., 111, 75; (1936) 122, 74.
[33] Schiebold, E., and Schneider, E. (1935). Internationale Tabellen zu Bestimmung von Krystallstruk-
[32]
1.
[5]
(1945).
[31]
Ubbelohde, A. R.
J. (1953).
"The Interpretation of X-ray
Powder Photographs of Crystals of Low Sym-
Thewlis,
metry. '* Ibid., 6, 357.
Instr., 22, 1024.
Cochran, W. (1950). Acta Cryst., 3, 268.

De Jong, W. F., and Bouman, J. (1938). Zeit.f. Krist.,
4.7
[20]
Evans, H.
[21]
Idem
[22]
Grenville- Wells, H. J. (1952). J. Sci. Instr., 29, 199.

Grenville- Wells, H. J., and Lonsdale, K. (1954).
[49]
Andrews, K. W. (1951). Acta Cryst., 4, 562.

Bacon, G. E. (1948). Ibid., 1, 337.
Bradley, A. J., and Jay, A. H. (1932). Proc. Phys.
Soc, 44, 563.
Cohen, M. U. (1935). Rev. Sci. Instr., 6, 68; (1936)
Nature, 173, 1145.

[24] Guinier, A., and Fournet, G. (1955). Small-angle
scattering of X-rays. Wiley, New York Chapman
[50]
Eastabrook,
[19]
[46]
98, 456.
[23]
[47]
T., Jr. (1949).
Rev. Sci.
Instr., 20, 751.
[48]
(1953). Ibid., 24, 156.
Zeit.f. Krist., 94, 288, 306.
[51]
[25]
[26]
[27]
[28]
and Hall, London.

Lonsdale, K. (1942). Proc. Phys. Soc, 54, 314.
Idem (1943). Phys. Soc. Progress Reports, 9, 256.
Idem (1947). Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc, A240, 219.
Love, W. E., and Sayre, D. (1954). Rev. Sci. Instr.,
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[53]
25, 830.
[29] Pinsker, Z.
[54]
G.
J.
N. (1952).
Brit. Jour.
App. Phys.,
3,
349.
Electron Diffraction. Acad.

Sci. USSR, Moscow; (1953) English translation.
Butterworth, London.
(1949).
[55]
[56]
Edmunds,
I. G., Lipson, H., and Steeple, H. (1955).

Chap. 15 in X-ray Diffraction by Polycrystalline
Materials. Institute of Physics, London.
Ekstein, H, and Siegel, S. (1949). Acta Cryst., 2, 99.
Farquhar, M. C. M., and Lipson, H. (1946). Proc
Phys. Soc, 58, 200.
Hagg, G. (1947). Rev. Sci. Instr., 18, 371.
Hess, J. B. (1951). Acta Cryst., 4, 209.
Jette, E. R., and Foote, F. (1935). Jour. Chem. Phys.,
3, 1935.
233
GENERAL AND SPECIAL REFERENCES

[57]
J., Parrish, W., and Taylor, J.

"The Centre of Gravity of Line Profiles
Ladell,
cision X-ray DifFractometry."
L/UJ
Idem
[71]
and sin 2 6.
Plettinger, H. A. (1956). Table of sin
Argonne National Laboratory Report ANL-5634,
Office of Tech. Services, Dept. Commerce,
Washington 25, D.C., U.S.A.
Philips Technical
See also Acta Cryst., 10, 741
Report.
(1957).
in Pre-
12, 253
(1959).
[58] Lipson, H.,
and Wilson, A.
J.
C. (1941).
[73]
Nelson, J. B., and Riley, D.

Soc, 57, 160.
[60]
Parrish, W., and Hamacher, E. A. (1952). Trans.

Inst, and Meas. Con/., Stockholm, 95; (1954)
P. (1945).
Proc. Phys.
Mich., 1948.)
[74]
Philips Tech. Rev., 16, 123.

[61]
[75]
Parrish, W., Ekstein, M. G., and Irwin, B. W.

(1953). Data for X-ray Analysis. Vol. II, Tables
for Computing the Lattice Constant of Cubic
Crystals. Philips Tech. Lib., Eindhoven.
[62] Parrish,
W.
[76]
[78]
Am. Mineral.,
44. (In the press.)

[64] Parrish,
[65]
W.
[79]
[80]
(1955). Norelco Reporter, 2, 67.
Parrish, W., and Kohler, T. R..(1956).
Rev. Sci.
[81]
Instr., 27, 795.
[66] Pike, E. R.,
Wilson, A.
J.
C, and Hughes,
J.
[82]
W.
(1957). Counter Diffractometer the Measurement
[84]
Cryst., 10, 852.
[68]
[69]
Idem
R. (1957).
[85]
/. Sci. Instr., 34, 355.
Acta Cryst., 12, 87.

Pike, E. R., and Wilson, A. J. C. (1959).
Thomas, D. E. (1948). /. Sci. Instr., 25, 440.

Tournarie, M. (1954a). Jour. Phys. et le Radium, 15,
Supp. No. 1, 11 A.
Idem (19546). Ibid., 15, Supp. No. 1, 16A.
Weisz, O., Cochran, W and Cole, W. F. (1948).
Acta Cryst., 1, 83.
Weyerer, H. (1956). Zeit.f. ang. Phys., 8, 202.
Wilson, A. J. C. (1940). Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc, 36,
485.
[83]
of Line Positions and Intensities for the ASTM

X-ray Powder Data File, p. 23. See also Acta
[67] Pike, E.
Straumanis, M. (1949). Jour. App. Phys., 20, 726.

Taylor, A., and Sinclair, H. (1945). Proc. Phys.
Soc, 57, 126.
Taylor, A., and Floyd, R. W. (1950). Acta Cryst.,
3, 285.
[77]
(1956). Philips Tech. Rev., 17, 206.
[63] Parrish, W.,andLowiTzscH,K. (1959).
H. (1933). Helv. Phys. Acta, 6, 597.

Straumanis, M, and Ievins, A. (1940). Die Prazizionsbestimmung von Gitterkonstanten nach der
asymmetrischen Methode. Julius Springer, Berlin.
(Reprinted by Edwards Brothers Inc., Ann Arbor,
[72] Saini,
/. Sci. Instr.,
18, 144.
[59]
(1958). Proc. Phys. Soc. Lend., 11, 908.
Wilson, A. J. C, and Lipson, H. (1941). Proc. Phys.

Soc, 53, 245.
Wilson, A. J. C. (1950a). Rev. Sci. Instr., 20, 831.
Idem (19506). /. Sci. Instr., 27, 321.
Parrish, W. ed. (1965). X-ray Analysis Papers.
Centrex, Eindhoven.
(1959).
Wilson, A. J. C. (1963). Mathematical Theory of X-ray

Powder Diffractometry Centrex, Eindhoven.
Brit. J.
Appl. Phys., 10, 57.
234
Section 5
PHYSICS OF DIFFRACTION METHODS

H. Lipson
in collaboration with
W. L. Bond (Absorption corrections for cylinder and

W. Cochran (Lorentz-polarization corrections)
Decker (Absorption corrections for

Hargreaves (Absorption corrections)
B. F.
A.
J.
preferred orientation)
Kraut (Lorentz-polarization corrections)

Nordman (Lorentz-polarization corrections
C. E.
R. A. L.
Sullivan
sphere)
(Revision of Tables 5.2.5E, F,
for precession
method)
G)
page
5.1.
Basic Definitions and Formulae
5.2.
Intensity of Radiation Diffracted by a Crystal
5.3.
Absorption Corrections
291
5.4.
Mosaic Theory
313
5.5.
Summary of Formulae for Integrated
237
Intensities
..
241
314
5.1. Basic Definitions

Symbols
Energy of X-radiation falling normally on unit
and Formulae
5.1.1. Definitions of
if the electric
taining the incident
area per second.

Total energy of radiation per second in a limited
I:
X-ray beam.
m:
A:
Wavelength of X-rays.
Electronic charge
is
is
rmc 2
If the radiation
tude, the
cos 20
e2
Lengths of edges of unit cell.

V: Volume of crystal, or of irradiated part of a powder
(2)
unpolarized, with unit
is
mean amplitude of the
Angle between incident and diffracted beams.
20:
If the electric
parallel to the plane
of light.
Linear absorption coefficient.
perpendicular to the plane con-
and mass.
h: Planck's constant.
k: Boltzmann's constant.
fi
is
and scattered beams.
of the incident and

scattered beams, the amplitude of the scattered radia-
tion
e,
c: Velocity
vector
vector
a, b, c:
rmc
mean
scattered
ampli-
wave
is
Hl+cos
20
+ cos 2 201*
1
(3)
sample.
V Volume
of unit cell.
N: Number of unit cells per unit volume.
xr yr zr Co-ordinates of an atom r, expressed as
fractions of a, b and c.
hkl: Indices of diffraction.
c
Atomic
scattering factor for
atom
FQikl) Structure factor, for the unit

of diffraction hkl.
:
\F(hkl)\:
Modulus of the
at rest.
of the order
cell,
the
structure factor
struc-
ture amplitude.
A: Transmission
A* Absorption
:
5.1.3.
Formula for the Atomic Scattering Factor /
An atom contains
electrons distributed over a finite

region in space; for any given scattering direction, the
electrons at different points contribute waves with
different paths and consequently different phases, and
thus the total scattering by an atom depends upon the
distribution of electrons within
factor.
it.
If U(r)dr
is
the
number of electrons lying between the distances r and

r+dr from the centre, and the electron distribution is
spherically symmetrical, the atom will scatter at any
factor.
from crystal element.

Integrated reflection from extended crystal face.
p: Integrated reflection
p':
5.1.2.
The function (1+ cos 2 20)/2 is tabulated in Table
though
particular angle 28 as
L: Lorentz factor.
p: Polarization factor.
p' Multiplicity factor for single crystal methods.
p": Multiplicity factor for powder method.
electrons,
it
were equivalent to
where
-!
U(r)
sin (4ttt sin 0/A)
fo=
5.1.2.
<ir
477-r
(4)
sin 0/A
Formulae for Scattering by an Electron
Under the influence of a polarized wave of unit

amplitude, an electron scatters a coherent wave which
has an amplitude, at a distance r, of
rmc 2
d)
At very small values of d, / approximates to Z, the

atomic number.
Consult 2.5.3.2(a) (page 70) and 6.3.3 (page 323) for
expressions for/ when the electron distribution is not
spherically symmetrical.
237
5.1.
BASIC DEFINITIONS
TABLE
1
Polarization Factor,
AND FORMULAE
5.1.2
4-rn2 70
p=
'
0-000
0-001
0-002
0-003
0-004
0-005
0-006
0-007
0-008
0-009
0-00
1-0000
0-03
0-9998
0-9992
0-9982
0-04
0-9968
1-0000
0-9998
0-9991
0-9981
0-9966
1-0000
0-9997
0-9990
0-9980
0-9965
1-0000
0-9997
0-9989
0-9978
0-9963
1-0000
0-9996
0-9988
0-9977
0-9961
10000
0-01
0-9996
0-9988
0-9976
0-9960
0-9999
0-9995
0-9986
0-9974
0-9958
0-9999
0-9994
0-9985
0-9973
0-9956
0-9999
0-9994
0-9984
0-9971
0-9954
0-9998
0-9993
0-9983
0-9970
0-9952
0-05
0-9950
0-9928
0-9902
0-9873
0-9839
0-9948
0-9926
0-9900
0-9870
0-9946
0-9923
0-9897
0-9866
0-9832
0-9944
0-9921
0-9894
0-9863
0-9829
0-9942
0-9918
0-9891
0-9860
0-9825
0-9940
0-9916
0-9888
0-9857
0-9821
0-9937
0-9913
0-9885
0-9853
0-9817
0-9935
0-9911
0-9882
0-9850
0-9814
0-9933
0-9908
0-9879
0-9846
0-9810
0-9931
0-9798
0-9757
0-9711
0-13
0-9802
0-9761
0-9716
0-9668
0-9782
0-9739
0-9692
0-9642
0-9778
0-9735
0-9688
0-9637
0-9616
0-9610
0-9790
0-9748
0-9702
0-9652
0-9599
0-9786
0-9743
0-9697
0-9647
0-14
0-9794
0-9752
0-9707
0-9658
0-9605
0-9594
0-9588
0-9583
0-9774
0-9730
0-9683
0-9632
0-9577
0-9769
0-9725
0-9678
0-9626
0-9572
0-9765
0-9721
0-9673
0-9621
0-9566
0-15
0-9560
0-9501
0-9439
0-9373
0-9304
0-9554
0-9495
0-9432
0-9549
0-9489
0-9426
0-9543
0-9483
0-9419
0-9537
0-9477
0-9413
0-9531
0-9525
0-9464
0-9400
0-9519
0-9458
0-9393
0-9513
0-9451
0-9386
0-9366
0-9297
0-9359
0-9290
0-9353
0-9283
0-9346
0-9276
0-9470
0-9406
0-9339
0-9268
0-9332
0-9261
0-9325
0-9254
0-9318
0-9247
0-9507
0-9445
0-9380
0-9311
0-9239
0-9232
0-9157
0-9225
0-9149
0-9071
0-8990
0-8906
0-9217
0-9142
0-9063
0-8981
0-8897
0-9210
0-9134
0-9055
0-8973
0-8889
0-9202
0-9126
0-9047
0-8965
0-8880
0-9195
0-9118
0-9039
0-8956
0-8872
0-9187
0-9110
0-9031
0-8948
0-8863
0-9180
0-8940
0-8854
0-9172
0-9095
0-9014
0-8931
0-8846
0-9165
0-9087
0-9006
0-8923
0-8837
0-8802
0-8712
0-8621
0-8527
0-8430
0-8793
0-8703
0-8775
0-8685
0-8421
0-8784
0-8694
0-8602
0-8507
0-8411
0-8593
0-8498
0-8401
0-8766
0-8676
0-8583
0-8488
0-8391
0-8757
0-8667
0-8574
0-8479
0-8382
0-8748
0-8658
0-8564
0-8469
0-8372
0-8313
0-8212
0-8111
0-8007
0-7903
0-8303
0-8202
0-8100
0-7997
0-7892
0-8293
0-8192
0-8090
0-7987
0-7882
0-8283
0-8182
0-8080
0-7976
0-7871
0-8273
0-8172
0-8070
0-7966
0-7861
0-7797
0-7690
0-7583
0-7475
0-7366
0-7787
0-7680
0-7572
0-7464
0-7356
0-7776
0-7669
0-7561
0-7453
0-7345
0-7765
0-7658
0-7551
0-7442
0-7334
0-7755
0-7648
0-7540
0-7432
0-7323
sin
0-02
0-06
0-07
0-08
009
0-10
0-11
0-12
0-16
0-17
0-18
0-19
0-20
0-21
0-22
0-9836
0-9663
0-24
0-9079
0-8998
0-8914
0-25
0-8828
0-8739
0-8648
0-8555
0-8459
0-8819
0-8730
0-8639
0-8545
0-8450
0-8811
0-26
0-8362
0-8263
0-8162
0-8059
0-7955
0-8352
0-8253
0-8152
0-8049
0-7945
0-8342
0-8243
0-8141
0-8039
0-7934
0-8332
0-8233
0-8028
0-7924
0-8322
0-8223
0-8121
0-8018
0-7913
0-7850
0-7744
0-7637
0-7529
0-7421
0-7840
0-7733
0-7626
0-7518
0-7410
0-7829
0-7723
0-7615
0-7507
0-7399
0-7818
0-7712
0-7605
0-7497
0-7388
0-7808
0-7701
0-7594
0-7486
0-7377
0-23
0-27
0-28
0-29
0-30
0-31
0-32
0-33
0-34
0-35
0-36
0-37
0-38
0-39
0-8721
0-8630
0-8536
0-8440
0-8131
0-8611
0-8517
238
0-9103
0-9023
0-9905
0-9876
0-9843
0-9806
5.1.
BASIC DEFINITIONS
TABLE
AND FORMULAE
5.1.2 (continued)
1+ cos 2 2d
civi,
sin 6
0-40
0-41
0-42
0-43
0-44
0-45
0-46
0-47
0-48
0-49
0-50
0-51
0-52
0-53
0-54
0-55
0-56
0-57
0-58
0-59
0-60
0-61
0-62
0-63
0-64
0-65
0-66
0-67
0-68
0-69
0-70
0-71
0-72
0-73
0-74
0-75
0-76
0-77
0-78
0-79
-,
as
<a
iu
Sill
0000
0001
0-002
0-003
0-004
0-005
0-006
0-007
0-008
0009
0-7312
0-7203
0-7094
0-6986
0-6878
0-7301
0-7192
0-7290
0-7181
0-7073
0-6964
0-6856
0-7279
0-7171
0-7062
0-6953
0-6845
0-7268
0-7160
0-7051
0-6942
0-6835
0-7258
0-7247
0-7138
0-7029
0-6921
0-6813
0-7236
0-7127
0-7018
0-6910
0-6802
0-7225
0-7116
0-7007
0-6899
0-6792
0-7214
0-7105
0-6997
0-6888
0-6781
0-6749
0-6642
0-6537
0-6433
0-6331
0-6738
0-6632
0-6527
0-6423
0-6706
0-6600
0-6495
0-6392
0-6290
0-6695
0-6589
0-6485
0-6382
0-6280
0-6685
0-6579
0-6474
0-6371
0-6674
0-6568
0-6464
0-6361
0-6270
0-6260
0-6190
0-6093
0-5997
0-6181
0-6083
0-6171
0-6161
0-6073
0-5979
0-6064
0-5969
0-5878
0-5789
0-6770
0-6663
0-6558
0-6454
0-6351
0-7083
0-6975
0-6867
0-6759
0-6653
0-6547
0-6443
0-6341
0-6250
0-6151
0-6054
0-5960
0-5869
0-6240
0-6141
0-5780
0-5695
0-5613
0-5535
0-5461
0-5771
0-6045
0-5951
0-5860
0-5687
0-5605
0-5528
0-5454
0-6727
0-6717
0-6621
0-6611
0-6506
0-6402
0-6320
0-6516
0-6412
0-6310
0-6230
0-6132
0-6035
0-5942
0-5851
0-6220
0-6122
0-6026
0-5932
0-5842
0-6210
0-6112
0-6016
0-5923
0-5833
0-6200
0-6102
0-6007
0-5914
0-5824
0-5763
0-5678
0-5754
0-5670
0-5589
0-5513
0-5440
0-5746
0-5662
0-5582
0-5505
0-5433
0-5737
0-5654
0-5574
0-5498
0-5426
0-5366
0-5303
0-5245
0-5192
0-5145
0-5359
0-5297
0-5239
0-5187
0-5141
0-5101
0-5597
0-5520
0-5447
0-5392
0-5327
0-5267
0-5213
0-5163
0-5321
0-5379
0-5315
0-5262
0-5207
0-5159
0-5256
0-5202
0-5154
0-5372
0-5309
0-5250
0-5197
0-5150
0-5120
0-5083
0-5052
0-5028
0-5011
0-5116
0-5080
0-5050
0-5026
0-5010
0-5112
0-5076
0-5047
0-5024
0-5009
0-5108
0-5073
0-5044
0-5022
0-5008
0-5105
0-5070
0-5042
0-5021
0-5007
0-5385
0-7149
0-7040
0-6932
0-6824
0-6300
0-5067
0-5039
0-5019
0-5006
0-5002
0-5000
0-5007
0-5022
0-5045
0-5001
0-5001
0-5001
0-5001
0-5001
0-5008
0-5024
0-5048
0-5009
0-5026
0-5051
0-5001
0-5010
0-5028
0-5054
0-5000
0-5002
0-5012
0-5030
0-5057
0-5000
0-5003
0-5013
0-5032
0-5078
0-5120
0-5173
0-5235
0-5308
0-5082
0-5125
0-5178
0-5242
0-5316
0-5086
0-5130
0-5184
0-5249
0-5324
0-5090
0-5135
0-5190
0-5256
0-5332
0-5094
0-5140
0-5196
0-5263
0-5340
0-5098
0-5145
0-5202
0-5270
0-5349
239
0-5061
0-5905
0-5815
0-5729
0-5988
0-5896
0-5806
0-5887
0-5798
0-5720
0-5637
0-5558
0-5483
0-5412
0-5551
0-5703
0-5621
0-5543
0-5476
0-5406
0-5469
0-5399
0-5234
0-5182
0-5137
0-5346
0-5285
0-5228
0-5178
0-5132
0-5340
0-5279
0-5223
0-5173
0-5128
0-5333
0-5273
0-5218
0-5168
0-5124
0-5097
0-5064
0-5037
0-5017
0-5005
0-5093
0-5061
0-5035
0-5016
0-5004
0-5090
0-5058
0-5033
0-5014
0-5003
0-5086
0-5055
0-5030
0-5013
0-5003
0-5000
0-5003
0-5000
0-5004
0-5016
0-5037
0-5067
0-5000
0-5005
0-5018
0-5040
0-5071
0-5000
0-5006
0-5020
0-5043
0-5074
0-5107
0-5156
0-5215
0-5285
0-5366
0-5111
0-5161
0-5222
0-5293
0-5116
0-5167
0.5228
0-5300
0-5383
0-5645
0-5566
0-5491
0-5419
0-5353
0-5291
0-5015
0-5035
0-5064
0-5102
0-5151
0-5209
0-5278
0-5357
0-5712
0-5629
0-5374
5.1.
BASIC DEFINITIONS
TABLE
Polarization Factor,
AND FORMULAE
5.1.2 {continued)
p=
1+ cos 2 20
,
sin 6
0-000
0001
0-002
0-003
0-004
0-005
0-006
0-80
0-5392
0-5487
0-5594
0-5714
0-5845
0-5401
0-5497
0-5410
0-5508
0-5617
0-5739
0-5873
0-5419
0-5518
0-5629
0-5752
0-5887
0-5429
0-5529
0-5641
0-5765
0-5902
0-5438
0-5539
0-5652
0-5778
0-5916
0-5448
0-5550
0-5664
0-5791
0-5931
0-5990
0-6148
0-6320
0-6506
0-6706
0-6005
0-6165
0-6338
0-6525
0-6727
0-6021
0-6036
0-6198
0-6374
0-6564
0-6052
0-6215
0-6922
0-7153
0-7400
0-7663
0-7943
0-6944
0-7177
0-7425
0-7690
0-7972
0-8240
0-8555
0-8888
0-9239
0-9610
0-8271
0-81
0-82
0-83
0-84
0-85
0-86
0-87
0-88
0-89
0-90
0-91
0-92
0-93
0-94
0-95
0-96
0-97
0-98
0-99
0-5606
0-5726
0-5859
0-8587
0-8922
0-9275
0-9648
0-007
0-008
0-009
0-5458
0-5677
0-5805
0-5945
0-5467
0-5572
0-5689
0-5818
0-5960
0-5477
0-5583
0-5701
0-5832
0-5975
0-6083
0-6250
0-6430
0-6624
0-6834
0-6099
0-6267
0-6449
0-6645
0-6856
0-6115
0-6284
0-6468
0-6665
0-6878
0-6132
0-6302
0-6487
0-6686
0-6900
0-5561
0-6769
0-6584
0-6791
0-6067
0-6232
0-6411
0-6604
0-6812
0-6967
0-7201
0-7451
0-7718
0-8001
0-6990
0-7225
0-7477
0-7745
0-8030
0-7012
0-7250
0-7503
0-7773
0-8060
0-7035
0-7274
0-7529
0-7801
0-8089
0-7059
0-7299
0-7556
0-7829
0-8119
0-7082
0-7324
0-7582
0-7857
0-8149
0-7105
0-7349
0-7609
0-7886
0-8179
0-7129
0-7374
0-7636
0-7914
0-8210
0-8302
0-8620
0-8333
0-8957
0-9312
0-8991
0-9348
0-8364
0-8686
0-9026
0-9385
0-8427
0-8752
0-9096
0-9459
0-9686
0-9725
0-9763
0-8395
0-8719
0-9061
0-9422
0-9802
0-8459
0-8786
0-9132
0-9497
0-9881
0-8490
0-8820
0-9167
0-9534
0-9920
0-8523
0-8854
0-9203
0-9572
0-9960
0-6181
0-6356
0-6545
0-6748
0-8653
0-6393
240
0-9841
5.2.
5.2.1. Structure
the scattering factor of each
Factor
where
The
unit cell of a crystal contains atoms in various

positions, and the waves scattered in any order of
diffraction hkl
by the
different
atoms
will
have various
maximum
is
F(hkl)=zZf0r exp 27ri(hxr +ky r +lzr) exp (-M)

=S/ \ exp 2Tri(hx r +ky r +lz r) exp (-B sin 2 0/A 2 )
....(5)
where B is a constant. The probability that B will vary

from atom to atom, and with direction in the crystal,
should always be borne in mind. The least-squares
the atoms were scattering in phase)
called the unitary structure amplitude.
The unitary
derivation of individual temperature factors
structure amplitude of a reflection can be derived by
of the atoms in the unit cell.

The quantity F(hkl) is known as the structure factor.
Only its modulus can be observed experimentally. In
general, F(hkl) is a complex quantity (that is, the phase
of the scattered wave may have any phase difference
with respect to that of a wave scattered by an atom at
the origin of the unit cell).
\F(hkl)\
B=Stt 2 us 2 are not easily derived

theoretically, as they depend in a complicated way
upon temperature and upon the interatomic forces.
The
Debye
quantities
gives the expression
6h 2
={2/0>r cos 27r(hx r +ky r +lz r)}

+{S/ r sin 27r(hxr +ky r +lz r)} 2
2
however, the crystal has a centre of symmetry, the

is real and is given by the equation
2ir(hxr +kyr +lz r)
d|
#*)
(7)
.... (3)
Equation (6) is, however, strictly applicable only to

cubic crystals containing one type of atom.
Values of cf>(x) as a function of x are given in Table
This expression may be positive or negative (that is,

the phase of the scattered wave is or 77 with respect to
the phase of a wave scattered by an atom at the origin).
For other symmetries, various other expressions for
the structure factor arise; these are given in detail in
Volume
(6)
where is the characteristic temperature, m a is the

mass of the atoms or vibrating systems, x is the ratio
of to the absolute temperature, and
structure factor
F(hkl)=If0tr cos
U(x)
+
*=^T
m k x
....(2)
If,
given in
5.2.2A.
Then
is
page 327.
Values of exp (-B sin 2 0/A 2 ) to cover the range
normally met with in practice are given in Table
6.4.1.2 (y) (8),
dividing the observed structure amplitude by the sum

of the scattering factors, at the corresponding angle,
.... (4)
possible at the corresponding Bragg
is, if all
\d 2
This treatment is only approximate. Each atom

should have its own value of M, which itself may be
dependent upon the orientation of the reflecting planes.
For much X-ray work, however, it is sufficient to
is appropriate; the
assume that a mean value of
structure-factor formula 5.2.1(1) then becomes
(1)
ratio of the structure amplitude of a reflection
angle (that
[7] [8]).
where f0r is the scattering factor of the rih atom. The

modulus of F(hkl) is known as the structure amplitude,
and is the ratio of the amplitude of the wave scattered
in the order hkl by the atoms in one unit cell to the
amplitude of the wave scattered by a single electron
under the same conditions. \F(hkl)\ is thus a pure
number.
to the
2
sin 2 Q\\ 2 ^2-n u
us being the mean square displacement of the atoms,

from their mean positions, in a direction perpendicular
to the reflecting planes, interplanar spacing d (Debye
expression
F(hkl)=I,f0r exp 27ri(hxr +kyr +lz r)
M =8tt V
atom to/=/ exp ( M),
phase differences with respect to each other. The

amplitude of the resultant wave, when "atomic functions" (2.5.3.2(a), page 70) are used, is given by the
The
by a Crystal
Intensity of Radiation Diffracted
5.2.2B.
Waller [15]_and Waller and James [16] give an

equation for u 2
:
I.
^7=j3T+yT- 1 +ST- 3 +
5.2.2.
Temperature Factor
The
by means of
cannot be directly com-
structure amplitudes calculated
equations 5.2.1 (1), (2) and (3)

pared with observed values because the values of /
are computed for atoms at rest; normally, atoms in a
where
and
and
|8
is
interatomic
the absolute temperature,

8 are
have movements due to temperature, so that at

any instant corresponding atoms are not separated by
exact multiples of the cell dimensions. Thus two such
atoms will not scatter exactly in phase in any particular
order, and the structure factor will be smaller than
calculated. The effect can be allowed for by reducing
crystal
y=h
constants which depend
forces
and cannot
elastic constants,
/487r
ma k,
upon
the
be derived,
can be derived
easily
although for certain simple crystals
from the
(8)
2
j3
and
113
Q2
288
An 2
S = ii.LlO-i6
....(9)
In this equation A is the mean atomic weight and n is

the number of atoms per c.c.
241
TABLE 5.2.2A
exp
sin 8
=01
0-2
(-B
sin 2
W)
0-3
0-4
0-5
1000
1000
1-000
1-000
1-000
1-000
1-000
1-000
1-000
1-000
1-000
1-000
1-000
1-000
0-6
0-7
0-8
0-9
1-0
0-01
1-000
1-000
1-000
0-02
1-000
1-000
1-000
0-03
1-000
1-000
1-000
1-000
1-000
0-999
0-999
0-999
0-999
0-999
0-04
1-000
1-000
1-000
0-999
0-999
0-999
0-999
0-999
0-999
005
1-000
1-000
0-999
0-999
0-999
0-999
0-998
0-998
0-998
0-999
0-998
0-06
1-000
0-998
0-998
0-997
0-996
0-998
0-998
0-997
0-997
0-997
0-997
1-000
0-996
0-996
0-08
0-999
0-999
0-997
0-997
0-999
0-998
0-997
0-996
0-996
0-995
0-995
0-09
0-10
0-999
6-998
0-999
0-999
0-998
0-998
0-997
0-999
0-07
0-999
0-999
0-996
0-995
0-994
0-994
0-993
0-991
0-995
0-994
0-992
0-990
0-11
0-999
0-998
0-996
0-993
0-999
0-997
0-996
0-995
0-994
0-994
0-12
0-993
0-991
0-13
0-998
0-997
0-995
0-993
0-14
0-998
0-996
0-998
0-996
0-992
0-991
0-992
0-990
0-989
0-988
0-15
0-994
0-993
0-16
0-997
0-995
0-992
0-990
0-987
0-985
0-17
0-997
0-991
0-989
0-986
0-18
0-997
0-994
0-994
0-990
0-987
0-19
0-996
0-993
0-989
0-986
0-20
0-996
0-992
0-988
0-984
0-984
0-982
0-980
0-983
0-981
0-21
0-996
0-22
0-995
0-23
0-995
0-994
0-994
0-991
0-990
0-989
0-987
0-986
0-984
0-983
0-981
0-24
0-25
0-26
0-993
0-27
0-993
0-28
0-29
0-989
0-988
0-978
0-974
0-971
0-957
0-954
0-957
0-953
0-948
0-951
0-949
0-945
0-944
0-939
0-935
0-930
0-925
0-919
0-914
0-960
0-954
0-947
0-941
0-957
0-943
0-936
0-962
0-959
0-956
0-954
0-951
0-947
0-950
0-947
0-943
0-939
0-939
0-932
0-927
0-922
0-953
0-950
0-947
0-944
0-941
0-944
0-940
0-935
0-926
0-931
0-921
0-937
0-927
0-922
0-969
0-975
0-967
0-982
0-973
0-965
0-981
0-972
0-970
0-968
0-966
0-964
0-962
0-960
0-957
0-35
0-990
0-990
0-989
0-989
0-988
0-955
0-952
0-36
0-987
0-974
0-37
0-986
0-973
0-38
0-986
0-39
0-40
0-985
0-984
0-972
0-970
0-969
0-962
0-960
0-958
0-955
0-953
0-41
0-983
0-967
0-951
0-42
0-983
0-965
0-948
0-43
0-44
0-982
0-981
0-946
0-944
0-45
0-980
0-964
0-962
0-960
0-46
0-979
0-959
0-938
0-47
0-978
0-977
0-957
0-955
0-936
0-933
0-976
0-975
0-953
0-931
0-912
0-908
0-951
0-928
0-905
0-50
0-961
0-967
0-964
0-977
0-49
0-965
0-962
0-974
0-972
0-963
0-984
0-48
0-975
0-972
0-968
0-965
0-961
0-980
0-977
0-983
0-966
0-983
0-941
0-969
0-977
0-974
0-971
0-968
0-965
0-987
0-984
0-982
0-972
0-969
0-992
0-991
0-976
0-980
0-988
0-986
0-983
0-981
0-978
0-979
0-992
0-34
0-989
0-987
0-985
0-977
0-975
0-973
0-33
0-982
0-980
0-978
0-975
0-972
0-990
0-989
0-970
0-967
0-964
0-960
0-957
0-971
0-980
0-978
0-977
0-976
0-992
0-990
0-988
0-986
0-984
0-994
0-992
0-976
0-974
0-978
0-32
0-979
0-983
0-980
0-31
0-987
0-981
0-987
0-986
0-30
0-990
0-996
0-994
0-993
0-949
0-938
0-937
0-934
0-930
0-927
0-923
0-935
0-932
0-929
0-925
0-922
0-916
0-912
0-908
0-904
0-947
0-944
0-941
0-919
0-915
0-919
0-900
0-895
0-891
0-887
0-882
242
0-969
0-933
0-929
0-925
0-921
0-917
0-913
0-908
0-904
0-900
0-895
0-890
0-886
0-881
0-876
0-871
0-866
0-861
0-959
0-955
0-935
0-931
0-917
0-918
0-912
0-907
0-913
0-908
0-902
0-896
0-904
0-899
0-894
0-891
0-885
0-880
0-889
0-884
0-874
0-879
0-873
0-868
0-862
0-857
0-851
0-845
0-839
0-917
0-912
0-907
0-901
0-896
0-890
0-884
0-878
0-872
0-866
0-908
0-903
0-897
0-891
0-885
0-878
0-872
0-866
0-859
0-852
0-863
0-857
0-850
0-860
0-853
0-847
0-840
0-833
0-817
0-844
0-827
0-809
0-838
0-832
0-820
0-813
0-806
0-799
0-802
0-794
0-787
0-779
0-868
0-825
0-819
0-845
0-838
0-831
0-824
TABLE
5.2.2A {continued)
exp(-5sin 2
sin 9
5=0-1
0/A 2 )
0-2
0-3
0-4
0-5
0-6
0-7
0-8
0-9
1-0
0-949
0-925
0-922
0-919
0-916
0-913
0-901
0-897
0-894
0-890
0-886
0-878
0-874
0-869
0-834
0-828
0-821
0-815
0-809
0-812
0-805
0-799
0-792
0-785
0-791
0-771
0-784
0-777
0-769
0-762
0-763
0-755
0-864
0-860
0-856
0-850
0-845
0-839
0-834
0-910
0-907
0-904
0-901
0-898
0-882
0-855
0-828
0-803
0-778
0-754
0-731
0-878
0-850
0-823
0-797
0-771
0-746
0-723
0-874
0-870
0-866
0-845
0-840
0-835
0-817
0-790
0-784
0-777
0-764
0-757
0-750
0-739
0-731
0-706
0-723
0-698
0-894
0-891
0-862
0-857
0-743
0-715
0-689
0-764
0-757
0-751
0-744
0-735
0-708
0-681
0-853
0-800
0-794
0-788
0-782
0-776
0-771
0-888
0-884
0-881
0-830
0-825
0-820
0-815
0-810
0-728
0-700
0-692
0-684
0-672
0-664
0-655
0-804
0-737
0-730
0-723
0-717
0-710
A
0-51
0-52
0-53
0-54
0-55
0-974
0-973
0-972
0-971
0-970
0-947
0-945
0-943
0-941
0-969
0-968
0-967
0-966
0-965
0-939
0-963
0-962
0-928
0-62
0-63
0-961
0-64
0-65
0-960
0-959
0-66
0-957
0-67
0-70
0-956
0-955
0-954
0-952
0-71
0-951
0-904
0-72
0-949
0-902
0-73
0-948
0-899
0-74
0-947
0-945
0-944
0-942
0-941
0-939
0-938
0-56
0-57
0-58
0-59
0-60
0-61
0-68
0-69
0-75
0-76
0-77
0-78
0-79
0-80
0-85
0-936
0-935
0-933
0-932
0-930
0-81
0-82
0-83
0-84
0-937
0-935
0-933
0-931
0-926
0-924
0-921
0-919
0-840
0-836
0-831
0-827
0-822
0-788
0-783
0-770
0-764
0-758
0-752
0-745
0-860
0-856
0-852
0-817
0-777
0-739
0-813
0-772
0-766
0-733
0-896
0-894
0-849
0-803
0-760
0-755
0-720
0-714
0-891
0-841
0-888
0-837
0-749
0-743
0-701
0-885
0-883
0-833
0-794
0-789
0-784
0-779
0-774
0-769
0-764
0-759
0-754
0-749
0-720
0-714
0-709
0-703
0-697
0-917
0-914
0-912
0-909
0-907
0-880
0-863
0-860
0-88
0-925
0-857
0-89
0-924
0-922
0-853
0-91
0-921
0-92
0-919
0-917
0-915
0-914
0-847
0-844
0-96
0-97
0-98
0-99
1-00
0-912
0-910
0-908
0-907
0-905
0-829
0-825
0-821
0-927
0-95
0-845
0-817
0-929
0-94
0-874
0-870
0-867
0-863
0-877
0-86
0-93
0-877
0-874
0-871
0-868
0-865
0-87
0-90
0-849
0-845
0-812
0-806
0-850
0-841
0-838
0-835
0-832
0-828
0-825
0-822
0-819
0-813
0-809
0-805
0-808
0-799
0-799
0-794
0-726
0-707
0-738
0-732
0-694
0-726
0-681
0-688
0-713
0-714
0-647
0-676
0-676
0-668
0-660
0-651
0-643
0-613
0-703
0-668
0-635
0-604
0-696
0-689
0-682
0-675
0-661
0-627
0-595
0-653
0-619
0-587
0-645
0-611
0-578
0-638
0-603
0-570
0-667
0-660
0-653
0-646
0-639
0-630
0-622
0-615
0-607
0-599
0-595
0-586
0-553
0-592
0-584
0-576
0-569
0-675
0-632
0-668
0-625
0-661
0-617
0-655
0-610
0-603
0-648
0-721
0-747
0-739
0-706
0-698
0-691
0-683
0-578
0-570
0-562
0-638
0-630
0-621
0-561
0-544
0-536
0-527
0-554
0-519
0-546
0-510
0-538
0-530
0-522
0-502
0-494
0-486
0-553
0-546
0-514
0-477
0-506
0-469
0-561
0-801
0-744
0-691
0-642
0-596
0-797
0-793
0-788
0-784
0-739
0-685
0-635
0-589
0-734
0-728
0-723
.0-679
0-628
0-538
0-498
0-461
0-673
0-667
0-622
0-582
0-574
0-531
0-453
0-615
0-567
0-523
0-490
0-482
0-780
0-776
0-771
0-767
0-763
0-718
0-713
0-708
0-608
0-602
0-595
0-589
0-582
0-560
0-553
0-546
0-486
0-475
0-467
0-459
0-451
0-444
0-437
0-429
0-702
0-697
0-661
0-655
0-649
0-643
0-637
0-758
0-692
0-631
0-575
0-525
0-478
0-436
0-398
0-754
0-750
0-745
0-741
0-686
0-681
0-676
0-670
0-625
0-619
0-569
0-562
0-555
0-518
0-511
0-504
0-497
0-471
0-429
0-390
0-464
0-457
0-449
0-421
0-383
0-414
0-407
0-375
0-368
0-613
0-607
243
0-549
0-539
0-532
0-516
0-508
0-501
0-493
0-445
0-421
0-413
0-406
TABLE
exp
5.2.2A (continued)
(-B sin 2
0/A 2)
sin 6
B=0-1
0-2
0-3
0-4
0-5
0-6
0-7
0-8
0-9
1-0
0-736
0-732
0-727
0-665
0-660
0-718
0-643
0-490
0-483
0-476
0-469
0-462
0-399
0-392
0-385
0-378
0-371
0-361
0-649
0-542
0-536
0-529
0-523
0-442
0-723
0-600
0-594
0-588
0-582
0-576
0-714
0-709
0-705
0-700
0-696
0-638
0-570
0-564
0-558
0-552
0-546
0-510
0-503
0-497
0-490
0-484
0-455
0-449
0-407
0-364
0-357
0-350
0-343
0-337
0-325
0-540
0-534
0-528
0-522
0-516
0-477
0-471
0-422
0-416
0-373
0-465
0-459
0-452
0-409
0-403
0-360
0-354
0-347
0-330
0-323
0-317
0-310
0-304
0-292
0-285
0-279
0-273
0-266
0-298
0-292
0-286
0-280
0-274
0-260
0-254
0-248
0-243
0-237
0-310
0-304
0-298
0-268
0-231
0-262
0-256
0-226
0-220
0-215
0-210
1-01
0-903
0-815
1-02
0-901
0-812
1-03
0-899
1-04
0-897
1-05
0-896
0-809
0-805
0-802
1-06
0-894
0-892
0-890
0-888
0-886
0-799
0-884
0-882
0-880
0-878
0-876
0-782
0-778
0-775
0-691
0-611
0-686
0-682
0-605
0-600
0-771
0-677
0-595
0-768
0-673
0-589
0-874
0-872
0-870
0-868
0-866
0-764
0-760
0-757
0-753
0-668
0-584
0-578
0-573
0-568
0-750
0-746
0-743
0-739
0-645
1-23
0-864
0-862
0-860
1-07
1-08
1-09
1-10
1-11
1-12
1-13
1-14
1-15
1-16
1-17
1-18
1-19
1-20
1-21
1-22
0-795
0-792
0-789
0-785
0-663
0-659
0-654
0-649
0-640
0-635
0-654
0-633
0-627
0-622
0-616
0-510
0-504
0-498
0-562
0-493
0-487
0-557
0-551
0-546
0-475
0-469
0-481
0-516
0-442
0-435
0-429
0-396
0-446
0-440
0-434
0-428
0-421
0-390
0-384
0-377
0-415
0-409
0-403
0-359
0-371
0-365
0-353
0-347
0-435
0-428
0-421
0-414
0-400
0-393
0-387
0-380
0-367
0-341
0-334
0-328
0-322
0-316
1-24
0-857
0-735
0-341
0-535
0-392
0-335
0-292
0-287
0-251
0-732
0-464
0-458
0-398
0-855
0-630
0-626
0-541
1-25
1-26
0-853
0-728
0-621
0-849
0-847
1-30
0-845
0-386
0-380
0-374
0-368
0-363
0-323
0-318
1-29
0-616
0-612
0-607
0-602
0-275
1-28
0-724
0-721
0-717
0-713
0-452
0-446
0-441
0-435
0-430
0-281
0-851
0-530
0-525
0-519
0-514
0-509
0-329
1-27
0-270
0-264
0-259
0-240
0-234
0-229
0-224
0-218
1-31
0-842
0-840
0-357
0-301
0-418
0-413
0-352
0-346
0-213
0-208
1-34
0-836
0-833
0-340
0-335
0-243
0-238
1-35
0-407
0-402
0-295
0-290
0-285
0-253
0-248
0-838
0-503
0-498
0-493
0-424
1-33
0-709
0-706
0-702
0-698
0-695
0-598
1-32
0-204
0-199
0-194
1-36
0-831
0-691
1-38
0-829
0-827
0-687
0-683
0-477
0-472
0-467
0-386
1-39
0-824
0-679
0-462
0-381
1-40
0-822
0-676
0-574
0-569
0-565
0-560
0-555
0-397
1-37
0-457
0-375
0-330
0-324
0-319
0-314
0-309
0-274
0-269
0-264
0-259
0-254
1-41
0-672
0-551
0-451
0-446
0-283
0-249
0-244
0-239
0-234
0-230
0-204
0-199
0-195
0-190
0-186
0-167
0-163
0-657
0-546
0-541
0-537
0-532
0-370
0-365
0-360
0-355
0-350
0-303
0-668
0-664
1-45
0-820
0-817
0-815
0-813
0-810
1-46
0-808
1-47
1-48
0-806
0-803
0-653
0-649
0-645
0-528
0-523
0-518
0-426
0-421
0-416
1-49
0-801
0-641
0-411
0-225
0-220
0-216
0-211
1-50
0-799
0-638
0-514
0-509
0-278
0-273
0-269
0-264
0-259
0-207
0-182
0-178
0-173
0-169
0-165
1-42
1-43
1-44
0-661
0-593
0-588
0-584
0-579
0-488
0-482
0-441
0-436
0-431
0-407
0-391
0-344
0-339
0-334
0-330
0-325
244
0-298
0-293
0-288
0-312
0-306
0-279
0-233
0-228
0-223
0-218
0-213
0-208
0-245
0-189
0-185
0-180
0-176
0-171
0-353
0-346
0-339
0-332
0-318
0-311
0-305
0-298
0-204
0199
0-194
0-189
0-185
0-180
0-175
0-171
0166
0-162
0-157
0-153
0149
0-145
0-141
0-137
0-159
0-155
0-133
0-129
0-126
0-151
0-122
0-147
0-143
0-139
0-136
0-132
0119
0115
0-112
0-109
0105
TABLE
5.2.2A {continued)
exp(-Bsm 2 d[X 2)
sin 6
5=1-1
1-2
1-3
1-4
1-5
1-6
1-7
1-8
1-9
2-0
1-000
0-999
0-999
0-998
0-997
1-000
0-999
0-999
1-000
0-999
0-999
0-997
1-000
0-999
0-998
0-997
1-000
0-999
0-998
0-997
1-000
0-999
0-998
0-996
0-996
0-996
0-995
1-000
0-999
0-998
0-997
0-995
0-995
0-993
0-991
0-995
0-993
0-994
0-992
0-994
0-993
0-991
0-991
0-993
0-990
0-990
0-987
0-984
0-989
0-986
0-982
0-988
0-987
0-985
0-986
0-990
0-988
0-985
0-994
0-992
0-989
0-986
0-983
0-984
0-980
0-982
0-979
0-975
0-971
0-967
0-980
0-976
0-972
0-967
0-962
0-978
0-974
0-970
0-977
0-973
0-968
0-976
0-972
0-967
0-965
0-960
0-963
0-962
0-958
0-956
0-957
0-952
0-946
0-940
0-934
0-955
0-949
0-943
0-937
0-931
0-953
0-947
0-950
0-944
0-937
0-930
0-923
0-920
0-912
0-904
0-908
0-896
0-891
0-888
0-882
0-879
001
1-000
1-000
1000
0-02
1-000
1-000
0-03
0-999
0-998
0-997
0-999
0-998
0-999
0-999
0-998
0-997
0-997
0-996
0-995
0-993
0-991
0-989
0-996
0-995
0-994
0-992
0-990
0-988
0-994
0-992
0-990
0-987
0-04
0-05
0-06
0-07
0-08
009
0-10
0-11
0-12
0-13
0-14
0-15
0-16
0-17
0-18
0-987
0-984
0-982
0-979
0-976
0-972
0-969
0-989
0-998
0-996
0-986
0-984
0-983
0-981
0-980
0-977
0-973
0-978
0-971
0-983
0-980
0-977
0-973
0-969
0-970
0-966
0-962
0-967
0-963
0-959
0-965
0-960
0-956
0-962
0-958
0-953
0-960
0-955
0-949
0-958
0-953
0-954
0-949
0-951
0-946
0-947
0-942
0-944
0-938
0-944
0-939
0-934
0-940
0-934
0-929
0-936
0-930
0-924
0-932
0-928
0-924
0-925
0-921
0-917
0-975
0-981
0-977
0-973
0-969
0-965
0-997
0-981
0-940
0-934
0-927
0-19
0-965
0-961
0-20
0-957
0-21
0-22
0-953
0-948
0-23
0-943
0-948
0-944
0-938
0-919
0-914
0-909
0-24
0-939
0-933
0-928
0-923
0-917
0-912
0-907
0-25
0-934
0-928
0-922
0-916
0-911
0-905
0-899
0-902
0-894
0-26
0-928
0-923
0-922
0-910
0-904
0-896
0-889
0-881
0-874
0-897
0-890
0-882
0-874
0-891
0-883
0-885
0-877
0-875
0-868
0-904
0-898
0-916
0-910
0-903
0-896
0-890
0-867
0-860
0-862
0-852
0-874
0-864
0-855
0-845
0-866
0-858
0-850
0-843
0-835
0-866
0-858
0-949
0-841
0-832
0-857
0-849
0-840
0-831
0-822
0-812
0-841
0-833
0-832
0-822
0-812
0-802
0-823
0-825
0-815
0-27
0-28
0-29
0-30
0-31
0-917
0-912
0-906
0-916
0-910
0-900
0-893
0-887
0-881
0-874
0-891
0-883
0-884
0-877
0-870
0-863
0-875
0-40
0-867
0-860
0-853
0-846
0-839
0-856
0-849
0-841
0-833
0-825
0-41
0-831
0-42
0-824
0-816
0-808
0-800
0-817
0-809
0-801
0-32
0-33
0-34
0-35
0-36
0-37
0-38
0-39
0-43
0-44
0-45
0-46
0-47
0-48
0-49
0-50
0-792
0-784
0-776
0-768
0-760
0-793
0-784
0-776
0-767
0-758
0-750
0-741
0-868
0-860
0-903
0-896
0-889
0-882
0-874
0-866
0-859
0-851
0-853
0-842
0-845
0-837
0-829
0-834
0-826
0-817
0-821
0-808
0-812
0-799
0-804
0-795
0-786
0-777
0-769
0-760
0-750
0-741
0-732
0-723
0-849
0-840
0-831
0-822
0-823
0-813
0-814
0-805
0-803
0-796
0-787
0-784
0-774
0-772
0-777
0-768
0-758
0-764
0-754
0-744
0-763
0-748
0-753
0-738
0-734
0-723
0-744
0-734
0-724
0-715
0-705
0-728
0-718
0-708
0-790
0-781
0-698
0-687
245
0-794
0-713
0-702
0-802
0-792
0-782
0-772
0-762
0-751
0-741
0-730
0-720
0-709
0-698
0-687
0-692
0-676
0-681
0-665
0-670
0-654
0-792
0-782
0-771
0-760
0-750
0-871
0-813
0-803
0-792
0-782
0-771
0-760
0-749
0-916
0-900
0-804
0-794
0-783
0-772
0-760
0-749
0-738
0-738
0-726
0-739
0-728
0-727
0-717
0-706
0-695
0-704
0-714
0-703
0-691
0-683
0-672
0-661
0-649
0-638
0-715
0-692
0-679
0-681
0-667
0-669
0-655
0-657
0-645
0-643
6-634
0-622
0-619
0-607
0-631
TABLE
exp
5.2.2A {continued)
(-B sin 2
0/A 2 )
sin 6
5=1-1.
1-2
1-3
1-4
1-5
1-6
1-7
1-8
1-9
2-0
0-732
0-723
0-714
0-705
0-696
0-713
0-695
0-677
0-626
0-685
0-667
0-660
0-649
0-638
0-627
0-616
0-643
0-704
0-694
0-684
0-675
0-631
0-615
0-594
0-582
0-620
0-609
0-598
0-603
0-610
0-598
0-586
0-575
0-563
0-587
0-576
0-569
0-557
0-564
0-553
0-546
0-534
0-539
0-528
0-516
0-542
0-523
0-505
0-534
0-522
0-510
0-498
0-487
0-493
0-482
0-470
0-459
0-448
0-475
0-464
0-452
0-441
0-430
A
0-51
0-751
0-52
0-743
0-53
0-734
0-54
0-726
0-55
0-717
0-56
0-58
0-708
0-699
0-691
0-59
0-682
0-686
0-677
0-668
0-659
0-60
0-673
0-649
0-61
0-664
0-655
0-646
0-63/
0-628
0-640
0-630
0-621
0-612
0-602
0-67
0-619
0-610
0-68
0-601
0-69
0-592
0-70
0-71
0-675
0-656
0-665
0-655
0-646
0-665
0-655
0-645
0-635
0-625
0-614
0-646
0-636
0-626
0-624
0-614
0-604
0-604
0-593
0-583
0-616
0-572
0-551
0-531
0-512
0-562
0-551
0-541
0-541
0-520
0-509
0-498
0-488
0-501
0-587
0-577
0-594
0-584
0-574
0-564
0-553
0-593
0-568
0-543
0-558
0-548
0-533
0-523
0-539
0-513
0-583
0-584
0-574
0-565
0-555
0-529
0-504
0-546
0-537
0-528
0-518
0-509
0-519
0-494
0-510
0-500
0-491
0-481
0-484
0-75
0-574
0-565
0-556
0-548
0-539
0-76
0-530
0-500
0-77
0-521
0-491
0-78
0-512
0-57
0-62
0-63
0-64
0-65
0-66
0-72
0-73
0-74
0-607
0-597
0-635
0-531
0-520
0-510
0-500
0-490
0-480
0-605
0-595
0-584
0-573
0-562
0-530
0-519
0-509
0-498
0-488
0-477
0-467
0-457
0-465
0-455
0-469
0-460
0-450
0-440
0-430
0-416
0-407
0-472
0-445
0-420
0-397
0-463
0-436
0-411
0-453
0-427
0-417
0-401
0-392
0-387
0-378
0-368
0-408
0-383
0-359
0-474
0-446
0-436
0-426
0-477
0-466
0-456
0-445
0-435
0-424
0-414
0-404
0-394
0-384
0-375
0-365
0-592
0-580
0-489
0-478
0-467
0-551
0-570
0-558
0-546
0-457
0-437
0-418
0-446
0-435
0-426
0-415
0-407
0-397
0-424
0-405
0-394
0-386
0-375
0-414
0-404
0-384
0-365
0-393
0-373
0-383
0-363
0-355
0-344
0-373
0-353
0-334
0-363
0-343
0-325
0-354
0-315
0-269
0-261
0-355
0-346
0-344
0-334
0-325
0-337
0-316
0-334
0-324
0-315
0-306
0-296
0-306
0-296
0-287
0-278
0-79
0-503
0-482
0-473
0-80
0-495
0-464
0-444
0-435
0-81
0-486
0-455
0-426
0-399
0-328
0-307
0-287
0-446
0-437
0-417
0-319
0-298
0-356
0-347
0-332
0-310
0-289
0-429
0-390
0-381
0-372
0-341
0-84
0-477
0-469
0-460
0-374
0-365
0-350
0-82
0-323
0-301
0-281
0-85
0-452
0-420
0-364
0-338
0-315
0-293
0-272
0-279
0-270
0-262
0-253
0-252
0-244
0-236
0-86
0-443
0-412
0-355
0-330
0-306
0-245
0-228
0-435
0-403
0-347
0-321
0-395
0-387
0-378
0-338
0-330
0-322
0-313
0-90
0-427
0-418
0-410
0-305
0-297
0-282
0-274
0-256
0-248
0-240
0-233
0-237
0-88
0-298
0-290
0-284
0-276
0-268
0-260
0-252
0-264
0-87
0-230
0-222
0-215
0-220
0-213
0-205
0-198
0-91
0-402
0-314
0-289
0-266
0-245
0-225
0-207
0-191
0-394
0-333
0-258
0-273
0-251
0-266
0-258
0-243
0-236
0-204
0-197
0-200
0-193
0-187
0-180
0-184
0-177
0-95
0-237
0-230
0-223
0-216
0-218
0-386
0-378
0-371
0-306
0-298
0-290
0-283
0-281
0-93
0-370
0-362
0-354
0-346
0-339
0-341
0-92
0-96
0-363
0-331
0-302
0-275
0-355
0-323
0-98
0-348
0-340
0-333
0-316
0-294
0-287
0-268
0-261
0-280
0-273
0-254
0-251
0-244
0-237
0-230
0-223
0-229
0-222
0-215
0-208
0-202
0-209
0-202
0-195
0-189
0-183
0-190
0-184
0-178
0-171
0-165
0-174
0-97
0-158
0-152
0-146
0-141
0-135
0-83
0-89
0-94
0-99
1-00
0-308
0-301
0-408
0-400
0-391
0-382
0-374
0-365
0-357
0-349
0-325
0-317
0-309
0-247
246
0-211
0-167
0-161
0-155
0-150
0-171
0-164
TABLE
exp
5.2.2A (continued)
(~B sin 2
0/A 2 )
sin 6
B=l-l
1-2
1-3
1-4
1-5
1-6
1-7
1-8
1-9
2-0
0-294
0-287
0-280
0-273
0-266
0-266
0-259
0-252
0-245
0-239
0-240
0-233
0-226
0-220
0-214
0-217
0-210
0-204
0-197
0-191
0-196
0-189
0-177
0-144
0-171
0-139
0-133
0-128
0-123
0-130
0-125
0-120
0-177
0-165
0-159
0-171
0-153
0-159
0-154
0-148
0-143
0-137
1-05
0-326
0-318
0-311
0-304
0-297
1-06
0-291
0-260
0-232
0-207
0-185
0-166
0-148
0-132
0-118
0-106
1-07
0-253
0-226
0-201
0-220
0-213
0-207
0-195
0-190
0-184
0-160
0-155
0-149
0-144
0-127
0-123
0-118
0-113
0-114
0-109
0-105
0-100
0-101
0-247
0-240
0-234
0-180
0-174
0-168
0-163
0-143
1-10
0-284
0-277
0-271
0-264
1-11
0-258
0-228
0-202
0-178
0-158
0-085
0-222
0-216
0-173
0-081
0-157
0-152
0-147
0-142
0-138
0-092
0-088
0-085
1-15
0-196
0-190
0-185
0-179
0-109
0-105
0-096
0-252
0-245
0-239
0-233
0-139
0-134
0-130
0-125
0-121
0-123
1-12
0-081
0-071
1-16
0-228
0-116
0-078
0-068
0-128
0-124
0-120
0-112
0-108
0-104
0-085
0-082
0-078
0-115
0-100
0-074
0-071
0-068
0-065
0-065
0-133
0-102
0-098
0-094
0-090
0-086
0-089
0-147
0-142
0-138
0-178
0-174
0-169
0-164
0-159
0-154
0-133
0-222
0-216
0-211
0-205
0-199
0-193
0-188
0-152
1-17
0-200
0-195
0-189
0-184
0-179
0-173
0-149
0-129
0-111
0-096
0-083
0-053
0-144
0-140
0-135
0-131
0-124
0-120
0-107
0-092
0-059
0-051
0-103
0-089
0-080
0-076
0-072
0-069
0-062
0-168
0-056
0-049
0-116
0-112
0-100
0-096
0-085
0-073
0-054
0-082
0-070
0-066
0-063
0-060
0-046
0-044
0-149
0-092
0-089
0-086
0-082
0-079
0-079
0-067
0-064
0-062
0-059
0-057
0-057
0-049
0-047
0-132
0-127
0-123
0-119
0-115
0-111
0-108
0-105
1-30
0-174
0-170
0-165
0-160
0-156
0-052
0-050
0-048
1-31
0-151
0-128
0-107
1-32
0-147
0-143
0-124
0-120
0-116
0-112
0-104
0-100
0-097
0-094
0-090
0-087
0-084
0-081
0-078
0-076
0-073
0-064
0-062
0070
0-068
0-059
0-057
0065
0-054
0-054
0-052
0-049
0-047
0-045
0-046
0-043
0-041
0-039
0-038
0-075
0-072
0-070
0-067
0-064
0-062
0-060
0-057
0-055
0-053
0-052
0-050
0-047
0-045
0-043
0-043
0-036
0-034
0-032
0-031
0-029
0-062
0-051
0-049
0-047
0-034
0-032
0-045
0-043
0-042
0-040
0-038
0-036
0-029
0-028
0-027
0-025
0-024
0-035
0-028
0-041
0-033
0-047
0-039
0-037
0-032
0-030
0-045
0-043
0-036
0-034
0-029
0-027
1-01
1-02
1-03
1-04
1-08
1-09
1-13
1-14
1-18
1-19
1-20
1-21
1-22
1-23
1-24
1-25
1-26
1-27
1-28
1-29
1-33
1-34
1-35
0-139
0-135
0-210
0-205
0-183
0-163
0-158
0-153
0-144
0-140
0-136
1-36
0-131
0-109
0-090
1-37
0-127
0-123
0-105
0-087
0-102
0-098
0-084
0-081
0-078
1-38
1-39
1-40
0-119
0-116
0-095
44
0-112
0-109
0-105
0-102
1-45
0099
0-080
1-46
0-096
1-47
0093
0-077
0-075
1-48
0-090
0-087
0-084
1-41
1-42
1-43
j.
1-49
1-50
0-092
0089
0-086
0-083
0-072
0-070
0-067
0-075
0-073
0-070
0-067
0-065
0063
0-060
0-058
0056
0-054
0-167
0-162
0-101
0-097
0-094
0059
0-057
0-055
0-053
0-051
0-049
247
0-183
0-076
0-073
0-070
0-067
0-138
0-133
0-128
0-119
0-114
0-110
0-106
0-041
0-039
0-037
0-036
0031
0-100
0-096
0-093
0-075
0-055
0-051
0-044
0-042
0-040
0-115
0-110
0-097
0-093
0-089
0-078
0-074
0-062
0-059
0-056
0-042
0-040
0-038
0-036
0-034
0-038
0-032
0-036
0-031
0-035
0-033
0-031
0-029
0-028
0-026
0-030
0-025
0-028
0-023
0-027
0-022
0-025
0-021
0-024
0-020
0-023
0-019
0-022
0-018
0-021
0-017
0-019
0-016
0-023
0-018
0-015
0-027
0-022
0-017
0-014
0-025
0-020
0-019
0-018
0-017
0016
0-013
0-016
0-013
0-015
0-012
0-014
0-011
0-024
0-023
0-022
TABLE
5.2.2A (continued)
exp(-sin 2
0/A 2 )
sin 6
B=2-l
2-2
2-3
2-4
2-5
2-6
2-7
2-8
2-9
1000
1-000
0-999
0-998
0-996
1-000
0-999
1-000
1000
0-999
0-997
0-997
0-999
0-997
0-996
0-995
0-995
0-993
0-993
0-993
0-993
0-990
0-987
0-983
0-978
0-973
0-990
0-986
0-990
0-986
0-982
0-977
0-971
0-989
0-985
3-0
A
0-01
1-000
1-000
0-02
0-999
0-999
1-000
0-999
1-000
0-999
1-000
0-999
003
0-998
0-998
0-998
0-998
0-998
0-04
0-997
0-996
0-996
0-996
0-996
005
0-995
0-995
0-994
0-994
0-994
0-999
0-998
0-996
0-994
0-06
0-992
0-989
0-992
0-989
0-985
0-982
0-977
0-991
0-991
0-988
0-991
0-987
0-10
0-992
0-990
0-987
0-983
0-979
0-984
0-980
0-975
0-979
0-974
0-11
0-975
0-974
0-973
0-971
0-12
0-970
0-965
0-969
0-967
0-966
0-964
0-958
0-952
0-962
0-956
0-950
0-954
0-945
0-938
0-943
0-936
0-931
0-924
0-916
0-928
0-920
0-912
0-07
0-08
0-09
0-13
0-14
0-15
0-16
0-960
0-954
0-986
0-982
0-978
0-988
0-985
0-981
0-976
0-947
0-970
0-965
0-959
0-952
0-945
0-940
0-933
0-925
0-917
0-908
0-938
0-930
0-922
0-914
0-905
0-896
0-886
0-876
0-866
0-855
0-960
0-983
0-969
0-963
0-957
0-950
0-943
0-936
0-968
0-962
0-935
0-933
0-925
0-916
0-931
0-922
0-913
0-928
0-920
0-910
0-926
0-917
0-907
0-897
0-887
0-20
0-919
0-21
0-912
0-908
0-904
0-22
0-903
0-895
0-899
0-890
0-895
0-886
0-877
0-881
0-876
0-872
0-866
0-900
0-890
0-881
0-871
0-861
0-868
0-858
0-856
0-846
0-845
0-839
0-28
0-848
0-862
0-852
0-842
0-850
0-27
0-835
0-828
0-833
0-822
0-29
0-838
0-831
0-817
0-30
0-828
0-820
0-824
0-813
0-31
0-32
0-817
0-807
0-809
0-798
0-802
0-790
0-33
0-796
0-787
0-778
0-34
0-775
0-767
0-35
0-784
0-773
0-764
0-754
0-745
0-736
0-36
0-762
0-752
0-742
0-733
0-723
0-37
0-750
0-740
0-720
0-38
0-728
0-716
0-703
0-707
0-694
0-40
0-738
0-727
0-715
0-730
0-717
0-705
0-692
0-710
0-697
0-684
0-670
0-41
0-703
0-691
0-679
0-668
0-657
0-42
0-678
0-655
0-642
0-628
0-643
0-653
0-666
0-654
0-641
0-45
0-690
0-678
0-666
0-654
0-641
0-628
0-615
0-591
0-579
0-46
0-641
0-628
0-47
0-629
0-616
0-615
0-602
0-615
0-602
0-589
0-604
0-592
0-590
0-577
0-576
0-563
0-602
0-589
0-575
0-562
0-549
0-23
0-25
0-26
0-39
0-43
0-44
0-48
0-49
0-50
0-666
0-885
0-964
0-937
0-927
0-24
0-970
0-941
0-955
0-948
0-19
0-910
0-901
0-976
0-966
0-959
0-18
0-928
0-919
0-972
0-981
0-967
0-960
0-954
0-947
0-939
0-948
0-941
0-934
0-17
0-982
0-978
0-907
0-898
0-904
0-894
0-892
0-888
0-882
0-871
0-877
0-867
0-861
0-851
0-850
0-856
0-845
0-839
0-827
0-816
0-804
0-809
0-810
0-806
0-799
0-794
0-782
0-884
0-873
0-862
0-952
0-945
0-901
0-890
0-880
0-869
0-858
0-958
0-951
0-943
0-876
0-865
0-853
0-841
0-839
0-846
0-834
0-833
0-828
0-822
0-821
0-815
0-809
0-816
0-804
0-797
0-803
0-790
0-791
0-784
0-777
0-797
0-784
0-770
0-786
0-774
0-779
0-766
0-771
0-764
0-757
0-758
0-751
0-743
0-770
0-762
0-737
0-729
0-721
0-749
0-753
0-740
0-727
0-745
0-758
0-732
0-723
0-715
0-718
0-710
0-701
0-707
0-692
0-705
0-696
0-682
0-687
0-672
0-678
0-663
0-681
0-630
0-616
0-603
0-714
0-701
0-790
0-777
0-763
0-750
0-736
0-687
0-673
0-677
0-667
0-658
0-663
0-653
0-643
0-660
0-649
0-639
0-629
0-648
0-634
0-619
0-646
0-635
0-632
0-618
0-604
0-621
0-625
0-610
0-614
0-600
0-585
0-570
0-556
0-604
0-589
0-574
0-559
0-545
0-541
0-530
0-515
0-501
0-487
0-472
0-607
0-593
0-577
0-565
0-563
0-551
0-549
0-537
0-523
0-589
0-576
0-562
0-549
0-535
0-536
0-522
248
0-691
0-829
0-509
0-596
0-582
0-567
0-553
0-539
0-525
0-511
0-497
0-527
0-513
0-498
0-484
TABLE
exp
sin 8
5.2.2A (continued)
(-B
2
sin 2 0/A )
2-2
2-3
2-4
2-5
2-6
2-7
2-8
2-9
3-0
0-564
0-552
0-539
0-526
0-514
0-550
0-537
0-524
0-511
0-499
0-536
0-523
0-510
0-497
0-484
0-522
0-509
0-495
0-482
0-469
0-509
0-495
0-482
0-469
0-495
0-483
0-455
0-482
0-468
0-455
0-442
0-469
0-455
0-442
0-429
0-470
0-457
0-443
0-429
0-416
0-458
0-55
0-579
0-567
0-554
0-542
0-530
0-444
0-431
0-417
0-404
0-56
0-518
0-442
0-430
0-417
0-405
0-392
0-429
0-416
0-403
0-391
0-378
0-416
0-403
0-390
0-377
0-365
0-403
0-390
0-505
0-486
0-474
0-461
0-449
0-471
0-57
0-390
0-377
0-364
0-352
0-377
0-365
0-352
0-340
0-328
0-316
0-327
0-316
0-304
0-305
0-294
0-293
0-283
0-271
0-260
5=2-1
A
0-51
0-52
0-53
0-54
0-59
0-481
0-502
0-489
0-477
0-465
0-60
0-470
0-453
0-437
0-421
0-457
0-444
0-431
0-419
0-407
0-61
0-441
0-425
0-413
0-401
0-409
0-398
0-386
0-394
0-383
0-371
0-380
0-368
0-63
0-458
0-446
0-435
0-64
0-423
0-406
0-374
0-359
0-345
0-65
0-412
0-395
0-390
0-378
0-363
0-348
0-333
0-366
0-354
0-342
0-331
0-320
0-66
0-401
0-67
0-390
0-379
0-368
0-357
0-384
0-372
0-362
0-367
0-356
0-345
0-308
0-298
0-295
0-285
0-301
0-290
0-280
0-287
0-277
0-266
0-274
0-264
0-254
0-251
0-250
0-240
0-340
0-335
0-324
0-337
0-326
0-315
0-304
0-294
0-322
0-311
0-351
0-352
0-340
0-330
0-319
0-309
0-241
0-230
0-314
0-304
0-294
0-298
0-288
0-278
0-284
0-274
0-264
0-270
0-260
0-250
0-256
0-247
0-237
0-244
0-234
0-225
0-232
0-222
0-213
0-220
0-202
0-58
0-62
0-68
0-69
0-70
0-493
0-429
0-418
0-459
0-446
0-434
0-356
0-353
0-341
0-329
0-318
0-306
0-272
0-262
0-340
0-282
0-72
0-347
0-337
0-73
0-327
0-330
0-320
0-310
0-74
0-317
0-300
0-284
0-269
0-254
0-241
0-228
0193
0-307
0-290
0-274
0-259
0-245
0-232
0-219
0-216
0-207
0-204
0-75
0-196
0-185
0-76
0-297
0-288
0-279
0-270
0-261
0-281
0-250
0-241
0-236
0-227
0-218
0-245
0-229
0-224
0-215
0-210
0-202
0-210
0-202
0-193
0-185
0-178
0-198
0-190
0-182
0-174
0-167
0-177
0-169
0-232
0-223
0-214
0-206
0-197
0-187
0-179
0-171
0-253
0-265
0-256
0-247
0-238
0-252
0-244
0-235
0-227
0-219
0-236
0-228
0-221
0-207
0199
0-182
0-174
0-167
0-160
0-153
0-170
0-213
0-156
0-159
0-152
0-145
0-149
0-139
0-142
0-132
0-146
0-140
0-136
0-130
0-126
0-134
0-128
0-122
0-124
0-118
0-112
0-71
0-77
0-78
0-79
0-80
0-271
0-262
0-220
0-205
0-191
0-212
0-197
0-204
0-190
0-184
0-177
0-194
0-186
0-179
0-171
0-164
0-212
0-204
0196
0-182
0-169
0-163
0-156
0-157
0-151
0-144
0-89
0-197
0-189
0-182
0-175
0-168
0-175
0-162
0-90
0-183
0-168
0-155
0-149
0-143
0-132
0-91
0-176
0-92
0-162
0-155
0-149
0-149
0-143
0-94
0-169
0-163
0-156
0-143
0-131
0-95
0-150
0-137
0-125
0-96
0-144
0-139
0-120
0-115
0-110
0-105
0-100
0-81
0-82
0-83
0-84
0-85
0-86
0-87
0-88
0-93
0-189
0-99
0-133
0-128
0-132
0-126
0-121
0-116
1-00
0-122
0111
0-97
0-98
0-137
0-137
0-131
0-125
0-120
0-115
0-110
0-105
0-100
0-095
0091
0-138
0-126
0-121
0-115
0-110
0-105
0-189
0-161
0-164
0-154
0-156
0-147
0-149
0-142
0-133
0-136
0-127
0-129
0-123
0-120
0-114
0-140
0-117
0-111
0-109
0-120
0-114
0-109
0-106
0-098
0-101
0093
0-104
0-095
0-088
0-103
0-116
0-107
0-098
0-091
0-083
0-111
0-102
0-086
0-106
0-097
0-093
0-089
0081
0-079
0-075
0-101
0092
0-071
0-087
0-084
0-080
0-077
0096
0-073
0-067
0-091
0-083
0-079
0-076
0-072
0-069
0-065
0-059
0-056
0-100
0-095
0-091
0-087
0-082
0-086
0-082
0-078
0-074
249
0-163
0-211
0-063
0-075
0-068
0-062
0-071
0-064
0-058
0-053
0-067
0061
0-055
0050
TABLE
exp
sin 6
=2-1
2-4
2-5
2-6
0-078
0-074
0-070
0-067
0-064
0-070
0-067
0-063
0-060
0-057
0-117
0-106
0096
1-02
0-101
0-091
0-097
0-093
0-088
0-087
0-086
0-082
0-078
0-083
0-075
0-079
0-071
0-075
0-072
0-068
0-065
0-062
0-067
0-064
0-061
0-058
0-055
1-03
0-103
1-05
0-099
0/A 2 )
2-3
1-01
1-04
(-B sin 2
2-2
0-112
0-108
5.2.2A (continued)
106
0094
0-084
1-07
0-090
0-081
1-08
109
0-086
0-082
0-077
0-073
1-10
0-079
0-070
1-11
0-075
0-066
0-059
0-052
0-046
1-12
0-072
0-063
0-056
0-049
0-043
0-053
0-050
0-048
0-047
0-044
0-042
0-041
0-039
0-037
0-036
0-034
0-032
0-040
0-037
0-035
0-033
0-032
0-035
0-033
0-031
0-029
0-027
0-030
0-028
2-7
2-8
0-064
0-057
0-054
0-051
0-048
0-046
0060
0-057
0-054
0-051
2-9
3-0
0-052
0-047
0-044
0-041
0-039
0-037
0-049
0-046
0-043
0-041
0-060
0-054
0-048
0-043
0-038
0-034
0-057
0-051
0-045
0-041
0-036
0-032
0-054
0-048
0-046
0-043
0-038
0-034
0-030
0-051
0-049
0-043
0-040
0-038
0-036
0-034
0-032
0-030
0-028
0-027
0-041
0-036
0-038
0-034
0-030
0-028
0-032
0-030
0-028
0-026
0-025
0-026
0-023
0-027
0-025
0-024
0-025
0-023
0-022
0-020
0-022
0-020
0-019
0-018
0-020
0-019
0-018
0-016
0-015
0-016
0-015
0-014
0-013
0-022
0-019
0-017
0-014
0-012
0-021
0-018
0-015
0020
0-017
0-014
0-013
0-012
0-011
0-016
0-015
0-013
0-012
0-013
0011
0-012
0-011
0-010
0-009
0-009
0-010
0-009
0-009
0-008
0-007
0-009
0-008
0-007
0-007
0-008
0-028
0-025
0-026
0-023
0-025
0-022
0-020
0-019
1-13
0-068
0-060
1-14
0-065
0-062
0-057
1-16
0-059
0-056
0-054
0-052
0-049
0-045
1-17
0-047
0-044
0-042
0-041
0-037
0-040
0-038
0-035
0-030
0-033
0-028
0-036
0-031
0-026
0-026
0-024
0-023
0-034
0-032
0-029
0-025
0-024
0-021
0-018
0-020
0-017
0-030
0-029
0-026
0-024
0-022
0-019
0-018
0-017
0-016
0-015
0-016
0-015
0-014
0-013
0-012
0-014
0-013
0-012
0-014
0-013
0-012
0-011
0-011
0-012
0-007
0006
0-008
0-006
0-005
0-007
0-007
0-006
0-006
0-005
0009
0-010
0-009
0-008
0-008
0-007
0-005
0-005
0-005
0-004
0-008
0-007
0-006
0-005
0-008
0-006
0-005
0-007
0-006
0-005
0-004
0-004
0-007
0-005
0-005
0-004
0-004
0-005
0-004
0-004
0-004
0-003
0004
1-15
1-18
1-19
1-20
0-051
0-049
1-21
0-046
1-22
0-044
0-042
1-23
1-24
0-040
1-25
0-038
1-26
0036
1-27
0-034
0-032
1-28
0-055
0-043
0-039
0-027
0-021
0-027
0-026
0-023
1-30
0-030
0-029
0-024
0-021
0-020
0-018
0-017
1-31
0-027
0-023
0-019
0016
1-32
0-026
0-022
0-018
0-015
1-33
0020
0019
1-35
0-024
0-023
0-022
0-018
0-017
0-016
0-015
0-014
0-013
0-013
1-36
0-021
0-017
0-014
0-012
1-37
0019
0-016
0-013
0-011
1-38
0-018
0-015
0-013
1-39
0-017
0-012
1-40
0-016
0-014
0-013
0-010
0-010
0-009
0-010
0-009
0-009
0-008
0-007
1-41
0-015
0-014
0-009
0-008
0-008
0-008
0-008
0-007
0-007
0-006
0-007
0-006
0-006
0-006
0-005
0-005
0-005
0-005
0-004
0-005
0-005
0-004
0-004
0-004
0-004
0-004
0-003
0-003
0-003
1-29
1-34
1-42
0-013
0-012
0-011
0-010
0-022
0-011
0-010
0010
1-45
0-014
0-013
0-012
1-46
0011
0-009
0-007
0-006
1-47
0-011
1-48
0-010
0-009
0-008
0-007
0-006
1-49
0-009
0-008
0-006
1-50
0009
0-007
0-006
0-006
0-005
0-005
0-005
1-43
1-44
0010
250
0-011
0010
0-009
0006
0-006
0-032
0-011
0010
0-023
0-022
0004
0-003
0-018
0-012
0-010
0-009
0006
0-004
0-004
0003
0-003
0-003
0004
0-003
0-003
0-003
0-003
0-002
0-003
0-003
0002
0-003
0-002
0-002
0-002
0-002
0-003
0003
0-002
0-002
0-003
0-003
0-002
0-002
0-002
0-002
0-002
0-002
0-001
0001
0-001
0-002
0-002
0-002
0-002
0-001
TABLE
exp
5.2.2A {continued)
(-B sin 2
0/A 2 )
sin 6
B=3-l
3-2
3-3
3-4
3-5
3-6
3-7
3-8
3-9
4-0
0-01
1-000
1-000
1-000
1-000
1-000
1-000
1-000
1-000
1-000
1-000
0-02
0-999
0-999
0-997
0-995
0-992
0-999
0-997
0-994
0-991
0-999
0-997
0-994
0-991
0-998
0-997
0-994
0-998
0-996
0-998
0-997
0-995
0-992
0-999
0-997
0-995
0-992
0-999
0-997
0-05
0-999
0-997
0-995
0-992
0-06
0-989
0-989
0-988
0-988
0-987
0-07
0-985
0-983
0-978
0-10
0-980
0-975
0-969
0-984
0-979
0-974
0-968
0-983
0-08
0-984
0-980
0-974
0-969
0-11
0-963
0-956
0-949
0-941
0-933
0-962
0-955
0-961
0-12
0-03
0-04
0-09
0-13
0-14
0-15
0-16
0-17
0-18
0-19
0-20
0-21
0-924
0-914
0-904
0-894
0-883
0-973
0-978
0-972
0-967
0-966
0-987
0-983
0-977
0-971
0-965
0-960
0-952
0-944
0-936
0-926
0-959
0-957
0-954
0-946
0-937
0-928
0-951
0-949
0-941
0-932
0-921
0-919
0-917
0-912
0-902
0-891
0-880
0-909
0-899
0-888
0-876
0-906
0-896
0-914
0-904
0-893
0-884
0-873
0-881
0-868
0-857
0-844
0-865
0-852
0-840
0-861
0-853
0-827
0-814
0-822
0-809
0-857
0-844
0-831
0-817
0-804
0-795
0-780
0-766
0-751
0-789
0-736
0-730
0-784
0-769
0-754
0-739
0-723
0-714
0-699
0-683
0-667
0-651
0-947
0-939
0-931
0-22
0-872
0-861
0-23
0-849
0-24
0-832
0-25
0-836
0-824
0-26
0-811
0-805
0-27
0-29
0-798
0-784
0-771
0-792
0-778
0-764
0-30
0-757
0-750
0-800
0-786
0-772
0-758
0-743
0-31
0-742
0-728
0-713
0-699
0-684
0-28
0-819
0-848
0-835
0-735
0-728
0-721
0-721
0-713
0-706
0-706
0-691
0-676
0-698
0-683
0-691
0-667
0-659
0-661
0-652
0-39
0-669
0-654
0-639
0-624
0-645
0-630
0-615
0-637
0-621
0-605
0-40
0-609
0-599
0-590
0-644
0-628
0-612
0-596
0-580
0-41
0-594
0-579
0-564
0-549
0-534
0-584
0-574
0-559
0-543
0-528
0-513
0-32
0-33
0-34
0-35
0-36
0-37
0-38
0-42
0-43
0-44
0-45
0-46
0-47
0-48
0-49
0-50
0-519
0-504
0-490
0-475
0-461
0-994
0-991
0-569
0-553
0-538
0-523
0-508
0-497
0-493
0-482
0-468
0-453
0-438
0-478
0-464
0-449
0-675
0-943
0-934
0-924
0-869
0-775
0-760
0-745
0-922
0-912
0-901
0-890
0-878
0-866
0-840
0-827
0-813
0-799
0-991
0-994
0-990
0-996
0-994
0-990
0-987
0-986
0-986
0-986
0-982
0-977
0-970
0-964
0-982
0-976
0-970
0-963
0-981
0-981
0-975
0-975
0-969
0-968
0-962
0-961
0-956
0-948
0-955
0-947
0-953
0-939
0-930
0-920
0-938
0-928
0-918
0-954
0-945
0-936
0-926
0-916
0-910
0-899
0-887
0-875
0-862
0-907
0-896
0-884
0-872
0-859
0-905
0-903
0-893
0-891
0-881
0-878
0-866
0-852
0-849
0-836
0-846
0-832
0-818
0-803
0-789
0-842
0-828
0-814
0-838
0-824
0-799
0-784
0-794
0-779
0-764
0-748
0-773
0-768
0-753
0-763
0-731
0-733
0-726
0-710
0-737
0-720
0-704
0-698
0-822
0-808
0-794
0-717
0-758
0-742
0-869
0-856
0-944
0-935
0-925
0-914
0-809
0-779
0-747
0-714
0-708
0-701
0-694
0-687
0-681
0-692
0-685
0-678
0-671
0-664
0-676
0-660
0-643
0-668
0-652
0-661
0-636
0-654
0-637
0-620
0-647
0-645
0-628
0-635
0-627
0-619
0-611
0-603
0-619
0-611
0-603
0-586
0-595
0-578
0-603
0-587
0-571
0-595
0-578
0-586
0-570
0-553
0-594
0-578
0-569
0-561
0-561
0-553
0-544
0-544
0-536
0-527
0-562
0-630
0-613
0-565
0-555
0-546
0-537
0-528
0-519
0-510
0-549
0-533
0-518
0-539
0-524
0-508
0-530
0-514
0-498
0-521
0-512
0-495
0-503
0-494
0-477
0-502
0-492
0-482
0-487
0-472
0-457
0-442
0-427
0-477
0-462
0-446
0-432
0-417
251
0-467
0-505
0-489
0-473
0-436
0-457
0-442
0-426
0-421
0-411
0-407
0-397
0-451
0-479
0-463
0-486
0-470
0-454
0-461
0-445
0-447
0-438
0-429
0-432
0-423
0-413
0-417
0-402
0-387
0-407
0-392
0-377
0-383
0-398
0-368
TABLE
exp
5.2.2A (continued)
(-B
sin 2 0/A 2)
sin 6
A
0-51
B=3-l
3-2
3-3
3-4
3-5
3-6
3-7
3-8
3-9
4-0
0-435
0-424
0-410
0-396
0-382
0-369
0-413
0-399
0-385
0-371
0-402
0-388
0-374
0-392
0-378
0-382
0-368
0-372
0-358
0-363
0-348
0-353
0-339
0-364
0-350
0-337
0-354
0-340
0-327
0-344
0-330
0-317
0-334
0-321
0-307
0-325
0-447
0-432
0-421
0-54
0-419
0-405
0-407
0-393
0-55
0-392
0-380
0-56
0-378
0-365
0-367
0-354
0-352
0-340
0-328
0-52
0-53
0-358
0-360
0-347
0-355
0-344
0-334
0-331
0-321
0-328
0-342
0-330
0-317
0-316
0-305
0-319
0-306
0-294
0-308
0-296
0-284
0-316
0-304
0-292
0-281
0-270
0-304
0-292
0-281
0-270
0-259
0-293
0-282
0-271
0-248
0-259
0-248
0-238
0-272
0-260
0-249
0-238
0-228
0-259
0-249
0-248
0-238
0-238
0-227
0-228
0-218
0-217
0-208
0-218
0-208
0-198
0-69
0-238
0-229
0-227
0-217
0-208
0-198
0-189
0-70
0-219
0-208
0-198
0-189
0-180
0-71
0199
0-189
0-181
0-73
0-210
0-200
0-192
0-172
0-180
0-172
0-163
0-74
0-183
0-173
0-75
0-175
0-165
0-164
0-156
0-148
0-76
0-167
0-159
0-158
0-150
0-149
0-140
0-77
0-141
0-78
0-152
0-143
0-79
0-80
0-144
0-138
0-129
0-134
0-128
0-121
0-57
0-58
0-59
0-60
0-61
0-62
0-63
0-64
0-65
0-66
0-67
0-68
0-72
0-341
0-190
0-182
0-136
0-81
0-131
0-123
0-82
0-124
0-116
0-83
0-118
0-84
0-110
0-105
0-85
0-112
0-106
0-86
0-101
0-87
0096
0-88
0-091
0-89
0-086
0-081
0-90
0-95
0061
1-00
1-10
0-045
0-033
0-023
1-15
0-017
1-20
0-012
0-008
0-005
1-05
1-25
1-30
1-40
1-50
0-002
0-001
0-099
0-281
0-270
0-259
0-323
0-310
0-298
0-286
0-274
0-313
0-304
0-294
0-285
0-291
0-282
0-273
0-269
0-257
0-246
0-248
0-237
0-288
0-279
0-266
0-255
0-262
0-252
0-243
0-251
0-241
0-232
0-240
0-229
0-230
0-220
0-209
0-221
0-234
0-223
0-213
0-211
0-202
0-201
0-192
0-183
0-174
0-165
0-156
0-148
0-208
0-200
0191
0199
0190
0-189
0-180
0-171
0-172
0-163
0-182
0-173
0-164
0-155
0-171
0-163
0-155
0-147
0-163
0-155
0-155
0-147
0-139
0-139
0-132
0-181
0-226
0-215
0-204
0-194
0-185
0-175
0166
0-157
0-149
0-141
0-133
0-147
0-140
0-139
0-132
0-125
0-132
0-125
0-118
0-112
0-105
0-132
0-126
0-125
0-118
0-118
0-111
0-105
0099
0-133
0-112
0-105
0099
0-126
0-119
0-105
0099
0-093
0-093
0-088
0-120
0-113
0-113
0-112
0-106
0099
0-093
0-088
0-082
0-106
0100
0-094
0-088
0-082
0-077
0-115
0-109
0-107
0-083
0-078
0-073
0-073
0-068
0-077
0-073
0-068
0-064
0-072
0-068
0-096
0-091
0-086
0-094
0-089
0-084
0-079
0-074
0-088
0-083
0-103
0-101
0-095
0-090
0-085
0-080
0069
0064
0060
0-056
0-081
0-075
0-071
0-070
0-066
0-062
0-065
0-076
0-060
0-056
0-053
0-049
0-046
0-056
0-052
0-052
0-048
0-045
0-042
0-097
0-092
0-155
0-102
0-147
0-078
0-087
0-082
0-078
0-072
0-079
0-073
0-068
0-067
0-063
0-058
0-053
0-075
0-069
0-064
0-059
0-054
0-050
0-056
0-041
0-029
0-021
0-015
0-051
0-046
0-033
0-024
0-016
0-042
0-030
0-021
0-014
0-039
0-027
0-019
0-013
0-032
0-022
0-015
0-010
0-011
0010
0009
0-035
0-025
0-017
0-011
0-007
0-007
0-005
0006
0-006
0-004
0-002
0-001
0-000
0-005
0-002
0-001
0-004
0-003
0-002
0-001
0-000
0000
0001
0-260
0-140
0-132
0-125
0-118
0-094
0-089
0-084
0-010
0-007
0-004
0-002
0-298
0-301
0-276
0-264
0-218
0-311
0-037
0-026
0-018
0-013
0-009
0006
0-004
0-002
0-001
0001
0-004
0-003
0-001
0000
0000
0-003
252
0-061
0-057
0003
0-007
0-049
0-046
0-042
0-126
0-119
0-112
0-064
0059
0-039
0-030
0-020
0-014
0-009
0-006
0-027
0-004
0002
0-003
0-002
0-001
0001
0000
0000
0000
0000
0018
0-012
0-008
0-005
TABLE
exp
sin 9
5=41
4-2
4-3
4-4
5.2.2A (continued)
(-B sin 2
4-5
d/X 2 )
4-6
4-7
4-8
4-9
5-0
1-000
0-998
0-998
0-996
0-992
0-996
0-992
0-988
0-988
0-983
0-976
0-982
0-976
6-969
0-960
0-951
A
0-01
1-000
1-000
1000
1000
1-000
1-000
1-000
1000
0-02
0-998
0-998
0-998
0-998
0-998
0-996
0-993
0-989
0-996
0-993
0-989
0-998
0-996
0-988
0-998
0-996
0-992
0-988
0-03
0-996
0-996
0-996
0-998
0-996
0-04
0-993
0-993
0-993
0-993
0-05
0-990
0-990
0-989
0-989
006
0-985
0-985
0-985
0-984
0-984
0-984
0-983
0-983
0-07
0-980
0-979
0-979
0-978
0-978
0-977
0-977
0-08
0-973
0-972
0-970
0-965
0-972
0-964
0-971
0-966
0-963
0-963
0-10
0-974
0-967
0-960
0-980
0-973
0-967
0-959
0-958
0-957
0-956
0-955
0-954
0-970
0-962
0-953
Oil
0-952
0-949
0-940
0-945
0-935
0-931
0-923
0-921
0-15
0-912
0-910
0-930
0-919
0-908
0-928
0-14
0-906
0-947
0-937
0-927
0-916
0-904
0-946
0-936
0-13
0-943
0-933
0-950
0-941
0-948
0-12
0-925
0-914
0-902
0-924
0-912
0-900
0-16
0-900
0-888
0-876
0-862
0-849
0-898
0-896
0-883
0-893
0-891
0-889
0-881
0-878
0-876
0-870
0-856
0-842
0-867
0-864
0-850
0-835
0-862
0-835
0-820
0-831
0-22
0-816
0-827
0-812
0-23
0-805
0-801
0-797
0-824
0-808
0-792
0-24
0-790
0-774
0-785
0-781
0-776
0-769
0-764
0-758
0-742
0-753
0-27
0-736
0-28
0-725
0-29
0-708
0-719
0-702
0-30
0-691
0-685
0-714
0-697
0-679
0-662
0-644
0-626
0-608
0-591
009
0-17
0-18
0-19
0-20
0-21
0-25
0-26
0-886
0-873
0-859
0-845
0-942
0-941
0-932
0-921
0-931
0-910
0-898
0-908
0-896
0-907
0-887
0-873
0-884
0-870
0-882
0-868
0-880
0-865
0-859
0-844
0-856
0-841
0-853
0-847
0-832
0-829
0-825
0-838
0-822
0-850
0-835
0-819
0-820
0-804
0-816
0-800
0-813
0-788
0-784
0-780
0-809
0-793
0-776
0-806
0-789
0-772
0-802
0-785
0-768
0-772
0-767
0-763
0-758
0-755
0-750
0-745
0-741
0-754
0-736
0-750
0-760
0-748
0-743
0-715
0-728
0-710
0-692
0-673
0-655
0-718
0-700
0-681
0-662
0-643
0-713
0-726
0-708
0-691
0-673
0-738
0-720
0-703
0-733
0-731
0-624
0-605
0-586
0-618
0-674
0-657
0-33
0-640
0-34
0-623
0-605
0-668
0-650
0-633
0-615
0-598
0-588
0-570
0-580
0-573
0-37
0-563
0-555
0-38
0-553
0-545
0-39
0-528
0-511
0-537
0-520
0-40
0-536
0-519
0-41
0-502
0-42
0-485
0-43
0-469
0-452
0-436
0-494
0-477
0-460
0-443
0-427
0-419
0-411
0-403
0-395
0-387
0-371
0-44
0-45
0-46
0-47
0-48
0-49
0-50
0-420
0-404
0-389
0-374
0-359
0-380
0-365
0-350
0-952
0-944
0-31
0-36
0-969
0-961
0-933
0-922
0-32
0-35
0-993
1-000
0-939
0-917
0-853
0-839
0-685
0-697
0-679
0-667
0-661
0-643
0-624
0-606
0-655
0-649
0-637
0-631
0-619
0-613
0-601
0-594
0-583
0-576
0-565
0-548
0-503
0-530
0-512
0-495
0-558
0-540
0-522
0-504
0-487
0-485
0-477
0-468
0-460
0-443
0-427
0-410
0-394
0-378
0-363
0-348
0-333
0-452
0-435
0-356
0-341
0-588
0-569
0-797
0-723
0-705
0-686
0-668
0-649
0-637
0-630
0-618
0-612
0-599
0-593
0-581
0-562
0-574
0-555
0-530
0-518
0-511
0-507
0-489
0-479
0-471
0-500
0-482
0-464
0-493
0-497
0-469
0-462
0-452
0-435
0-418
0-402
0-444
0-410
0-394
0-454
0-436
0-419
0-403
0-386
0-386
0-378
0-370
0-355
0-339
0-325
0-362
253
0-657
0-638
0-599
0-580
0-523
0-504
0-537
0-317
0-676
0-561
0-544
0-331
0-695
0-542
0-525
0-347
0-732
0-549
0-551
0-370
0-354
0-339
0-324
0-309
0-894
0-568
0-533
0-515
0-427
0-919
0-475
0-457
0-486
0-467
0-449
0-446
0-439
0-431
0-429
0-421
0-414
0-412
0-404
0-387
0-371
0-397
0-380
0-363
0-362
0-355
0-347
0-346
0-339
0-331
0-331
0-323
0-316
0-316
0-301
0-308
0-301
0-294
0-287
0-395
0-378
TABLE
exp
5.2.2A {continued)
(-B sin 2
0/A 2 )
sin 6
B=4-l
4-2
4-3
4-4
4-5
4-6
4-7
4-8
4-9
5-0
0-335
0-321
0-307
0-327
0-313
0-318
0-299
0-285
0-291
0-294
0-281
0-272
0-277
0-264
0-310
0-296
0-283
0-269
0-256
0-302
0-288
0-275
0-261
0-249
0-295
0-55
0-344
0-330
0-316
0-303
0-289
0-287
0-273
0-260
0-247
0-234
0-280
0-266
0-252
0-240
0-227
0-272
0-259
0-245
0-233
0-220
0-56
0-276
0-268
0-244
0-236
0-60
0-232
0-220
0-239
0-228
0-216
0-232
0-220
0-209
0-198
0-224
0-213
0-202
0-191
0-215
0-204
0-208
0-255
0-229
0-217
0-222
0-264
0-252
0-240
0-229
0-260
0-247
0-235
0-224
0-213
0-252
0-57
0-61
0-217
0-210
0-202
0-195
0-62
0-207
0-199
0-191
0-187
0-177
0-63
0-196
0-168
0-186
0-189
0-179
0-181
0-64
0-158
0-65
0-177
0-170
0-172
0-163
0-184
0-174
0-165
0-156
0-66
0-168
0-67
0-69
0-159
0-150
0-142
0-70
0-134
0-160
0-152
0-143
0-135
0-128
0-154
0-145
0-137
0-129
0-122
0-71
0-127
0-120
0-72
0-119
0-73
0-112
0-113
0-107
0-74
0-106
0-75
A
0-51
0-52
0-53
0-54
0-304
0-281
0-267
0-254
0-241
0-206
0-195
0-184
0-210
0-199
0-188
0-178
0-192
0-182
0-197
0-186
0-175
0-171
0-165
0-181
0-174
0-168
0-161
0-171
0-158
0-152
0-146
0-149
0-143
0-137
0-140
0-132
0-152
0-143
0-134
0-126
0-156
0-146
0-161
0-164
0-155
0-147
0-141
0-139
0-131
0-123
0-116
0-133
0-135
0-127
0-125
0-117
0-110
0-112
0-129
0-121
0-114
0-107
0-105
0-100
0-124
0-116
0-109
0-102
0-095
0-114
0-109
0-103
0-098
0094
0-089
0-085
0-108
0-101
0-102
0-097
0-092
0-087
0-083
0079
0-096
0-091
0-086
0-082
0-077
0-073
0-095
0-089
0-090
0-084
0-085
0-081
0-076
0-100
0-100
0-094
0-080
0-075
0-071
0-072
0-067
0-068
0-064
0-76
0-094
0-088
0-083
0-079
0059
0-083
0-078
0-062
0-78
0-083
0-077
0-078
0-073
0-073
0-068
0-061
0-057
0-057
0-053
0-058
0-054
0-79
0-074
0-069
0-064
0-070
0-065
0-063
0-088
0050
0-055
0-051
0-047
0-80
0-073
0-068
0-064
0-060
0-074
0-069
0-065
0-060
0-056
0066
0-77
0-053
0-049
0-046
0-043
0-041
0-81
0-068
0064
0-046
0-042
0-043
0-83
0-85
0-059
0-055
0-052
0-042
0-040
0-037
0-034
0-032
0-029
0-038
0-059
0-055
0-052
0-052
0-049
0-045
0-042
0-039
0-049
0-063
0-060
0-056
0-052
0-048
0-045
0-056
0-82
0-86
0-048
0045
0-036
0-033
0-031
0-031
0-029
0-042
0036
0-036
0-033
0-033
0-88
0031
0-028
0026
0-024
0-027
0-025
0-022
0-89
0-039
0-033
0-031
0-028
0-031
0-028
0-026
0-024
0-022
0-021
0-036
0-026
0-024
0-022
0-90
0-042
0-039
0-036
0-033
0-029
0-026
0-025
0-045
0-042
0-039
0-039
0-87
0020
0-019
0-019
0-017
0-91
0-031
0-028
0-94
0-034
0-031
0-029
0-027
0-026
0-024
0-022
0-026
0-024
0-022
0-020
0-025
0-021
0-019
0-024
0-022
0-020
0-019
0-017
0-019
0-017
0-016
0-014
0-013
0-017
0-016
0-014
0-013
0-95
0-029
0-026
0-024
0-023
0012
0-011
1-00
0-017
0-015
0-011
0-010
0-009
0-008
0-011
0-008
0-007
0-007
0-005
0004
0-006
0-004
1-20
0-003
0-002
0-001
0-001
1-30
0-002
0-001
0-002
0-001
0-002
0-001
0-006
0-003
0-001
0-000
0-000
0-000
0-005
0-003
0-001
0-000
0-007
0-005
1-10
0-010
0-006
0-014
0-009
0-006
0-012
1-05
0-007
0-004
0-002
0-001
0-000
0-58
0-59
0-68
0-84
0-92
0-93
0-243
0-048
0-205
0-052
0-048
0-045
254
0119
0-045
0-042
0-039
0-036
0039
0-036
0-034
0-022
0-020
0-020
0-019
0-017
0-016
0019
0-017
0-016
0-014
0-149
0-040
0-037
0-034
0-031
0-137
0-129
0-121
0-118
0-111
0-113
0104
0099
0093
0-097
0-091
0003
0-001
0-000
0-106
0-086
0-080
0-075
0-070
0-065
0-060
0-056
0-052
0-048
0044
0-035
0-032
0-029
0-027
0023
0-021
0-016
0-015
0013
0-012
TABLE
5.2.2A
exp (-Bsin
sin 6
=51
continued)
(<
5-2
5-3
5-4
5-5
5-6
5-7
5-8
5-9
6-0
0-999
0-998
0-995
0-991
0-986
0-999
0-999
0-999
0-998
0-995
0-998
0-995
0-998
0-995
0-991
0-991
0-986
0-986
0-999
0-998
0-995
0-991
0-986
0-999
0-998
0-980
0-973
0-965
0-956
0-946
0-980
0-973
0-965
0-956
0-946
0-980
0-972
0-964
0-955
0-945
A
0-01
0-999
0-999
0-999
0-02
0-998
0-998
0-998
0-03
0-995
0-04
0-992
0-995
0-992
0-995
0-992
0-05
0-987
0-987
0-987
0-999
0-998
0-995
0-991
0-987
006
0-982
0-975
0-968
0-960
0-950
0-981
0-981
0-981
0-975
0-949
0-974
0-967
0-958
0-948
0-974
0-966
0-957
0-947
0-939
0-928
0-916
0-903
0-938
0-927
0-914
0-901
0-925
0-913
0-15
0-940
0-929
0-917
0-905
0-892
0-890
0-16
0-878
0-17
0-863
0-848
0-07
0-08
0-09
0-10
0-11
0-967
0-959
0-934
0-933
0-923
0-921
0-910
0-896
0-882
0-908
0-894
0-888
0-900
0-886
0-936
0-924
0-911
0-898
0-884
0-873
0-858
0-871
0-856
0-869
0-866
0-864
0-853
0-851
0-848
0-831
0-817
0-809
0-823
0-806
0-837
0-820
0-803
0-834
0-832
0-815
0-875
0-860
0-845
0-829
0-812
0-814
0-796
0-23
0-799
0-781
0-764
0-795
0-777
0-760
0-792
0-774
0-756
0-788
0-770
0-752
0-785
0-766
0-748
0-24
0-745
0-741
0-737
0-724
0-727
0-723
0-718
0-733
0-714
0-728
0-25
0-709
0-705
0-26
0-708
0-694
0-28
0-689
0-670
0-29
0-651
0-680
0-660
0-640
0-675
0-655
0-635
0-632
0-621
0-615
0-689
0-670
0-650
0-630
0-610
0-665
0-645
0-624
0-30
0-704
0-684
0-665
0-646
0-626
0-699
0-27
0-604
0-680
0-660
0-640
0-619
0-599
0-31
0-613
0-607
0-601
0-595
0-589
0-584
0-32
0-587
0-581
0-575
0-568
0-561
0-564
0-543
0-548
0-542
0-555
0-536
0-569
0-549
0-34
0-593
0-574
0-555
0-535
0-529
0-522
0-516
0-530
0-510
0-523
0-35
0-504
0-36
0-516
0-497
0-479
0-510
0-491
0-472
0-453
0-435
0-503
0-497
0-477
0-459
0-440
0-421
0-490
0-484
0-465
0-447
0-428
0-484
0-465
0-445
0-427
0-458
0-439
0-420
0-408
0-402
0-417
0-410
0-403
0-397
0-400
0-382
0-365
0-349
0-393
0-386
0-368
0-352
0-335
0-379
0-362
0-345
0-390
0-372
0-355
0-338
0-322
0-384
0-366
0-349
0-332
0-315
0-306
0-290
0-275
0-299
0-284
0-269
0-12
0-13
0-14
0-18
0-19
0-20
0-21
0-22
0-33
0-37
0-38
0-39
0-40
0-41
0-42
0-43
0-44
0-45
0-46
0-47
0-48
0-49
0-50
0-460
0-442
0-424
0-407
0-389
0-373
0-356
0-340
0-324
0-309
0-294
0-279
0-333
0-317
0-302
0-287
0-273
0-842
0-826
0-375
0-358
0-342
0-326
0-310
0-295
0-280
0-266
0-937
0-839
0-319
0-303
0-288
0-273
0-259
0-471
0-452
0-433
0-415
0-328
0-312
0-297
0-282
0-799
0-781
0-763
0-744
0-685
0-880
0-778
0-759
0-740
0-720
0-700
0-979
0-972
0-964
0-954
0-944
0-932
0-920
0-907
0-893
0-878
0-991
0-995
0-990
0-985
0-985
0-979
0-979
0-972
0-971
0-963
0-962
0-953
0-953
0-943
0-942
0-931
0-930
0-919
0-905
0-917
0-904
0-891
0-889
0-876
0-874
0-862
0-846
0-829
0-811
0-793
0-860
0-843
0-826
0-808
0-790
0-858
0-841
0-805
0-787
0-774
0-755
0-771
0-768
0-752
0-732
0-728
0-736
0-823
0-748
0-716
0-712
0-708
0-696
0-692
0-687
0-676
0-655
0-671
0-667
0-646
0-593
0-650
0-630
0-609
0-588
0-578
0-573
0-567
0-558
0-538
0-552
0-547
0-541
0-517
0-532
0-511
0-526
0-506
0-520
0-500
0-497
0-491
0-485
0-480
0-478
0-472
0-452
0-433
0-460
0-440
0-420
0-414
0-395
0-466
0-446
0-427
0-408
0-389
0-377
0-371
0-359
0-342
0-353
0-365
0-347
0-336
0-330
0-325
0-319
0-313
0-309
0-303
0-297
0-293
0-278
0-287
0-272
0-281
0-263
0-257
0-635
0-614
0-625
0-604
0-583
0-562
0-401
0-383
0-266
0-251
0-267
0-261
0-254
0-248
0-243
0-237
0-253
0-247
0-241
0-235
0-229
0-223
255
TABLE
5.2.2A {continued)
exp(-Bsm 2
sin 6
A
0-51
0-52
0-53
5=51
0-265
0-252
d/\*)
5-2
5-3
5-4
5-5
5-6
5-7
5-8
5-9
60
0-259
0-245
0-232
0-252
0-239
0-226
0-213
0-201
0-245
0-232
0-239
0-226
0-213
0-201
0-189
0-233
0-227
0-214
0-221
0-202
0-190
0-178
0-196
0-184
0-173
0-216
0-203
0-191
0-179
0-168
0-210
0-197
0-185
0-174
0-163
0-190
0-179
0-184
0-173
0-163
0-153
0-143
0-178
0-173
0-167
0-167
0-162
0-157
0-162
0-152
0-157
0-147
0-152
0-142
0-157
0-152
0-142
0-147
0-142
0-133
0-137
0-128
0-133
0-137
0-128
0-124
0-120
0-133
0-124
0-115
0-120
0-112
0-104
0-097
0-090
0-116
0-111
0-107
0-108
0-104
0-100
0-096
0-100
0-092
0-093
0-089
0-086
0-083
0-54
0-239
0-226
0-55
0-214
0-220
0-207
0-56
0-202
0-196
0-57
0-191
0-185
0-58
0-180
0-59
0-174
0-164
0-154
0-168
0-158
0-60
0-169
0-159
0-61
0-150
0-141
0-63
0-132
0-144
0-135
0-127
0-139
0-62
0-64
0-65
0-124
0-116
0-119
0-111
0-130
0-122
0-114
0-107
0-66
0-108
0-104
0-67
0-101
0-097
0-68
0-70
0-095
0-088
0-082
0-090
0-084
0-078
0-71
0-076
0-72
0-071
0-73
0-148
0-219
0-207
0-195
0-147
0-138
0-220
0-207
0-195
0-184
0-208
0-134
0-125
01 29
0-117
0-113
0-110
0-102
0-105
0-098
0-124
0-116
0-108
0-101
0-094
0-099
0-095
0-091
0-087
0-083
0-093
0-089
0-085
0-081
0-077
0086
0-082
0-076
0-071
0-079
0-080
0-074
0-073
0068
0-075
0-070
0-064
0-072
0-066
0-061
0-073
0-069
0-066
0-063
0-059
0-067
0-064
0-061
0-058
0-055
0-057
0-052
0066
0-063
0-059
0-056
0-053
0-051
0-048
0-054
0-049
0-045
0-74
0-061
0-058
0-048
0-047
0-043
0-042
0-054
0-049
0-045
0-044
0-057
0-055
0-051
0-052
0-75
0-041
0038
0-76
0-053
0-050
0-047
0-035
0046
0-043
0-036
0-045
0-79
0-041
0-030
0-028
0-029
0-027
0-038
0-040
0-037
0-034
0-029
0-80
0-042
0-039
0-036
0-034
0-031
0-032
0-78
0-042
0-038
0-035
0-032
0-030
0-037
0-049
0-044
0-041
0-037
0-034
0-032
0-039
0-77
0-026
0-024
0-033
0-030
0-028
0-025
0-023
0-81
0-035
0-033
0-031
0-029
0-027
0-025
0-024
0-022
0-021
0-82
0-032
0-028
0-026
0-025
0-023
0-022
0-020
0019
0-83
0-026
0-024
0-022
0-024
0-022
0-023
0-021
0-020
0-021
0019
0-018
0-85
0-030
0-027
0-025
0-030
0-028
0-025
0-023
0-020
0019
0-017
0-016
0-018
0-017
0-015
0-017
0-016
0-014
0-86
0-023
0-021
0-017
0-021
0-020
0-018
0-016
0-015
0-020
0-018
0-017
0-015
0-014
0-018
0-87
0-017
0-016
0-69
0-84
0-121
0-033
0-080
0-074
0-068
0-063
0-058
0-077
0-073
0-071
0-065
0-060
0-056
0-068
0-062
0-057
0-053
0-051
0-049
0-047
0-045
0-043
0-041
0-040
0-036
0-037
0-013
0012
0-011
0-011
0-012
0-011
0-010
0-010
0-009
0-010
0009
fr008
0-010
0-009
0-008
0-008
0-007
0-008
0006
0-006
0-005
0-014
0-013
0-012
0011
0-012
0-011
0-010
0-009
0-008
0011
0-011
0010
0009
0-010
0-009
0-008
0-008
0-010
0-009
0-008
0009
0-008
0-007
0-006
0-007
0-006
0-006
0-007
0-008
0-007
0-005
0-005
0-008
0-008
0-007
0-006
0006
0-005
0-007
0-006
0006
0-006
0-005
0-005
0-002
0-002
0-002
0-001
0-004
0-003
0-001
0003
0-006
0-006
0-005
0-005
0-004
0-006
0-005
0-005
0-004
0-005
0-004
0-004
0-008
0-007
0-91
0-015
0-92
0-013
0-93
0-012
0-94
0011
0-95
0-010
0-013
0-012
0-011
0-010
0-009
0-96
0-009
0-97
0-98
0-008
0-007
1-00
1-10
0-004
0-001
256
0-001
0-020
0-018
0-016
0-015
0-013
0-014
0-013
0-90
0-026
0-024
0-021
0-012
0-011
0-015
0-018
0-016
0-031
0-029
0-015
0-014
0-019
0-89
0-034
0-013
0-016
0-014
0-013
0-012
0-88
0-086
0-079
0-003
0-001
0007
0-004
0-003
0-001
0-007
0-006
0-006
0-005
0-004
0-004
0-004
0-003
0-002
0-001
TABLE
exp
5.2.2A {continued)
(-B sin 2
0/A 2)
sin 6
B=6-l
6-2
6-3
6-4
6-5
6-6
6-7
6-8
6-9
7-0
0-999
0-997
0-994
0-990
0-984
0-999
0-999
0-999
0-999
0-999
0-999
0-997
0-994
0-990
0-984
0-997
0-994
0-997
0-997
0-994
0-989
0-983
0-994
0-989
0-983
0-997
0-994
0-989
0-983
0-997
0-994
0-975
0-967
0-957
0-966
0-956
0-946
0-933
0-945
0-932
0-920
0-905
0-890
0-874
0-856
0-919
0-840
0-822
0-802
0-782
0-762
0-838
0-836
0-819
0-817
0-800
0-780
0-759
0-777
0-756
001
0-999
0-999
0-999
0-02
0-998
0-998
003
004
005
0-995
0-990
0-985
0-994
0-990
0-985
0-997
0-994
0-990
0-984
0-978
0-970
0-961
006
0-978
0-07
0-971
0-08
0-962
009
0-951
0-10
0-952
0-941
0-11
0-929
0-928
0-12
0-915
0-15
0-916
0-902
0-887
0-872
0-886
0-870
0-899
0-884
0-868
0-16
0-855
0-853
0-851
0-849
0-17
0-838
0-836
0-834
0-18
0-821
0-818
019
0-802
0-783
0-13
0-14
0-20
0-21
0-22
0-23
0-24
0-25
0-989
0-984
0-978
0-977
0-977
0-977
0-970
0-969
0-960
0-969
0-968
0-976
0-968
0-959
0-949
0-959
0-958
0-948
0-937
0-936
0-947
0-935
0-976
0-967
0-957
0-946
0-934
0-924
0-911
0-896
0-880
0-864
0-923
0-922
0-921
0-909
0-894
0-879
0-908
0-893
0-877
0-862
0-860
0-907
0-891
0-875
0-858
0-847
0-829
0-845
0-842
0-831
0-826
0-824
0-815
0-813
0-810
0-799
0-780
0-797
0-794
0-774
0-791
0-807
0-788
0-768
0-805
0-785
0-765
0-764
0-744
0-724
0-704
0-683
0-761
0-757
0-737
0-747
0-727
0-744
0-723
0-741
0-738
0-720
0-716
0-720
0-717
0-700
0-679
0-696
0-675
0-754
0-734
0-713
0-692
0-670
0-751
0-741
0-694
0-672
0-650
0-940
0-901
0-960
0-950
0-939
0-927
0-913
0-777
0-949
0-938
0-925
0-912
0-897
0-882
0-866
0-771
0-730
0-709
0-705
0-702
0-698
0-688
0-684
0-666
0-662
0-680
0-658
0-676
0-654
0-636
0-631
0-26
0-662
0-658
0-653
0-649
0-27
0-28
0-29
0-30
0-641
0-636
0-615
0-594
0-632
0-627
0-605
0-584
0-562
0-644
0-623
0-601
0-579
0-557
0-640
0-618
0-596
0-574
0-552
0-614
0-609
0-591
0-547
0-587
0-564
0-542
0-627
0-605
0-582
0-560
0-537
0-31
0-556
0-551
0-535
0-530
0-525
0-520
0-515
0-535
0-515
0-530
0-509
0-488
0-468
0-546
0-525
0-504
0-483
0-462
0-541
0-32
0-519
0-514
0-493
0-472
0-451
0-509
0-487
0-504
0-482
0-461
0-440
0-498
0-477
0-493
0-442
0-422
0-403
0-384
0-365
0-436
0-416
0-397
0-378
0-359
0-33
0-34
0-35
0-36
0-37
0-38
0-39
0-40
0-41
0-42
0-43
0-44
0-45
0-46
0-47
0-48
0-49
0-50
0-620
0-599
0-578
0-494
0-474
0-454
0-434
0-414
0-395
0-377
0-572
0-448
0-428
0-408
0-389
0-371
0-610
0-589
0-567
0-498
0-477
0-457
0-466
0-446
0-431
0-425
0-411
0-405
0-386
0-391
0-372
0-353
0-569
0-975
0-904
0-888
0-872
0-854
0-797
0-734
0-713
0-691
0-668
0-646
0-623
0-600
0-578
0-555
0-533
0-456
0-435
0-472
0-450
0-429
0-510
0-488
0-467
0-445
0-424
0-409
0-389
0-369
0-350
0-332
0-404
0-384
0-364
0-345
0-326
0-366
0-348
0-361
0-342
0-414
0-394
0-375
0-355
0-337
0-420
0-400
0-380
0-989
0-983
0-359
0-341
0-353
0-347
0-341
0-335
0-330
0-324
0-319
0-323
0-318
0-312
0-318
0-306
0-290
0-274
0-301
0-295
0-279
0-263
0-307
0-290
0-273
0-257
0-301
0-324
0-307
0-291
0-329
0-312
0-295
0-279
0-314
0-296
0-308
0-335
0-284
0-268
0-252
0-279
0-263
0-247
0-274
0-258
0-242
0-275
0-260
0-245
0-269
0-254
0-258
0-253
0-242
0-237
0-238
0-228
0-214
0-223
0-209
0-195
0-232
0-218
0-204
0-191
0-178
0-227
0-243
0-229
0-215
0-202
0-231
0-218
0-301
0-285
0-240
0-226
0-212
0-264
0-249
0-234
0-220
0-207
0-284
0-268
0-224
0-210
0-197
257
0-247
0-233
0-219
0-205
0-192
0-200
0-187
0-183
0-291
0-213
0-199
0-186
0-174
TABLE
exp
sin
=61
5.2.2A {continued)
(-B sin 2
0/A 2)
6-2
6-3
6-4
6-5
6-6
6-7
6-8
6-9
7-0
0-199
0-187
0-175
0-164
0-153
0-194
0-182
0-170
0-189
0-177
0-171
0-159
0-148
0-155
0-144
0-142
0-132
0-138
0-149
0-180
0-168
0-157
0-146
0-136
0-175
0-163
0-152
0159
0-184
0-172
0-161
0-150
0-140
0-166
0-155
0-144
0-134
0-124
0-162
0-151
0-140
0-130
0-120
0-139
0-129
0-134
0-130
0-120
0-112
0-104
0116
0-112
0-108
0-104
0-101
0-105
0-097
0-119
0-110
0-102
0-100
0-096
0093
0-090
0-115
0-106
0-098
0-091
0-083
0-111
0-121
0-126
0-117
0-109
0-122
0-125
0092
0085
0079
0-089
0-082
0-086
0-083
0-080
0-089
0-082
0-079
0-073
0-076
0-073
0-076
0-070
0-076
0-073
0-070
0-067
0-064
0-059
0-062
A
0-51
0-52
0-53
0-54
0-55
0-205
0-192
0-180
0-169
0-158
0166
0-56
0-148
0-143
0-57
0-138
0-58
0-128
0-133
0-124
0-59
0-60
0-120
0-111
0-116
0-107
0-61
0-103
0-63
0-096
0-089
0-64
0-082
0-65
0-076
0-100
0-092
0-085
0-079
0-073
0-096
0-62
0-070
0-067
0064
0-062
0-66
0-070
0-065
0060
0-69
0-055
0-050
0-052
0-048
0-062
0-057
0-052
0-047
0-043
0-059
0-054
0-68
0-067
0-062
0-057
0-064
0-67
0-050
0-045
0-041
0-056
0-052
0-047
0-043
0-039
0-046
0-042
0040
0036
0-038
0-034
0-036
0-033
0-73
0-039
0-044
0-040
0-037
0-042
0-72
0-033
0-031
0-74
0-035
0-032
0-032
0-030
0-027
0-028
0-75
0-034
0-031
0-030
0-027
0-024
0-76
0030
0-77
0-027
0-028
0-025
0-025
0-022
0-023
0-021
0-78
0-024
0-023
0-026
0-024
0-022
0-79
0-022
0-021
0-020
0-80
0-020
0019
0018
0-81
0-018
0-017
0-016
0-82
0-017
0-015
0014
0-83
0-015
0-85
0-014
0-012
0-014
0-013
0-011
0-013
0-84
0-70
0-71
0059
0-054
0-050
0-046
0-038
0-035
0029
0-020
0-018
0-017
0-026
0-113
0-128
0094
0-086
0-067
0-057
0-077
0-070
0-065
0-059
0-054
0-103
0-095
0-087
0-080
0-074
0068
0-062
0-057
0-052
0-047
0-054
0-049
0-045
0-052
0-047
0-041
0-039
0-050
0-045
0-041
0-037
0-038
0-036
0-034
0-032
0-034
0-031
0-028
0-032
0-029
0-027
0-031
0-028
0-025
0-029
0-027
0-024
0-026
0-023
0-024
0-022
0-023
0-022
0-021
0-019
0-021
0-020
0-018
0-016
0019
0018
0-017
0-015
0014
0-043
0-043
0039
0036
0019
0-022
0-020
0-018
0-017
0016
0016
0-015
0-019
0-017
0-015
0-014
0-014
0-013
0-012
0-012
0-012
0-011
0010
0-011
0010
0-009
0-010
0-009
0-008
0-008
0-007
0-010
0-009
0-008
0-007
0-007
0-006
0-005
0-006
0-005
0-005
0-015
0-014
0-012
0013
0-012
0-011
0-011
0-010
0011
0009
0010
0009
0-008
0-011
0-016
0-014
0013
0-013
0-013
0-012
0011
0-009
0-008
0-007
0-006
0-86
0011
0010
0009
0009
0-87
0-010
0-009
0-008
0-008
0-008
0-007
0-88
0-009
0-008
0-007
0-007
0-89
0-008
0-008
0-007
0-008
0-007
0-006
0-007
0-006
0-006
0-005
0-006
0-005
0-005
0-004
0-006
0-005
0-004
0-004
0-90
0-007
0-007
0-006
0006
0005
0-005
0-004
0-004
0-004
0-003
0-91
0-006
0-006
0-006
0-005
0-005
0-005
0003
0-003
0-003
0003
0004
0004
0003
0-94
0005
0004
0-003
0-005
0003
0003
0-004
0-004
0-003
0-003
0-003
0-002
0-002
0-002
0-002
0-002
0-002
0-002
0-95
0-004
0-004
0-003
0-003
0-003
0-003
0005
0-005
0-004
0-004
0-004
0-003
0-93
0-005
0-004
0-004
0004
0-92
0-96
0-004
0003
0-003
0-003
0-98
0-003
0-003
0-003
0-003
0-002
0-003
0-002
0-002
0-003
0-002
0-002
0-002
0-97
0-003
0-002
0-002
0-002
0-002
1-00
0-002
0-002
0-002
0002
0-002
0-001
0-002
0-002
0-002
0-001
0-001
0-002
0-002
0-001
0-001
0-001
0-002
0-002
0-001
0-99
0-002
0-002
0-002
258
0-007
0-006
0003
0003
0002
0001
0-002
0-001
0-001
0-001
0-001
0001
TABLE
exp
sin 6
5=7-1
7-2
7-3
7-4
0-999
0-997
0-999
0-997
0-994
0-989
0-993
0-988
0-982
0-982
0-999
0-997
0-993
0-988
0-982
0-974
5.2.2A {continued)
(-B sin 2 0/A 2)

7-5
7-6
7-7
7-8
7-9
0-999
0-999
0-997
0-999
0-997
0-999
0-997
0-993
0-988
0-981
0-999
0-997
0-993
0-987
0-980
001
0-999
0-02
0-05
0-997
0-994
0-989
0-982
006
0-975
0-07
0-966
0-956
0-944
0-931
0-974
0-965
0-955
0-943
0-931
0-918
0-903
0-917
0-902
0-887
0-870
0-852
0-885
0-834
0-814
0-832
0-17
0-18
0-795
0-792
019
0-774
0-753
0-771
0-20
0-21
0-731
0-22
0-709
0-687
0-728
0-706
0-03
0-04
0-08
009
0-10
0-11
0-12
0-13
0-14
0-15
0-16
0-23
0-24
0-25
0-26
0-27
0-28
0-29
0-30
0-868
0-850
0-812
0-750
0-683
0-965
0-954
0-943
0-930
0-915
0-900
0-884
0-867
0-849
0-830
0-810
0-789
0-768
0-747
0-953
0-940
0-927
0-952
0-951
0-972
0-962
0-951
0-940
0-926
0-939
0-938
0-925
0-924
0-909
0-892
0-875
0-874
0-857
0-855
0-837
0-835
0-815
0-953
0-941
0-928
0-863
0-862
0-860
0-845
0-843
0-841
0-910
0-894
0-876
0-858
0-839
0-827
0-825
0-823
0-821
0-819
0-807
0-787
0-766
0-744
0-805
0-803
0-800
0-798
0-817
0-796
0-784
0-763
0-741
0-782
0-760
0-738
0-779
0-757
0-735
0-777
0-755
0-732
0-774
0-752
0-729
0-718
0-696
0-673
0-715
0-692
0-689
0-669
0-665
0-709
0-686
0-662
0-706
0-682
0-658
0-655
0-645
0-622
0-642
0-618
0-638
0-614
0-634
0-610
0-607
0-598
0-575
0-594
0-570
0-547
0-523
0-500
0-590
0-566
0-543
0-519
0-496
0-586
0-582
0-562
0-538
0-515
0-491
0-558
0-477
0-455
0-432
0-411
0-389
0-473
0-468
0-450
0-428
0-406
0-385
0-445
0-464
0-441
0-423
0-418
0-482
0-464
0-442
0-420
0-399
0-459
0-33
0-34
0-462
0-440
0-35
0-419
0-457
0-435
0-414
0-452
0-430
0-409
0-36
0-398
0-378
0-393
0-373
0-39
0-359
0-340
0-40
0-321
0-354
0-334
0-316
0-388
0-368
0-348
0-41
0-303
0-42
0-43
0-286
0-269
0-253
0-237
0-528
0-505
0-437
0-415
0-394
0-911
0-895
0-878
0-712
0-383
0-378
0-373
0-363
0-358
0-353
0-369
0-348
0-344
0-324
0-306
0-339
0-329
0-311
0-334
0-315
0-296
0-298
0-293
0-288
0-276
0-271
0-283
0-266
0-279
0-281
0-264
0-248
0-233
0-259
0-243
0-228
0-255
0-239
0-223
0-250
0-234
0-219
0-245
0-230
0-200
0-187
0-174
0-161
0-150
0-218
0-204
0-190
0-178
0-165
0-950
0-937
0-923
0-912
0-486
0-496
0-474
0-972
0-962
0-896
0-879
0-469
0-447
0-425
0-404
0-501
0-987
0-980
0-913
0-491
0-518
0-993
0-898
0-881
0-551
0-478
0-182
0-169
0-972
0-963
0-602
0-579
0-555
0-532
0-509
0-541
0-195
0-973
0-963
0-606
0-583
0-560
0-537
0-514
0-546
0-523
0-48
0-973
0-963
0-610
0-587
0-564
0-550
0-528
0-49
0-50
0-973
0-964
0-630
0-615
0-223
0-208
0-981
0-649
0-626
0-505
0-46
0-981
0-653
0-619
0-596
0-573
0-47
0-981
0-657
0-634
0-483
0-44
0-45
0-988
0-722
0-32
0-38
0-993
0-988
0-699
0-676
0-31
0-37
0-993
0-725
0-661
0-592
0-569
0-914
0-899
0-882
0-865
0-847
0-999
0-997
0-988
0-702
0-680
0-664
0-642
0-638
0-974
0-964
0-954
0-942
0-929
0-997
0-993
8-0
0-320
0-301
0-213
0-209
0-205
0199
0-195
0-191
0-186
0-173
0-161
0-182
0-169
0-157
0-178
6-165
0-153
259
0-262
0-215
0-908
0-891
0-794
0-772
0-749
0-726
0-703
0-679
0-631
0-534
0-510
0-487
0-401
0-397
0-380
0-375
0-359
0-339
0-329
0-310
0-292
0-364
0-344
0-324
0-305
0-287
0-283
0-334
0-315
0-296
0-278
0-274
0-257
0-241
0-225
0-210
0-270
0-253
0-236
0-221
0-206
0-265
0-261
0-248
0-244
0-232
0-217
0-202
0-228
0-196
0-192
0-179
0-166
0-154
0-142
0-188
0-175
0-183
0-170
0-157
0-146
0-320
0-301
0-162
0-150
0-139
0-355
0-213
0-198
0-184
0-171
0-158
0-146
0-135
TABLE
5.2.2A (continued)
exp(--B sin 2
sin 6
5=7-1
W)
7-2
7-3
7-4
7-5
7-6
7-7
7-8
7-9
80
0-150
0-146
0-135
0-125
0-131
0139
0-128
0-118
0125
0115
0-129
0-125
0-115
0-119
0116
0-142
0-132
0-122
0-112
0-139
0-135
0-109
0-106
0-112
0-103
0-110
0-107
0-103
0-100
0-097
0-094
0101
0-098
0-090
0095
0092
0-087
0-080
0-085
0089
0082
0-52
0-158
0-147
0-53
0-136
0-54
0-126
0-154
0-143
0-132
0-123
0-55
0-117
0-113
0-56
0-59
0-108
0-100
0-092
0-084
0-60
0-078
0-105
0-096
0-089
Q-082
0-075
0-61
0-071
0069
0-62
0-065
0-063
0-63
0-060
0-055
0-050
0-057
0-052
0066
0060
0055
0050
0-048
0-046
0-045
0-041
0-043
0-042
0040
0-039
0-036
0-038
0-034
0-036
0-038
0-034
0-032
0-031
0-51
0-57
0-58
0-64
0-65
0-66
0-67
0-68
0-69
0-093
0-086
0-079
0-072
0-128
0-118
0-070
0067
0-078
0-071
0-065
0-083
0-076
Q-073
0-121
0-109
0-106
0100
0092
0097
0089
0-087
0-084
0081
0079
0-077
0-074
0-075
0-073
0068
0069
0066
0060
0070
0064
0-058
0056
0055
0050
0053
0-051
0-048
0-045
0043
0039
0036
0046
0042
0-063
0-064
0-061
0059
0057
0-058
0056
0-054
0-053
0-051
0049
0-052
0-047
0-048
0-046
0041
0-042
0-044
0-040
0-043
0-044
0-039
0-037
0-038
0-035
0036
0035
0-033
0033
0030
0-033
0-031
0030
0-032
0-028
0030
0-028
0-027
0-024
0-026
0-027
0-024
0023
0-022
0-70
0-031
0-029
0-028
0-027
0-025
0-71
0-028
0-025
0-025
0-024
0-022
0-023
0-020
0-018
0-016
0-022
0-021
0019
0-018
0-017
0-016
0-017
0015
0-014
0-013
0-020
0-018
0-016
0-014
0-012
0-013
0-012
0-012
0-012
0-011
0010
0010
0-009
0-009
0-008
0-009
0-010
0-009
0-008
0-007
0-73
0-023
0-74
0020
0-75
0-018
0-027
0-024
0-022
0-019
0-017
0-76
0-017
0-016
0-015
0-77
0015
0013
0-014
0-013
0-013
0-012
0-011
0-009
0-72
0-78
0-023
0-020
0018
0016
0019
0017
0016
0014
0012
0011
0010
0015
0-028
0-025
0-022
0-020
0-016
0-014
0013
0-012
0013
0011
0-011
0-010
0-010
0-010
0-009
0009
0-009
0-008
0-008
0-008
0-007
0-006
0-007
0-006
0-006
0-005
0-004
0-004
0-005
0-005
0-80
0-011
0-81
0-009
0-008
0-009
0-008
0-008
0-008
0-007
0-007
0006
0-006
0-007
0-007
0-008
0-007
0-007
0-007
0-006
0-006
0006
0006
0-006
0-005
0-005
0-005
0005
0-005
0005
0-005
0-005
0-004
0-004
0-006
0-005
0-004
0-004
0-83
0031
0018
0-010
0-82
0-032
0-029
0-026
0-023
0-021
0019
0-011
0-008
0-038
0034
0-017
0-015
0-012
0-79
0-062
0-007
0-004
0-004
0-004
0003
0004
0003
0-85
0006
0006
0006
0-90
0-003
0-003
0-003
0-002
0-002
0-001
0-001
0-001
0001
0002
0001
0-002
0002
0001
0-002
0-001
0-002
0-95
0-001
0-002
0-001
0002
0001
0-001
0-001
0-001
0-001
0-000
0-000
0000
0-000
0-84
100
260
TABLE
exp
sin
5.2.2A (continued)
(-B sin 2 0/A 2)
8-2
8-3
8-4
8-5
8-6
8-7
8-8
8-9
90
0-999
0-997
0-993
0-987
0-980
0-999
0-997
0-993
0-987
0-979
0-999
0-997
0-992
0-987
0-979
0-999
0-997
0-992
0-986
0-999
0-997
0-992
0-986
0-999
0-997
0-992
0-999
0-996
0-992
005
0-999
0-997
0-993
0-987
0-980
0-979
0-979
0-986
0-978
0-986
0-978
0-999
0-996
0-992
0-986
0-978
0-999
0-996
0-992
0-986
0-978
006
0-971
0-971
0-971
0-969
0-958
008
0-949
0-936
0-922
0-949
0-960
0-948
0-935
0-920
0-970
0-959
0-946
0-933
0-918
0-968
0-961
0-970
0-959
0-947
0-933
0-919
0-968
0-961
0-970
0-960
0-948
0-934
0-919
0-969
0-07
0-958
0-945
0-931
0-957
0-945
0-930
0-917
0-916
0-915
0-957
0-944
0-930
0-914
0-906
0-889
0-852
0-15
0-833
0-832
0-828
0-826
0-900
0-882
0-863
0-843
0-822
0-898
0-880
0-860
0-853
0-902
0-885
0-866
0-847
0-899
0-881
0-14
0-903
0-886
0-868
0-848
0-901
0-13
0-907
0-890
0-872
0-16
0-813
0-791
0-811
0-809
0-804
0-782
0-20
0-723
0-767
0-744
0-720
0-800
0-778
0-754
0-19
0-769
0-746
0-787
0-764
0-717
0-807
0-784
0-762
0-738
0-715
0-798
0-789
0-730
0-706
0-728
0-703
0-21
0-700
0-676
0-651
0-693
0-669
0-645
0-690
0-666
0-641
0-687
0-663
0-681
0-678
0-638
0-684
0-660
0-634
0-656
0-631
0-653
0-628
0-620
0-595
0-616
0-613
0-609
0-592
0-588
0-584
0-606
0-581
0-602
0-577
0-571
0-546
0-522
0-567
0-542
0-518
0-493
0-470
0-563
0-538
0-559
0-534
0-510
0-485
0-461
0-555
0-530
0-506
0-481
0-457
0-552
0-526
0-502
0-477
0-453
0-438
0-415
0-433
0-425
0-402
0-379
0-357
0-336
0-316
0-296
0-277
0-258
0-241
5=8-1
A
0-01
002
003
0-04
0-09
0-10
0-11
0-12
0-17
0-18
0-22
0-23
0-24
0-25
0-26
0-627
0-603
0-936
0-921
0-871
0-697
0-672
0-648
0-624
0-599
0-904
0-887
0-869
0-850
0-830
0-741
0-530
0-506
0-482
0-574
0-550
0-526
0-502
0-478
0-33
0-459
0-436
0-414
0-455
0-432
0-409
0-34
0-392
0-388
0-35
0-371
0-366
0-36
0-37
0-350
0-330
0-310
0-292
0-274
0-346
0-325
0-306
0-341
0-302
0-337
0-317
0-297
0-287
0-283
0-269
0-265
0-256
0-240
0-224
0-208
0-194
0-252
0-235
0-248
0-231
0-220
0-204
0-190
0-216
0-180
0-167
0-155
0-143
0-132
0-27
0-28
0-29
0-30
0-31
0-32
0-38
0-39
0-40
0-41
0-42
0-43
0-44
0-45
0-46
0-47
0-48
0-49
0-50
0-578
0-554
0-498
0-474
0-759
0-736
0-712
0-514
0-489
0-465
0-884
0-865
0-845
0-824
0-802
0-780
0-757
0-733
0-709
0-946
0-932
0-862
0-842
0-820
0-775
0-752
0-442
0-419
0-396
0-374
0-353
0-392
0-410
0-388
0-370
0-349
0-366
0-344
0-429
0-406
0-384
0-362
0-340
0-279
0-332
0-312
0-293
0-274
0-328
0-308
0-289
0-270
0-261
0-257
0-253
0-324
0-304
0-285
0-266
0-249
0-320
0-300
0-281
0-262
0-245
0-240
0-223
0-236
0-219
0-204
0-232
0-216
0-200
0-186
0-244
0-227
0-212
0-197
0-183
0-179
0-189
0-175
0-186
0-172
0-228
0-212
0-196
0-182
0-168
0-176
0-163
0-151
0-173
0169
0160
0-156
0-166
0-153
0-162
0-150
0-159
0-146
0-155
0-143
0-148
0-138
0-135
0-132
0-136
0-126
0-144
0-133
0-122
0-141
0-140
0-129
0-130
0-127
0-116
0-124
0-114
0-121
0-450
0-427
0-405
0-383
0-362
0-321
0-201
0-446
0-423
0-401
0-379
0-357
0-208
0-193
0119
261
0-111
0-840
0-819
0-897
0-878
0-859
0-838
0-817
0-700
0-794
0-771
0-747
0-723
0-698
0-675
0-650
0-624
0-672
0-647
0-621
0-599
0-595
0-573
0-570
0-548
0-544
0-519
0-494
0-469
0-445
0-796
0-773
0-749
0-725
0-523
0-498
0-473
0-449
0-224
0-208
0-193
0-179
0-165
0-152
0-140
0-129
0-118
0-108
0-421
0-398
0-375
0-353
0-332
0-311
0-292
0-273
0-254
0-237
0-220
0-204
0-189
0-175
0-162
0-149
0-137
0126
0-115
0-105
TABLE
exp
sin
5=8-1
8-2
8-3
5.2.2A (continued)
(-B sin 2
8-4
8-5
0-110
0-100
0-092
0-084
0-076
0/A 2)
8-6
A
0-51
0-119
0-115
0-112
0-109
0-100
0-106
0-097
0-103
0-54
0-122
0-112
0-103
0-094
0092
0-55
0086
0-084
0-089
0-081
0-56
0-079
0-57
0-076
0-070
0-58
0-072
0-066
0-59
0060
0-60
0-054
0-61
0-65
0-049
0-044
0-040
0-036
0-033
0-66
0029
0-028
0-67
0-68
0-69
0-026
0-024
0-021
0-025
0-023
0-020
0-70
0019
0-018
0-71
0017
0-016
0-72
0-015
0-013
0-012
0-014
0-013
0011
0011
0-010
0-52
0-53
0-62
0-63
0-64
0-73
0-74
0-75
0063
0-058
0-052
0-074
0-067
0-061
0-056
0050
0-047
0-046
0-043
0-041
0039
0-037
0-033
0-030
0-035
0031
0-027
0-024
0-022
0-019
0-017
0-015
0-014
0-012
0-011
0-009
0-76
0-009
0009
0-77
0-008
0-008
0-78
0-007
0-006
0-006
0-007
0-006
0-008
0-007
0-006
0-006
0-005
0-005
0-003
0-001
0-003
0-002
0001
0-001
0-79
0-80
0-85
0-90
0-094
0-086
0-079
0-104
0-101
0-099
0-096
0093
0090
0-088
0-087
0-081
0-079
0-084
0-077
0-082
0-075
0-074
0-072
0070
0-068
0-080
0-072
0-066
0-065
0-059
0-054
0-048
0-044
0-063
0061
0-057
0-052
0-047
0-042
0-055
0-050
0-045
0-041
0-038
0-034
0-030
0-027
0-024
0-036
0-033
0-029
0-026
0-023
0-035
0-022
0-021
0-018
0-016
0-014
0-013
0-020
0-018
0-016
0-014
0-012
0-011
0-011
0-010
0-009
0-008
0-007
0-009
0-008
0006
0006
0-005
0-004
0-070
0-067
0-061
0-059
0-054
0-049
0-057
0-052
0-047
0-055
0-050
0045
0-042
0-041
0-039
0-037
0-033
0-035
0-036
0-038
0-034
0-032
0-031
0-029
0-028
0-030
0-026
0-026
0-016
0-025
0-022
0-020
0-017
0-016
0-014
0-013
0-011
0-010
0-009
90
0-095
0-063
0-018
8-9
0-107
0-065
0-023
0-021
8-8
0-098
0-089
0-072
0-044
0-040
8-7
0-024
0-032
0-028
0-025
0-015
0-023
0-020
0-018
0-016
0-014
0-014
0-013
0-012
0-012
0-011
0-010
0-012
0-011
0010
0-008
0-008
0-010
0-009
0-007
0021
0019
0-017
0-009
0019
0-017
0-015
0013
0-012
0-010
0-009
0-008
0-007
0-059
0-054
0-048
0-044
0039
0031
0-028
0-025
0-022
0-007
0-006
0-008
0-007
0-007
0-007
0-007
0-006
0-006
0-006
0-006
0-005
0-006
0-005
0-005
0-005
0-005
0-005
0-004
0-004
0-004
0-005
0-004
0-004
0-004
0-004
0-003
0-005
0-004
0-004
0-003
0-002
0-001
0-002
0-001
0002
0-002
0-001
0-001
0-002
0-001
0-002
0-001
0-001
0001
262
0-006
0-005
TABLE
5.2.2A {continued)
exp( -B sin 2
sin 6
5=9-1
w>
9-6
9-7
9-8
9-9
10-0
0-999
0-996
0-991
0-985
0-977
0-999
0-999
0-999
0-996
0-991
0-985
0-976
0-996
0-991
0-985
0-976
0-996
0-991
0-984
0-976
0-999
0-996
0-991
0-984
0-976
0-999
0-996
0-991
0-984
0-975
0-967
0-966
0-966
0-965
0-965
0-954
0-940
0-925
0-908
0-953
0-953
0-939
0-924
0-939
0-927
0-910
0-955
0-941
0-926
0-909
0-966
0-954
0-940
0-924
0-908
0-965
0-955
0-942
0-952
0-938
0-922
0-905
0-892
0-891
0-889
0-870
0-888
0-872
0-852
0-830
0-808
0-890
0-871
0-850
0-828
0-806
0-804
0-802
0-786
0-762
0-737
0-712
0-687
0-784
0-782
0-780
0-778
0-760
0-735
0-710
0-684
0-758
0-707
0-756
0-730
0-705
0-753
0-728
0-702
0-681
0-678
0-661
0-658
0-631
0-655
0-628
0-652
0-625
0-605
0-602
0-599
0-582
0-556
0-579
0-552
0-575
0-533
0-508
0-482
0-457
0-530
0-504
0-479
0-454
0-523
0-433
0-429
0-526
0-500
0-475
0-450
0-425
0-409
0-401
0-398
0-374
0-352
0-330
0-309
9-2
9-3
9-4
9-5
0-999
0-996
0-992
0-985
0-977
0-999
0-996
0-992
0-985
0-977
0-999
0-996
0-992
0-985
0-977
0-967
0-967
001
002
0-999
005
0-996
0-992
0-986
0-978
0-06
0-968
0-03
0-04
0-07
0-956
0-956
0-955
0-08
0-943
0-943
0-09
0-929
0-913
0-928
0-942
0-927
0-911
0-896
0-877
0-857
0-837
0-815
0-895
0-813
0-894
0-875
0-855
0-833
0-811
0-790
0-788
0-19
0-792
0-769
0-745
0-720
0-767
0-742
0-717
0-20
0-695
0-692
0-764
0-740
0-715
0-689
0-21
0-666
0-641
0-25
0-669
0-644
0-618
0-592
0-566
0-26
0-541
0-27
0-515
0-490
0-465
0-441
0-537
0-511
0-486
0-461
0-437
010
0-11
0-12
0-13
0-14
0-15
0-16
0-17
0-18
0-22
0-23
0-24
0-28
0-29
0-30
0-912
0-876
0-856
0-835
0-615
0-589
0-563
0-664
0-638
0-611
0-585
0-559
0-873
0-853
0-832
0-809
0-634
0-608
0-417
0-394
0-371
0-349
0-328
0-413
0-390
0-345
0-324
0-341
0-320
0-405
0-382
0-359
0-337
0-316
0-304
0-284
0-265
0-247
0-229
0-300
0-280
0-296
0-276
0-261
0-243
0-257
0-239
0-40
0-307
0-288
0-269
0-251
0-233
0-226
0-222
0-292
0-272
0-254
0-236
0-219
0-41
0-217
0-213
0-203
0-201
0-43
0-44
0-186
0-172
0-197
0-182
0-168
0-158
0-155
0-190
0-176
0-162
0-149
0-187
0-173
0-159
0-45
0-209
0-194
0-179
0-165
0-152
0-206
0-42
0-46
0-143
0-137
0-125
0-115
0-105
0-50
0-103
0-140
0-128
0-117
0-107
0-098
0-134
0-123
0-112
0-49
0-146
0-134
0-123
0-112
0-31
0-32
0-33
0-34
0-35
0-36
0-37
0-38
0-39
0-47
0-48
0-367
0-131
0-120
0-110
0-100
0-386
0-363
0-095
0-378
0-355
0-333
0-312
0-146
0-J02
0-093
263
0-733
0-549
0-497
0-471
0-446
0-421
0-907
0-923
0-906
0-887
0-867
0-846
0-824
0-800
0-886
0-774
0-676
0-776
0-751
0-726
0-699
0-673
0-649
0-622
0-595
0-646
0-619
0-592
0-643
0-572
0-545
0-569
0-565
0-562
0-542
0-539
0-535
0-519
0-493
0-467
0-442
0-418
0-516
0-489
0-464
0-439
0-414
0-512
0-486
0-460
0-435
0-509
0-410
0-407
0-849
0-827
0-868
0-847
0-825
0-866
0-845
0-822
0-799
0-749
0-723
0-697
0-670
0-616
0-589
0-482
0-457
0-431
0-394
0-390
0-386
0-383
0-370
0-348
0-326
0-367
0-344
0-322
0-363
0-359
0-340
0-337
0-318
0-315
0-305
0-301
0-297
0-294
0-284
0-265
0-246
0-229
0-212
0-281
0-277
0-261
0-258
0-243
0-225
0-239
0-222
0-274
0-254
0-236
0-218
0-208
0-205
0-202
0-196
0-193
0-189
0-186
0-181
0-174
0-160
0-147
0-171
0-166
0-153
0-178
0-163
0-150
0-140
0-137
0-135
0-132
0-131
0-128
0-121
0-117
0-107
0-126
0-115
0-105
0-095
0-086
0-123
0-120
0-110
0-100
0-091
0-112
0-102
0-093
0110
0-084
0-082
0-288
0-269
0-250
0-232
0-215
0-199
0-184
0-169
0-156
0-143
0-097
0-088
0-157
0-144
0-100
0-091
5.2.
INTENSITY OF RADIATION DIFFRACTED BY A CRYSTAL
TABLE
exp
sin 6
=9-1
5.2.2A {continued)
(-B sin 2
0/A 2)
9-2
9-3
9-4
9-5
9-6
9-7
9-8
9-9
100
0-080
0-073
0-066
0-059
0-053
0-078
0-076
0-074
0-071
0-069
0-064
0-057
0-052
0062
0056
0050
0-067
0-060
0-054
0-049
0-048
0-043
0-046
0-041
A
0-51
0-094
0-091
0-085
0-082
0-085
0-078
0-070
0-064
0-083
0-089
0-081
0-087
0-52
0-079
0-077
0-075
0-073
0-071
0-068
0-062
0066
0-065
0-069
0-063
0-075
0-067
0-060
0-058
0-056
0X)56
0-050
0-045
0-041
0-054
0-049
0-60
0038
0036
0-035
0-052
0-047
0-042
0-038
0-034
6-051
0-59
0-058
0-052
0-047
0-042
0-61
0-034
0-033
0031
0030
0-62
0-029
0-026
0-023
0-028
0-64
0-030
0-027
0-024
0-025
0-022
0-027
0-024
0-021
0-65
0-021
0021
0020
0-019
0-029
0-026
0-023
0-020
0-018
0-53
0-54
0-55
0-56
0-57
0-58
0-63
0044
0-039
0-046
0-041
0-037
0-033
0-66
0019
0-018
0-017
0-017
0016
0-67
0-017
0016
0-015
0-68
0-015
0-69
0-013
0-014
0-013
0-015
0-014
0-012
0-011
0-014
0-012
0-011
0-70
0-012
0-011
0-010
0-010
0-010
0-71
0010
0-009
0-008
0-009
0-008
0-73
0008
0-74
0-007
0-010
0-008
0-007
0-006
0009
0-72
0-007
0-006
0006
0-75
0-006
0-006
0-005
0-80
0-003
0003
0-003
0-90
0-001
0-001
0-001
0-025
0024
0-023
0-020
0-022
0-021
0019
0020
0017
0019
0-018
0020
0017
0-017
0016
0-015
0-015
0-017
0013
0-011
0-012
0-011
0010
0-010
0010
0-009
0009
0-009
0010
0009
0011
0009
0-008
0-008
0-007
0-008
0-008
0-008
0-007
0-006
0007
0007
0-007
0-006
0-007
0-006
0-005
0-005
0005
0-005
0-004
0-005
0-006
0-005
0-005
0-006
0-006
0-005
0-004
0-004
0-004
0-002
0-000
0-002
0-000
0-002
0-000
0-002
0-002
0-000
0000
0000
0-013
0-007
X
r
0-002
0-000
d as a Function of x
0-882
0-686
0-539
0-431
0-352
0-294
0-251
0-860
0-669
0-526
0-422
0-345
0-289
0-839
0-653
0-514
0-413
0-339
0-285
0-244
0-818
0-637
0-503
0-404
0-333
0-280
0-241
0-951
0-928
0-904
0-758
0-721
0-607
0-480
0-388
0-321
0-271
0-592
0-470
0-380
0-315
0-267
0-739
0-578
0-460
0-373
0-703
0-552
0-440
0-359
0-299
0-565
0-450
0-366
0-304
0-259
0-002
0006
0-006
0-005
0-004
0-004
5.2.2B
0-975
0-310
0-263
0026
0-024
0-021
0013
1-000
5
6
0-027
0-025
0-022
0-027
0-012
0-778
0-028
0-035
0031
0014
0-029
0-037
0033
0-012
0-038
0-034
0-030
0-043
0039
0015
xjes -l
0035
0032
0-045
0-040
0-036
0-032
0-028
0-013
Values of <f>(x)=-
0-049
0-044
0-040
0-015
0-013
TABLE
0-061
0-055
0-255
264
0-248
0-797
0-622
0-491
0-396
0-327
0-276
0-237
5.2.
For x>l,
<f>(x) is
given to a sufficiently close approximation by the expression 1-642/jc.

to 20 are as follows
10
0-234 0-205 0-183
ftx)
11
12
14
13
5.1.2).
NeA
2
4 3
17
18
0-097
0-091
Under any ordinary conditions the

/m 2c 4 can be treated as a constant.
Integrated Reflection
Face; to be used
quantity
finishing in orientations for
The
P=
when
from an Extended Crystal
crystal or polycrystalline block
enough to intercept the
beam.
termed integrated
reflection, is more appropriate for measuring diffracted
beams from a large crystal face or from a large block
of crystalline powder. Its definition is
is
large
quantity, p,
different
entire incident
also
p'=JR'(d)dd=^
In this case R'(0)
beam,
reflected
beam.
Note that p
which no
integrated reflection
characteristic
is
the ratio of the power of the
at angle
0,
to the power of the incident
is a dimensionless quantity that is

of the crystal and the wavelength
employed.
\R(6)dd
.(10)
5.2.4. Correction of Intensities for
Angle Factors
Although equations 5.2.3 (11) and (12) are the basic

ones, they have to be adapted to the type of specimen
the ratio of the power of the diffracted

when the rays are
incident at an angle 6 with the reflecting planes. The
angle Q is the angle of maximum diffracted power,
is
to the incident intensity,
chosen to include
....(12)
e.-c
0,+ t
e is
0-087 0-082
element.
III.
appreciable scattering occurs.

then defined as
and
20
19
is
beam
at
independent of the shape of the crystal or crystal
(a) Integrated Reflection from a Crystal Element; to be

used when crystal or polycrystalline specimen is
bathed in a beam.
The structure amplitude |F| does not define the
amplitude of the radiation scattered in a particular
direction when the crystal is set in a particular
orientation; this amplitude depends upon a number of
incidental factors, such as the perfection of the crystal.
A more significant quantity is obtained by considering
the power (energy per second) of the diffracted beam
as the crystal is rotated through the reflecting position,
where R(0)
<f>(x)
Note that the integrated reflection p is proportional

volume of the reflecting crystal or crystal
element and has the dimensions of cm 2 It is, however,
(b)
and
values of
to the
5.2.3. Integrated Reflection
starting
16
15
0-164 0-150 0-137 0-127 0-117 0-110 0-103
{Continued from page 241)

In general, however, B must be treated as an
empirical constant, derived either by Wilson's method
[19] or by the comparison of observed intensities with
those calculated by successive refinement from an
approximate structure. Typical values of B will be
found in Volume
The
x up
integral values of
used and to the experimental conditions, which

introduce a different form for the Lorentz factor.
following are some of the important cases
effectively all the diffracted
may
The
radiation.
An
5.2.4. 1
alternative definition of the integrated reflection
as follows.
velocity
is
it
can be shown that the integrated
Q=:
The quantity
and the
final
P=Q8V
2
/ Ne |F| V 3 1+
A
2
[
\ mc
/
1/sin 20 is
term
is
cos 2 26
sin 26
cos 6
1-7
(cos
<f>-
,nix
n.
^x A(hkl)p'\F\*
sin 2 0)*
'
inci-
,1^
(13)J
v
'
is the angle between the axis of rotation and

the reflecting planes, A(hkl) is a transmission factor,
and p' is the multiplicity, that is, the number of
reflection
<f>
superimposed
....(11a)
If
cos 2 20
<f>
reflections.
on oscillation,
and Weissenberg photographs, the expression
is
rotation
(lib)
sin 20
^^
x 1+
where
SV of crystal reflects
proportional to 8V.
and
Normal to Rotation
If an infinitesimally small block
X-rays,
(Oscillation and rotation photographs; normal

dence Weissenberg photographs.)
a>
reflection is defined as Ea>/I
Single Crystal Beam
Axis
Let the crystal be turned with angular

about an axis parallel to the reflecting
planes. As it passes through a small angular range in
the neighbourhood of the reflecting angle 6 a total
amount of energy E is reflected. Then the integrated
is
zero, as for zero-layer lines
reduces to
known
as the Lorentz factor

the polarization factor (Table
265
^^l^
sin Zu
MOp'l*?
....(14)
5.2.
5.2.4.2. Single Crystal: Equmnclination

Weissenberg Photograph
>HîrA
where
5.2.5.1.
Normal-beam Method, fi=0
(Section 4.4.1(a))
There are three equivalent expressions for L.
- (15>
L -1 =
the usual cylindrical co-ordinate of the

reciprocal-lattice point.
cos v sin
is
L-'=sin2/
cos
^- sin '^
....(18)
COS
5.2.4.3.
and
Debye-Scherrer Lines on Cylindrical Film

2
1+
pec
sin 2
cos 20
,A(0)p"|F|
cos
The angle
(16)
Let us put the equation for the integrated reflection

crystal of volume V in the form
from a small
/>ocV.Lp|F| 2
L is the Lorentz factor (Section 5.2.3) and p is

the polarization factor (Section 5.1.2).
The Lorentz factor depends on the way in which
PA , the reciprocal-lattice point (hkl\, passes through
the reflecting sphere. For a given experimental arrangewhere
ment, the component v n of the velocity of PA normal

to the surface of the sphere will be proportional to the
angular velocity <o. The ratio co/v n gives L. In the
where the axis of rotation is perpenthe plane containing the incident and
particular case
beams,
is
that between the axis of rotation
and the
Buerger and Klein [3] point out that for an w-level

Weissenberg photograph, cos v is constant and Y can
immediately be found from the location of the diffraction spot on the film. Their paper includes a table of
L= cosec Y as a function of Y.
Cox and Shaw [6] have published a chart which,
when drawn to scale and superimposed on a rotation
photograph, enables (cos 2 <j>- sin 2 0)*/cos to be read
off for each reflection.
Kaan and Cole [11] have constructed a similar but
more convenient chart for rotation photographs which
gives the value of the combined factor (Lp) -1 for each
reflection. The necessary data for the construction of
this chart are given in Table 5.2.5D.
Cochran [5] has expressed the combined factor
(Lp) -1 as a function of and and gives a chart which
can be used in conjunction with a drawing of a zero
layer of the reciprocal lattice to find the value of the
correction appropriate to any reciprocal-lattice point.
The necessary data for the construction of this chart
are given in Table 5.2.5E.
5.2.5. Lorentz-polarization Factors
L -1 =
sin 20 (Section 5.2.3). As the

Lorentz factor L and the polarization factor p always
occur together, it is in practice convenient to be able
reflected
<j>
reflecting plane.
where p" is the multiplicity, or number of superimposed reflections, appropriate to this method.
dicular to
L~ 1 =(sin 2 20- 2)*
them simultaneously. The function

cos 2 20)/sin 20 is tabulated in Table 5.2.5A. This is
the form of Lp appropriate to zero-layer reflections when
to correct for
(1
the apparatus
is set
up
to
make
5.2.5.2.
oscillation, rotation
The
on the
beam and
the reciprocal-lattice point
L~ x =
it
may
L_1 =
The semi-angle of
cos
and
As
cos v sin
.... (17)
the cone of diffraction for w-layer
is (it/2)v, and Y is the projection on the

zero layer of the angle 20 between incident and reflected
beams. For each experimental arrangement L can also
be expressed as a function of and , the radial and
reflections
axial cylindrical co-ordinates of P.
The following
ju.
sin
(sin 2
sin
20
this position.
are
Y
0
sin 2
/*)*
.(19)
L- = cos
x
before, cos 2 /a is constant for each layer line. The

Lorentz factor may therefore conveniently be found
from the Buerger-Klein table of cosec Y.
Tunell [14] has evaluated (, n) curves of constant
"rotation factor" (sin 2 0- sin 2 /x)*/sin 0. It is, however,
much more convenient to be able to derive the value of
Lp in one operation. Chia-Si Lu [13] has prepared a
chart which covers the range 0< < 1, and for a given
value of gives cos 2 n sin V/(l + cos 2 20) as a function
of Y. Lu's chart can therefore be used in conjunction
with the Weissenberg photograph to find the value of
-1
(Lp)
for each reflection.
Kaan and Cole [11] have prepared a similar chart,
but they have omitted the factor cos 2 /x, as it is constant
on a given layer line. Their chart covers the range
(K n< 30. The necessary data for the construction of
this chart are given in Table 5.2.5F.
be shown that
ft
cos 2
sin
n-layer (this layer being perpendicular to the
axis of rotation),
three equivalent expressions for
L -1 =
incident X-ray
/u,= v
Weissenberg cameras are often used in
or Weissenberg recordings. The same factor applies

to reflections from planes parallel to the surface of an
extended, infinitely thick crystal plate (cf. Section 5.3.1).
The intensity of Debye-Scherrer lines on a cylindrical film depends on (1+ cos 2 20)/sin 2 0cos 0, the
function which is tabulated in Table 5.2.5B.
still
different factor, (1+ cos 2 20)/sin
cos 2 0, applies to reflection through an infinitely thin, extended crystal plate
from a set of planes normal to its surface (cf. Section
5.3.3). ThL 'unction is tabulated in Table 5.2.5C.
For a single crystal, in the more general case where
the axis of rotation makes an angle (tt/2)-ju. with the
is
Equmnclination Method,
(Section 4.4. 1(6))
are
most generally used arrangements for the photography of the reciprocal lattice.
the
266
5.2.
Chia-Si Lu [13] and Cochran [5] have expressed

(Lp) -1 as a function of and . Curves on which the
value of cos 0/(1 + cos 2 20) is constant are drawn on a
chart which covers the whole range of values which
and can assume. This chart is to be used in conjunction with a drawing of a zero layer of the reciprocal
lattice. Data are given in Table 5.2.5G.
chromator; [i! is the cone semi-angle for the layer in

question; d*=X/d.
Kartha [12] has prepared a chart from which the
-1
can be read off when the anti-equivalue of (Lp)
inclination method of recording zero-layer Weissenberg photographs has been used.
The Precession Method (C. E. Nordman)

The Lorentz factor for recording with the Buerger
precession camera is extremely complicated. The
and Tables
General Remarks on the Use of Charts
5.2.5.5.
5.2.5.3.
the surface of a circular cone of semi-angle /z. This

precession takes place with a constant angular velocity
Q. In such circumstances w is not constant, and L is
give Lp as the product of two

each of which must be looked up separately,
are less convenient than the others. The methods of
Buerger and Klein [3], Cox and Shaw [6], Tunell [14],
and Goldschmidt and Pitt [9] fall in this category.
The remaining methods may be divided into two
groups
found to depend on
(a)
camera
is
The methods which
factors,
constructed so that the normal to the
reciprocal-lattice layer being
photographed moves on
all three cylindrical polar coordinates (t) of a reciprocal-lattice point, f For the
particular case fi 30 (a convenient value in practice)
and {L(fr)p} -1 have been

evaluated and the results presented in the form of
contoured charts by Waser [17], Burbank [4] and
Grenville- Wells and Abrahams [10]. An extension of
these calculations has been made, and the values of
{L^^p} -1
the functions
(Lp)"
(b)
used in conjunction with a

drawing of a layer of the reciprocal lattice.
this case the charts are
On
a rotation photograph taken with a camera of

r, the co-ordinates (xy) of a spot on the film are
related to Y and by the equations
radius
corrections are presented in Table 5.2.5H, in
form of the
radial co-ordinates of various contours

of constant (Lp) -1 where these intersect a set of
"spokes" of given angular co-ordinates.
Table 5.2.51 (prepared by J. Kraut) gives relative
-1
values of (Lp)
at points of a Cartesian co-ordinate
system in the reciprocal plane, for zero-level precession
photographs for odd precession angles between 1 1 and
29. Values for even precession angles may be obtained
by interpolation provided that points near to the outer
edges of the tables are avoided. If preferred, the data
can be normalized to a maximum Lp value of unity.
the
5.2.5.4.
x=r y,y= r /V(l- 2)

is along the direction of the rotation axis). Table
5.2.5D gives the values of x, for a range of values of y,
-1
assumes the values of 0, 0-1, 0-2,
for which (Lp)
.,
2-0. The numbers refer to a camera of radius 5 x 2-865
cm, but the change to any other radius is a matter of
simple proportion. The chart is symmetrical about the
(y
line
r=90.
this table, charts appropriate to an -level

normal-beam Weissenberg photograph can also be
constructed.
For an equi-inclination Weissenberg photograph,

constant and
The Lorentz factor appropriate to the de JongBouman method of recording has been derived by
/a is
2_cosVsmr
and by Buerger [2].

For the retigraph where there is no azimuthal
de Jong
variation, A. L.
[1]
Mackay {Acta
Cryst., 13, 240, 1960}
gives the following previously unpublished formulae.
For unpolarized incident radiation

1/L = sin /i-i( -2 cos
1/L 2 = 2 cos 2 A*-i( 2 -2f sin
2
or
/z
+| )
+ 2) 2
2
The angle p. is defined in Section 5.2.5.3 and it is the

complement of the angle ^ as defined in Table 4.3.1
(p. 175) and again in Section 5.2.5.1. The expression
is identical with the more usual form in terms of
|(1+ cos 2 20).
For monochromatized incident radiation
/>
= | + cos
20M (2-rf* 2) 2 + irf* 4 (cos 2 20M -l)

tan 2 (/* +
in the plane of reflection of the
1+
cos 2 20
Table 5.2.5F gives the values of Y, for a number of

2
26) assumes the
ft, at which 2 sin Y/(l + cos
From this table a chart can
values 0, 0-1, 0-2,
., 2-0.
be constructed which is appropriate to an n-level equiinclination Weissenberg photograph.
The remaining tables are for the construction of
charts to be used with a drawing of the reciprocal
lattice. Table 5.2.5E gives values of , for a range of
-1
values of , at which (Lp)
assumes the values 0, 0-1,
0-2,
It is for the normal-beam method of
., 2-0.
recording. Table 5.2.5G contains the data for a similar
chart appropriate to the equi-inclination method.
values of
/*')
t Note that (t) as used here and by Waser, etc. [17] [4] [10],
correspond to the ($&) co-ordinates adopted in Section 4; is
the radial, the axial and t the angular cylindrical co-ordinate
of the reciprocal lattice point P(0).
where M is the Bragg angle for the reflection from the

monochromator; the axis about which the film plane
is tilted lies
V)
/*
From
Other Methods of Recording
Bouman and
Those where Lp is expressed as a function of

(or n) and Y. The charts are used in conjunction
with the X-ray photograph.
Those where Lp is expressed in terms of and . In
mono267
TABLE
Lorentz-polarization Factor,
2Lp=
5.2.5A
26
1+ cos2
-
sin 20
sin 6
0-00
0-01
0000
00
0-001
1000
0-002
500-0
0-003
333-3
0-004
250-0
0-005
200-0
66-64
39-96
28-52
22-15
0-006
166-7
0-007
142-8
99-98
49-97
90-89
83-32
76-90
71-41
47-59
45-42
41-63
32-21
31-20
004
33-29
24-94
43-44
30-25
24-33
23-75
2319
0-05
19-93
19-53
19-15
18-79
18-44
18-10
17-77
0-06
16-58
16-30
16-04
15-78
15-53
15-29
1505
0-07
14-18
13-98
13-78
13-59
13-40
13-22
13-04
12-87
0-02
0-03
29-36
22-66
0008
125-0
0-009
111-1
62-48
58-80
55-53
52-60
38-42
27-72
37-00
26-97
21-21
35-67
26-26
20-76
34-44
25-58
20-33
17-46
17-15
16-86
14-83
14-60
14-39
12-70
12-54
11-10
21-67
0-08
12-38
12-22
12-07
11-92
11-78
11-64
11-50
11-36
11-23
009
10-98
10-85
10-73
10-61
10-50
10-38
10-27
1016
1006
9-954
0-10
9-851
9-751
9-461
9-368
9-277
9-187
9099
9-013
8-928
8-844
9-652
8-762
9-556
0-11
8-682
9-603
8-525
8-449
8-156
8-085
8-016
7-948
7-881
7-815
7-750
0-13
7-500
7-440
7-381
7-323
7-265
7-208
7-152
7-097
8-300
7-623
7-043
8-227
0-12
8-374
7-686
0-14
6-937
6-885
6-833
6-783
6-733
6-683
6-635
6-587
6-539
015
6-446
6-401
6-356
6-311
6-268
6-139
6-098
5-976
5-936
5-896
5-858
5-782
5-744
5-707
5-598
5-494
5-425
5-392
5-359
5-262
5-563
5-230
5-528
0-18
6-016
5-634
5-294
5-198
5-168
6-224
5-819
5-459
5-137
6-182
0-16
5-106
5-076
5-046
5-017
0-19
4-988
4-959
4-930
4-902
4-874
4-846
4-819
4-791
4-764
4-738
0-20
4-711
4-685
4-659
4-633
4-608
4-583
4-460
4-230
4-436
4-208
4-389
4-366
4-144
4-343
4-297
4-508
4-275
4-123
4-102
4-081
4-061
4-000
3-808
3-940
3-921
3-753
3-735
3-902
3-717
3-883
0-24
4-020
3-826
4-412
4-187
3-980
3-789
4-558
4-320
4-533
0-21
3-864
3-682
4-484
4-252
4-040
3-845
3-664
0-25
3-647
3-630
3-613
3-530
3-513
3-497
3-465
3-449
3-418
3-562
3-402
3-546
3-481
3-596
3-434
3-579
0-26
3-387
3-372
3-356
3-342
0-27
3-327
3-312
3-297
3-282
3-268
3-253
3-239
3-225
3-211
3-197
0-28
3-183
3-169
3-155
3-141
3-128
3-088
3-074
3-061
3-048
3-035
3-022
3009
2-997
3-114
2-984
3-101
0-29
2-971
2-959
2-946
2-934
0-30
2-922
2-910
2-898
2-886
2-874
2-815
2-792
2-781
2-769
2-725
2-714
2-703
2-681
2-671
2-618
2-478
2-567
2-469
2-608
2-507
2-597
2-577
2-660
2-557
2-459
2-758
2-649
2-450
2-850
2-736
2-628
2-527
2-431
2-827
2-804
2-692
2-587
2-488
2-862
2-747
2-639
2-537
2-440
2-838
0-31
2-413
2-404
2-385
2-376
2-358
2-349
2-341
2-332
2-323
2-297
2-288
2-272
2-263
2-255
2-238
2-214
2-134
2-197
2-119
2-189
2-181
2-173
2-111
2-044
2-037
2-104
2-030
2096
2059
2-205
2-127
2-052
2-246
2-166
2-089
2-023
2-016
2-158
2-081
2-009
2-314
2-230
2-150
2-074
2-002
0-17
0-22
0-23
0-32
0-33
0-34
0-35
4-165
3-960
3-771
2-547
3-699
2-517
2-422
7-561
6-990
6-492
6-056
5-670
5-326
2-498
0-39
2-394
2-306
2-222
2-142
2-066
0-40
1-994
1-988
1-981
1-974
1-967
1-960
1-953
1-946
1-940
1-933
0-41
1-926
1-920
1-913
1-906
1-900
1-893
1-887
1-880
1-874
1-868
0-42
1-861
1-855
1-849
1-842
1-836
1-830
1-824
1-818
1-812
1-806
0-43
1-800
1-793
1-788
1-782
1-776
1-770
1-764
1-758
1-752
1-746
0-44
1-741
1-735
1-729
1-724
1-718
1-712
1-707
1-701
1-696
1-690
0-45
1-685
1-679
1-674
1-668
1-663
1-658
1-652
1-647
1-642
1-637
0-46
1-631
1-626
1-621
1-616
1-611
1-606
1-601
1-596
1-591
1-586
0-47
1-581
1-576
1-571
1-566
1-561
1-556
1-552
1-547
1-542
1-537
0-48
1-533
1-528
1-523
1-519
1-514
1-509
1-505
1-500
1-496
1-491
1-478
1-474
1-469
1-465
1-460
1-456
1-452
1-448
0-36
0-37
0-38
0-49
1-487
1-482
2-367
2-280
268
TABLE
Lorentz-polarization Factor,
5.2.5A (continued)
2Lp=
1+ cos 2 20
0000
0-001
0002
0-003
0004
0-50
1-443
1-439
1-435
1-431
1-427
0-51
1-402
1-398
1-394
1-390
1-386
sin
as a Function of sin
sin 20
0-006
0-007
0-008
0-009
1-422
1-418
1-414
1-410
1-406
1-382
1-378
1-375
1-371
1-367
1-344
1-341
1-337
1-333
1-330
0-005
1-363
1-359
1-356
1-352
1-348
0-53
1-326
1-322
1-319
1-315
1-312
1-308
1-305
1-302
1-298
1-295
0-54
1-291
1-288
1-284
1-281
1-278
1-274
1-271
1-268
1-265
1-262
0-55
1-258
1-255
1-252
1-249
1-246
1-243
1-240
1-236
1-234
1-230
1-210
1-207
1-204
1-201
0-52
1-222
1-219
1-216
1-213
1196
1-193
1-190
1-188
1-185
1-182
1-179
1-177
1-174
1-169
1-166
1-164
1-161
1-159
1-156
1-154
1-151
1-149
1-146
1-144
1-142
1-139
1-137
1-135
1-132
1-130
1-128
1-126
1-123
1-121
1-119
1-117
1-115
1-112
1-110
1-108
1-106
1-104
1-092
1090
1-088
1-086
1-085
1-228
1-224
0-57
1-198
0-58
1-172
0-59
0-60
0-56
0-61
1102
1100
1-098
1-096
1-094
0-62
1-083
1-081
1-079
1-077
1-076
1-074
1-072
1-070
1069
1-067
0-63
1-064
1-062
1-061
1-059
1-058
1-056
1-054
1-053
1-051
0-64
1065
1050
1049
1-047
1-046
1-044
1-043
1-042
1040
1039
1-038
0-65
1-037
1-035
1-034
1-033
1-032
1-031
1030
1-028
1-027
1-026
0-66
1-023
1-022
1-021
1-020
1-019
1-018
1-018
1-017
0-67
1025
1016
1-024
1015
1-014
1-013
1-013
1-012
1-011
1-010
1-010
1-009
0-68
1-008
1-008
1-007
1-007
1-006
1006
1-005
1-005
1-004
1-004
1-002
1-002
1-001
1-001
1-001
0-69
1-003
1-003
1-003
1-002
1-002
0-70
1001
1-000
1-000
1-000
1-000
1-000
1-000
1-000
1-000
1000
0-71
1-000
1-000
1-000
1-000
1-001
1-001
1-001
1-001
1-001
1-002
0-72
1-002
1-002
1-003
1003
1-004
1-004
1-004
1-005
1-005
1006
0-73
1-007
.1-008
1-008
1-009
1-010
1-010
1011
1-012
1-013
0-74
1006
1014
1-014
1-015
1016
1-017
1-018
1019
1-020
1-021
1-022
0-75
1-024
1-025
1-026
1-027
1-028
1-030
1-031
1-032
1-034
1-035
0-76
1-037
1-038
1-040
1-041
1-043
1-044
1-046
1-048
1-049
1-051
0-77
1053
1-055
1-056
1-058
1-060
1-062
1-064
1-066
1-068
1-070
1-086
1-088
1091
1-093
0-78
1-072
1-075
1-077
1-079
1081
1-084
0-79
1096
1-098
1101
1-104
1-106
1-109
1-112
1-115
1-118
1-120
0-80
1-123
1-126
1-129
1-132
1-136
1-139
1-142
1-145
1-148
1-152
0-81
1-155
1-159
1-162
1-166
1-169
1-173
1-177
1-180
1-184
1-188
0-82
1-192
1-196
1-200
1-204
1-208
1-212
1-217
1-221
1-225
1-230
0-83
1-234
1-239
1-243
1-248
1-253
1-258
1-262
1-267
1-272
1-277
0-84
1-282
1-288
1-293
1-298
1-304
1-309
1-315
1-320
1-326
1-332
0-85
1-338
1-344
1-350
1-356
1-362
1-368
1-375
1-381
1-388
1-394
0-86
1-401
1-408
1-415
1-422
1-429
1-436
1-443
1-451
1-458
1-466
0-87
1-473
1-481
1-489
1-497
1-505
1-513
1-522
1-530
1-539
1-548
0-88
1-556
1-566
1-575
1-584
1-593
1-603
1-612
1-622
1-632
1-642
0-89
1-653
1-663
1-674
1-684
1-695
1-706
1-718
1-729
1-741
1-752
0-90
1-764
1-777
1-789
1-802
1-814
1-827
1-841
1-854
1-868
1-882
0-91
1-896
1-910
1-925
1-940
1-955
1-970
1-986
2-052
2-242
2-477
2-070
2-263
2-503
2-087
2-284
2-531
2-105
2-307
2-559
2-124
2-329
2-588
2-142
2-352
2-161
2-376
2-617
2-648
2-679
2-019
2-201
2-425
2-711
2-035
0-92
2-002
2-181
2-400
2-813
2-849
3-282
2-924
3-388
3-047
3-090
3-136
3-566
3-921
5-020
5-353
4-280
5-753
4-383
5-986
3-630
4-493
6-247
4-611
0-99
6-880
4-873
7-272
2-964
3-445
4-182
5-543
3-504
3-843
2-886
3-334
4-004
5-179
3-004
3-231
0-98
2-778
3-182
3-769
4-737
7-733
8-289
8-978
9-861
0-93
0-94
0-95
0-96
0-97
4090
269
11-05
12-80
15-71
2-221
2-451
2-744
3-698
6-542
22-26
TABLE
Correcting Factor -r-^
sine?
sin 9
0-02
0-03
0-04
0-000
4997
2219
1247
0-001
4532
2078
1187
0-002
4129
1950
1131
0-003
3778
1834
1079
5.2.5B
1+cos 2
20
sin 2 8 cos
0-004
3469
1727
1030
0-05
797-0
765-9
736-7
709-0
0-06
552-6
534-5
517-3
500-9
0-07
393-8
382-8
372-3
0-08
405-2
309-5
682-9
485-3
362-2
301-8
294-5
287-3
280-5
009
243-9
238-5
233-3
228-3
0-005
3197
1630
984-7
0-006
2956
1540
942-2
0-007
2740
1458
902-4
0-008
2548
1382
865-1
0-009
2375
1312
830-0
634-8
612-6
591-5
571-6
456-1
442-5
429-5
417-1
343-3
267-4
214-0
334-3
325-7
317-5
261-3
255-3
223-4
658-2
470-4
352-6
273-8
218-6
209-6
205-3
249-5
201-1
0-10
197-0
193-1
189-3
185-5
181-9
178-4
175-0
171-7
168-5
165-4
0-11
162-3
159-4
156-5
153-7
150-9
148-3
145-7
143-1
140-7
138-3
0-12
135-9
133-6
131-4
129-2
127-1
125-0
123-0
121-0
119-1
117-2
0-13
115-4
113-6
111-8
110-1
108-4
106-8
105-2
103-6
102-1
100-6
0-14
99-10
97-65
96-24
94-86
93-51
92-18
90-89
89-61
88-37
87-15
83-63
73-28
82-50
72-35
80-31
79-25
78-21
77-18
76-18
70-54
62-39
68-79
60-92
67-94
60-21
55-53
69-66
61-65
54-91
67-11
63-91
54-29
53-69
53-09
50-80
81-40
71-44
63-14
56-17
50-25
49-70
49-17
48-64
48-12
47-61
44-25
40-00
43-80
39-60
35-96
43-35
42-91
0-15
85-95
84-78
0-16
74-23
0-18
75-20
66-28
58-82
58-14
64-69
57-47
0-19
52-50
51-92
51-36
0-20
47-11
46-62
46-13
45-65
0-21
42-48
42-05
41-63
41-21
45-18
40-80
0-22
38-46
38-09
37-72
37-36
37-00
0-17
65-48
56-81
59-51
0-23
34-96
34-63
34-31
33-99
33-68
44-71
40-40
36-65
33-37
33-07
32-77
32-47
32-17
0-24
31-88
31-60
31-32
31-04
30-76
30-49
30-22
29-95
29-69
29-43
0-25
29-18
26-78
28-92
26-55
24-44
28-67
26-33
24-24
22-38
20-70
28-43
28-18
25-89
27-47
25-26
23-28
20-38
27-70
25-47
23-47
21-68
20-08
27-23
24-05
27-94
25-68
23-66
21-85
20-23
0-26
0-27
0-28
0-29
24-64
22-73
21-02
20-86
22-55
26-11
22-20
20-54
23-85
22-03
36-30
39-22
38-84
35-62
35-29
21-52
23-10
21-35
27-00
24-84
22-91
21-18
19-93
19-78
19-63
18-22
25-05
0-30
19-48
19-33
19-19
19-05
18-91
18-77
18-63
18-49
18-35
0-31
18-09
17-96
17-82
17-70
17-57
17-44
17-32
17-19
17-07
16-95
0-32
16-83
16-71
16-59
16-47
16-35
16-24
16-12
16-01
15-90
15-79
0-33
15-68
15-57
15-46
15-36
15-25
15-15
15-04
14-94
14-84
14-74
0-34
14-64
14-54
14-44
14-34
14-24
14-15
14-05
13-96
13-87
13-77
0-35
13-68
13-59
13-50
13-41
13-32
13-24
13-15
13-06
12-98
12-89
0-36
12-81
12-73
12-64
12-56
12-48
12-40
12-32
12-24
12-16
12-09
0-37
12-01
11-93
11-86
11-78
11-71
11-63
11-56
11-49
11-42
11-34
0-38
11-27
11-20
11-13
11-06
11-00
10-93
10-86
10-79
10-73
10-66
0-39
10-60
10-53
10-47
10-40
10-34
10-28
10-22
10-15
10-09
10-03
0-40
9-973
9-913
9-341
9-795
9-232
9-178
9-679
9-124
9-071
9-564
9-019
9-508
9-396
8-863
9-854
9-286
9-621
0-41
8-966
9-452
8-915
8-812
8-761
8-711
8-661
8-612
8-562
8-514
8-322
7-868
8-275
7-825
8-229
8-182
7-781
7-738
8-136
7-696
8-091
0-44
8-370
7-912
7-654
8-046
7-612
8-465
8-001
7-570
8-417
7-956
7-529
7-406
7-018
7-366
7-326
7-208
6-870
6-588
6-553
6-256
5-948
6-224
6-519
6-193
5-889
6-834
6-486
6-162
5-860
7-170
6-798
6-452
7-131
6-943
7-287
6-907
7-248
6-980
0-42
0-43
0-45
7-488
7-447
0-46
7-093
7-055
0-47
6-727
6-657
0-48
6-386
6-692
6-353
6-321
6-622
6-288
0-49
6-069
6-038
6-008
5-978
9-736
270
5-918
6-130
5-831
6-762
6-419
6-100
5-802
TABLE
5.2.5B (continued)
Correcting Factor -t^=
sm
sin 2 6 cos
^ as
a Function of sin 6
0009
0-004
0-005
0006
0-007
5-689
5-661
5-634
5-606
5-579
5-552
5-525
5-420
5-368
5-343
5-318
5-292
5-267
5-169
5-394
5-145
4-936
4-719
4-914
4-698
5-027
4-804
4-596
sin
0-000
0001
0-002
0-50
5-774
5-745
5-717
0-51
5-499
5-472
5-446
0-52
5-243
5-218
5-194
0-53
5-004
4-981
0-54
4-782
4-761
4-959
4-740
0-55
4-576
4-556
4-536
4-517
0-56
4-384
4-365
4-347
4-329
0-57
4-188
4-171
4-024
3-872
4-008
0-59
4-205
4-040
3-886
0-60
3-744
0-61
3-614
0-62
0-003
0-008
5-121
5-098
5-074
5-051
4-891
4-869
4-847
4-677
4-657
4-636
4-826
4-616
4-478
4-459
4-293
4-275
4-121
4-105
4-440
4-258
4-088
3-962
3-946
3-931
3-857
4-154
3-993
3-843
4-497
4-311
4-138
3-977
3-828
3-814
3-800
3-786
3-731
3-717
3-704
3-691
3-678
3-665
3-652
3-588
3-576
3-552
3-540
3-528
3-493
3-481
3-470
3-459
3-436
3-425
3-414
3-404
3-393
0-63
3-382
3-372
3-361
3-351
3-331
3-320
3-311
3-301
3-291-
0-64
3-281
3-272
3-262
3-253
3-564
3-448
3-341
3-243
3-639
3-516
3-626
3-601
3-234
3-225
3-216
3-207
3-198
0-65
3-189
3-181
3-172
3-164
3-155
3-147
3-139
3-130
3-122
3-114
0-66
3-106
3-099
3-091
3-083
3-076
3-068
3-061
3-054
3-046
3-039
0-67
3-032
3-025
3-018
3-012
3-005
2-998
2-992
2-985
2-979
2-972
0-68
2-966
2-908
2-960
2-903
2-954
2-898
2-948
2-942
2-888
2-936
2-883
2-931
2-925
2-878
2-873
2-919
2-868
2-914
2-864
2-859
2-817
2-854
2-850
2-837
2-833
2-829
2-814
2-810
2-803
2-799
2-796
2-793
2-783
2-780
2-778
2-772
2-770
2-767
2-764
2-825
2-790
2-762
2-786
0-72
2-846
2-806
2-775
2-841
0-71
0-73
2-758
2-740
2-755
2-753
2-751
2-749
2-748
2-746
2-744
2-743
2-741
2-738
2-737
2-736
2-735
2-734
2-733
2-732
2-731
2-730
2-728
2-730
2-740
2-759
2-787
2-728
2-730
2-728
2-728
2-731
2-732
2-728
2-734
0-58
0-69
0-70
0-74
2-893
4-421
4-240
4-072
3-916
3-772
4-402
4-223
4056
3-901
3-758
3-504
2-821
2-760
2-741
2-743
2-744
2-728
2-733
2-746
2-761
2-764
2-794
2-766
2-797
2-769
2-801
2-748
2-772
2-804
2-829
2-834
2-838
2-843
2-848
2-878
2-884
2-890
2-895
2-901
2-939
3-012
2-946
2-953
2-967
3-020
3-028
3-099
3-108
3-118
2-960
3-037
3-128
0-75
2-730
2-729
2-729
2-728
0-76
2-728
2-728
2-729
2-729
0-77
2-735
2-750
2-774
2-736
2-752
2-737
2-754
2-738
2-756
2-777
2-780
2-784
2-808
2-852
2-812
2-816
2-820
2-857
2-862
2-868
2-913
2-981
2-920
2-989
2-926
2-996
0-84
2-907
2-974
3-054
3-062
3-071
3-080
2-825
2-873
2-932
3-004
3-089
0-85
3-148
3-158
3-168
3-179
3-190
3-201
3-212
3-223
3-235
3-246
0-86
3-258
3-270
3-282
3-295
3-307
3-320
3-333
3-346
3-360
3-373
0-87
3-387
3-538
3-714
3-401
3-415
3-430
3-444
3-459
3-588
3-605
3-622
3-658
3-506
3-676
3-521
3-570
3-474
3-640
3-490
3-554
3-733
3-752
3-772
3-792
3-813
3-834
3-855
3-877
3-967
3-990
4-249
4-014
4-278
4-596
4-988
5-482
4-038
4-063
4-088
4-114
4-307
4-632
5-032
5-539
4-337
4-367
4-668
5-597
4-705
5-124
5-657
4-398
4-743
6-130
7-030
8-399
6-207
7-140
6-286
7-255
6-367
7-375
0-78
0-79
0-80
0-81
0-82
0-83
0-88
0-89
0-90
3-921
0-91
4-167
4-461
4-821
5-270
0-92
0-93
0-94
0-95
0-96
0-97
0-98
0-99
5-848
6-630
7-771
9-668
13-90
3-944
4-194
4-494
4-861
5-321
5-915
6-724
7-916
9-935
14-68
4-221
4-528
4-902
5-373
5-985
6-822
8-068
10-22
15-59
4-562
4-945
5-427
6-056
6-924
8-229
2-790
8-579
5-077
8-770
8-972
3-045
3-138
3-695
3-899
5-719
4-140
4-429
4-781
5-220
5-782
6-452
7-501
7-633
5-171
9-188
6-539
9-420
10-54
10-88
11-25
11-67
12-13
12-65
13-23
16-70
18-06
19-82
22-20
25-67
31-49
44-57
271

TABLE
Correcting Factor
-=cos 6
sin d
0-000
000
CO
0-01
200-0
100-0
0-02
0-001
2000
181-8
0-002
1000
166-6
0-003
666-7
153-8
5.2.5C
sin
cos 2 8
0-004
500-0
142-8
0-005
0-006
0-007
0-008
0-009
400-0
333-3
285-7
250-0
222-2
133-3
125-0
117-6
111-1
105-2
95-20
90-86
86-91
83-29
80-00
76-87
74-02
71-37
68-91
51-20
40-72
0-03
66-61
64-45
62-44
60-54
58-76
57-07
55-48
53-98
52-56
0-04
49-92
48-70
47-54
46-43
45-37
44-35
43-39
42-46
41-57
005
39-90
3911
38-36
37-63
36-93
35-25
35-60
34-97
34-37
0-06
33-21
32-13
31-62
31-12
27-63
27-25
26-88
29-72
25-82
29-28
28-43
30-64
26-52
30-17
0-07
32-67
28-03
0-08
24-84
24-53
24-23
23-93
009
22-04
21-80
21-56
21-32
23-64
21-09
20-86
26-16
23-09
20-64
22-82
20-43
25-49
22-55
20-21
33-78
28-85
25-16
22-30
20-01
23-36
0-10
19-80
19-60
19-41
19-21
19-02
18-84
18-66
18-48
18-31
18-13
0-11
17-96
17-80
17-64
17-48
17-32
17-16
17-01
16-86
16-72
16-57
0-12
16-43
16-29
16-15
16-02
15-88
15-75
15-63
15-50
15-37
15-25
0-13
15-13
15-01
14-89
14-78
14-66
14-55
14-44
14-33
14-22
14-12
0-14
14-01
13-91
13-81.
13-71
13-61
13-51
13-41
13-32
13-22
13-13
0-15
13-04
12-95
12-86
12-77
12-69
12-60
12-52
12-43
12-35
12-27
0-16
12-19
12-11
12-03
11-95
11-88
11-80
11-73
11-65
11-58
11-51
0-17
11-43
11-36
11-29
11-23
11-16
11-09
11-02
10-96
10-89
10-83
0-18
10-76
10-70
10-64
10-58
10-51
10-45
10-39
10-33
10-28
10-22
0-19
10-16
10-10
10-05
9-992
9-936
9-882
9-828
9-774
9-721
9-669
9-514
9-030
8-588
9-464
9-414
9-364
9-315
8-938
8-893
8-848
9-266
8-804
9-218
8-984
9-170
8-716
8-546
8-504
8-463
8-422
8-381
8-341
8-301
8-222
7-846
8-183
8-144
8-106
8-068
7-993
7-956
7-919
7-811
7-775
7-740
7-705
8-030
7-670
7-635
7-601
7-567
0-20
9-617
9-565
0-21
9-123
0-22
8-673
9-076
8-630
0-23
8-261
0-24
7-883
0-25
7-533
7-434
7-401
7-210
7-500
7-179
7-467
0-26
7-148
7-118
7-087
0-27
6-910
6-881
6-852
6-824
6-796
7-369
7-057
6-768
0-28
6-630
6-604
6-577
6-550
6-524
0-29
6-370
6-345
6-320
6-295
6-270
0-30
6-126
5-898
6-102
6-033
5-876
6-079
5-854
6-056
0-31
5-832
0-32
5-683
5-662
5-642
0-33
5-481
5-462
0-34
5-291
7-336
7-304
7-273
7-241
7-027
6-998
6-968
6-712
6-685
6-939
6-658
6-498
6-740
6-472
6-446
6-420
6-395
6-246
6-222
6-198
6-174
6-150
6-010
5-789
5-987
5-965
5-942
5-920
5-810
5-767
5-746
5-725
5-704
5-621
5-601
5-581
5-540
5-521
5-501
5-442
5-423
5-404
5-385
5-560
5-366
5-347
5-328
5-310
5-273
5-255
5-236
5-218
5-200
5-182
5-165
5-147
5-130
5-077
4-910
4-752
4-602
4-460
5-060
4-894
4-736
4-588
4-447
5-043
5-026
4-878
5-009
4-846
4-959
4-798
4-433
4-419
4-544
4-406
4-992
4-830
4-676
4-530
4-392
4-976
4-814
4-661
4-573
4-862
4-706
4-559
4-516
4-379
4-646
4-502
4-366
4-300
4-174
4-055
3-942
3-835
4-287
4-162
4-043
3-824
4-274
4-150
4-032
3-920
3-814
4-262
4-138
4-020
3-909
3-804
4-249
4-126
4-009
3-898
3-793
4-236
4-114
3-998
3-887
3-783
3-704
3-609
3-520
3-436
3-356
3-694
3-600
3-684
3-591
3-503
3-419
3-341
0-35
5-112
5-095
0-36
4-943
4-926
0-37
4-783
4-767
0-38
4-631
4-617
0-39
4-488
4-474
0-40
0-43
3-986
0-44
3-877
4-339
4-211
4-090
3-975
3-866
4-326
0-42
4-352
4-224
4-102
3-964
3-856
4-313
4-186
4-066
3-953
3-845
0-45
3-773
3-763
3-753
3-743
3-733
3-723
3-713
3-656
3-646
3-637
3-628
3-618
3-529
3-444
3-364
0-41
8-760
4199
4-078
4-721
3-931
0-46
3-675
3-665
0-47
3-573
3-564
3-555
0-48
3-582
3-494
3-486
3-477
3-469
3-546
3-460
3-537
3-452
0-49
3-411
3-403
3-395
3-387
3-380
3-372
272
4-691
3-511
3-427
3-348
TABLE
^
*.
Correcting Factor
5.2.5C {continued)
2
COS 29 as a Function ofe
4Lp
^-=-1+
cos
sin
cos
sin
0-000
0001
0-002
0-003
0-004
0-005
0-006
0-007
0-008
0-009
0-50
3-333
3-326
3-289
3-282
3-225
3-218
3-212
0-52
3-185
3-178
3-172
3-159
3-153
3-146
3-274
3-205
3-140
3-267
3-253
3-304
3-232
3-166
3-296
3-260
3-192
3-318
3-246
3-311
0-51
0-53
3-128
3-122
3-115
3-109
3-103
3-097
3-092
3-086
3-080
3-134
3-074
0-54
3-068
3-063
3-057
3-051
3-046
3-040
3-035
3-029
3-024
3-019
2-988
2-983
2-978
2-973
2-968
2-940
2-935
2-892
2-931
2-926
2-888
2-884
2-850
2-922
2-880
2-843
2-811
sin
3-239
3-198
0-55
3-013
3-008
3-003
0-56
2-963
2-958
2-954
2-998
2-949
2-993
2-944
0-57
2-917
2-876
2-840
2-913
2-909
2-905
2-896
2-872
2-869
2-833
2-865
2-830
2-900
2-861
2-827
2-794
2-742
2-741
2-800
2-775
2-755
2-740
2-797
2-772
2-758
2-803
2-777
2-756
2-732
2-732
2-731
2-739
2-730
2-728
2-729
2-728
2-728
2-730
2-728
2-728
2-730
2-731
2-731
2-738
2-739
0-68
2-737
2-751
2-743
2-761
2-773
2-755
2-778
2-742
2-759
0-69
2-753
2-775
2-740
2-757
2-781
2-784
2-786
2-744
2-763
2-789
0-70
0-71
2-802
2-840
2-806
2-845
2-809
2-849
2-813
2-854
2-816
2-858
2-824
2-868
0-72
2-888
2-893
2-898
2-904
2-910
2-820
2-863
2-915
0-73
2-945
3-014
2-952
2-958
2-965
2-972
2-978
2-985
3-022
3-029
3-037
3-045
3-053
3-061
3-104
3-200
3-312
3-113
3-122
3-131
3-141
3-211
3-221
3-232
3-243
0-77
3-095
3-190
3-300
3-324
3-349
3-362
0-78
3-428
3-442
3-456
3-337
3-470
3-150
3-254
3-374
3-484
3-499
3-514
3-528
3-544
0-79
3-575
3-591
3-607
3-623
3-640
3-657
3-674
3-691
3-708
0-80
3-744
3-940
3-763
3-781
3-839
3-858
3-919
4-048
4-071
4-165
4-426
4-189
4-398
4-727
4-760
4-290
4-571
4-896
4-317
4-601
0-84
4-239
4-511
4-827
4-117
4-370
4-663
4-141
0-83
4-026
4-265
4-541
4-862
3-878
4-094
4-343
4-632
4-968
3-898
3-982
4-214
4-482
4-793
3-800
4-004
3-819
3-961
5-004
5-041
5-446
0-58
0-59
0-60
0-61
0-62
0-63
0-64
0-65
0-66
0-67
0-74
0-75
0-76
0-81
0-82
2-808
2-782
2-760
2-744
2-733
2-837
2-805
2-779
4-454
2-753
2-854
2-820
2-817
2-847
2-814
2-792
2-768
2-789
2-766
2-787
2-764
2-750
2-748
2-737
2-736
2-729
2-729
2-747
2-735
2-728
2-728
2-728
2-728
2-732
2-733
2-734
2-746
2-765
2-792
2-858
2-824
2-770
2-751
2-738
2-730
2-921
4-932
2-828
2-872
2-927
2-784
2-762
2-745
2-734
2-728
2-728
2-734
2-729
2-748
2-749
2-768
2-770
2-799
2-796
2-832
2-736
2-878
2-836
2-883
2-933
2-939
2-992
3-070
2-999
3-007
3-078
3-086
3-160
3-266
3-170
3-277
3-401
3-180
3-288
3-414
3-559
3-726
3-388
4-695
0-85
5-079
5-117
5-156
5-196
5-236
5-276
5-318
5-491
5-538
5-581
5-628
5-675
5-723
5-772
5-360
5-822
5-403
0-86
5-872
5-924
0-87
5-976
6-030
6-084
6-139
6-195
6-252
6-310
6-370
6-430
6-491
0-88
6-554
6-618
6-683
6-749
6-816
6-885
6-955
7-026
7-099
7-173
0-89
7-249
7-326
7-405
7-485
7-567
7-650
7-736
7-823
7-912
8-003
0-90
8096
8-287
8-697
9-145
9-385
8-488
9-637
8-591
0-91
9-768
9-902
10-78
0-92
10-47
8-190
9-264
10-62
0-93
12-20
12-40
12-61
8-386
9-510
10-94
12-82
0-94
14-52
14-79
15-08
0-95
17-79
18-19
18-61
0-96
22-73
0-97
31-00
23-37
32-15
0-98
47-61
50-23
0-99
97-52
108-6
8-805
10-04
8-916
10-18
9-029
10-32
11-11
11-28
11-45
11-63
11-81
12-00
13-04
13-27
13-50
13-74
13-99
14-25
15-38
15-68
1600
16-33
16-68
17-03
17-41
19-05
24-74
19-51
19-98
20-48
22-13
25-48
27-11
34-69
36-11
39-30
28-93
43-08
29-93
33-37
53-15
56-41
60-08
26-27
37-64
64-24
21-00
27-99
41-11
21-55
24-03
68-99
74-48
80-88
122-5
140-3
164-1
273
197-4
247-3
330-5
496-7
45-23
88-44
994-1
TABLE
Data
The table gives the

y=0 to 45 or 90
^\
(Lp)-^\^
y
5.2.5D
for the Construction of Constant (Lp)-1 Curves for Rotation and Oscillation Photographs
relationship between the x and y film co-ordinates in cm for constant (Lp) -1 values
to 45. Data for camera radius of 5x2-865 cm; y is parallel to the rotation axis.
0-0
1-5
2-0
2-5
5-0
7-5
10-0
12-5
15-0
17-5
20-0
22-5
from
25-0
0-10
1-43
1-43
1-43
1-43
1-43
1-44
1-46
1-49
1-53
1-58
1-65
1-72
1-80
0-20
2-83
2-83
2-83
2-83
2-84
2-86
2-89
2-96
3-04
3-15
3-28
3-43
3-59
0-30
4-18
4-18
4-18
4-18
4-20
4-23
4-29
4-39
4-53
4-70
4-90
5-12
5-37
0-40
5-46
5-47
5-47
5-47
5-49
5-55
5-64
5-78
5-97
6-21
6-49
6-80
7-15
0-50
6-68
6-68
6-68
6-69
6-73
6-80
6-94
7-13
7-38
7-69
8-06
8-48
8-95
0-60
0-70
7-82
7-83
7-83
7-84
7-89
8-00
8-17
8-42
8-75
9-15
9-62
10-16
10-77
8-89
8-90
8-91
8-91
8-99
9-13
9-36
9-67
1008
10-59
11-19
11-88
12-68
0-80
9-90
9-91
9-92
9-93
10-03
10-22
10-50
10-89
11-40
12-03
12-79
13-68
14-75
0-90
10-86
10-87
10-88
10-90
11-02
11-25
11-60
12-09
12-71
13-50
14-47
15-68
17-26
1-00
11-77
11-78
11-80
11-82
11-97
12-26
12-68
13-27
14-05
15-05
16-35
18-18
18-75
1-10
12-64
12-66
12-68
12-70
12-89
13-23
13-75
14-47
15-45
16-77
1-20
13-48
13-51
13-53
13-55
13-79
14-20
14-83
15-72
17-00
18-97
1-30
14-30
14-34
14-36
14-39
14-67
15-17
15-94
17-09
18-91
1-40
15-12
15-16
15-19
15-22
15-60
16-17
17-13
18-71
1-50
15-94
15-98
16-02
16-06
16-47
17-22
18-50 21-56
1-60
16-77
16-83
16-87
16-93
17-43
18-41
20-42
1-70
17-66
17-73
17-78
17-86
18-50
19-91
1-80
18-64
18-73
18-80
18-90
19-82
1-90
19-83
1-95
20-63
19-97 20-08 20-24

20-84 21-02 21-30
1-98
21-33
21-71
22-27
274
These figures give the

x film co-ordinates in cm.
TABLE
Values of
for a
Range of Values of
5.2.5E
x
at which (Lp)~ assumes the Values 0,
ror noiTnai-oeam recording K^P) -=-
^\
(Lp)-i\^
0-2
0-100
0-197
0-3
0-291
0-1
01,
0-2,
0-1
0-2
0-3
0-4
0-5
0-6
0-7
0-8
0-005
0-020
0-101
0046
0-108
0-083
0-127
0-196
0-287
0-198
0-207
0-134
0-164
0-229
0-200
0-220
0-270
0-335
0-405
0-286
0-299
0-336
0-400
0-409
0-436
0-388
0-477
0-526
0-460
0-533
0-602
0-668
0-730
0-476
0-545
0-677
0-740
0-512
0-576
0-641
0-704
0-767
0-767
0-834
0-906
0-991
0-100
0-197
0-290
0-378
0-288
0-292
0-375
0-376
0-306
0-384
0-448
0-379
0-5
0-461
0-458
0-456
0-538
0-536
0-532
0-455
0-530
0-610
0-677
0-739
0-607
0-674
0-736
0-603
0-601
0-9
0-462
0-539
0-611
0-678
0-740
0-670
0-733
0-667
0-730
1-0
0-798
0-798
0-795
0-792
0-789
0-790
1-1
0-853
0-851
0-848
0-846
0-848
0-800
0-860
0-830
0-894
0-906
0-957
0-901
0-905
0-920
0-962
0-954
0-955
0-961
0-981
1-038
1-007
0-904
0-955
1-006
0-902
1-4
0-854
0-907
0-958
1-007
1-006
1-008
1-018
1-046
1-144
1-5
1056
1056
1-056
1-057
1-063
1-078
1-122
1-146
1-281
1-240
0-7
0-8
1-2
1-3
20
1+ cos 2 20
0-4
0-6
.,
0-376
1-6
1-105
1-105
1-107
1-110
1-120
1-7
1-156
1-157
1-160
1-167
1-185
1-8
1-211
1-213
1-219
1-234
1-275
1-9
1-276
1-280
1-294
1-344
2-0
1-414
0-613
0-582
0-641
0-703
1-9
1-540
1-530
1-498
1-419
1-8
1-591
1-584
1-560
1-516
1-7
1-632
1-625
1-605
1-568
1-508
1-401
1-6
1-667
1-661
1-642
1-609
1-557
1-479
1-281
1-5
1-698
1-693
1-675
1-644
1-597
1-529
1-421
1-4
1-728
1-722
1-705
1-676
1-632
1-570
1-478
1-308
1-3
1-756
1-751
1-734
1-706
1-664
1-605
1-522
1-394
1-2
1-783
1-777
1-761
1-734
1-694
1-638
1-560
1-448
1-1
1-809
1-804
1-788
1-761
1-722
1-668
1-594
1-490
1-318
1-433
10
1-834
1-829
1-813
1-787
1-749
1-696
1-625
1-527
1-378
0-9
1-858
1-853
1-838
1-812
1-774
1-722
1-653
1-559
1-423
0-8
1-882
1-877
1-862
1-836
1-799
1-748
1-680
1-589
1-460
0-7
1-904
1-900
1-885
1-859
1-822
1-771
1-704
1-615
1-492
0-6
1-926
1-921
1-906
1-881
1-844
1-793
1-727
1-639
1-519
0-5
1-946
1-941
1-926
1-901
1-864
1-813
1-747
1-661
1-543
0-4
1-964
1-959
1-944
1-918
1-881
1-831
1-765
1-679
1-563
1-579
0-3
1-979
1-974
1-959
1-933
1-896
1-846
1-780
1-694
0-2
1-990
1-985
1-970
1-944
1-907
1-857
1-791
1-705
1-590
0-1
1-998
1-993
1-977
1-952
1-914
1-864
1-798
1-712
1-598
2-000
1-995
1-980
1-954
1-917
1-866
1-800
1-714
1-600
275
TABLE
Data
5.2.5F
for the Construction of Constant (Lp)- 1 Curves for Equi-inclination Weissenberg Photographs
The
table gives the relationship between
(LpK\^
0-0
2-5
5-0
7-5
100
Y and
12-5
\i
in degrees for constant (Lp)- 1 values
15-0
17-5
20-0
22-5
25-0
27-5
300
3-6
0-10
5-7
5-7
5-6
5-5
5-4
5-2
5-0
4-8
4-5
4-3
4-0
3-8
0-20
11-3
11-3
1M
10-9
10-7
10-3
9-9
9-5
9-0
8-5
8-1
7-6
7-1
0-30
16-7
16-7
16-5
16-2
15-8
15-3
14-8
14-1
13-4
12-7
12-0
11-3
10-7
0-40
21-9
21-8
21-6
21-2
20-7
20-1
19-4
18-6
17-7
16-9
15-9
15-1
14-2
0-50
26-7
26-6
26-4
26-0
25-4
24-7
23-9
22-9
21-9
20-9
19-8
18-7
17-7
0-60
31-3
31-2
30-9
30-5
29-8
29-0
28-1
27-1
25-9
24-7
23-5
22-3
0-70
35-6
35-5
35-2
34-7
34-0
33-2
32-2
3M
2M
29-8
28-5
27-2
25-8
24-5
0-80
39-6
39-5
39-2
38-7
38-0
37-1
36-1
34-9
33-6
32-2
30-7
29-3
27-9
0-90
43-4
43-3
43-0
42-5
41-8
40-9
39-8
38-6
37-2
35-8
34-2
32-7
31-3
1-00
47-1
47-0
46-6
46-1
45-4
44-5
43-4
42-1
40-7
39-2
37-7
36-1
34-6
M0
50-5
50-4
50-1
49-6
48-9
47-9
46-8
45-6
44-2
42-6
4M
39-5
37-9
1-20
53-9
53-8
53-5
53-0
52-2
51-3
50-2
49-0
47-5
46-0
44-4
42-8
41-2
1-30
57-2
57-1
56-8
56-3
55-6
54-6
53-5
52-3
50-9
49-4
47-8
46-2
44-6
1-40
60-5
60-4
60-1
59-5
58-8
57-9
56-9
55-6
54-2
52-7
51-2
49-6
48-1
1-50
63-7
63-6
63-3
62-8
62-1
61-3
60-2
59-0
57-7
56-2
54-7
53-1
51-4
1-60
67-1
67-0
66-7
66-2
65-5
64-7
63-7
62-5
61-2
59-8
58-3
56-9
55-5
1-70
70-6
70-5
70-3
69-8
69-1
68-3
67-3
66-2
65-0
63-6
62-3
61-0
59-8
1-80
74-6
74-5
74-2
73-7
73-1
72-3
71-4
70-4
69-2
68-0
66-8
65-7
64-7
1-90
79-3
79-2
79-0
78-6
78-0
77-3
76-4
75-5
74-5
73-5
72-6
72-0
71-9
1-95
82-5
82-4
82-2
81-8
81-3
80-6
79-8
79-0
78-2
77-5
77-2
77-7
1-98
85-3
85-2
85-0
84-6
84-1
83-5
82-9
82-3
81-9
82-3
2-00
90-0
1-98
94-7
94-6
94-4
94-1
93-6
92-8
91-9
90-6
88-9
86-1
1-95
97-5
97-4
97-2
96-8
96-4
95-8
950
93-9
92-6
90-9
88-6
85-3
1-90
100-7
100-6
100-4
100-1
99-7
99-1
98-4
97-5
96-4
95-0
93-3
91-1
1-80
105-4
105-4
105-2
105-0
104-6
104-1
103-4
102-7
101-7
100-6
99-3
97-7
95-7
1-70
109-4
109-3
109-2
108-9
108-6
108-1
107-6
106-9
106-1
105-1
103-9
102-6
101-0
1-60
112-9
112-9
112-7
112-5
112-2
111-8
111-3
110-7
110-0
109-1
108-1
106-9
105-6
1-50
116-3
116-2
116-1
115-9
115-6
115-3
114-8
114-3
113-6
112-9
112-0
111-0
109-8
1-40
119-5
119-5
119-4
119-2
119-0
118-6
118-2
117-8
117-2
116-5
115-7
114-9
113-9
1-30
122-8
122-8
122-7
122-5
122-3
122-0
121-6
121-2
120-7
120-1
119-5
118-7
117-8
1-20
126-1
126-1
126-0
125-8
125-6
125-4
125-1
124-7
124-3
123-8
123-2
122-5
121-8
1-10
129-5
129-4
129-4
129-2
129-1
128-9
128-6
128-3
127-9
127-5
127-0
126-4
125-8
1-00
132-9
132-9
132-9
132-8
132-6
132-4
132-2
131-9
131-6
131-3
130-9
130-4
129-9
0-90
136-6
136-6
136-5
136-4
136-3
136-2
136-0
135-8
135-5
135-2
134-9
134-5
134-1
0-80
140-4
140-4
140-3
140-3
140-2
140-1
139-9
139-7
139-5
139-3
139-1
138-8
138-4
0-70
144-4
144-4
144-4
144-3
144-3
144-2
144-1
143-9
143-8
143-6
143-4
143-2
143-0
0-60
148-7
148-7
148-7
148-7
148-6
148-5
148-5
148-4
148-3
148-1
148-0
147-9
147-7
0-50
153-3
153-3
153-3
153-2
153-2
153-2
153-1
153-1
153-0
152-9
152-8
152-7
152-6
0-40
0-30
0-20
158-1
158-1
158-1
158-1
158-1
158-1
158-0
158-0
158-0
157-9
157-9
157-8
157-8
163-3
163-3
163-3
163-3
163-3
163-3
163-2
163-2
163-2
163-2
163-2
163-1
163-1
168-7
168-7
168-7
168-7
168-7
168-7
168-7
168-7
168-7
168-7
168-6
168-6
168-6
0-10
174-3
174-3
174-3
174-3
174-3
174-3
174-3
174-3
174-3
174-3
174-3
174-3
174-3
88-4
Points of inflection for (Lp)- 1 =l-95, ^=43-2 and r=80-5; for (Lp)" 1 =l-98, ^=34-4 and 7=84-5.
2
1
It should be noted that in this table the function designated (Lp)- is 2 sin Y/(l+ cos 20). The true value of
2
2
2
1
(Lp)- is in fact 2 cos /x sin >7(1+ cos 20), but the factor cos n has been omitted, as it is constant for all reflections
on the same
layer line.
276
TABLE
Values of
for a
Range of Values of
For
5.2.5G
at which (Lp)
_1
assumes the Values
equi-inclination recording (Lp)
_1
1+ cos 2
0-2
0-1
0-3
0-4
0-5
0-6
0-7
0,
01,
0-2,
.,
2.0
2 cos
0-
20*
0-9
1-0
1-2
1-4
1-6
0-070
0090
(Lp)"
0-1
0-2
0-3
0-4
0-5
0-6
0-7
0-8
0-9
1-0
0-100 0-099 0-098 0-096

0-197 0-196 0-194 0-191
0-291 0-290 0-287 0-282
0-379 0-378 0-374 0-368
0-462 0-461
0-539 0-538
0-611 0-609
0-678 0-676
0-740 0-738
0-094 0-091
0-186 0-180
0-275 0-267
0-360 0-349
0-456 0-449 0-439 0-427

0-533 0-525 0-514 0-501
0-604 0-596 0-584 0-570
0-671 0-662 0-650 0-635
0-733 0-724 0-712 0-697
0-087 0-084 0-080 0-076 0-072 0-067

0-173 0-166 0-158 0-151 0-144 0-135
0-257 0-246 0-235 0-224 0-214 0-202
0-337 0-324 0-310 0-296 0-284 0-269
0-413
0-486
0-554
0-618
0-680
0-398
0-468
0-382
0-366
0-451
0-433
0-760
0-819
0-878
0-940
1-5
1-056
1-055
1-050
1-044
1-035
1-025
1-015
1-008
1-009
1-6
1-105
1-104
1-100
1-095
1-088
1-080
1-075
1-076
1-096
1-166
1-2
1-3
1-4
1-156
1-155
1-152
1-148
1-144
1-141
1-144
1-8
1-211
1-211
1-209
1-208
1-209
1-216
1-252
1-9
1-276
1-277
1-279
1-286
1-307
2-0
1-414
1-9
1-540
1-591
593
509
560
454
515
1-360
1-632
516
572
615
483
547
1-7
1-454
1-364
1-6
1-667
534
587
628
663
424
1-8
651
630
601
561
1-509
1-439
1-340
683
714
742
769
796
664
695
725
753
780
637
669
700
729
756
600
635
667
697
726
1-5
1-698
1-728
1-3
1-756
1-2
1-783
695
724
752
779
1-1
1-809
805
831
855
879
1-0
1-834
0-9
1-858
0-8
1-882
0-7
1-904
0-6
1-926
0-5
1-946
0-4
1-964
902
923
0-3
1-979
0-2
1-990
0-1
1-998
2-000
821
846
870
893
915
935
953
968
1
1
943
961
976
988
995
997
1
1
1
1
980
987
990
806
831
855
879
901
921
902
940
955
967
975
977
921
937
949
957
960
1
1
1
0-883
0-944 0-981
1-034
1-552
1-491
1-412
1-299
1-590
1-534
1-464
1-373
1-238
1-625
1-573
1-508
1-427
1-321
1-657
1-608
1-547
1-473
1-380
1-688
1-641
1-583
1-514
1-429
1-167
1-248
754
1-717
1-672
1-618
1-552
1-473
781
1-745
1-702
1-651
1-588
1-513
1-311
807
832
855
1-773
1-731
1-680
1-621
1-551
1-365
1-041
1-799
1-758
1-710
1-653
1-586
1-413
1-142
1-823
1-784
1-738
1-683
1-619
1-456
1-216
877 1-846
897 1-866
913 1-883
926 1-897
934 1-905
936 1-908
1-808
1-763
1-711
1-650
1-495
1-277
1-830
1-786
1-736
1-677
1-530
1-328
0-873
1-013
1-848
1-806
1-756
1-700
1-559
1-370
1-097
1-862
1-820
1-772
1-717
1-581
1-402
1-154
1-870
1-830
1-783
1-728
1-595
1-421
1-188
1-873
1-833
1-786
1-732
1-600
1-428
1-200
881
0-873
0-562
783
809
834
858
0-363
0-445
0-537
0-702 0-685 0-673 0-695

0-746 0-738 0-792
0-808 0-807
1-7
1-4
0-336
0-403
0-536 0-517 0-499 0-483 0-471

0-600 0-581 0-562 0-547 0-541 0-654
0-661 0-642 0-624 0-610 0-614
0-798 0-797 0-791 0-783 0-771 0-756 0-739 0-720

0-854 0-852 0-847 0-838 0-826 0-812 0-795 0-778
0-907 0-905 0-900 0-891 0-880 0-866 0-850 0-834
0-958 0-956 0-951 0-943 0-932 0-919 0-905 0-890
1-007 1-005 1-001 0-993 0-983 0-972 0-959 0-947
1-1
0*351
0-418
0-184
0-212 0-284
0-286 0-399
0-141
1
1
1
277
5.2.
TABLE
(C. E.
5.2.5H
Nordman)
Lorentz-polarization Corrections for the Precession Method, jx=30
while values of the angular co-ordinate t are given at

the top of each column. Values and locations of
maxima are given at the bottom of each column. The
horizontal direction on the film corresponds to t=0.
A. Zero Level
Entries are the values of the radial co-ordinate
10 3 x (in dimensionless reciprocal-lattice units) for

which (Lp) -1 has the value given in column at left,
^\^^
(Lp)-^\^
0-05
10
20
0-15
30
59
89
0-20
118
30
60
90
120
0-25
149
151
154
186
218
0-10
31
62
92
123
32
63
94
126
158
0-30
179
181
0-35
210
0-40
241
0-45
274
306
212
243
276
308
250
282
314
224
257
290
323
340
373
407
445
485
347
380
415
454
493
356
390
425
464
504
528
575
633
674
536
583
639
678
547
594
646
0-50
0-55
0-60
0-65
0-70
0-75
0-80
338
370
404
442
482
0-90
524
573
630
0-925
671
0-85
0-95
40
50
33
35
67
100
134
71
141
168
176
202
236
270
304
212
247
30
191
681
761
60
70
80
36
72
108
146
182
38
76
115
153
190
38
77
117
156
193
38
78
118
158
195
228
265
338
350
361
337
372
232
269
306
343
378
233
281
317
219
254
290
326
372
406
442
480
519
386
421
396
431
467
505
542
413
449
484
415
457
495
532
407
443
478
515
552
521
106
561
571
580
605
653
685
734
613
660
688
725
621
0-975
301
556
593
451
485
522
559
595
632
672
695
724
765
756
751
851
873
864
883
897
749
817
870
886
900
910
927
939
949
958
971
665
691
807
842
861
826
860
879
862
892
912
927
939
878
903
920
934
946
893
914
929
941
951
901
921
935
946
954
907
925
938
948
957
890
721
0-925
799
803
811
0-90
826
865
889
909
924
829
866
849
882
904
910
926
836
872
896
914
929
949
966
992
1000
950
967
952
968
956
971
959
973
963
975
967
978
969
979
970
980
0-941
0-942
0-945
0-951
0-958
0-969
0-982
0-991
0-997
1-000
741
745
751
762
773
786
798
808
814
817
0-85
0-80
0-75
0-70
0-60
0-50
0-25
0-00
-1
at max.
Corresponding
value of 10 3 .
(Lp)
380
630
670
694
722
764
826
835
271
307
345
588
627
668
693
723
1-000
0-975
0-95
90
891
921
934
278
980
995
1000
5.2.
TABLE
5.2. ,5H
(continued)
Lorentz-polarization Corrections for the Precession Method, j=30

directions of the
B. Upper Levels
Entries are the values of the radial co-ordinate
_1
has the value given in the
10 3 x for which (Lp)
column at left, while the axial co-ordinate and the
angular co-ordinate r have the values given at the top
of each table. Values and locations of maxima for
each and t are given at the bottom of the tables. The
-1
vs.
$ values were derived from a set of graphs of (Lp)
g for and t = const, by means of graphical interpolation. No attempt has been made to eliminate
possible interpolation errors by smoothing in the
_1
(Lp)
and t co-ordinates. The
scale of
the same as that used in the zero-level table.

horizontal direction on the film corresponds to
The
is
T=0.
and are in dimensionless reciprocal-lattice units.
3
There are two columns under each 10 x increases
;
downward
in the
first
column
until the
maximum
_1
is reached, and then increases upward in the
(Lp)
_1
second column as (Lp ) decreases. All values are
not included in the second column, since the increments are so small.
T=0
^\
(Lp)- 1
00
17
0-1
0-2
62
120
0-3
178
0-4
238
0-5
299
365
434
0-6
0-7
0-8
0-9
503
595
1017
78
1078
101
140
187
143
155
184
1070
1062
220
258
287
339
396
454
519
1054
1043
1029
299
589
680
954
895
1005
997
236
985
969
948
917
872
1-0
010
0-05
0-01
^^
1011
987
341
386
434
484
1-2
536
593
657
1-3
740
1-1
1143
1078
1059
1036
1004
954
288
294
308
328
352
1288
246
253
272
296
322
322
356
395
434
475
350
380
412
446
480
376
402
430
459
490
424
445
468
490
514
519
563
516
555
594
636
682
520
552
587
538
563
589
616
645
1198
198
1-4
612
664
725
1100
1075
1043
1-5
800
992
1-7
1246
621
659
730
786
859
1106
1073
1023
1-8
1-9
697
741
788
842
923
1158
1132
1098
1035
2-0
2-1
2-2
_1
at max.
Corresponding
value of 10 3 .
357
360
370
386
404
208
230
258
288
1-6
(Lp)
0-35
0-25
0-20
0-15
1357
674
705
738
772
808
1228
1209
846
895
954
1188
1156
1108
0-987
1-159
1-364
1-558
1-744
1-923
2-256
752
800
854
904
945
981
1038
279
5.2.
TABLE
5.2.5H {continued)
Lorentz-polarization Corrections for the Precession Method, {Z=30 c
T=15
0-01
0-0
0-1
0-2
17
63
120
1017
180
243
1005
997
986
970
950
919
874
0-05
78
1078
0-10
143
0-15
1143
142
198
1198
208
156
186
101
0-20
246
253
351
416
450
486
378
405
433
463
495
424
446
470
493
517
522
562
602
645
692
526
558
593
629
667
542
568
595
623
652
231
271
222
260
260
296
324
302
344
531
1055
1044
1031
1013
990
325
360
400
440
482
600
695
956
898
1-4
526
572
623
678
738
1102
1077
1042
1-5
818
988
0-4
0-5
306
0-6
371
0-7
440
512
606
0-8
0-9
1-0
189
239
290
343
402
462
291
391
439
490
1080
1-2
601
671
1062
1038
1005
1-3
753
952
1-1
543
351
383
1-6
1-7
288
293
308
328
0-35
357
360
370
385
404
1069
1062
0-3
1246
0-25
740
802
886
1107
1074
1013
1-8
1-9
708
753
802
857
961
1288
1157
1133
1096
1014
2-0
2-1
2-2
682
714
745
780
1357
818
1230
1210
860
909
980
1187
1154
1100
(Lp) -1 at max.
0-984
1-153
1-353
1-544
1-730
1-906
2-231
Corresponding
value of 10 3 .
760
805
860
910
952
988
1042
280
5.2.
TABLE
5.2.5H (continued)
Lorentz-polarization Corrections for the Precession Method, p[=30
t=30
00
17
0-1
66
127
0-2
1017
0-3
191
0-4
255
1006
1000
0-5
320
388
458
539
633
990
976
956
929
884
0-6
0-7
0-8
0-9
0-05
0-01
(Lp)-^\^
1-0
78
102
144
196
248
1078
143
156
185
1070
1064
225
268
312
358
406
551
1058
1048
1035
1020
997
627
729
965
904
569
631
304
359
421
486
460
512
0-20
0-15
0-10
1143
198
1198
208
230
260
295
370
412
455
499
671
1-4
1108
1084
1050
1-5
876
976
775
1-2
702
799
1-3
1069
1045
1012
953
1-6
1288
1-7
1-8
738
787
839
906
1357
552
540
576
614
652
694
1113
1077
357
360
370
385
404
425
448
474
499
526
410
440
473
506
719
841
288
292
308
328
353
381
540
582
626
546
598
650
708
770
1-1
1246
356
390
426
462
500
331
1087
246
252
270
294
324
0-35
0-25
581
610
640
672
1166
1136
1093
1-9
2-0
2-1
704
738
774
812
852
1235
1214
899
960
1188
1146
(Lp) -1 at max.
0-978
1-144
1-334
1-518
1-699
1-867
2-179
Corresponding
value of 10 3 .
774
821
878
928
971
1014
1060
281
5.2.
TABLE
5.2.5H (continued)
Lorentz-polarization Corrections for the Precession Method, {Z=30 c
t=45
0-01
0-0
17
0-1
70
1017
0-05
78
102
0-10
0-15
1078
143
206
229
262
342
386
433
1143
198
1198
0-2
136
0-3
202
270
1008
1001
206
264
1070
1066
154
186
231
278
339
410
484
564
650
993
980
965
323
386
447
515
582
1060
1052
1040
1026
1006
327
378
433
488
546
1093
529
659
756
980
926
604
669
740
836
1078
1058
1025
973
1-4
582
634
690
746
814
1121
1097
1064
1-5
926
995
0-4
0-5
0-6
0-7
0-8
0-9
149
941
904
1-0
1-1
1-2
1-3
301
480
1-6
0-20
246
252
269
296
329
1246
0-25
288
292
306
326
354
1288
0-35
357
360
368
383
402
364
402
442
484
527
385
418
453
490
527
427
452
480
510
540
570
616
663
566
606
647
690
734
570
603
635
711
763
821
887
1128
1090
1-7
1-8
670
705
781
830
887
962
1357
1177
1150
1100
1-9
740
779
818
856
903
2-0
954
2-1
1025
1246
1225
1195
1146
(Lp) -1 at max.
0-985
1-144
1-330
1-506
1-679
1-841
2-134
Corresponding
value of 10 3
800
851
908
960
1000
1040
1091
282
5.2.
TABLE
5.2.5H (continued)
Lorentz-polarization Corrections for the Precession Method, jl=30
t=60
(Lp)-^\^
001
00
17
0-1
74
0-05
1017
78
1078
143
154
186
1143
198
1198
0-25
0-20
0-15
0-10
246
1246
1288
288
0-35
1357
357
360
367
380
251
291
267
294
330
304
324
354
388
426
468
510
552
426
454
487
563
372
417
462
510
558
1-4
616
670
723
779
842
1110
1085
605
654
702
750
800
598
642
685
730
775
592
629
667
706
743
1-5
927
1030
101
0-2
145
0-3
218
290
1009
1002
995
985
0-8
362
432
504
580
0-9
661
952
922
1-0
780
849
0-4
0-5
0-6
0-7
971
1-1
155
218
282
204
228
262
236
290
345
410
476
542
608
1062
1055
1046
1034
1017
680
763
994
956
1-2
1-3
308
355
408
460
512
346
404
462
520
579
637
698
763
847
1087
1070
1044
1002
1-6
853
916
400
821
1110
868
921
991
1-8
557
781
1141
1-7
521
1190
1166
1127
2-0
2-1
820
860
901
946
1258
996
1067
1212
1164
1238
(Lp) -1 at max.
1-008
1-167
1-351
1-522
1-688
1-848
2-130
Corresponding
value of 10 3 .
818
870
930
985
1026
1064
1115
283
5.2.
TABLE
5.2.5H {continued)
Lorentz-polarization Corrections for the Precession Method, jl=30 c
t=75
0-01
0-0
17
0-1
78
154
0-2
0-3
0-4
0-5
1017
228
302
1009
1004
375
446
0-8
515
587
0-9
661
998
988
975
958
932
1-0
753
886
0-6
0-7
1-1
0-05
78
100
160
228
1078
363
558
621
689
762
143
152
0-15
1143
186
1063
1058
1050
1038
1024
362
424
485
1004
656
714
772
845
974
198
1198
204
226
262
312
240
300
300
430
496
0-10
543
600
1093
1078
1055
1020
1246
288
303
322
352
357
359
366
379
398
424
456
492
532
572
612
653
583
390
434
482
528
575
641
632
679
725
772
819
622
667
712
756
798
1-4
1-5
921
1059
1-6
1-7
868
922
1005
1288
291
378
429
482
532
1122
1097
1-3
246
250
265
292
332
1154
1125
1076
1-8
0-35
0-25
367
424
480
534
589
692
743
794
852
1-2
0-20
843
889
936
993
1357
694
734
773
1200
1179
1149
1-9
2-0
2-1
810
848
886
927
968
1268
1250
1013
1073
1225
1190
(Lp) _1 at max.
1-032
1-189
1-377
1-550
1-716
1-873
2-146
Corresponding
value of 10 3 .^
829
880
951
1002
1042
1077
1132
284
5.2.
TABLE
5.2.5H {continued)
Lorentz-polarization Corrections for the Precession Method, (1=30
t=90
^\
(Lp)-i\^
*
001
0-0
17
0-1
80
157
232
307
0-2
1017
78
100
162
1008
1004
234
302
998
989
978
372
436
502
961
0-9
380
448
517
586
656
563
625
10
744
893
0-3
0-4
0-5
0-6
0-7
0-8
937
1078
143
1143
198
152
186
204
224
240
307
261
313
1064
1058
1050
1040
1026
369
433
494
550
608
432
489
545
1008
663
717
773
842
1198
598
1-4
650
700
749
798
852
1124
1103
1-5
918
1071
1-1
1-2
690
758
866
979
890
1-3
1095
1080
1060
1030
246
266
292
333
288
291
303
322
352
380
433
487
540
592
438
488
537
586
1246
251
371
1-7
1160
1132
1094
1-8
850
893
939
992
1205
1184
1156
2-1
at max.
Corresponding
value of 10 3 .|
1357
620
663
705
744
782
2-0
_1
357
359
366
378
398
578
1-9
(Lp)
0-35
422
456
494
535
632
678
722
765
808
688
734
779
826
872
924
993
1288
391
641
1-6
0-25
0-20
0-15
0-10
0-05
820
858
896
934
974
1275
1256
1016
1070
1232
1199
1-043
1-202
1-387
1-562
1-728
1-886
2-158
832
885
955
1008
1048
1082
1140
285
5.2.
TABLE
(J.
(Lp)
_1
5.2.51
Kraut)
for Zero-level Precession Photographs, for
The following tables list Lorentz-polarization correction factors (Lp)
_1
The horizontal table co-ordinate corresponds

on the film.
Tables are given for odd precession angles p.
between 11 and 29; values for even precession angles

may be obtained by interpolation, provided that points
near the outer edges of the tables are avoided.
The tables were prepared with the aid of an IBM-650
digital computer.
The
000
005
0-10
0-15
0-20
0-25
0-30
0-35
000
005
010
1268
1817
1396
1228
1371
1706
0-15
1771
1856
2069
0-20
2217
2264
2381
1892
2085
2319
2504
2254
2295
2398
2508
2513
2525
2545
2521
2354
2484
2463
2380
2163
1612
1883
0627
0650
0896
reciprocal-lattice units are dimensionless.
0-25
2500
2506
1932
2516
2487
2544
2407
2528
2190
1845
1522
0351
015
=0
0-30
0-35
>
2541
1799
1483
0342
2362
1630
1822
0-20
0-25
0-30
0-35
0-40
2540
2548
2561
2556
2484
2519
2506
2459
2343
2085
2116
2260
1488
t=90
ji=13
r.l.u.
000
005
010
000
005
010
015
0553
0758
1164
1086
1580
2011
2346
0525
1037
1196
1649
2054
2371
1469
1830
2171
1518
1598
1806
0-20
1949
2000
2137
2072
2315
2328
2478
2435
2513
0-25
2379
2181
2409
2560
2492
1976
2563
2499
2119
0-40
2330
2537
2536
2135
2503
2565
0-35
2300
2526
2546
1615
0593
0-30
2563
2519
2271
1509
fi
to the horizontal direction
r.l.u.
Values of
the axes.
for zero-level precession photographs
only, and are designed to facilitate the convenient

preparation of charts such as that published by Waser
They represent
[17] for the precession angle 30.
Waser's function, suitably scaled,' evaluated at points
0-05 reciprocal-lattice units (r.l.u.) apart in one quadrant of the zero-level reciprocal lattice plane. The
remaining quadrants are obtained by reflection across
ll
Odd
1673
286
2071
1915
1565
0575
5.2.
TABLE
(Lp)
-1
5.2.51 (continued)
Odd
Values of
jZ
|i=15
r.l.u.
000
005
010
015
0-20
0-25
0-30
0-35
0-40
0-45
0-50
0950
1395
1800
1045
1455
1841
0891
1006
1282
1619
1955
1846
2096
2118
2415
2430
2473
2529
2576
2567
2572
2581
2582
2549
2550
2542
2512
2443
2298
2256
2229
2136
1946
2299
2147
2175
2251
2359
2474
1327
0449
0481
0656
2331
2513
2465
2574
2568
2563
2582
2459
2577
2480
2182
2438
2168
1527
2005
1357
0565
2346
2046
0586
1380
1629
0-15
0-20
0-25
0-30
0-35
0-40
0-45
0-50
1247
2581
2354
2336
2275
2156
=0
000
005
010
015
1316
1391
1587
0-20
1714
1765
1904
0-25
0-45
2070
2360
2552
2585
2338
2104
2382
2560
2579
2310
2199
2439
2580
2554
2216
0-50
1410
1316
0961
005
010
0426
0576
0845
0926
0-30
0-35
0-40
2592
2489
2020
1239
0905
1568
>
t=90
=17
r.l.u.
000
005
010
000
0-50
0-55
2511
2398
2485
2552
2591
2591
2575
2555
2510
2420
2565
2608
2572
2433
2093
1232
2531
2249
1533
2386
2077
1374
1921
0415
1134
1653
1565
1891
1854
2158
2409
2579
2624
1890
2183
2425
2586
2620
1989
2253
2469
2603
2606
2133
2295
2354
2528
2619
2567
2465
2585
2614
2481
2449
2560
2614
2561
2308
2609
2581
2414
2453
1838
2435
1789
2375
1622
2253
1263
2028
1602
0433
0-25
0-45
2321
2179
2313
2594
2597
2604
2607
1406
1700
1516
0-40
2471
2481
1223
0-20
0-35
2251
2270
0881
0-15
0-30
1963
1989
2065
1623
1660
1766
1922
2106
0390
0776
1154
1300
1446
1969
287
1208
1939
0-55
1716
1669
1514
1178
5.2.
TABLE
(Lp)
jl=19
-1
5.2.51 {continued)
Odd
Values of jl
000
r.l.u.
005
010
015
0-20
0-25
0-30
0-35
0-40
0-45
0-50
0-55
0-60
,
000
005
010
0383
0512
0761
1127
1476
1800
0831
1174
1509
0780
1013
1303
1605
0-15
0684
1020
1084
1256
1490
1748
0-20
1348
1395
1524
1710
1924
0-25
1663
1699
1798
0-30
1960
2061
0-35
1944
2173
2382
2115
2305
2474
0-40
2228
2452
1986
2247
2500
0-45
2610
2465
2616
2631
2550
2648
2602
2654
0-50
2665
2548
2663
2536
2654
2631
2578
2495
2414
2106
0363
2074
1971
005
0348
0343
0-55
0-60
0-65
1825
2090
2109
2335
2348
1896
2161
2006
2143
2243
2344
2385
2441
2508
2292
2438
2562
2639
2630
2452
2552
2624
2638
2548
2574
2624
2634
2569
2367
2632
2623
2267
1546
1048
1768
2470
2015
0358
1886
2269
1386
010
0-15
0-20
0-25
0-30
0-35
0692
0754
0913
1029
1353
1660
1070
1383
1682
1183
1468
1747
1130
1351
1598
1850
1943
1960
2011
2090
1373
1552
1761
1980
2192
2196
2209
2246
2306
2383
1945
2136
2322
2490
2622
2130
2286
2438
2570
2662
2310
2432
2546
2636
2679
2469
2555
2628
2670
2652
2591
2692
2656
2438
2684
2587
2270
2532
2220
1841
1427
2640
2455
1984
0305
2301
2520
2528
2549
2580
2611
2623
2625
2630
2633
2625
2612
2608
2593
2562
2502
2429
2416
2374
2293
2152
2591
2507
2332
1984
1196
2393
2196
1832
1024
0-40
0-45
0-50
0-55
2408
2417
2566
2572
2587
2610
2636
2654
2655
2659
2644
2640
2629
2607
2564
2639
2665
2647
2552
2656
2660
2628
2535
2329
2637
2585
2478
2274
1882
2316
1789
1903
0965
0785
2557
2383
2002
1910
0-65
-^
>T = 0
1948
0325
1918
1822
1633
1280
0331
1468
=90
[i=21
r.l.u.
000
005
010
000
0-15
0304
0607
0908
0-20
1205
0460
0697
0968
1250
0-25
1496
1530
1627
1771
0-30
1777
2044
2286
2493
1880
2123
2345
2532
1995
0-35
1804
2064
2301
2503
2649
2708
2663
2704
0-65
2644
2709
2633
2302
2624
2280
0-70
1328
1261
2595
2209
1025
0-40
0-45
0-50
0-55
0-60
2213
2411
2575
2680
2690
2538
2074
0310
1460
288
2443
2485
2537
2661
2657
2490
2360
2137
1729
0765
0-60
0-65
0-70
2491
2107
2086
2020
1173
2482
2451
2392
2293
1895
1681
2132
1303
1865
0279
1375
1113
0905
0274
5.2.
TABLE
5.2.51 (continued)
(Lp)- 1 for Zero-level Precession Photographs, for
Odd
Values of ji
jl=23
0-75
005
010
015
0-20
0-25
0-30
0-35
0-40
0-45
0-50
0-55
0-60
0-65
0-70
1539
1812
2063
1828
1492
1874
2161
1378
1468
1711
1948
2076
2112
2171
2210
1618
0-20
1082
1125
1243
1617
1832
2046
2248
2546
2538
2514
2470
2397
1528
1559
2686
2687
2690
2692
2689
2226
1350
2472
2479
2499
2530
2570
2677
1275
2286
2296
2323
2368
2427
2611
0-15
0947
0983
1082
1232
1414
1249
0542
0812
0319
0417
0626
0870
0636
0689
0830
1022
0-25
1349
1382
1476
1617
1788
1975
2163
2340
2495
1714
1829
1972
2130
2291
2441
0-35
1869
1950
2291
2345
2512
2446
2584
2422
2546
2650
2541
2113
2338
2044
2252
2443
2161
0-40
1890
2130
2568
2635
2686
2703
2282
2100
1686
1639
2678
2626
2507
2676
2643
2574
2445
2209
2563
1613
2615
2657
2688
2693
2652
2682
0-30
2605
2716
2648
2688
2529
2257
2268
1787
0205
0596
2747
2644
2295
2726
2734
2680
2454
1870
1671
0211
1935
2660
2510
2164
1332
1764
2731
2706
2443
2567
2700
2755
2685
2392
1716
1585
1322
0763
000
005
010
015
0-20
0-35
0-40
0-45
0-50
0-55
0-60
0-65
0-70
0-75
0-80
0589
0635
0758
0878
0909
0996
1435
1953
1504
1752
1987
0930
1129
1354
1588
1820
2042
2720
2721
2722
2723
2569
2534
1016
1129
1293
1489
1698
1911
2116
2695
2721
2710
2708
2700
2686
2662
2318
2306
2269
2200
0975
2532
2537
2552
2576
2607
2658
2666
2679
0-20
2367
2374
2394
2428
2473
2594
2588
1249
2167
2176
2203
2247
2306
1755
1452
1696
1710
2655
1183
010
015
0295
0380
0566
0785
1161
0243
0486
0730
2478
2091
1252
0-25
1220
1252
1342
1479
1647
1831
2021
1678
1820
1980
1656
1707
1728
1789
1883
2011
2174
2187
2227
2370
2647
2699
2732
2448
2275
0-45
2089
2290
2139
2302
2460
1189
1962
2003
2189
2053
1945
2712
2689
2643
2556
2403
2259
0-40
2710
2720
2716
2688
2617
2555
0-35
2147
2282
2420
2642
2679
2710
2726
2713
0757
1564
2527
2587
1923
1490
2379
2460
2546
2630
2700
2391
1464
2207
2310
2621
0-30
1985
1057
0-50
2387
2576
2724
2398
2584
2429
2605
2537
2678
2603
2717
2132
1450
2740
2809
2770
2773
2793
2782
2762
2649
2498
2186
2472
2195
2729
2809
2786
2728
2660
2481
1516
2686
2583
2022
2543
2470
2351
1931
1761
1464
000
r.l.u.
->T=0
000
005
010
0271
0-45
0-50
0-70
2534
2682
2757
2713
2460
0-75
1756
0-55
0-60
0-65
2351
2543
2687
2757
2178
2387
2573
2134
2715
2712
2592
2259
2631
2695
2712
2646
2436
2615
2626
2644
2664
2691
2674
2665
2648
2616
2472
2322
2068
2071
1149
1924
0664
1272
1801
1245
1607
1409
r = 90
[i=25
r.l.u.
000
0-05
0-55
0-60
0-65
0-70
2809
2790
0-75
2595
0-80
2050
2477
2638
2757
2806
2739
0-25
0-30
2552
1942
2421
2532
2635
2667
2749
2773
2717
2760
2735
2743
2737
2647
2701
2593
2407
2092
2599
2459
2234
1861
1141
2164
0885
1863
1335
289
1641
1617
1714
1730
1652
1505
5.2.
TABLE
(Lp) _1
jl=27
5.2.51 (continued)
for Zero-level Precession. Photographs, for
Odd
Values of
jl
000 005
r.l.u.
0-10
015
0-15
0275 0549 0819

0219 0349 0588 0845
0438 0514 0696 0922
0659 0711 0849 1039
0-20
0881
0920
0-10
0-25
0-30
0-35
1085
1344
1594
1833
1104
1359
1606
1162
1405
1643
1254
1479
1704
1579
1787
0-40
2056
1843 2064
1873 2089
1923 2130
1992 2187
2440 2589 2698

2446 2593 2701
2461 2604 2707
2487 2622 2716
2521 2646 2728
2756
2756
2756
2756
2753
2744
2742
2735
2723
2703
2638 2393
2633 2384
2617 2353
2588 2299
2543 2214
1915
2746
2729
2696
2636
2670
2619
2540
2415
2215
2475 2087 1275

2374 1895 0723
2222 1593
1987 1045
1597
1753
0825
1559
1579
1639
1733
0-40
1786
1803
1853
1933
0-45
2011
2025
2067
2133
0-50
2229
2436
2621
2772
2866
2241
2275
2472
2647
2775 2786
2866 2867
2329
2513
2676
2802
2866
2399 2479
2567 2627
2713 2751
2819 2831
2859 2838
2445
2628
2869 2865
2718 2708
2278 2256
0965 0880
2260
2267
2287
2320
2366
2853 2830 2789 2723 2618 2452 2190

2677 2620 2527 2385 2167 1820 1190
2188 2063 1858 1519 0860
0540
0-35
2077 2258
2178 2341
1854 1992 2141 2290 2433
2035 2154 2281 2409 2530
2218 2318 2424 2530 2626
0-90
085
2769 2725 2600 2351

2746 2639 2427 2035
2654 2457 2104 1422
2441 2096 1446
1996 1298
1540
0-85
0-80
2759
2784
2757
2641
2365
1356
1429
0-80
0-75
2563 2644 2713

2688 2741 2777
2784 2804 2800
2831 2810 2753
2796 2718 2585
1224
1356
0-75
0-70
2422 2564 2674

2489 2613 2704
2561 2665 2732
2635 2714 2752
2704 2752 2755
1136
1331
0-65
0-65
1375
1105
0-70
0-60
0-55
1187
0-25
0-60
0-50
1029
0-30
0-55
0-45
0-90
>T
000
005
0-20
1519
1700 1889
1840 2008
1680
2740
2749
2750
2735
2692
2531
0772
1897 0704
1839 0432
1732
1559
1880 0757
1234
=90
ji=29
r.l.u.
000
005
010
000 005 010 015
0-20
0197
0396
0596
0798
0-25
1003
0-15
0258
0322
0469
0646
0836
0514
0548
0642
0778
0940
0-20
0-25
0-30
0-35
0-40
0-45
0768 1019 1265 1504 1735 1954 2159

1036 1278 1515 1743 1961 2165
0857 1085 1317 1547 1770 1983 2183
0960 1166 1382 1600 1814 2020 2214
1093 1274 1471 1674 1876 2072 2257
0791
0-50
0-55
2346 2510
2351 2514
2366 2525
2390 2544
2425 2571
0-60
0-65
0-70
0-75
0-80
0-85
2645 2743 2792 2778 2678 2455

2648 2744 2792 2776 2673 2446
2655 2748 2791 2770 2659 2421
2668 2754 2790 2758 2635 2376
2686 2762 2786 2740 2597 2307
0-90
2034 1167
2019 1130
1973 1010
1891 0757
1760
0-35
1033 1118 1246 1405 1582 1768 1955 2139 2312 2469 2604 2708 2771 2779 2713 2541 2206 1559
1212 1236 1306 1415 1553 1710 1878 2050 2219 2379 2523 2643 2732 2778 2765 2671 2460 2058 1235
1424 1444 1503 1596 1715 1854 2004 2159 2311 2455 2583 2687 2757 2780 2740 2609 2342 1839 0558
0-40
1638 1655
0-45
1855
0-50
2071 2083 2118 2175 2250 2338 2434 2533 2627 2708 2768 2796 2775 2686 2494 2135 1433
2282 2292 2322 2369 2430 2502 2580 2657 2727 2781 2809 2797 2728 2572 2281 1741
0-30
0-55
0-60
0-65
0-70
0-75
0-80
0-85
0-90
0-95
1705
1869 1911
1785
1888 2009 2141 2278 2413 2538 2647 2730 2777 2772 2696 2514 2167 1489
1979 2067 2172 2286 2404 2519 2625 2711
2769 2786 2745 2620 2368 1896 0799
2485 2493 2516 2553 2601 2656 2713 2767 2808 2829 2817 2754 2617 2365 1909 0901
2670 2675 2693 2719 2752 2789 2823 2848 2855 2834 2768 2636 2399 1983 1138
2824 2827 2837 2852 2869 2883 2889 2879 2842 2764 2623 2384 1973 1159
2927
2949
2833
2468
2930
2936
2799
2396
1493 1446 1292
2928
2946
2825
2450
2930
2918
2753
2298
0968
2926 2913 2882 2825 2727 2565 2303 1863 0954

2886 2834 2752 2625 2428 2118 1591
2678 2566 2397 2141 1730 0924
2141 1898 1502 0677
290
0-95
5.3.
Small Crystal bathed
(a)
in
Absorption Corrections
from Crystal Planes inclined at Angle
Extended Face of Crystal Block of Negligible
Transmission. The normal to the crystal face is in the
plane of the incident and reflected beams.
Narrow Beam
5.3.2. Reflection
The transmission factor A(hkl) included in equations
<f>
5.2.4 (13), (14), (15) and (16) occurs when the intensity
of any particular reflection from a crystal is affected by
dV is a volume element
and p and q are the lengths of the paths
of the incident and reflected beams in the crystal, then
the X-rays reflected by the crystal are reduced in
intensity by the factor
to
absorption in the crystal. If
in the crystal,
(6)
sin (8+<f>)
sin (8-<f>).
where the incident beam
at
is
an angle
the
(8+<f>) to
crystal face.
^Jexp{- rtp+q))dV
(1)
5.3.3. Transmission
volume of the
which is bathed in X-rays. If the beam were
not of uniform intensity, the expression would be more
the integral being taken over that
crystal
incident
can be evaluated rigorously only for

The
certain shapes of specimens. An evaluation of this
transmission factor, which is dimensionless, is given in
integral
and
5.3.6.
general discussion
is
also given in
5.3.4.
Large Crystal or Crystalline Powder Block
sec 8 for a given
(7)
Transmission when the Reflecting Planes are

an Angle (tt/2) to the Surfaces of the
inclined at
cepting the Entire
</>
Block of Thickness /. The normal to the surface

the plane of the incident and reflected beams.
inter-
Narrow Beam
is in
[exp {-fit sec (0+<)}-exp {-fit sec (0-<f>)}]
A c =^
In this case, where p instead of p is to be determined,

the effect of absorption can be expressed by a quantity
c as follows
reflected beams.
A c =/ sec 8 exp(fit sec 8)
5.3.7.
(b)
and
All the paths, p+q, are equal to

value of 8, and thus
complicated.
5.3.5
when the Reflecting Planes are
Perpendicular to the Surfaces of the Block, of Thickness

/.
The normal to the surfaces is in the plane of the
'
sec (9+(f>)
1
sec (Q-<f>)_
....(8)
=^j-=QA c
..(2)
The
incident
beam
is
at angle (8-<f>) to the
normal to
the surface of the block.
A c has the dimensions of cm.
and
is
given by
lJexp{-M/>+?)}dV
Values of
Ac
are given in 5.3.1, 5.3.2, 5.3.3
5.3.1. Reflection
of Narrow
Beam from
5.3.5. Cylindrical Crystal of Radius R, bathed in a

Uniform Beam of X-rays Normal to its Axis (W. L. Bond)
....(3)
and
5.3.5.1. The 1935 International Tables for the Determination of Crystal Structures gave X-ray absorption
correction tables based on Claassen's paper [23].
Claassen's method was a graphical one. Bradley [21]
later developed a quasi-rigorous method for calculating the absorption in terms of /xR (/x linear absorption
coefficient, R radius of cylinder) which is reasonably
5.3.4.
Planes Parallel
Extended Face of Crystal
to
Crystal of Sufficient Thickness to give Negligible

Transmission
(a)
If
is
irradiated
accurate for /xR>2. Bradley's results were checked

integration by Taylor and Sinclair [39].
by graphical
the area of the beam, the area of crystal

is S cosec 8, and the volume element at a
depth t has volume dV=S cosec 8

Also p^q^t cosec 8.
To
avoid the graphical approach one can use
modern automatic computing methods. Consider a

circular cross-section of the cylinder and a beam
dt.
entering from the upper right at an angle 8 to the y
Then
axis,
00
Ac =
exp{ p,(2t cosec
8)}
cosec 8dt=
(4)
2/x
being reflected from an element of volume about
the point of co-ordinates Rx, Ry, then leaving towards

the lower right, the deflection angle being 28. It is
readily deduced that the path length P inside the
circle is
(b)
Transmission not Negligible, Crystal Thickness
_ l-exp{ 2jit cosec 8}
P=RV{l-(x cos 0-y sin 0) 2 }

+RV{l-(x cos 8+y sin 0) 2 }-2xR sin 8
....(5)
For
2fM
291
8 values of 0, 5, 10,
.,
... .(9)
90 and path lengths
5.3.
ABSORPTION CORRECTIONS
0-1R, 0-2R,
., an I.B.M. card Programmed Electronic Calculator solved this equation and integrated
to give the areas AS of the regions. If we attribute a
mean path length / to each region the results are as in
Table 5.3. 5A. This gives AS and /for successive values
of and hence the transmission factor A=Ee- MR/ .AS.
As an example of the use of this table consider the case
.
R=2, 0=0,^=1,
series as
25
A=(A*)- 1 =a( R)- 1 +b(/xR)- 2 +
+0-3910e- 2x1 95
'
Table 5.3.5C gives the values of the coefficients

for 5 intervals of 0. We can find A and
hence A* for intermediate values of
by plotting
against sin 2 (A. J. Bradley [21]). Note that for small
by the absorption factor A*=A _1

the number by which the apparent intensity should
a, b, c,
be multiplied to get the "true" intensity. In

Table 5.3.5B has been prepared.
values
TABLE
way
this
(10)
Lt
often more convenient in use to replace the trans-
mission factor
i.e.
for which
A=0-00005e- 2x - 5 +0-00037e- 2xol5 +0-0010e- 2x0
It is
5.3.5.2. For large values of [mR (>8) this method gives

erroneous results, since almost all the reflection is from
the zone of shortest path length and the "mean path
length" concept is too crude for such a rapidly varying
function. However, we can use series expansions as
Claassen did, basing them on the values of AS given
in Table 5. 3. 5
(using only the first few AS, since the
penetration is small for large pR). We then write our
a=20 2 /37r.
5.3.5A (W. L. Bond)
Note: For recent and more accurate data for Tables 5.3.5 A and B, reference should be
made to Weber, K. (1967), Acta Cryst., 22,
Data
for Calculation of Transmission Factor
AS and
0=0
AS
0-00005
0-00037
0-00102
0-00200
0-00332
0-05
0-15
0-25
0-35
0-45
0-00502
0-00713
0-00968
0-01273
0-01635
0-55
0-02065
0-02577
0-03191
0-03939
0-04869
1-05
0-06068
0-07698
0-10138
0-14587
0-39101
1-55
0-65
0-75
0-85
0-95
1-15
1-25
1-35
1-45
1-65
1-75
1-85
1-95
AS
Values for Successive Values of the Bragg Angle
AS
AS
0-45
0-0101
0-55
0-0123
0-55
0-65
0-0142
0-65
0-75
0-0119
0-0139
0-75
00162
0-75
0-85
00161
0-85
0-85
0-95
0-0185
0-95
0-0184
0-0208
1-05
1-05
0-0234
0-0262
0-0294
0-0328
0-0368
1-05
1-45
0-0212
0-0241
0-0274
0-0333
0-0414
0-0541
1-55
0-0498
1-55
0-0671
1-65
00607
1-65
1-75
0-0759
1-75
1-85
00996
1-85
1-95
0-0857
0-1154
0-1967
1-95
0-1519
1-95
2-015
0-2454
2-04
0-2437
0-0722
2-05
1-05
1-45
0-0202
0-0250
0-0302
0-0366
0-0443
1-55
1-65
1-75
1-95
0-0576
0-0723
0-0939
0-1311
0-2458
2-004
0-1703
0-55
0-0206
0-0257
0-0317
1-05
0-0390
0-0482
1-35
0-0599
0-0758
0-0994
0-1420
0-3110
1-55
0-0867
0-45
0-65
0-75
0-85
0-95
1-15
1-25
1-45
1-65
1-75
1-85
00105
0-0206
0-0254
0-0311
0-0381
0-0466
0-0053
0-0073
0-0098
0-0128
0-0164
0-35
AS
0-45
0-55
0-25
0-35
0-0060
0-0076
0-0104
0-0132
0-0166
0-0014
0-0022
0-0036
0-15
AS
005
0-05
0-05
0-0046
0-0059
0-0073
0-0089
0-0019
0-0028
0-0039
0-0051
0-0065
0-0009
0-0016
0-0025
0-0035
0-0046
0-0003
0-0008
0=25
0=20
0=15
0=10
e=t5
/
A for Cylinder, Radius R, where A=Ze~'xR/.AS
0-15
0-25
0-35
0-45
0-0080
0-0097
0-0116
0-0137
0-0160
0-65
0-75
0-85
0-95
1-15
1-25
1-35
1-85
292
005
0-0031
0-05
0-15
0-15
0-25
0-0042
0-0055
0-25
0-35
00069
0-45
0-0084
0-55
0-65
1-15
1-25
1-35
1-15
1-25
1-35
1-45
2-114
0-15
0-25
0-35
0-95
1-15
1-25
1-35
1-45
0-0414
0-0510
0-0656
0-0832
0-1180
1-55
0-1734
0-1867
2-05
00129
2-203
1-65
1-75
1-85
1-95
2-15
5.3.
TABLE
Data
AS
A for Cylinder, Radius R, where A=Se"R/.AS
AS and
61=30
5.3.5A (continued)
0=40
0=35
AS
AS
0-05
0-0179
005
0-15
00194
0-15
0-25
0-25
0-0207
0-0222
0-0236
0-25
0-45
0-0184
0-0199
0-0215
0-55
0-0231
0-55
0-65
0-0250
0-0263
0-0276
0-0289
0-0302
0-55
0-0246
0-0261
0-0277
0-0292
0-65
0-95
0-0210
0-0227
0-0244
0-0262
0-0280
0-0286
0-0307
0-0330
0-0353
0-0378
1-05
0-0298
1-05
1-15
00338
00353
00368
1-25
1-35
0-0315
0-0327
0-0338
0-0349
1-05
0-0317
0-0335
0-0355
0-0375
0-0308
0-0323
1-05
1-15
1-45
00360
1-45
1-55
1-55
00369
1-55
1-65
0-0378
1-65
1-75
0-0385
0-0388
0-0388
1-75
0-45
00171
0-45
00167
00186
0-55
0-55
0-0206
0-0227
0-0248
0-75
0-0189
0-0207
0-0226
0-0245
0-0265
0-25
00131
00149
0-0145 0-55
0-0164 0-65
00185 0-75
0-0206 0-85
0-0229 0-95
00254 105
0-65
0-85
0-95
0-15
0-35
0-65
0-75
0-85
0-35
0-75
0-85
0-95
1-15
0-0271
0-0295
1-05
0-0280
0-0309
0-0341
0-0376
1-25
0-0321
1-25
1-35
1-45
0-0349
0-0379
1-35
00416
1-55
0-0412
1-55
1-65
1-65
0-0519
0-0595
0-0880
1-75
00450
00494
00550
00650
0-0405
0-0435
1-55
0-0462
1-75
0-0468
1-75
0-0396
0-0417
0-0440
1-85
1-85
00465
1-85
1-95
00506
00559
1-95
0-0492
1-95
0-1243
2-05
00626
2-05
0-0511
2-05
2-15
0-0816
0-0864
2-05
0-1318
0-1468
2-15
0-0637
2-15
2-15
2-25
00956
2-25
00650
2-25
0-1103
0-0478
2-35
0-0664
0-0685
2-35
0-0514
0-0514
0-0512
2-45
00506
00791
00097
2-55
1-85
1-95
00140 2-305
1-15
1-45
2-421
00169
0-35
0-0115
AS
0-0153
0-25
00099
0-15
0-15
0-0137
0-0154
0-05
AS
005
0-05
0-0083
0-0129
0-0144
0-0160
0-0177
0-0194
00105
00121
0-0063 0-05
0-0078 0-15
0-0093 0-25
00110 0-35
0-0127 0-45
AS
0=60
0=55
0=50
0^=45
1-25
1-35
1-45
1-65
2-605
1-25
1-35
1-45
1-65
1-75
2-25
00383
00398
00413
00426
00436
0-0437
0-0435
0-0432
0-35
0-45
0-75
0-85
0-95
1-15
1-85
1-95
2-05
2-15
2-25
0-35
0-45
0-65
0-75
0-85
0-95
1-15
1-25
1-35
1-85
1-95
0-0386
0-0382
0-0377
0-0371
0-0363
2-05
2-55
2-15
2-25
2-35
2-45
00426
00418
0-0495
0-0477
0-0442
2-55
00406
2-55
2-65
2-65
2-75
0-0389
0-0367
2-75
0-0352
0-0339
0-0323
0-0111
2-814
0-0333
2-85
0-0303
2-85
0-0277
2-95
0-0277
2-95
00106
3-032
0-0242
3-05
00191
3-25
0-0081
3-238
2-35
2-45
2-35
2-45
2-65
2-75
AS
0-0204
0-0217
0-0230
0-0243
0-0256
005
0-0267
0-0279
0-0289
0-0300
0-0310
0-55
0-0319
0-0328
0-0335
0-0342
0-0348
1-05
0-0353
0-0356
1-55
0-0356
0-0355
0-0352
1-75
0-0349
0-0345
0-0340
0-0333
0-0326
2-05
0-0316
0-0306
0-0293
0-0278
0-0260
2-55
0-15
0-25
0-35
0-45
0-65
0-75
0-85
0-95
1-15
1-25
1-35
1-45
1-65
1-85
1-95
2-15
2-25
2-35
2-45
2-65
2-75
2-85
2-95
0-0240 3-05
0-0214 3-15
0-0181 3-25
0-0135
0-0045
293
3-35
3-432
5.3.
TABLE
Data
AS and
e= 65
AS
0-0230
0-0243
0-0253
0-0263
0-0273
0=70
/
0-05
AS
0-35
0-0255
0-0266
0-0273
0-0281
0-45
0-0289
0-55
0-0296
0-0302
0-0308
0-0313
0-0317
0-15
0-25
0-0283
0-0292
0-0300
0-0308
0-0315
0-95
0-0321
1-05
0-0326
0-0330
0-0333
0-0335
1-15
0-65
0-75
0-85
1-25
5.3.5A {continued)
A for Cylinder, Radius R, where A=2e-/*R/.AS
0=75
I
0-05
0-15
0-25
0-35
0-45
0-55
0-65
0-75
0-85
0-95
0-0320
0-0321
0-0322
1-05
1-15
1-25
AS
0-0278
0-0285
0-0291
0-0297
0-0302
0-0307
0-0310
0-0313
0-0314
0-0315
0-0315
0-0314
0-0313
0-0312
0-0310
0=80
AS
0-05
0-0298
0-0304
0-0306
0-0309
0-0311
0-15
0-25
0-35
0-45
0-55
0-0313
0-0313
0-0313
0-0313
0-0312
0-65
0-75
0-85
0-95
1-05
1-15
1-25
0=85
/
0-05
0-15
0-25
0-35
0-45
0-55
0-65
0-75
0-85
0-95
0-0311
0-0309
0-0307
1-05
0-0305
0-0302
1-35
1-15
1-25
1-35
0-0322
1-35
1-45
0-0321
1-45
0-0335
0-0334
1-55
0-0319
0-0317
1-55
0-0307
0-0305
1-55
1-65
0-0299
0-0296
1-55
1-65
0-0332
1-75
0-0301
1-75
0-0293
1-75
1-85
0-0314
0-0311
0-0307
1-75
0-0330
0-0326
1-85
0-0298
1-85
1-85
1-95
0-0294
1-95
0-0289
0-0285
0-0322
0-0318
0-0312
0-0306
0-0299
2-05
0-0303
0-0298
2-05
2-05
0-0293
0-0287
0-0280
2-25
0-0289
0-0285
0-0279
0-0273
0-0267
0-0291
2-55
2-65
0-0271
2-75
0-0259
0-0246
2-85
0-0273
0-0264
0-0255
0-0245
0-0234
2-55
0-0281
2-95
0-0260
0-0252
0-0244
0-0235
0-0226
0-0230
0-0213
0-0192
0-0167
0-0135
3-05
0-0222
0-0208
0-0192
0-0174
0-0153
3-05
3-15
3-25
0-0088
3-55
3-613
0-0127
0-0092
0-0027
3-55
0-0009
1-65
1-95
2-15
2-25
2-35
2-45
2-95
3-15
3-25
3-35
3-45
2-15
2-35
2-45
2-65
2-75
2-85
3-35
3-45
3-65
3-729
1-35
1-45
1-45
1-65
1-95
AS
0-0313
0-0314
0-0315
0-0316
0-0315
0-0315
0-0314
0-0313
0-0311
0-0310
0-0308
0-0306
0-0303
0-0301
0-0298
0-0295
0-0291
0-0288
0-0284
0-0280
0=9C
/
0-05
0-15
0-25
0-35
0-45
0-55
0-65
0-75
0-85
0-95
1-05
1-15
1-25
1-35
1-45
1-55
1-65
1-75
1-85
1-95
2-45
0-0280
0-0275
0-0270
0-0264
0-0258
2-55
0-0251
2-55
2-65
2-65
2-95
0-0244
0-0237
0-0228
0*0219
0-0215
3-05
0-0210
3-05
0-0207
3-05
0-0203
3-15
3-15
3-25
0-0197
0-0186
0-0174
0-0161
3-15
0-0190
0-0175
0-0158
0-0199
0-0188
0-0175
0-0160
0-0144
0-0125
0-0102
0-0070
0-0012
3-55
0-0146
0-0129
0-0109
0-0082
0-0037
3-55
0-0139
0-0116
0-0085
0-0027
2-15
2-25
2-35
2-75
2-85
3-35
3-45
3-55
3-65
3-75
3-832
294
2-05
0-0275
0-0270
0-0265
0-0259
0-0253
2-05
2-55
2-95
0-0247
0-0240
0-0232
0-0225
0-0216
2-15
2-25
2-35
2-45
2-75
2-85
3-25
3-35
3-45
3-65
3-75
3-85
3-920
2-15
2-25
2-35
2-45
2-65
2-75
2-85
2-95
3-25
3-35
3-45
3-65
3-75
3-85
3-942
AS
0-03183
0-03181
0-03177
0-03171
0-03163
0-03153
0-03141
0-03126
0-03110
0-03092
0-03071
0-03049
0-03024
0-02996
0-02967
0-02934
0-02899
0-02862
0-02822
0-02779
0-02733
0-02684
0-02632
0-02576
0-02516
0-02452
0-02384
0-02311
0-02233
0-02150
0-05
0-15
0-25
0-35
0-45
0-55
0-65
0-75
0-85
0-95
1-05
1-15
1-25
1-35
1-45
1-55
1-65
1-75
1-85
1-95
2-05
2-15
2-25
2-35
2-45
2-55
2-65
2-75
2-85
2-95
0-02059
0-01961
0-01855
0-01739
0-01610
3-05
0-01466
0-01301
0-01106
0-00859
0-00473
3-55
3-15
3-25
3-35
3-45
3-65
3-75
3-85
3-95
TABLE
5.3.5B
(W. L. Bond)
Absorption Correction Factors
A*
for Successive Values of 6
Cylinders, Radius
/iR
10
15
20
R
25
30
35
40
juR
1-00
1-00
1-00
1-00
1-00
1-00
1-00
1-00
1-00
0-1
1-18
1-18
1-18
1-18
1-18
1-18
1-18
1-18
1-18
0-1
0-2
1-40
1-40
1-40
1-40
1-40
1-40
1-39
1-39
1-39
0-2
1-65
1-64
1-64
1-63
1-63
0-3
0-4
0-3
1-65
1-65
1-65
1-65
0-4
1-95
1-95
1-95
1-94
1-94
1-93
1-92
1-91
1-90
0-5
2-29
2-29
2-29
2-28
2-27
2-26
2-24
2-22
2-20
0-5
0-6
2-69
2-69
2-69
2-67
2-65
2-63
2-60
2-57
2-53
0-6
0-7
3-16
3-16
3-15
3-13
3-09
3-05
3-01
2-96
2-91
0-7
3-47
3-39
3-32
0-8
0-8
3-70
3-70
3-68
3-65
3-60
3-54
0-9
4-33
4-33
4-30
4-24
4-17
4-08
3-98
3-87
3-76
0-9
1-0
5-06
5-05
5-01
4-92
4-81
4-68
4-54
4-39
4-24
1-0
1-1
5-90
5-88
5-81
5-69
5-54
5-36
5-16
4-96
4-76
1-1
1-2
6-86
6-84
6-74
6-57
6-35
6-10
5-84
5-57
5-32
1-2
1-3
7-96
7-93
7-79
7-55
7-25
6-92
6-58
6-23
5-91
1-3
9-23
9-18
8-97
8-65
8-25
7-82
7-37
6-94
6-53
1-4
8-79
8-22
7-68
7-19
1-5
9-84
9-13
8-47
7-87
1-6
9-30
8-58
1-7
9-32
1-8
1-4
9-88
9-35
1-5
10-7
10-6
10-3
1-6
12-3
12-2
11-8
11-2
10-6
1-7
14-2
14-0
13-5
12-7
11-9
11-0
101
1-8
16-3
16-0
15-4
14-4
13-3
12-2
11-1
10-2
1-9
18-6
18-3
17-5
16-2
14-8
13-5
12-2
11-1
10-1
1-9
2-0
21-3
20-9
19-8
18-2
16-5
14-8
13-3
120
10-9
2-0
20-3
18-2
16-2
14-5
12-9
11-7
2-1
2-1
24-2
23-7
22-3
2-2
27-5
26-9
25-1
22-6
20-1
17-7
15-7
13-9
12-5
2-2
2-3
31-2
30-4
28-1
25-1
22-0
19-3
16-9
14-9
13-3
2-3
2-4
35-3
34-2
31-4
27-7
24-1
20-9
18-2
160
14-2
2-4
2-5
2-5
39-8
38-5
34-9
30-5
26-2
22-5
19-5
17-0
15-0
2-6
44-7
43-1
38-7
33-4
28-5
24-2
20-8
18-1
15-9
2-6
2-7
50-1
48-1
42-8
36-5
30-8
26-0
22-2
19-2
16-8
2-7
2-8
56-1
53-5
47-2
39-7
33-2
27-8
23-6
20-3
17-7
2-8
2-9
62-5
59-4
51-8
43-1
35-7
29-6
25-0
21-4
18-6
2-9
3-0
69-5
65-8
56-7
46-6
38-2
31-5
26-4
22-5
19-5
3-0
3-1
72-6
61-8
50-3
40-8
33-4
27-9
23-7
20-4
3-1
3-2
77-2
85-4
79-9
67-3
54-0
43-5
35-4
29-3
24-8
21-4
3-2
3-3
94-2
87-6
72-9
57-9
46-2
37-3
30-8
26-0
22-3
3-3
95-9
78-9
61-9
48-9
39-3
32-3
27-1
23-2
3-4
3-4
104
3-5
3-9
114
125
136
149
162
105
114
124
134
145
4-0
175
4-1
190
4-2
206
222
239
156
168
180
193
3-6
3-7
3-8
4-3
4-4
206
85-0
65-9
51-7
41-3
33-8
28-3
24-2
3-5
91-4
70-1
54-6
43-3
35-3
29-5
25-1
3-6
98-0
74-4
57-4
45-4
36-9
30-7
26-1
3-7
78-7
60-4
47-5
38-4
31-9
27-0
3-8
83-1
63-3
49-5
39-9
33-1
28-0
3-9
105
112
119
127
134
142
150
87-6
66-3
51-6
41-5
34-3
28-9
4-0
92-1
69-3
53-8
43-1
35-5
29-9
4-1
96-7
72-3
55-9
44-6
36-7
30-9
4-2
101
75-4
58-0
46-2
37-9
31-8
4-3
106
78-5
60-2
47-8
39-1
32-8
4-4
295
TABLE
5.3.5B {continued)
A*
Cylinders, Radius
JiR
10
4-5
257
275
295
316
337
220
234
249
264
280
158
166
175
183
192
5-4
359
383
407
432
458
296
313
330
348
366
200
209
218
228
237
5-5
485
5-6
5-8
513
542
573
5-9
604
384
403
422
442
462
246
255
265
275
284
60
636
670
704
740
777
483
504
525
547
569
294
304
314
324
334
591
345
355
365
376
386
214
219
225
4-6
4-7
4-8
4-9
5-0
5-1
5-2
5-3
5-7
6-1
6-2
6-3
6-4
6-5
6-6
6-7
6-8
6-9
7-0
814
853
894
935
978
614
638
661
685
710
735
760
785
7-4
1022
1067
1113
1161
1210
7-5
1260
7-6
1311
837
864
7-7
1364
1418
1474
7-1
7-2
7-3
7-8
7-9
8-0
9-0
10-0
11-0
12-0
13-0
14-0
15-0
16-0
17-0
18-0
19-0
20-0
811
15
25
30
35
40
/xR
111
81-6
62-3
33-8
4-5
64-5
49-4
51-0
40-4
84-7
41-6
34-8
4-6
121
87-8
66-7
52-6
42-8
35-8
4-7
125
91-0
68-9
54-2
44-1
36-7
4-8
130
94-2
71-1
55-8
45-3
37-7
4-9
97-4
73-3
57-5
46-6
38-7
5-0
140
145
150
156
101
75-5
59-1
47-8
39-7
5-1
104
107
110
77-8
60-7
49-1
40-7
5-2
80-0
62-4
50-3
41-7
5-3
82-3
64-0
51-6
42-7
5-4
161
114
117
120
124
127
84-5
65-7
52-9
43-7
5-5
86-8
67-3
54-1
44-7
5-6
89-1
690
55-4
45-7
5-7
91-4
70-7
56-7
46-8
5-8
93-6
72-4
58-0
47-8
5-9
135
166
171
176
182
187
192
198
203
209
130
134
137
140
144
2710
3110
3530
3970
4410
1130
1260
1400
1540
1675
604
667
18200
21400
25000
4860
5320
5790
1820
1960
2100
731
795
860
925
991
1060
50-8
6-2
103
79-1
63-1
51-9
6-3
105
80-8
64-4
52-9
6-4
6-6
85-9
68-3
56-0
6-7
87-6
69-6
57-0
6-8
89-4
70-9
58-0
6-9
119
91-1
72-2
59-1
7-0
122
124
127
129
92-8
73-6
60-1
7-1
94-6
74-9
61-2
7-2
96-3
76-2
62-2
7-3
98-1
77-5
63-3
7-4
99-8
78-9
64-3
7-5
80-2
65-4
7-6
81-5
66-4
7-7
82-9
67-5
7-8
84-2
68-5
7-9
109
85-5
69-6
8-0
79-6
90
191
126
143
98-1
111
89-7
100
215
240
160
178
124
137
99-7
11-0
195
419
457
495
533
264
289
313
338
362
212
230
247
265
150
163
176
189
203
572
610
649
387
412
438
282
300
317
216
229
242
270
276
6790
8500
10500
12700
15300
61-8
6-5
451
541
77-4
53-9
165
168
4080
5320
6-1
101
54-9
242
247
253
259
264
299
357
417
478
60
49-8
65-7
397
408
418
429
440
507
623
743
868
995
48-8
67-0
161
974
1270
1600
1950
2320
59-2
60-5
82-5
236
287
293
74-0
75-7
84-2
231
281
95-9
98-3
108
110
112
115
117
147
151
154
158
918
945
1530
2200
3050
20
116
462
473
484
495
891
172
175
179
182
186
190
193
197
200
236
272
308
345
381
296
131
134
136
139
141
144
167
102
103
105
107
110
12-0
120
130
140
13-0
15-0
151
16-0
161
17-0
171
18-0
14-0
181
19-0
192
20-0
TABLE
5.3.5B (continued)
A*
Cylinders, Radius
fxR
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
)LlR
1-00
1-00
1-00
1-00
1-00
1-00
1-00
100
1-00
1-00
0-1
1-18
1-18
1-18
1-18
1-18
1-18
1-18
1-18
1-18
1-18
0-2
1-39
1-39
1-38
1-38
1-38
1-38
1-38
1-37
1-37
1-37
0-2
0-3
1-62
1-62
1-61
1-61
1-60
1-59
1-59
1-59
1-59
1-59
0-3
0-4
1-89
1-87
1-86
1-85
1-84
1-83
1-82
1-82
1-81
1-81
0-4
0-5
2-18
2-16
2-13
2-12
2-10
2-08
2-07
2-06
2-05
2-05
0-5
0-6
2-50
2-47
2-43
2-40
2-37
2-35
2-33
2-31
2-30
2-30
0-6
0-7
2-85
2-80
2-75
2-71
2-66
2-63
2-60
2-58
2-56
2-56
0-7
2-97
2-92
2-88
2-85
2-84
2-83
0-8
3-29
3-23
3-18
3-14
3-11
3-11
0-9
0-1
0-8
3-24
3-16
309
3-03
0-9
3-65
3-55
3-46
3-37
1-0
4-10
3-97
3-84
3-73
3-63
3-55
3-48
3-43
3-40
3-39
1-0
11
4-58
4-40
4-24
3-97
3-87
3-79
3-73
3-69
3-68
1-1
1-2
5-08
4-86
4-66
4-10
4-49
4-33
4-20
4-11
4-03
3-98
3-97
1-2
4-43
4-34
4-28
4-27
1-3
4-75
4-65
4-58
4-57
1-4
1-3
5-61
5-34
5-09
4-88
4-70
4-54
1-4
6-16
5-83
5-54
5-29
5-07
4-89
1-5
6-74
6-35
600
5-71
5-45
5-24
5-08
4-96
4-89
4-87
1-5
1-6
7-34
6-87
6-47
6-13
5-84
5-60
5-42
5-28
5-19
5-17
1-6
1-7
7-96
7-42
6-95
6-57
6-23
5-96
5-75
5-60
5-50
5-48
1-7
1-8
8-59
7-97
7-45
7-01
6-63
6-33
609
5-92
5-81
5-78
1-8
1-9
9-25
8-54
7-94
7-45
7-03
6-69
6-44
6-24
6-12
6-09
1-9
9-12
8-45
7-91
7-44
7-06
6-78
6-56
6-43
6-40
2-0
9-71
8-97
8-36
7-84
7-44
7-13
6-89
6-75
6-71
2-1
9-49
8-82
8-26
7-81
7-47
7-22
7-06
7-02
2-2
2-0
9-91
2-1
10-6
2-2
11-3
10-3
2-3
12-0
10-9
10-0
9-29
8-67
8-19
7-82
7-54
7-38
7-33
2-3
2-4
12-7
11-5
10-5
9-76
909
8-57
8-17
7-87
7-69
7-64
2-4
2-5
13-4
12-1
11-1
10-2
9-51
8-95
8-53
8-20
8-01
7-96
2-5
2-6
14-2
12-8
11-6
10-7
9-93
9-33
8-88
8-53
8-33
8-27
2-6
2-7
14-9
13-4
12-2
11-2
10-4
9-72
9-23
8-87
8-64
8-58
2-7
2-8
15-6
14-0
12-7
11-7
10-8
101
9-59
9-20
8-96
8-90
2-8
2-9
16-4
14-6
13-2
12-1
11-2
10-5
9-95
9-53
9-28
9-21
2-9
9-60
9-53
3-0
9-92
9-84
3-1
9-86
3-0
17-1
15-3
13-8
12-6
11-6
10-9
10-3
3-1
17-9
15-9
14-3
13-1
12-1
11-3
10-7
ltf-2
3-2
18-7
16-6
14-9
13-6
12-5
11-7
11-0
10-5
10-2
10-2
3-2
3-3
19-4
17-2
15-5
14-1
12-9
12-0
11-4
10-9
10-6
10-5
3-3
3-4
20-2
17-9
16-0
14-6
13-4
12-4
11-7
11-2
10-9
10-8
3-4
3-5
21-0
18-5
16-6
15-1
13-8
12-8
12-1
11-5
11-2
11-1
3-5
3-6
21-7
19-2
17-1
15-6
14-2
13-2
12-5
11-9
11-5
11-4
3-6
3-7
22-5
19-8
17-7
16-1
14-7
13-6
12-8
12-2
11-8
11-7
3-7
3-8
23-3
20-5
18-3
16-6
15-1
14-0
13-2
12-6
12-2
12-1
3-8
3-9
24-1
21-2
18-8
17-1
15-6
14-4
13-6
12-9
12-5
12-4
3-9
4-0
24-9
21-8
19-4
17-6
16-0
14-8
13-9
13-2
12-8
12-7
4-0
4-1
25-7
22-5
20-0
18-1
16-4
15-2
14-3
13-6
13-1
13-0
4-1
4-2
26-5
23-2
20-6
18-6
16-9
15-6
14-6
13-9
13-5
13-3
4-2
4-3
27-3
23-8
21-1
19-1
17-3
16-0
15-0
14-3
13-8
13-7
4-3
4-4
28-1
24-5
21-7
19-6
17-8
16-4
15-4
14-6
14-1
14-0
4-4
297
TABLE
5.3.5B (continued)
A*
Cylinders, Radius
/xR
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
juR
4-5
28-9
25-2
22-3
20-1
18-2
16-8
15-7
14-9
14-4
14-3
4-5
4-6
29-7
25-8
22-9
20-6
18-7
17-2
16-1
15-3
14-8
14-6
4-6
4-7
30-5
26-5
23-4
21-1
19-1
17-6
16-5
15-6
15-1
14-9
4-7
4-8
31-3
27-2
24-0
21-6
19-6
18-0
16-9
16-0
15-4
15-3
4-8
4-9
32-1
27-9
24-6
22-1
20-0
18-4
17-2
16-3
15-7
15-6
4-9
5-0
32-9
28-6
25-2
22-6
20-5
18-8
17-6
16-7
16-1
15-9
5-0
5-1
33-7
29-2
25-8
23-1
20-9
19-2
18-0
17-0
16-4
16-2
5-1
5-2
34-5
29-9
26-3
23-6
21-4
19-6
18-3
17-3
16-7
16-6
5-2
5-3
35-3
30-6
26-9
24-1
21-8
20-0
18-7
17-7
17-1
16-9
5-3
5-4
36-1
31-3
27-5
24-6
22-3
20-4
19-1
18-0
17-4
17-2
5-4
5-5
37-0
32-0
28-1
25-2
22-7
20-9
19-5
18-4
17-7
17-5
5-5
5-6
37-8
32-7
28-7
25-7
23-2
21-3
19-8
18-7
18-0
17-9
5-6
5-7
38-6
33-4
29-3
26-2
23-6
21-7
20-2
19-1
18-4
18-2
5-7
5-8
39-4
34-0
29-9
26-7
24-1
22-1
20-6
19-4
18-7
18-5
5-8
5-9
40-3
34-7
30-5
27-2
24-5
22-5
21-0
19-8
19-0
18-8
5-9
6-0
41-1
35-4
31-0
27-7
21-3
20-1
19-4
19-2
60
41-9
36-1
31-6
28-3
25-0
25-4
22-9
6-1
23-3
21-7
20-5
19-7
19-5
61
6-2
42-7
36-8
32-2
28-8
25-9
23-7
22-1
20-8
20-0
19-8
6-2
6-3
43-6
37-5
32-8
29-3
24-1
22-5
21-2
20-4
20-2
6-3
6-4
44-4
38-2
33-4
29-8
26-4
26-8
24-6
22-8
21-5
20-7
20-5
6-4
6-5
45-2
38-9
34-0
30-3
27-3
25-0
23-2
21-9
21-0
20-8
6-5
6-6
46-1
39-6
34-6
30-9
27-7
25-4
23-6
22-2
21-4
21-1
6-6
6-7
46-9
40-3
35-2
31-4
28-2
25-8
24-0
22-6
21-7
21-5
6-7
6-8
47-8
41-0
35-8
31-9
28-7
26-2
24-4
23-0
22-1
21-8
6-8
6-9
48-6
41-7
36-4
32-4
29-1
26-6
24-8
23-3
22-4
22-1
6-9
7-0
49-4
42-4
37-0
33-0
29-6
27-0
25-1
23-7
22-7
22-5
7-0
7-1
50-3
43-1
37-6
33-5
30-1
27-5
25-5
24-0
23-1
22-8
7-1
7-2
51-1
43-8
38-2
34-0
30-5
27-9
25-9
24-4
23-4
23-1
7-2
7-3
52-0
44-6
38-8
34-6
31-0
28-3
26-3
24-7
23-8
23-5
7-3
7-4
52-8
45-3
39-5
35-1
31-5
28-7
26-7
25-1
24-1
23-8
7-4
7-5
53-7
46-0
40-1
35-6
31-9
29-2
27-1
25-5
24-4
24-1
7-5
7-6
54-5
46-7
40-7
36-1
32-4
29-6
27-4
25-8
24-8
24-5
7-6
7-7
55-4
47-4
41-3
36-7
32-9
30-0
27-8
26-2
25-1
24-8
7-7
7-8
56-2
48-1
41-9
37-2
33-3
30-4
28-2
26-5
25-5
25-2
7-8
37-8
33-8
30-8
28-6
26-9
25-8
25-5
7-9
7-9
57-1
48-9
42-5
8-0
58-0
49-5
43-1
38-3
34-3
31-3
29-0
27-3
26-1
25-8
8-0
38-6
35-2
32-5
30-6
29-2
28-9
9-0
9-0
65-6
56-3
48-7
43-2
10-0
74-2
63-0
54-3
48-2
36-1
33-9
32-4
31-9
10-0
82-4
69-8
60-0
53-2
43-0
47-4
39-1
11-0
43-1
39-7
37-3
35-5
35-0
11-0
12-0
90-6
76-5
65-6
58-2
51-7
47-0
43-3
40-6
38-7
38-1
12-0
13-0
14-0
15-0
16-0
17-0
18-0
190
20-0
98-8
107
115
124
132
140
148
157
83-4
71-3
63-2
56-1
50-9
46-9
43-9
41-9
41-2
13-0
90-1
77-0
68-2
60-5
54-9
50-5
47-2
45-1
44-3
14-0
97-0
82-7
73-2
64-8
58-8
54-1
50-6
48-3
15-0
104
88-4
78-2
69-2
62-8
57-7
54-0
51-5
47-5
50-6
111
94-0
83-2
73-6
66-8
61-3
57-3
54-6
53-7
17-0
118
99-7
88-2
78-0
70-7
64-9
60-7
57-8
56-8
18-0
68-5
64-1
61-0
60-0
19-0
72-3
67-6
64-3
63-1
20-0
124
131
105
93-2
82-4
74-7
111
98-4
86-8
78-7
298
16-0
5.3.
TABLE
Alternative
Method of
5.3.5C
A for Cylinder, Radius R, where
Calculating Transmission Factor
A=(A*)- 1 =a(/xR)- 1 +b( LcR)- 2 +
\?
0-001615
0-00642
0-01442
0-0254
0-0314
0-053
0-086
0-105
0-0648
0-179
0-123
40
45
0-0394
0-0560
0-0752
0-0966
0-1199
0-150
0-159
0-164
-0-022
-0-10
-0-16
50
55
60
65
70
0-1448
0-1741
0-1984
0-226
0-250
0-16
-0-20
-0-30
75
80
85
90
0-274
0-295
0-3107
0-3183
0-08
15
20
25
30
35
0-835
0-33
0-080
0-13
0-073
-0-16
0-139
0-13
0-11
0-10
0-105
0-064
0-03
-0-21
-0-33
-0-48
-0-52
-0-64
-0-5
-0-53
jlcR=1-9.
6 > 25.
proper absorption correction can be made for

upper levels of equi-inclination Weissenberg photographs by using n sec v in place of //,, and Y/2 in place
of 6 for compiling the tables. Here
(from Section 4.3.2
sec v\/(sni 2
(4), (8), (9),
Finally, the irradiated
is
sin 2 v)
Hence a practical optimum radius for cylinders

which /aR=1-5.
5.3.6.
Sphere of Radius R, bathed
X-ray
Beam (W.
Here
in
a Uniform Incident
Bond)
A=-i- f ffe-^+^dxdydz
by the factor sec v, and this should be

allowed for by multiplying the resulting correction
factor by cos v. Hence the resulting correction factor is
values of v
Y/2)}
L.
A machine integration of
pp. 176, 177).

is greater for larger
v,
is no optimum, since
from ju-R=0 to /xR=co if
there
that for
volume
A* =cos v{A*GuR sec
Above 0=25
(/xR) 2/A* rises continuously
y/2=
7-1
0-057
0-061
5.3.5.3. Upper Levels of Equi-inclination

Weissenberg Photographs
sin
0-955
0-14
0-3183
10
.(12)
throughout the sphere gives the results of Table

5.-3.6A. It is worth noting that for 0=0 and for 0=90
the equation is integrable. For 6=0 the transmission
.... (1 1)
factor
between the generator of the given

layer line and the equatorial plane (normal to the
rotation axis) and Y is the angle between the projections of the incident and diffracted beams on to the
v is the angle
is
2(i"R)
ft-e-^tH/A+G'R) 1 ]}
...-(13)
while for 0=90
equatorial plane.
1
5.3.5.4.
Optimum
4/xR\*
a Cylinder
2
of (/uR) /A* show that for 0=0
Size of
16GuR) 2
[l-(l+4tiR)e-*K ]
.(14)
Plots
the optimum
cylinder radius is that for which juR=1-35; for 0=10
it is given by /xR=l-45 and for 0=20 it is given by
Table 5.3.6B (p. 302) has been produced by interpolation from Table 5.3.6A.
299
5.3.
TABLE
A for Sphere, Radius R, where
Transmission Factor
A= v
=
jLiR
0-5
45
60
75
90
0-48181
0-24249
0-07142
0-49166
0-26372
0-09967
0-05125
0-03228
0-50249
0-28532
0-12562
0-07343
0-05039
0-51424
0-30775
0-15183
0-09610
0-52359
0-32541
0-17289
0-52725
0-33242
0-18166
0-12326
0-03795
0-03029
0-02513
0-02145
0-01869
0-01654
0-0 2 5983
0-01122
6
7
0-0 2 3470
0-0 2 7865
0-0 2 2186
0-0 2 5924
0-0 2 1465
0-0M691
0-0H029
0-0 2 3851
0-02297
0-01762
0-01420
0-01185
0-01014
10
0-0 3 7499
0-0 2 3249
0-0 2 8854
5.3.6.1.
Optimum
e ~'l(p+9)dxdyd2
30
0-02606
0-01156
15
0-48432
0-24812
0-07941
0-03350
0-01785
5.3.6A
Plotting (jnR) /A* shows that there
is
no optimum
0-07462
0-06228
0-05343
0-04678
0-04160
0-03745
0-06796
0-05630
0-04801
0-04184
0-03706
0-03326
0-05393
004403
0-03715
0-03211
0-02826
0-02563
centre of a projected
the lengths in the crystal of each
0.
pair of intersecting ray lines

gives the path length in the crystal
of the
beam diffracted by the
associated
volume element. Ex-
pression (16)
may
be evaluated
by measuring, on a
of Any Shape, bathed in Uniform
of X-rays (A. Hargreaves)
5.3.7. Crystal
The expression
to be evaluated
*exp
-p
is
Beam
is
sections within the cross-section of the crystal. It is

unnecessary to draw new ray lines for each reflection
if parallel lines are ruled on two pieces of celluloid.
The celluloid masks are laid over the scale drawing of
the crystal section in orientations determined by the
directions of the incident and diffracted rays appropriate
( ju,x)dV
.(15)
the path length in the crystal of the rays
from an element dV, and V is the volume of

the crystal. Graphical methods for evaluating the
integral are described by Hendershot [32], Albrecht
none of them is completely
[20] and Howells [33]
for the reflection under consideration.
Values of exp (-/xx)
If the cross-section
be considered when applied

to zero-layer-line reflections in an oscillation photograph of a crystal with a cross-section which is constant
when viewed along the oscillation axis. If the specimen
method
will
divided into small volume elements

the approximate solution
is
A~
is
the
we may
number of
layer
write
is
not constant
are
determined by the degree of accuracy
required.
for non-zero layer lines would,

be unduly laborious. For equi-inclination
Weissenberg photographs, however, it is only necessary to increase the path of each ray by cosec v, where
The computations
in general,
(16)
elements.
of the crystal
the oscillation axis it is necessary

to repeat the above process for a number of layers.
The number of layers and the number of rays in each
when viewed along
E<exp(-|*x<)
:
may be obtained from Table 8.1
for the exponential function.
general.
Albrecht's
scale dia-
gram, the path length x for each

element, obtaining e _MX from an exponential table
and then dividing De ^' by n, the number of ray inter-
reflected
where n
the
volume element. Then the sum of
The concept of "optimum size" is misleading. The

most desirable condition is that the correction factor
for 0=0 be not too different from the correction
factor for 0=90. This is met if /xR<2, when the ratio
of front to back factors is less than 2-6.
where x
into a
let
intersection of each pair of ray lines represent the
energy decreases continuously from /xR=0 to /*R=oo for all

size for spheres, since the total reflected
values of
009302
beam S and the diffracted beam S be divided

number of equally spaced rays (Fig. 5.3.7), and
Size of Spheres
0-11498
0-08557
006932
Let the incident
300
5.3.
and an extension of the same treatment has
v is the inclination of the incident beam to the axis of

rotation of the crystal; the increase can be effected by
an appropriate change in the scale of the drawing of
the cross-section of the crystal. The anti-equi-inclinamethod can be used to eliminate absorption
corrections for needle-shaped and platy crystals
tion
(Kartha
led to the
expression given for the reflection case.

In conjunction with the widespread use of counters
to measure X-ray intensity in preferred orientation
studies it has been found that two special cases are the
most useful in practice. Accordingly these special
[12]).
Howells' method, which is a development of that

described by Hendershot, enables equation 5.3(1) to be
integrated by a semi-graphical procedure after dividing
the crystal into a small number of suitable areas. The
number of areas to be considered increases with the
number of faces of the crystal the faces are assumed
;
to be
flat.
For
crystals
bounded by a small number of
and when moderate or high accuracy is required,

computation is needed than in Albrecht's method,
faces
less
particularly in the case of crystals of high absorbing

power. Howells' method is applicable to zero and
non-zero layer lines in oscillation photographs and can
also be used for equi-inclination Weissenberg photographs. In general, the method is not applicable to
crystals for which the cross-section is not constant
when viewed along the oscillation axis. It has, however, been extended by Howells to cover zero-layer-line
reflections in two special cases of crystals of varying
cross-section, viz. (a) that of a pyramidal form, and
(b) that of a needle with its length perpendicular to
Note The two lower

:
the rotation axis.
Several recent papers have appeared on the subject

of correction factors in crystals having fairly general
shapes. Improved graphical methods have been de-
by Joel, Vera and Garaycochea [34] and by

Rogers and Moffett [35]. Numerical methods have
been developed by Grdenic [29] [30 with correction,
31] and by H. T. Evans [27]. An important developscribed
ment
is the high-speed evaluation of transmission or

absorption factors by means of electronic computers
see, for example, Busing and Levy [22].
X-ray Examinations
of Preferred Orientation in Flat Sheet Specimens

(B. F. Decker)
The quantity required is a measure of the variation

volume and absorption for rays diffracted
Fig. 5.3.8(2)
in diffracting
to different points in a given diffraction ring.

There are two expressions for the transmission factor one
:
is
used when the diffracted rays leave the sheet
at the face opposite to that entered
beam, the transmission

the other
is
by the incident
case, illustrated in Fig. 5.3.8(1)
used when the diffracted rays emerge from
beam enters the sheet, the

Custers [24] has evaluated both these
expressions, but in a form which is unnecessarily
complex. An expression for the transmission case has
been derived by Decker [25] and Smoluchowski and
the face at which the incident

reflection case.
Turner
[37].
The form given by Decker
is
the
Fig. 5.3.8(1)
5.3.8. Absorption Corrections in
Figs,
convention for
the diffracted direction. In
order to be consistent with
them the top figure must be
seen from the back.
define
o-n/2
repeated
here (with correction of an error in the original paper),
Fig. 5.3.8(3)
301
TABLE
5.3.6B
A*
for Successive Values of $
Spheres of Radius
/*R
10
15
20
R
25
30
35
40
45
1-00
1-00
1-00
1-00
1-00
1-00
1-00
1-00
1-00
1-00
0-1
1-16
1-16
1-16
1-16
1-16
1-16
1-16
1-16
1-16
1-16
0-2
1-35
1-35
1-35
1-34
1-34
1-34
1-34
1-34
1-34
1-34
0-3
1-56
1-56
1-56
1-55
1-55
1-55
1-55
1-54
1-54
1-53
0-4
1-80
1-80
1-80
1-79
1-79
1-78
1-78
1-77
1-76
1-75
0-5
2-08
2-07
2-07
2-06
2-06
2-05
2-03
2-02
2-01
1-99
0-6
2-39
2-39
2-38
2-37
2-36
2-34
2-32
2-30
2-27
2-25
0-7
2-75
2-74
2-73
2-72
2-70
2-67
2-64
2-60
2-57
2-53
0-8
3-15
3-15
3-13
3-11
3-07
3-03
2-99
2-94
2-89
2-83
0-9
3-61
3-60
3-58
3-54
3-50
3-44
3-37
3-30
3-23
3-16
1-0
4-12
4-11
4-08
4-03
3-96
3-88
3-79
3-70
3-60
3-50
1-1
4-70
4-69
4-64
4-57
4-48
4-37
4-25
4-12
3-99
3-87
1-2
5-35
5-33
5-27
5-17
5-05
4-90
4-74
4-57
4-41
4-25
1-3
6-08
6-05
5-97
5-84
5-67
5-47
5-27
5-06
4-85
4-66
1-4
6-90
6-86
6-75
6-57
6-35
6-10
5-83
5-57
5-32
5-08
1-5
7-80
7-75
7-60
7-38
7-09
6-77
6-44
6-11
5-81
5-52
1-6
8-81
8-74
8-55
8-25
7-89
7-49
7-08
6-69
6-32
5-98
1-7
9-92
9-83
9-59
9-21
8-76
8-26
7-76
7-29
6-85
6-45
9-69
1-8
11-2
11-0
10-7
10-3
1-9
12-5
12-4
12-0
11-4
10-7
9-08
8-48
7-92
7-40
6-94
9-95
9-24
8-58
7-98
7-44
7-96
2-0
14-0
13-8
13-3
12-6
11-8
10-9
10-0
9-26
8-57
2-1
15-6
15-4
14-8
13-9
12-9
11-8
10-9
9-97
9-18
8-49
2-2
17-4
17-1
16-4
15-3
14-1
12-9
11-7
9-80
9-03
10-7
9-57
2-3
19-4
19-0
18-1
16-8
15-3
13-9
12-6
11-4
10-4
2-4
21-5
21-0
19-9
18-4
16-7
15-0
13-5
12-2
11-1
10-1
10-7
2-5
23-8
23-3
21-9
20-0
18-1
16-2
14-5
13-0
11-7
2-6
26-3
25-6
24-0
21-8
19-5
17-3
15-4
13-8
12-4
11-3
2-7
29-0
28-2
26-2
23-7
21-0
18-6
16-4
14-6
13-1
11-8
2-8
31-9
30-9
28-6
25-6
22-6
19-8
17-4
15-4
13-8
12-4
2-9
35-0
33-9
31-2
27-7
24-2
21-1
18-5
16-3
14-5
13-0
13-6
3-0
38-4
37-0
33-9
29-9
25-9
22-4
19-5
17-1
15-2
3-1
42-0
40-4
36-7
32-1
27-7
23-8
20-6
18-0
15-9
14-2
3-2
45-8
43-9
39-7
34-4
29-5
25-2
21-7
18-9
16-6
14-8
3-3
49-9
47-7
42-8
36-8
31-3
26-6
22-8
19-8
17-4
15-4
3-4
54-3
51-7
46-0
39-3
33-2
28-1
23-9
20-7
18-1
16-1
3-5
58-9
56-0
49-5
41-9
35-2
29-5
25-1
21-6
18-9
16-7
3-6
63-8
60-4
53-0
44-6
37-1
31-0
26-2
22-5
19-6
17-3
3-7
690
651
56-8
47-3
32-6
27-4
23-4
20-4
17-9
34-1
28-6
24-4
21-1
18-6
35-7
29-8
25-3
21-9
19-2
3-8
74-6
70-1
60-6
50-2
39-2
41-2
3-9
80-4
75-3
64-6
53-1
43-3
4-0
86-5
80-7
68-8
56-0
45-5
37-2
31-0
26-3
22-7
19-8
4-1
930
86-4
73-1
59-1
38-8
32-2
27-2
23-4
20-5
4-2
99-8
92-4
77-5
62-2
47-6
49-9
40-5
33-4
34-7
28-2
24-2
21-1
29-2
25-0
21-8
4-3
4-4
107
114
4-5
122
4-6
130
139
148
157
4-7
4-8
4-9
82-1
65-3
52-1
42-1
105
86-8
68-6
54-4
43-7
35-9
30-1
25-8
22-4
112
119
126
134
91-7
71-9
56-7
45-4
37-2
31-1
26-6
23-1
96-7
75-2
59-0
47-1
38-4
32-1
27-4
23-7
78-6
61-3
48-8
39-7
33-1
28-1
24-4
82-1
63-7
50-5
41-0
34-1
28-9
25-0
85-6
66-1
52-2
42-2
35-1
29-7
25-7
98-6
141
102
107
112
302
TABLE
5.3.6B {continued)
A*
for Successive Values of
Spheres of Radius
75
70
80
85
90
IxR
50
55
60
65
1-00
1-00
1-00
1-00
1-00
1-00
1-00
1-00
1-00
1-16
1-16
1-16
1-16
0-1
1-16
1-16
1-16
1-16
1-16
1-33
1-33
1-33
1-33
1-33
1-33
1-33
1-33
1-33
0-2
1-53
1-53
1-52
1-52
1-51
1-51
1-51
1-51
1-51
0-3
1-70
1-70
1-70
1-70
0-4
1-74
1-73
1-73
1-72
1-71
1-97
1-96
1-94
1-93
1-92
1-91
1-90
1-90
1-90
0-5
2-11
2-11
2-11
0-6
2-23
2-20
2-18
2-16
2-14
2-13
2-50
2-46
2-43
2-40
2-37
2-35
2-33
2-32
2-32
0-7
2-78
2-73
2-69
2-65
2-61
2-58
2-56
2-55
2-55
0-8
3-09
3-02
2-96
2-91
2-86
2-82
2-80
2-78
2-77
0-9
3-41
3-33
3-25
3-18
3-12
3-07
3-04
3-02
3-01
1-0
3-75
3-64
3-55
3-46
3-39
3-33
3-28
3-26
3-25
1-1
4-11
3-97
3-85
3-75
3-66
3-59
3-54
3-50
3-49
1-2
4-48
4-32
4-17
4-04
3-94
3-85
3-79
3-75
3-73
1-3
4-86
4-67
4-49
4-34
4-22
4-12
4-05
4-00
3-98
1-4
5-26
5-03
4-83
4-65
4-51
4-39
4-31
4-26
4-23
1-5
5-67
5-40
5-17
4-97
4-80
4-67
4-57
4-51
4-48
1-6
6-10
5-78
5-51
5-28
5-09
4-94
4-83
4-77
4-74
1-7
6-53
6-17
5-87
5-60
5-39
5-22
5-10
5-02
4-99
1-8
6-97
6-57
6-22
5-93
5-69
5-50
5-37
5-28
5-25
1-9
7-43
6-97
6-59
6-26
5-99
5-78
5-63
5-54
5-50
2-0
7-89
7-38
6-95
6-59
6-30
6-07
5-90
5-80
5-76
2-1
8-36
7-80
7-33
6-93
6-61
6-36
6-17
6-06
6-02
2-2
8-84
8-22
7-70
7-27
6-92
6-64
6-45
6-32
6-28
2-3
9-32
8-65
8-08
7-61
7-23
6-93
6-72
6-59
6-54
2-4
9-81
9-07
8-46
7-95
7-54
7-23
6-99
6-85
6-80
2-5
10-3
9-51
8-85
8-30
7-86
7-52
7-27
7-12
7-06
2-6
10-8
9-94
9-23
8-64
8-17
7-81
7-54
7-38
7-33
2-7
9-62
8-99
8-49
8-10
7-82
7-65
7-59
2-8
9-34
8-81
8-40
8-10
7-92
7-85
2-9
9-70
3-0
11-3
10-4
11-8
10-8
12-3
11-3
10-4
9-13
8-70
8-38
8-18
8-11
12-8
11-7
10-8
10-0
9-45
8-99
8-66
8-45
8-38
3-1
13-4
12-2
11-2
10-4
9-77
9-29
8-94
8-72
8-64
3-2
13-9
12-6
11-6
10-8
10-1
9-59
9-21
8-99
8-90
3-3
14-4
13-1
12-0
11-1
10-4
9-88
9-49
9-25
9-17
3-4
10-0
14-9
13-5
12-4
11-5
10-7
10-2
15-5
14-0
12-8
11-8
111
10-5
10-1
16-0
14-5
13-2
12-2
11-4
10-8
10-3
10-1
16-5
14-9
13-6
12-6
11-7
11-1
10-6
10-3
10-2
3-8
17-1
15-4
14-0
12-9
12-0
11-4
10-9
10-6
10-5
3-9
17-6
15-8
14-4
13-3
12-4
11-7
11-2
10-9
10-8
4-0
18-2
16-3
14-8
13-6
12-7
12-0
11-5
11-1
11-0
4-1
18-7
16-8
15-2
14-0
13-0
12-3
11-7
11-4
11-3
4-2
19-3
17-2
15-7
14-4
13-4
12-6
12-0
11-7
11-5
4-3
19-8
17-7
16-1
14-7
13-7
12-9
12-3
11-9
11-8
4-4
20-3
18-2
16-5
15-1
14-0
13-2
12-6
12-2
12-1
4-5
20-9
18-7
16-9
15-5
14-3
13-5
12-9
12-5
12-3
4-6
21-4
19-1
17-3
15-8
14-7
13-8
13-2
12-8
12-6
4-7
22-0
19-6
17-7
16-2
15-0
14-1
13-4
13-0
12-9
4-8
22-6
20-1
18-1
16-6
15-3
14-4
13-7
13-3
13-1
4-9
303
9-77
9-52
9-43
3-5
9-79
9-69
3-6
9-96
3-7
TABLE
5.3.6B {continued)
A*
Spheres of Radius
10
5-0
167
5-1
5-3
177
188
199
118
124
129
135
59-2
47-4
210
141
100
104
75-9
54
150
158
167
176
185
78-4
60-9
48-8
5-5
222
234
247
260
274
194
147
108
80-9
62-7
50-1
204
214
224
235
153
111
83-5
64-5
51-4
160
166
173
115
86-0
66-3
119
88-6
123
288
303
318
334
350
246
257
269
280
293
179
186
193
200
207
139
143
102
104
366
383
401
419
438
305
318
214
148
221
152
331
229
236
244
156
344
357
457
477
498
519
540
371
251
385
400
415
430
259
267
275
283
563
585
609
633
657
445
460
476
493
509
526
543
560
578
596
332
8-4
683
709
735
762
790
8-5
819
8-6
84.8
614
632
375
384
393
402
411
/LlR
5-2
5-6
5-7
5-8
5-9
60
6-1
6-2
6-3
6-4
6-5
6-6
6-7
6-8
6-9
7-0
7-1
7-2
7-3
7-4
7-5
7-6
7-7
7-8
7-9
8-0
8-1
8-2
8-3
8-7
878
909
940
651
90
972
91
1005
1038
1072
1107
709
729
749
770
8-8
8-9
9-2
9-3
9-4
670
690
791
40
45
26-4
89-1
68-5
53-9
43-5
36-1
30-5
92-7
71-0
55-6
44-8
37-1
31-3
27-0
96-4
73-4
57-4
46-1
38-1
32-2
27-7
39-1
33-0
28-3
40-1
33-8
29-0
41-1
34-6
29-7
42-2
35-4
30-3
52-7
43-2
36-2
31-0
68-1
54-1
44-2
37-0
31-7
91-2
69-9
55-4
45-2
37-9
32-3
127
93-8
71-7
56-8
46-3
38-7
33-0
131
96-4
73-6
58-1
47-3
39-5
33-7
99-1
75-4
59-5
48-4
40-3
34-4
77-2
60-8
49.4
41-2
35-0
79-1
62-2
50-4
42-0
35-7
107
110
112
81-0
63-5
51-5
42-8
36-4
82-8
64-9
52-5
43-6
37-1
84-7
66-3
53-6
44-5
37-8
115
86-6
67-7
54-6
45-3
38-4
118
88-5
690
55-7
46-1
39-1
121
90-4
70-4
56-7
47-0
39-8
123
92-2
71-8
57-8
47-8
40-5
135
160
165
169
173
94-1
73-2
58-9
48-7
41-2
96-0
74-6
59-9
49-5
41-8
186
132
98-0
76-0
61-0
50-3
42-5
291
191
195
135
137
140
99-9
299
307
315
324
341
349
358
367
200
204
209
213
218
222
227
232
236
241
77-4
62-0
51-2
43-2
102
104
78-8
63-1
52-0
43-9
80-2
64-2
52-8
44-6
81-6
65-2
53-7
45-3
146
106
108
83-0
66-3
54-5
45-9
149
110
84-4
67-4
55-4
46-6
152
111
85-8
68-4
56-2
47-3
154
157
160
113
87-2
69-5
57-1
48-0
115
117
88-6
70-6
57-9
48-7
90-1
71-7
58-8
49-4
163
166
119
91-5
72-7
59-6
50-1
121
92-9
73-8
60-4
50-7
74-9
61-3
51-4
143
246
250
255
169
172
175
123
94-3
125
95-8
76-0
62-1
52-1
127
97-2
77-1
63-0
52-8
420
429
439
448
457
260
264
269
274
279
178
180
183
186
189
129
53-5
284
288
293
298
303
192
195
198
201
308
10-0
1333
921
514
833
855
35
126
877
899
9-8
812
30
129
1255
1294
9-7
1143
1180
1217
25
177
9-9
9-6
20
182
467
476
485
495
505
9-5
15
78-2
63-9
100
79-3
64-7
54-2
133
135
137
101
103
104
80-4
65-6
54-9
81-5
66-4
55-6
82-6
67-3
56-3
139
83-7
68-2
57-0
84-8
69-1
57-7
85-9
69-9
58-4
87-0
70-8
59-1
204
145
147
106
107
109
110
112
88-2
71-7
59-8
207
149
113
89-3
72-6
60-5
304
131
141
143
98-6
TABLE
5.3.6B (continued)
A*
Spheres of Radius
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
fiK
23-1
20-6
18-5
16-9
15-7
14-7
14-0
13-6
13-4
5-0
14-3
13-8
13-7
5-1
21-0
19-0
17-3
16-0
15-0
24-2
21-5
19-4
17-7
16-3
15-3
14-6
14-1
13-9
5-2
24-8
22-0
19-8
18-0
16-7
15-6
14-9
14-4
14-2
5-3
14-5
5-4
23-7
25-3
22-5
20-2
18-4
17-0
15-9
15-1
14-6
25-9
22-9
20-6
18-8
17-3
16-2
15-4
14-9
14-7
5-5
15-2
15-0
5-6
23-4
21-0
19-1
17-7
16-5
15-7
27-0
23-9
21-5
19-5
18-0
16-8
16-0
15-5
15-3
5-7
27-6
24-4
21-9
19-9
18-3
17-2
16-3
15-7
15-5
5-8
5-9
26-4
28-1
24-9
22-3
20-3
18-7
17-5
16-6
16-0
15-8
28-7
25-3
22-7
20-6
19-0
17-8
16-8
16-3
16-1
6-0
6-1
29-3
25-8
23-1
21-0
19-3
18-1
17-1
16-5
16-3
16-8
16-6
6-2
29-8
26-3
23-6
21-4
19-7
18-4
17-4
30-4
26-8
24-0
21-7
20-0
18-7
17-7
17-1
16-9
6-3
31-0
27-3
24-4
22-1
20-3
19-0
18-0
17-4
17-1
6-4
31-5
27-8
24-8
22-5
20-7
19-3
18-3
17-6
17-4
6-5
32-1
28-2
25-2
22-9
21-0
19-6
18-5
17-9
17-7
6-6
17-9
6-7
32-7
28-7
25-7
23-2
21-3
19-9
18-8
18-2
19-1
18-4
18-2
6-8
19-4
18-7
18-4
6-9
33-2
29-2
26-1
23-6
21-7
20-2
33-8
29-7
26-5
24-0
22-0
20-5
34-4
30-2
26-9
24-3
22-3
20-8
19-7
19-0
18-7
7-0
34-9
30-7
27-3
24-7
22-7
21-1
20-0
19-3
19-0
7-1
35-5
31-1
27-8
25-1
23-0
21-4
20-3
19-5
19-2
7-2
19-5
7-3
36-1
31-6
28-2
25-5
23-4
21-7
20-5
19-8
36-6
32-1
28-6
25-8
23-7
22-1
20-8
20-1
19-8
7-4
37-2
32-6
29-0
26-2
24-0
22-4
21-1
20-3
20-0
7-5
37-8
33-1
29-4
26-6
24-4
22-7
21-4
20-6
20-3
7-6
38-4
33-6
29-9
27-0
24-7
23-0
21-7
20-9
20-6
7-7
38-9
34-1
30-3
27-3
25-0
23-3
22-0
21-2
20-8
7-8
21-1
7-9
8-0
39-5
34-6
30-7
27-7
25-4
23-6
22-3
21-4
40-1
35-0
31-1
28-1
25-7
23-9
22-5
21-7
21-4
40-6
35-5
31-6
28-5
26-0
24-2
22-8
22-0
21-6
8-1
41-2
36-0
32-0
28-8
26-4
24-5
23-1
22-2
21-9
8-2
41-8
36-5
32-4
29-2
26-7
24-8
23-4
22-5
22-2
8-3
42-4
37-0
32-9
29-6
27-1
25-1
23-7
22-8
22-4
8-4
42-9
37-5
33-3
30-0
27-4
25-4
24-0
23-1
22-7
8-5
43-5
38-0
33-7
30-3
21-1
25-7
24-3
23-3
23-0
8-6
44-1
38-5
34-1
30-7
28-1
26-1
24-5
23-6
23-2
8-7
44-7
39-0
34-6
31-1
28-4
26-4
24-8
23-9
23-5
8-8
45-2
39-5
35-0
31-5
28-7
26-7
25-1
24-2
23-8
8-9
45-8
39-9
35-4
31-8
29-1
27-0
25-4
24-4
24-0
90
46-4
40-4
35-8
32-2
29-4
27-3
25-7
24-7
24-3
9-1
46-9
40-9
36-2
32-6
29-7
27-6
26-0
25-0
24-6
9-2
47-5
41-3
36-6
32-9
30-1
27-9
26-3
25-2
24-8
9-3
48-0
41-8
37-0
33-3
30-4
28-2
26-5
25-5
25-1
9.4
9-5
48-6
42-2
37-4
33-6
30-7
28-5
26-8
25-8
25-4
49-1
42-7
37-7
33-9
31-0
28-8
27-1
26-1
25-6
9-6
49-6
43-1
38-1
34-3
31-4
29-1
27-4
26-3
25-9
9-7
50-2
43-5
38-4
34-6
31-7
29-5
27-7
26-6
26-2
9-8
50-7
43-9
38-7
34-9
32-0
29-8
28-0
26-9
26-4
9-9
51-2
44-2
39-0
35-2
32-3
30-1
28-3
27-2
26-7
10-0
305
5.3.
(Continued from page 301)

expressions are also given here, the transmission case
being that described by Decker, Asp and Harker [26],
and the reflection case the one called Case III by
where A=e~>ltC
The transmission and reflection counter

techniques may be used together on the same sample
Schwartz
[36].
\cos(0a)
^J
C=-
COS (#=Fa)
to produce the complete pole figure.
The symbols
indicated in Figures 5.3.8(1) (2)
and
o=K-^-e-^ cos 6
I a=
cos 6
(3) are as follows
cf>
=
=
azimuthal angle around the diffraction ring; this

ring intersects the plane containing the incident
beam and
the normal to the surface of the speciat two points. For the transmission case,
<f>
men
taken as zero at the intersection point which is

nearest to the sample when the reflecting planes
are normal to the surface of the sheet. For the
is
reflection case,
^=0
at the intersection point
contained in the reflection region.
=
x =
t
W,0=Fa
acute angle between the sheet normal and the

incident beam.
where
-w,
is of the form
s =ju.f/cos S.
In practice it is better to use a in the negative region
only, since unknown factors which seem to be dependent on the diffracting volume affect the transmitted
intensity. The change in diffracting volume is small in
the negative region of a, but increases quite rapidly as
a increases in the positive region.
pared by Beatty.
This table, expanded to include

smaller intervals in the value of e "', is reproduced as
Table 5.3.8. The quantity listed is 100Io=0 /I- a of
acute angle between the sheet normal and the

The sign of a is defined as
equation 5.3.8 (18) for specified values of
diffracting plane.
and
..(18)
-w,0a_
distance traversed by beam before diffraction

occurs, projected on to /.
in Figs. 5.3.8(2)
w,6a
table of intensity correction factors for this special

transmission case using counter technique was pre-
thickness of the sheet.
shown
w<
a,
20 and
-nt
5.3.8(3).
K=a
constant which includes factors representing

the intensity of the incident beam and the struc-
5.3.8.2.
will be cancelled
taking the ratio of two intensities for the
same sample, reflection and radiation.
ture factor for the reflection.
(a)
Reflection Case
General Expression
when
Va. v
dx
v {<-\)
=K
COSy
Bcosy
KJ
In the following treatment absolute values of the

angles have been used their directions are taken care
of in the signs in the algebraic expressions.
(19)
where
B= /*(
\ cos y
5.3.8.1.
(a)
Transmission Case
(b) Special Case for
General Expression (see Fig. 5.3.8(1))
+a
a
[* )y
where
A=e
=KAf<
dx
cosy
_A(eB '-l)
=K
Bcosy
cos y cos
region:
y=tr (<x+6); <=0
y=a 6;
-4
sin
26 cos
COS (6+ )/
h^=W e-^
w, T
-1
w,9a
(we+a -we _ a) _
<f>
Counter Technique (see Fig. 5.3.8(2))

y=6<x',
l4-
is
sion for Ia=0
<f>=7r
= K A^'-l)
B COS
(20)
1
of the form
s =/xf/cos S and the expresis taken from the above treatment for the
transmission case.
In practice it is better to use a in the positive region
only, since the correction factor changes quite rapidly
where
(b) Special Case for
COS (6 a)
<f>=0
TB COS (0a)
sin
<f>
region:
I=K
B=
26
y sin 26 cos )
...(17)
where
cos y cos
sin
Counter Technique (see Fig. 5.3.8(3))
- "'c
\cos y
20
(0a)
in the negative region.
306
5.3.
TABLE
(A
recalculation
5.3.8
by S. V. D. Beatty, and used by permission of the

Laboratories)
Research
Westinghouse
and extension of a
table prepared
Intensity Correction Factors for
X-ray Spectrometer
Transmission Pole Figure Determinations 100
-p5
of equation 5.3.8(18)
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
103
103
102
103
103
105
105
104
108
103
107
107
107
107
106
109
109
109
109
102
106
106
105
105
105
108
103
104
104
0-05
102
102
102
102
102
108
109
0-06
101
101
101
0-10
101
104
104
104
104
104
105
105
105
0-09
102
102
102
102
102
103
007
008
106
106
106
106
106
108
108
108
108
107
109
109
109
109
109
0-20
101
103
102
104
103
103
103
103
105
106
105
105
105
105
107
109
108
108
108
108
102
102
102
103
104
104
104
105
105
106
106
105
106
116
115
114
114
113
118
121
118
117
121
e-#
a=5
001
002
0-03
0-04
20
101
0-30
101
0-40
101
102
102
102
0-50
0-60
101
101
101
101
0-70
101
101
0-80
0-90
103
103
103
103
102
102
102
104
104
103
105
105
104
104
104
104
108
108
107
107
106
106
107
107
107
100
100
101
107
106
106
105
105
109
108
107
107
107
111
113
110
109
109
109
112
112
106
106
106
106
105
108
108
108
108
107
110
110
110
110
109
113
116
113
112
112
112
116
115
115
115
119
119
119
118
118
123
009
010
104
104
104
104
104
0-20
0-30
103
102
116
107
107
106
106
110
110
109
108
108
113
112
115
101
106
105
105
104
104
108
0-40
0-50
0-60
104
104
103
103
102
120
119
118
117
116
0-70
0-80
0-90
101
102
102
102
104
104
103
106
105
105
107
107
107
110
109
109
101
103
o=10
0-01
0-02
003
004
005
006
0-07
0-08
101
101
100
100
111
111
307
117
116
120
120
120
111
114
111
113
113
110
112
112
111
124
124
124
124
124
123
123
123
122
115
114
114
5.3.
TABLE
5.3.8 (continued)
X-ray Spectrometer
Transmission Pole Figure Determinations 100 =*=2 of equation 5.3.8(18)
e -nt
16
10
20
30
40
120
117
115
114
113
123
127
124
123
50
60
70
80
141
145
146
a=15
0-01
0-03
116
114
112
0-04
111
0-05
110
0-06
109
109
108
108
107
0-02
0-07
0-08
009
0-10
0-20
105
0-30
103
112
112
120
119
117
116
116
111
120
120
119
118
118
117
111
115
114
114
110
113
107
106
105
104
103
110
109
108
107
106
110
109
111
114
111
131
129
136
134
130
140
139
138
137
122
130
129
128
128
127
136
136
135
134
134
118
123
129
116
114
113
112
120
126
123
127
126
125
124
123
123
122
133
131
146
146
145
145
144
143
143
142
137
133
130
127
125
0-40
102
0-50
101
0-60
101
0-70
100
100
99
103
105
108
111
114
118
123
102
104
104
107
110
109
113
112
117
121
116
120
001
131
125
135
130
141
0-02
0-03
122
119
118
126
124
148
142
138
155
150
146
144
142
162
159
156
153
170
169
167
165
176
179
180
151
163
116
115
114
113
113
121
126
132
120
119
118
117
\15
124
123
131
150
148
147
\22
130
129
128
140
139
137
136
135
112
109
107
105
104
J.6
121
113
110
109
107
118
115
113
111
103
102
106
105
104
110
109
107
0-80
0-90
102
111
107
118
117
115
121
120
a=20
0-04
0-05
0-06
0-07
0-08
0-09
0-10
0-20
108
0-30
0-40
105
103
0-50
101
0-60
100
0-70
99
98
98
0-80
0-90
122
101
135
132
130
128
136
134
308
128
124
120
118
116
114
112
111
145
144
136
161
160
159
157
156
179
178
177
175
174
173
172
161
153
127
124
147
140
135
131
141
121
128
136
119
117
115
125
122
120
132
129
126
131
146
5.3.
TABLE
5.3.8 (continued)
^ of equation 5.3.8(18)
A
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
152
142
136
132
129
160
149
143
139
136
169
158
152
147
144
179
168
162
190
202
181
195
190
214
212
209
205
202
223
229
230
230
228
133
131
141
151
163
160
199
0-09
121
0-10
120
139
137
135
134
148
0-08
127
125
123
146
144
143
158
156
154
197
194
192
190
226
224
222
220
218
0-20
0-30
112
107
104
154
145
138
132
128
172
198
160
183
151
170
160
er#
20
10
a-25
0-01
0-02
0-03
0-.04
005
0-06
0-07
0-40
0-50
101
129
128
126
117
112
109
106
104
157
154
171
169
141
109
134
128
124
120
107
105
103
112
109
108
117
115
112
124
132
144
121
128
124
137
131
211
192
227
208
197
189
183
263
252
243
235
229
281
279
181
245
228
217
209
203
297
309
312
163
159
155
152
150
178
174
198
193
170
167
164
189
185
182
224
219
214
207
259
254
250
246
242
307
304
300
297
293
145
134
127
160
147
138
111
0-70
98
97
95
102
003
186
167
157
0-04
151
198
178
168
161
0-05
145
155
0-06
141
151
0-07
138
0-08
009
135
133
147
144
0-10
131
139
0-20
0-30
0-40
117
110
105
125
117
111
134
125
118
0-50
101
99
114
110
121
0-60
107
104
070
0-80
0-90
96
94
93
101
107
104
102
99
179
176
174
125
120
117
114
100
101
186
182
131
124
118
114
0-60
0-80
0-90
174
170
166
118
144
138
151
a=30
0-01
0-02
141
99
97
173
167
211
274
269
264
311
309
181
212
191
131
165
153
144
175
162
260
232
209
190
117
125
136
151
174
113
110
121
130
124
120
142
134
128
160
148
138
107
309
117
113
5.3.
TABLE
5.3.8 {continued)
-^ of equation 5.3.8(18)
J.
e -nt
20
10
20
30
40
c.
50
60
70
80
332
303
285
271
361
341
391
427
447
453
454
a=35
0-01
0-02
0-03
0-04
0-05
006
242
208
190
178
170
0-09
163
158
153
149
0-10
146
0-20
0-60
125
114
107
102
98
0-07
0-08
0-30
0-40
0-50
260
224
206
193
184
177
171
166
162
158
281
245
226
213
203
305
271
252
238
227
219
195
188
183
178
205
200
174
195
211
135
147
164
123
115
133
124
148
109
104
117
112
107
103
100
260
251
243
236
230
224
188
167
152
327
314
304
388
380
372
364
295
287
279
273
267
357
349
342
336
329
448
444
439
434
428
223
277
240
212
372
322
279
243
212
195
451
136
127
141
175
160
121
132
148
171
115
125
119
113
138
156
129
122
143
132
186
164
146
478
427
395
372
353
526
493
468
447
430
590
582
570
557
544
736
746
748
745
337
324
312
302
293
415
532
520
508
232
293
246
212
0-70
94
0-80
91
0-90
89
100
97
94
366
300
267
245
229
399
334
299
276
259
437
376
0-05
337
274
242
222
208
0-06
196
187
217
207
0-08
180
173
168
199
192
186
245
234
225
217
210
284
0-07
149
168
131
104
146
132
122
114
99
95
108
102
118
131
111
121
91
98
105
113
110
106
190
a=40
0-01
0-02
0-03
0-04
009
0-10
0-20
0-30
0-40
0-50
0-60
0-70
0-80
0-90
136
120
109
102
96
92
88
85
119
111
341
317
298
271
261
252
244
194
167
149
136
126
310
197
173
156
142
701
497
487
740
733
725
717
708
186
166
399
333
282
241
207
612
520
436
362
298
149
135
124
180
157
138
243
401
389
377
367
198
161
5.3.
TABLE
5.3.8 (continued)
-p5 of equation 5.3.8(18)

-*
a.
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
0-05
270
566
436
373
333
305
618
491
426
384
353
674
559
496
453
420
741
0-04
520
392
333
296
838
774
728
691
661
1020
999
973
948
923
1564
1637
1658
1660
1653
006
250
235
222
212
203
283
266
252
240
230
329
310
294
280
268
394
372
354
338
325
488
465
445
427
411
634
900
878
857
837
818
1640
1624
1605
1586
1566
171
199
165
144
129
117
240
0-50
0-60
152
128
113
103
96
307
248
208
180
423
340
280
234
157
198
660
538
439
356
288
1349
1140
946
766
599
0-70
90
121
101
0-90
80
95
112
103
140
126
114
170
146
127
232
85
98
92
87
108
0-80
447
314
208
913
629
505
431
382
986
704
574
495
1140
910
787
705
644
1271
441
1056
794
665
583
524
1546
1398
1300
1225
1164
2412
2331
2252
2181
2115
260
480
444
415
390
369
596
557
524
495
0-10
400
369
343
322
304
777
735
698
666
637
1111
009
345
317
295
276
2055
1999
1946
1896
1849
0-20
0-30
177
206
250
141
163
137
120
107
195
162
140
123
322
248
202
170
147
450
345
275
224
709
552
436
345
273
1470
1185
97
90
83
110
100
92
128
114
102
157
134
115
216
421
172
136
292
e-i*
20
a=45
001
002
003
0-07
0-08
009
0-10
0-20
0-30
0-40
144
126
114
105
197
169
149
134
647
590
548
516
611
590
570
553
186
149
a=50
0-01
0-02
0-03
0-04
0-05
006
0-07
0-08
0-40
0-50
0-60
0-70
0-80
0-90
120
106
95
87
81
75
470
311
1080
968
889
827
187
1065
1024
986
952
952
751
575
191
5.3.
TABLE
5.3.8 {continued)
X-ray Spectrometer
e -nt
20
10
-^ of equation 5.3.8(18)
20
30
40
50
60
2000
2052
1447
1165
2182
2566
2104
1847
1670
1537
3946
3473
3179
2961
2788
1430
1341
1265
1199
1140
2643
2518
2408
2309
2220
172
769
566
429
330
255
1608
1228
949
726
543
a=55
0-01
0-04
1926
1179
882
717
0-05
610
1304
1006
833
718
0-06
634
570
520
478
444
780
710
652
605
564
1008
0-10
534
477
433
397
367
0-20
220
267
0-30
162
130
110
96
195
155
129
345
249
484
349
267
212
0-70
85
142
198
"77
119
102
390
266
70
100
89
155
0-90
98
87
79
115
0-80
121
171
5278
2775
1895
1442
1165
4960
2906
2100
4729
3089
2375
1656
1373
1955
1673
5078
3649
2966
2540
2240
7328
5738
4905
4353
3946
978
842
740
660
595
1174
1026
912
820
745
1467
1308
1182
1078
992
2013
1834
1686
1563
1457
3628
3367
3149
2960
2796
300
386
255
862
587
188
542
360
260
147
120
198
156
422
312
234
1802
1285
946
697
505
100
85
126
103
74
86
177
136
105
354
236
150
0-02
0-03
0-07
0-08
0-09
0-40
0-50
0-60
111
991
871
195
159
134
1663
1399
1228
1104
930
865
810
763
a=60
0-01
0-02
0-03
0-04
0-05
0-06
0-07
0-08
0-09
0-10
0-20
0-30
0-40
0-50
0-60
0-70
0-80
0-90
199
149
118
98
84
73
64
312
5.4.
Mosaic Theory
Equations 5.5 (l)-(ll) have been derived on the

assumption that the intensity of the X-ray beam passing
through a crystal is not affected by the process of diffraction. This is true only if the crystal is composed of
small parts that scatter quite independently, a condition
which is completely disobeyed by a perfect crystal.
("Real" crystals, however, do obey the condition approximately they are composed of small blocks (mosaic
;
blocks) which are in sufficient disregistry to scatter independently.) Few crystals, however, are sufficiently
imperfect for equations 5.5 (l)-(H) to apply to all the

X-ray reflections on the other hand, none is so perfect
that equations based on crystal perfection apply.
;
The problem was first studied by Darwin [44], who

showed that a perfect crystal should obey the relation
fa^NAW-^.H^
mc
3?r
.. (1)
2 sin 20
integrated reflection is thus proportional to \F\

2
Integrated reflections for perfect
|F|
crystals are much weaker than for imperfect crystals.
The difference between the formulae for the two
The
and not to
of crystal arises because of the interaction

between the scattered radiation and the incident radiation. It can be shown by the ordinary Fresnel construction that the rays scattered by a complete plane of
atoms are such that they have a phase difference of 77/2
the radiation reflected by a single plane of atoms. If

extincq is this amplitude, the condition that primary
planes
of
number
that
the
is
absent
be
should
tion
in a mosaic block should be such that mq is much less
than unity. For example, for the 200 reflection from
4
should be less than
rock salt #=2-02 xl0~ ; hence
500, corresponding to a thickness of 1400 A. For the
5
should be less than
400 reflection 4=6- 15 x 10~ and
1600, corresponding to a thickness of 4600
A.
Primary Extinction
can be seen from the previous section that the size
of crystals necessary for primary extinction to be
negligible is smaller than is usually attainable, even in
a fine powder. Because of the strength of the reflections it gives, rock salt is not typical, but even for more
general crystals it is difficult to produce a specimen
fine enough for primary extinction to be absent.
When the condition that mq should be much less
5.4.2.
It
than unity does not obtain, the quantity Q in equations

5.5 (1)(11) must be replaced by a quantity such as
Q', where (Darwin [45])
Q' tanh mq
,*\
types
mq
Values of (tanh mq)\mq are given in Table
TABLE
5.4.2.
5.4.2
Primary Extinction Correction Factor
with respect to the rays scattered in the same direction

by a single point. Reflected rays must be incident upon
the reverse side of the reflecting planes at the correct
mq
0-2
0-4
0-6
0-8
1-0
(tanh mq)lmq..
0-971
0-949
0-896
0-832
0-761
Bragg angle for reflection, and the twice-reflected rays

will then have a direction parallel to the incident rays,
but with a phase difference of it. They will thus cause a
reduction of the intensity of the incident beam, which
(tamh mq)/mq
does not occur when the crystal is not in a reflecting

position. There will, of course, be multiple reflections,
some of which will be in phase with the incident
beam, but the total effect is a reduction of intensity.
Although within a very narrow angular range there is
total reflection, the integrated intensity of the reflected
beam is weakened compared with the reflection from
a mosaic crystal. This is called primary extinction.
This simple picture is reasonably adequate for the
so-called Bragg case; but when both incident and
reflected beams emerge on the same side of the crystal
(the so-called Laue case) or when the crystal is completely bathed in the primary beam, the situation is
more complicated.
Primary extinction occurs only in regions of a crystal
which are perfect enough for exact phase relationships
to apply. If the various parts are slightly out of register
the phase differences are no longer exact, and amplitudes
cannot be algebraically added or subtracted.
5.4.3.
5.4.1. Distinction
mq
.
1-5
20
30
40
5-0
0-604
0-482
0-332
0-250
0-200
Primary extinction can affect

and powders.
intensities
from both
single crystals
Secondary Extinction
Secondary extinction can occur together with
primary extinction, but is different in nature. The
mosaic blocks of a crystal may be small enough for
the effects of primary extinction to be negligible, but
the upper blocks in a crystal, by reflecting the radiation,
may shield the lower ones, which will not therefore
give their full contribution (W. H. Bragg [40]).
The effect can be allowed for by adding to the
ordinary absorption coefficient /x a quantity gQ, where
g is constant for a given crystal (Darwin [45]), but
may vary considerably from specimen to specimen.
No satisfactory way of determining g is known,
although it may be derived from the experimental
results if the structure is
known.
sometimes possible to estimate the true structure

factor by using a series of successively thinner or
smaller crystals (Bragg, James and Bosanquet [41],
Cochran [43]) and the mosaicity may sometimes be
increased and extinction reduced by a thermal shock
in liquid air or nitrogen. Methods have been suggested
for estimating the perfection of a crystal (Ramaseshan
and Ramachandran [46]) and of eliminating primary
and secondary extinction simultaneously, by the use
of polarized X-rays (Chandrasekhar [42]).
It is
between Perfect and Ideally Imperfect
Crystals
To decide whether the mosaic blocks in a crystal are

small enough for a crystal to be considered ideally
imperfect it is necessary to consider the amplitude of
313
Summary
5.5.
(a) Crystal
of Formulae for Integrated Intensities
Element
(e)
P=QW^T?
2m
l+C0S 2d
c4
Debye-Scherrer Lines on
\F\>
0)
sin 20
P _ Qp'7V _ N 2e 4A 3 /V 1+
Face
where
Symmetrical Reflection
1.
,_Q
2fi
NeA
2
4 3
Vm
no
cos 2 26
I
(b) Crystal
Cylindrical Film:
absorption correction included
327rm c r sin 6 cos 6p"l*T

2
877rsin0
(7)
the length of line measured and r is the radius

is the power reflected into length /.
/ is
of the camera. Pj
cos 2 20
1+
c4
(2)
sin 26
'
'
Asymmetrical Reflection, when the reflecting planes

are inclined at angle <f> to the crystal face, and the face
normal is in the plane of the incident and reflected
(/) Reflection from a Thick Block of Powdered Crystal

of negligible transmission
2.
beams.
Case (i) Angle of incidence
emergence (6<f>)
and angle of
{6+<f>)
Qp"/
I
e 4A 3 /
647rm
sin 6
16ttjlia-
(3)
<f>)
2fx
Case (ii) Angle of incidence

emergence (6+<f>)
and angle of
(6-<f>)
cos 2 26
;P'W
(8)
6 cos 6
Block of Powdered Crystal of
P_ Qp" It
p'=7r(l- cot 6 tan
cVr sin
(g) Transmission through
Thickness
1+
8'
A-nr sin
26 8
lt8'
1+ cos 2 26
sin 26
e 4A 3
2
87rm c
p'W
(9)
where
P =-(!+ cot 6 tan 6)
8', 8 are the densities of the block of powder and

of the crystal in bulk respectively.
(4)
2(A
(c)
(h) Rotation
Crystal Section of Thickness
Reflecting planes perpendicular to surface
p'==Qr sec 6 exp (-fit sec 6)
N
"
e 4A 3 f
4m 2c 4
1+
cos 2 20
sin 6 cos 2 6
Photograph of Small Crystal, Volume
QVp'
exp (-fit sec
6)\F\'
0- sin 2 6)i
Vl+cos 2 20
2tt(cos 2
(5)
NeA
2
4 3
47rm 2c 4
(d)
Powder Halo: no absorption
P Qp"V cos
Z~=
where P
is
N
e A V
=
4 3
8m 2 c
Beam normal
to axis, where <f> is the angle between

the axis of rotation and the reflecting plane,
1.
1+
correction included
cos 2 26
\F\*
2.
2ttcos0
the diffracted power.
Absorption
314
iP'W
.(10)
Equi-inclination Weissenberg photograph:
QV
(6)
sin 6
(cos 2 <- sin 2 0)*
sin 20
is
e 4A 3
2
V 1+
47rm c
cos 2 20
^cos0
neglected in both (g)
|F|
and
(h)
....(11)
References
[24] Custers, J. F.
Sections 5.1-5.2
[1]
Bouman,
(1938). Physica, 5,
[25]
(1940). Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. Wash.,
[26]
and de Jong, W. F.
J.,
Buerger, M.
J.
Buerger, M.
J.,
and Klein, G. E. (1946).
/.
App. Phys.,
17, 285.
[4]
[5]
[6]
Burbank, R. D. (1952). Rev. Sci. Instr., 23, 321.

Cochran, W. (1948). /. Sci. Instr., 25, 253.
Cox, E. G., and Shaw, W. F. B. (1930). Proc. Roy.
Soc. A, 111, 71.

[7]Debye, P. (1913). Verh. d. Deutsch. Phys. Ges., 15,
Idem (1914). Ann.
Physik, 43, 49.

[8]
[9] Goldschmidt, G. H., and Pitt, G. J. (1948). /. Sci.
d.
Grenville-Wells, H.
Rev. Sci.
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
J.,
and Abrahams,
[31]
[33]
[34]
S.
324.
(1953).
Ibid., 6, 465.
[35]
C. (1952).
Instr., 23, 328.
[36]
Cryst., 2, 38.
[37]
Rogers, D., and Moffett, R. H. (1956).
Ibid., 9,
(1923). Z.f. Physik, 17, 398.

and James, R. W. (1927).
I.,
Schwartz, M. (1955). J. App. Phys., 26, 1507.

Smoluchowski, R., and Turner, R. W. (1949). Rev.
Sci. Instr., 20, 173.
Lu, C. S. (1943). Rev. Sci. Instr., 14, 331.

Tunell, G. (1939). Amer. Min., 24, 448.
I.
Idem (1952). Acta Cryst., 5, 283.

Idem (1956). Ibid., 9, 540.
Hendershot, O. P. (1937). Rev. Sci. Instr., 8,
Howells, R. G. (1950). Acta Cryst., 3, 366.
Joel, N., Vera, R., and Garaycochea, I.
1037.
Kaan, G, and Cole, W. F. (1949). Acta

Kartha, G. (1952). Ibid., 5, 549.
Waller,
Waller,
Decker, B.
149.
[30]
Instr., 25, 397.
[11]
Am.
F., Asp, E. T., and Harker, D. (1948).

App. Phys., 19, 388.
[27] Evans, H. T. (1952). Ibid., 23, 663.
[28] Evans, H. T., and Ekstein, M. G. (1952). Acta Cryst.,
5,540.
[29] Grdeni, D. (1949). Glasn. mat. fiz. astr. (II), 4,
[32]
678, 738, 857.
[10]
(1943). Proc.
/.
26, 637.
[3]
14, 461.
Soc. Test. Mat., 43,
H. (1948). Physica,
785.
817.
[2]
Decker, B. F.
[38]
[39]
Taylor, A. (1944). Phil. Mag., 35, 215.

Taylor, A., and Sinclair, H. (1945). Proc. Phys. Soc,
57, 108.
Proc. Roy.
Soc. A, 117, 214.

[17]
[18]
[19]
Waser, J. (1951). Rev. Sci. Instr., 22,

Idem (1952). Ibid., 23, 420.
Wilson, A. J. C. (1942). Nature, 150,
Section 5.4
563, 567.
[40]
152.
[41]
Bragg, W.
Bragg, W.
H.*(1914). Phil. Mag., 27, 881.

L., James,
(1921). Ibid., 42,
Section 5.3
[20]
[21]
[22]
[42]
Albrecht, G. (1939). Rev. Sci. Instr., 10, 221.

Bradley, A. J. (1935). Proc. Phys. Soc, 47, 879.
Busing, W. R., and Levy, H. A. (1957). Acta Cryst.,
[43]
[44]
[45]
[46]
10, 180.
[23]
Claassen, A. (1930). Phil. Mag.,
Chandrasekhar, S. (1956). Acta Cryst., 9, 954.

Cochran, W. (1953). Ibid., 6, 260.
Darwin, C. G. (1914). Phil. Mag., 21, 315, 675.
Idem 1922. Ibid, 43, 800.
Ramaseshan, S., and Ramachandran, G. N. (1953).
Acta
9, 57.
315
R. W., and Bosanquet, C. H.

1.
Cryst., 6, 364.
Section 6
FOURIER SYNTHESIS AND

STRUCTURE FACTORS
D. W.
J.
Cruickshank
PAGE
6.1.
Formulae for Three-dimensional Electron Density and Patterson Functions

(in collaboration
6.2.
with G.
Formulae for Fourier

(in collaboration
with G.
S.
Series, Sections, Lines, Projections

S.
318
Parry)
and Derivatives
..
319
Parry)
6.3.
Fourier Transforms
322
6.4.
326
6.5.
The Practical Evaluation of Fourier Series and Structure Factors

(in collaboration
with G. A. Jeffrey and P.
J.
Wheatley)
..
..
333
Formulae for Three-dimensional Electron Density and Patterson Functions
6.1.
Density
6.1.1. Electron
The Fourier
electron density in a perfect infinite crystal

oo
P (XYZ)=
oo
If the electron density is treated as a superposition

of atomic electron densities
of the
series for the periodic variation
F{hkl)=^f {hkl) cxp{2m(hx +ky +lz )}
is
y 2* 2* 2 Hhkl)exp{-27Ti(hX+k Y+IZ)}
_oo -oo
-oo
,..,.
cell,
is over all the atoms of a unit

with co-ordinates (x t y t z t), and
,
oo
where
i
ooo
3
,
is
(2)
p(XYZ) of
unit
\p t (uvw) exp{27ri(hu+kv+lw)}dudvdw
si?)
.... V 1 -^/
-oo -oo -oo
Vc is the volume of the unit cell, and (XYZ) and (xyz)

are dimensionless fractional co-ordinates. If the unit
cell axes are measured in A, Vc has the dimensions of
oo
oo
ft(hkl)=vA
vM\ p(xyz)exp{27Ti(hx+ky+h)}dxdydz
F(hkl)=
....(11)
where the summation
oo
electrons/A 3 and FQikl) of electrons/
the scattering factor of
atom
whose electron
p t (uvw), (uvw) being co-ordinates referred to

(x t , y t z t ) as origin. If the atomic densities are centrosymmetrical with respect to their origins the/t are real
density
is
and
A'(hkl)=^f (hkl) cos {27T(hx +ky +lz
cell.
t )}
....(13)
Let F(hkl)=A\hkl)+iB'(hkl), where A' and B' are

real, and a{hkl)=ia.n-\B'jA'). Then, since p(XYZ) is
and B'(hkl)=^f (hkl)

t
sin {2Tr{hx t +ky t +lz t)}
real:
....(14)
i
are also real. If also the atomic densities have at least
vA\\
A'{hkl)=
p{xyz) cos {2-rr(hx+ky+lz)}dxdydz
ooo
i
B'(hkl)=
symmetry of the crystal class, and in particular

they are spherically symmetrical,
the
(3)
A\hkl)=^fr{hkl)A(hkl)
f f P (xyz) sin {2n(hx+ky+lz)}dxdydz
if
.... (1 5)
ooo
B'(hkl)=^fr(hkl)B{hkl)
(4)
.... (16)
and
By
F(hkl)=\F(hkl)\exp{i.(hkl)}
and
(3)
....(5)
where the summation is over the crystallographically

non-equivalent atoms in the unit cell and
(4):
FQikl)=A\hkl)-iB\hkl)
= \F{hkl) |exp{- icc(hkl)}

so that
(h!cl)=-oc(hkl)
A{hkl)
=2 cos {27r(hx +ky + lz
s)
(17)
sin {2-*(hxs +ky s +lzs )
(18)
.... (6)
jB(M/)=2
and
.-..(7)
Further
\F(hk"l)\=\F(hkl)\
.... (8)
where the summation is over the atoms in the unit cell

related to r by symmetry. Note that (15) and (16) are
not in general valid for non-spherical atoms, as symmetry-related atoms may then have different fs.
Volume I, Section 4.7, gives particular forms assumed
by p(XYZ), AQikl), and BQikl) in each space group.
a formal consequence of definition (2) and

the reality of p(XYZ), Friedel's law of the same form
relates to the amplitudes of the scattered waves, and
may be explained on the assumption that these amplitudes are proportional to the right-hand side of (2).
See Volume III for effects of anomalous scattering.]
[This
is
Using
(5)
and
(6), (1)
may be
6.1.2.
written:
By the convolution theorem (Section

Table 2.5.4D), the Fourier series
P (XYZ)=
V 2* 2* 2' F M/
i
C -00
-00
The Patterson Function
)l
cos
{MhX+k Y+lZ)-<x(hkl)}
P(UVW)= 2 *2 *2 IÔI 2 cos 2ir(hU+kV+lW)

"
7
00
(9)
or alternatively
fc
P (XYZ)=y J*
2'
C 00 -00 00
WÔ
P(uvw)=Ve
.... (10a)
cos
/"I")
P (xyz)p(x+u, y+v, z+w)dxdydz
ooo
of symmetry at the origin,

so that F(hkl)Â'(hkl), (9) and (10a) reduce to
2 F M/
-oo
1 1
If the crystal has a centre
C-00 -00 -00
-oo -oo
involving only the amplitudes and not the phases of

the structure factors, represents the function
cos 2Tr(hX+k Y+IZ)
+B'(hkl) sin 2rr(hX+k Y+IZ)}
p(XYZ)=-r J) 2*
and
2.5.3.1
(2)
This function, introduced by A. L. Patterson [21] [22],

gives a vectorial pattern of the distances between the
atoms in a unit cell. On the use of the Patterson function
MhX+k Y+IZ)
see, for
.(10b)
318
example, H. Lipson and
W. Cochran
[19].
6.2.
Formulae for Fourier
Series, Sections, Lines, Projections

6.2.2. Electron Density
The formulae in this section relate as they stand to

fhe electron density. To make them applicable to the
Patterson function, \F(hkl)\ must be replaced by
\F(hkl)\ 2 and a set equal to 0. The formulae are
appropriate to the space group PI. To obtain the
formulae for other space groups, corresponding modifications must be made to the electron density expressions given in Volume I, Section 4.7, or to the Patterson
,
function expressions given in Volume

(which also lists the Harker sections).
ment of the expressions
xx y x
Lines
Along a line parallel to
6.2.2.1.
at
and Derivatives
[001] intersecting (001)
p(xxy xZ)=
2*2*2/ F hW\ cos {2ir(hx

\
C 00
+ky 1 +lZ)-at(hkl)}
00 00
....(1)
Section 4.8
The arrange-
I,
for computation
is
In evaluation
to h and k.
discussed
sum
convenient to
it is
first
with respect
in Section 6.5 (p. 333).

6.2.2.2.
point
6.2.1. Electron
Density Sections
For a plane
6.2.1.1.
[001]atZ=z1
P (XYz x)
line parallel to [uvw] passing
uvw
X x
parallel to (001), intersecting
p(Z)
\
line
[uvw]
V\ cos
{MhX+k Y+lzJ-*(hkl)}
cos
|27T
(hu + kv+lW)
zl
hxx +kyx
(hkl)
(2)
J
The line density repeats only after traversing a distance

equal to the repeat distance along [uvw]. (Any one of
three pairs of variables XY, YZ, ZX may be eliminated from 6.1.1(9), leaving an equation in one
variable only. The preceding equation is one of the
Z occurs it is easiest to evaluate
by summing first with respect to /. Thus, as a

simple example, if there is a centre of symmetry at
the origin, the section at Z=| is
this
% fk
Yyx Zz x
C-00 00 -00
'
....(1)
p{XY\)~
~2*2*2'i F(M/)
Jhu+kv)
oo oo
Since only one value of
through the
J* 2* 2' F hk
C oo
For a
x x y x zx whose equation is
three possible.)
C(hk) cos 2-nQiX-Vk Y)

6.2.3. Electron Density Projections
6.2.3.1. The contents of the whole unit cell may be
projected parallel to [001] on to any plane not containing [001], giving a projected electron density:
C(hk)=^{-\) F{hkl).
l
where
The Patterson function always has a centre of symmetry at the origin and the Harker sections are always
at values of X, Y or Z which are multiples of , J, \ or
\, so that they may always be evaluated by expressions
resembling that given for p(XY\).
(XY)^
>-%\p(XYZ)dZ
o
00
00
=- 2 A2* F(hkG)\
cos
6.2.1.2.
tion
For a plane
parallel to (h^lj),
{MhX+k Y)-*(hkO)}
-^-oo -oo
whose equa-
....(1)
is
h 1 X+k1 Y+l1 Z-=p1
the area of the (001) face of the cell.

Projection on to the plane orthogonal to [001]
Ve [c, with axes a'=a sin
often preferred. For this,
where
....(2)
is
A=
/<ir^-î*2*2'IW0|co.(2w r(A-W)jr
ti*i'i.Pi)
' c
-oo -oo -oo
l_
'1
b'=b sin a. In either case, with the unit

measured in A, the dimensions of p(XY) are
+(k-^y+ jiy(hki)}
....(3)
cell
is
)3,
axes
electrons/
of the projection.
one of the three principal axis projections.
(1) is
A projection parallel to
It
should be noted that the area of the repeat unit of

same as that of the repeat unit
in the plane (h x k x l-^. [(2) can be used to eliminate X,
Y or Z from 6.1.1(9). It is usually most convenient to
eliminate the variable with the smallest non-zero
Miller index. The preceding equation is one of the
6.2.3.2.
this expression is the
give the projected electron density of a unit cell having

[uvw] as one axis. The F(hkl) for such a projection
belong to the zone [uvw] and have indices satisfying
three possible.]
Such projections are often conveniently evaluated with
[uvw]
hu+kv+lw=0
319
may be
used to
...-(2)
FORMULAE FOR FOURIER
6.2.
new
respect to
axes,
PROJECTIONS AND DERIVATIVES
SERIES, SECTIONS, LINES,
two of which are taken
in the
from
Substituting
6.1.1(9):
plane (uvw).
6.2.3.3.
bounded projection
^ P (XYz
parallel, say, to [001]
gives the projection of the contents of the cell
00
between
r)
00
00
^2*2*2' F(hkl)\[C
two values of Z on to any plane not containing [001].

Thus if the limits are Z=z x and Z=z 2 the bounded
cos {27r(hX+kY)-<x(hkl)}
c_ oo oo -oo
projection
-S l sin {27r(hX+k Y)-<x(hkl)}]
is
where
BlXXY)^
P (XYZ)dZ
where
ence
[3]).
(9)
and
the area of the (001) face of the cell (referBefore integrating it is convenient to
is
C = V cos 2irlzr
...(3)
A}
\
.... (8)
=!
separate those terms in the electron density series with
/=0, thus:
6.2.3.5.
00
(XYZ)~^h^k \F(hkO)\ cos {27r(hX+kY)-x(hkO)}

oo
+"f2
C-00
oo
*2*
'
00
;
\
F(hk V\
cos {2-rr(hX+k Y+lZ)-a(hkl)}
and
substituting (4) in (3)
we
integrating
- h
oo
get
-00
The preceding formulae
.... (5)
are often used to find the

the electron density by
maxima of
positions of the
or
from density values computed at regular

alternative method [5] of finding the
position of a maximum is to compute the first and
interpolation
BZZ[(XY)
intervals.
2*2* F(hk0
)\
cos {27r(hX+kY)-<*(hkO)}
An
second derivatives of the electron density at a point

assumed near the maximum. The small shifts
oo
(xyz)
oo
+~2* 2*
sin
I^ÔI [Ci
(e x , y , 2 )
{2-nQiX+k Y)-(hkl)}
+S
cos {2ir(hX+k Y)-<x(hkl)}]
Ci=- (cos 2-nlz 2

2m
cos
.... (6)
8x 2
2-n-lz^
The summation
-(sin 2ttIz 2
2itI
consists of
8x8y
8 2P
distinct parts, the first
being similar to (1) (it is identical if z 2 z1 = 1) while the

second is little more elaborate than the trigonometric
expansion of 6.1.1(9). The factors C and S are constant when / is constant, so that the first summations
should be made with respect to /.
8x8z*
oo
oo
" C-00 -00 -00
be parallel to (001) and intersect [001] in z lt z 2
8x
.,
zn
8 2p
x+
8ydz
8y8z
y+
8p
8y
8 2P
8P
8z*
...(1)
"
~ Hz
W)l cos {2<hx+ky+lz)-x(hkl)}
8p^
?\
is
oo
oo
oo
-yh^k^jh\F{hkl)\
n
.
8y
2 v
oo
A number of parallel electron density sections

may be projected on to a common plane. Let the planes
8 2P
8 2p
x
8x
P (xyz)=
6.2.3.4.
dxdz
where for the space group PI
2*2*2'
p(XYZl)+ P (XYz 2)+
8x8y
the required density function
8 2P
8 2P
sin 2-nlz^)
two
8 2p
8 2P
(7)
S =
maximum at (x+e x y+e y z+e z )

by the following equations
to give the
are determined
Then
.... (10)
6.2.4. Differential Syntheses
{2ir(hX+k Y+lzJ-ocihkl)}]
-sin
where
COS (27r/Z-a(00/)}
A:
oo
)l
where d is the length of the unit cell in the projection.

With d in A, the dimensions of p(Z) are electrons/A.
^2 2 2 27/l F^ )|[sin{27r(/i^+A:r+/z )-a(M/)}
-oo
be projected
line not
any
= i2' l^00/
{2n(hX+k Y)-<x(hkO)}
\f(hkO)\ cos
oo
/,
to
-oo
-00
i
may
o o
B\\{XY)=
(z2-zi)
on
P (Z)=^jjp(XYZ)dXdY
....(4)
On
unit cell
a projected electron density:
parallel to (001), giving
" c_oo -00

1
The contents of the
in planes parallel to, say, (001)
00
sin {2ir(hx+ky+lz)-oc(hkl)}
" C 00 00 -00
+p(XYzn)=^ P (XYzr)
(2)
320
FORMULAE FOR FOURIER
6.2.
SERIES, SECTIONS, LINES, PROJECTIONS
The
with similar expressions for 8p/8y and dp/dz; and

2
8 p
<=
8x8y
^h^k^jhk\F(hkl)\ cos {2ir(hx+ky+lz)-u(Jtkl)}

V.
AND DERIVATIVES
solutions of (7) are, with
(1
<ie x =(l
+2cOSaCOS/?COSy- COS 2 a- COS 2 /? COS 2 y),

COS 2
a) + (C0S
a COS /J COS
8x
-oo
8y
....(3)
+(cos a cos
P
sions for the electron density given in
Volume
ê y =(C0S
+ (C0S
COS
j8
^ Z =(cos a cos y cos #) +(cos
/8
COS
8x8z
where
8 P
8 P
dxdy
8y 2
xH
For a monoclinic
becomes
8P
....(4)
8 p
8 p
8p
8x8z
8y8z
8z 2
8z
and
-,
a 8x
8p
8P
82
(9)
with solutions
=-r
8 2p
axis, (7)
A and
are the shifts in

,
a)
2
8yl 8v
8 p
with b as the unique
ex+ea cos o
8p
= 8p
cell,
8y
COS
8P 82P
/*-_/_
8x
8y8z
....(8)
7*y+
a)
8P
dp
e x , c y , ez
8x
COS
+ (l-COS 2 y)^
become
8\8y
8y
atoms
being affected only by thermal vibrations and the
number of terms in the summation. Let (xyz) specify
the co-ordinates of (xyz) in A, then (1), (2) and (3)
8x 2
P)~
8x
direct physical significance, values for similar
8 2P
8P
/?)
8z
8 2P
cos
a COS j8 COS y)-r^ + (l COS 2
I,
Section 4,7.
It is often convenient to specify co-ordinates in
(or other suitable units) instead of axial fractions, as
the principal second derivatives then have a more
8 2P
8z
with similar expressions for 8 2 p/8y8z, d 2 p/dxdz,

8 2P j8x 2 8 2P j8y 2 and 8 2 P j8z 2
For other space groups, simplified expressions may
be obtained by differentiating the appropriate expres,
y)
8 2p
etc.
(5)
8x8y ab 8x8y
peak is spherically symmetrical,

the following relations hold among the second derivatives at the peak in a triclinic cell
If the electron density
0"p
8 2r
~8x
8y
8 P
,,
8 p
8 P
8x 2
8x8z
8x8y =^r2
cosr,
Z -
8x 2
8y8z.
8 p
- COS a,
8 *P
.(10)
2
8y\ 8t
8 2p
8z
dp
ft+tH/(B
ex
ex
j8=
y+ y +e z
a=
COS
COS
COS
B+ y COS a+e z =
8z
J8 P
2
gy/ 8x
.(11)
\8 p
8z\ 8r 2
These simplified equations must be used with caution,

as electron-density peaks are sometimes appreciably
ellipsoidal: for accurate work (1) or (4) should be used.
The use of differential syntheses in refinement with
allowance for finite series corrections and for phase
angle refinement in non-centrosymmetric space groups
8p I8 2p
/
p~
j?
2
8yf Sr
8x\ 8v 2
fz=
8p I8 2 P
\8
where r is any radius of the spherical peak, and a, j8

and y are the interaxial angles. Thus, if the peak is
assumed spherical, one non-zero second derivative
gives the values of all the others and (4) simplifies to
+e y COS y+e z COS
^)]
If all the axes are orthogonal, these reduce to
..(6)
ex
si
(7)
P
-
8r 2
is
321
discussed further in Section 6.4.2.
Fourier Transforms
6.3.
(cf.
Section 2.5.3)
electron density in a two-dimensional projec-
The
Let (xyz) be the co-ordinates of a point in direct

space defined by the vector
tion
is
xa+yb+zc
...(4)
p 2 (r)= \2TTsf(s)J (2TTsr)ds
where a, b, c are base vectors enclosing a volume Vc

and let (|t?) be the co-ordinates of a point in reciprocal
space defined by the vector
,
a* +rjb*
where
where J
(27rsr) is the zero order Bessel function.

electron density in a one-dimensional projec-
The
tion
c*
is
a*, b*, c* are the reciprocal base vectors.

(5)
The Fourier transform of a

is
density function p(xyz)
the scattering function

oo
f{&lQ=vA
oo
oo
6.3.2. Diffraction Effects
[ L(xyz)exp{2Tri({x+ vy+i;z)}dxdydz
The
inverse Fourier transform

00
Kxyz)
00
When
the upper limit of integration of 6.3.1(1), (4)

is 5 =2(sin
max)/A, point atoms with unit
scattering factor, f(s)=l, are represented by density
and
{Y\
-oo -oo -oo

is
functions as follows
00
3 dimensions:
-yj I I-/(fi?0exp{-27ri(c+Ty;+ bMdqdt

-oo
(5)
oo oo
..(2)
4775^
sin 2-ns r
sin 27Tsr
as=,
and of unit
If a, b, c are orthogonal
ordinates are in length units and
V=
c
length, the co-
27r 2 r 3
47r5 3 /3(sin
disappears from
mm cos my
where m=2Trs
This Section lists a number of useful Fourier transforms and transform techniques, the latter including
treatments of diffraction effects (Section 6.3.2) and of
the effects of crystal shape (Section 6.3.5). Reference
should be made to Section 2.5.3 for the basic mathematics of Fourier transform theory.
r.
2 dimensions:
Sfyl^TTSQr)
r 2 (r)= \2irsJ (2iTsr)ds=

o
-.'(^)
Radial Electron Densities
In three dimensions, the electron density p 3 {r) for a

distribution with spherical
is
(1)
m"
the formulae.
6.3.1.
s cos 2ttS(/
2-nsr
related to the scattering
symmetry about the origin

factor /(s) by
P3
sin 2-ns r
!2 cos (2TTsr)ds=
nr
....(1)
sin
=2s
(
where
j=2
r is the radius in length units in direct space,
= 47^2^,.)
is
he
TABLE
is
U(r)
8tt^
series in the
,,
0)
first
four
6.3.2
(2)
sf(s) sin 2-rrsrds
sometimes used as a
Table 6.3.2 shows the values of s r for the

zeros of r 3 (r), r 2 {r) and T X (r).
radial electron density:
H-
U{
This
and
sin 6/X, the radius in reciprocal space.
If /(r)
(2)
dimension:
T X (r)=
00
(r)=^f(s)^~^ds
r,(r)
t,W
0-715
1-230
1-736
2-238
0-610
0-5
1116
;-o
ri(r)
form
First zero
(2,mr\
Second zero
Third zero
Fourth zero
(3)
where /() is the scattering factor for the th order

spectrum from planes of spacing D.
322
r=
1-619
1-5
2-120
20
6.3.
Figure 6.3.2 (taken from R.
W. James
FOURIER TRANSFORMS
[14]),
S is a spherical region of reciprocal space, G* is the

function r 3 (r) of equation (1). Similarly, in two- and
one-dimensional projections, G* becomes r 2 (r) and
shows
the functions
mm cos m)
3(sin
2J1 (ra)
m
m
sin
wr
Equation (7) also holds for the effect of

mation on a periodic density function, if
finite
sum-
for every observed lattice reflection (hkl)

!1 for unobserved lattice reflections
arbitrary elsewhere
This treatment of diffraction effects is the transform

of the treatment of the effect of crystal shape given in
Section 6.3.5.
Various Space Transforms
6.3.3.
The
6.3.3.1.
s=2
scattering factor f(s) at reciprocal radius
a distribution p 3 (r) with spherical symmetry about the origin is

sin 6/X of
....(1)
o
which
the inverse Fourier transform of 6.3.1(1).
is
Fig. 6.3.2
Curves of (A), 3(sin
mm cos m)/m
(C), (sin
3
;
(B),
271 (m)/m;
For a plane distribution of circular symmetry

of density p 2 (r) per unit area:
6.3.3.2.
m)/m
The general effects of finite integration may be

represented as follows. Suppose that the scattering
function /(r?) is observed only within a region S of
reciprocal space. Then the density function p{xyz) is
f(s) =
2-nrp 2 (r)J (27rtr)dr
..(2)
-f
where
replaced by
the orthogonal projection of the reciprocal
is
vector
s=(r),)
on a reciprocal plane
parallel to the
distribution.
Mxyz)=y
f f
[mt)exv{-27Ti(x+r y+iz)}dZdr dl
]
For a
6.3.3.3.
Defi
line distribution
-^Hoi^y
f(s)=
Then
oo
oo
+(xyz)=y
oo
where
dgdqdt
....(5)
oo
oo
Using
6.3.3.4.
is
oo
g(irjOQxp{-27ri^x+ Vy+Cz)}didv dl
line in
the scattering function for a
(Section 2.5.3.1,
is
where z
the distance
(27rRp(R,z)J {2ntR)dR\e\p(27raz)dz
- 00
is
where
oo
and
oo
f(U)= (7
(6)
oo
(3),
axis, is
oo
- co - 00 - 00
Hence by the convolution theorem

p. 66, and Table 2.5.4D, p. 82)
and
the distance along the axis
from the
(2)
distribution p{R,z) of cylindrical symmetry,

is
oo
on a
J*
inverse Fourier transform of g(r])
G(xyz)=y
..(3)
the orthogonal projection of s
is
\p 1 (r)exp(27Titr)dr
reciprocal space parallel to the distribution.
jmQg(frQexp{-2m(ex+w+lz)}
-->-
The
of density p x (r) per unit
length:
....(4)
parallel to z,
(4)
the distance along the reciprocal

and t is the distance from this axis.
axis
p(uvw)G*(u x, vy, w-z)dudvdw
ifj(xyz)
Using (1), the scattering function for a spherisymmetric atom freely rotating spherically at
6.3.3.5.
-oo -oo oo
....(7)
cally
radius r from a point (xyz)
Thus the finite integration density is obtained by

multiplying the density at every point (uvw) by the
function Vc G*(u x, vy, wz) and integrating. When
is
f(s)mp{2ri(x+w+ lz)}
323
^-^
2nsr
.... (5)
6.3.
where
s is the reciprocal radius of
atom
scattering factor for the
FOURIER TRANSFORMS
and f(s)
(77 )
is
the
dicular to the axis,
of order
at rest.
If
Using (2), the scattering function for a spherically symmetric atom rotating about an axis at radius
r from a centre (xyz) is
and Jn (2iTtr)
atoms of unit scattering factor are arranged on a

p between the atoms, the
transform vanishes unless
t is
P p
.... (6)
the distance in reciprocal space from
where
(77 )
to the axis through the origin parallel to the axis of
m is
an
integer.
When P/p is
a ratio of whole numbers and so
rotation.
r
For the scattering from a hindered rotator,

and for atoms uniformly distributed along a circular
arc, see M. V. King and W. N. Lipscomb [16] and
M. Atoji, T. Watanabe and W. N. Lipscomb [2].
6.3.3.7.
^mv.
m == +_
P p
( sa y)
(13)
/ is an integer and c is the repeat distance along

the z axis, the structure factor for the helical array of
where
atoms
is
F\
For an exponentially decreasing density
6.3.3.8.
distribution
where
the Bessel function
helix with vertical spacing
6.3.3.6.
f(s)exp{2m(x+ vy+ t,z)}JQ (27rtr)
is
n.
summed
for
all
..(14)
f,0,-
*9-*2/K)
values of n solving (13), and N=c/p is

distance and one
number of atoms in the repeat

atom is assumed to have z=0.
...(7)
the
is
Reference
[8].
N
.(8)
{l+(2irs/p) 2 }*
where s is
parameter and
the reciprocal radius,
is
the
number of
6.3.4.
is
atoms
electrons in the
at
(x^y^Zi),
T(r)) of a molecule with

having scattering factors fif is
defined as
distribution.
6.3.3.9.
Molecular Transforms
The molecular transform
an arbitrary
For a Gaussian density
Hh 0=2/ exp{27r/(^ +^ +
<
<
distribution
<
z,)}
=2/i cos 2ir(gx
+riy i +zi)
+ l'2/<
corresponding to
P*{r)
pr *
-(9 e~
and
/>i(r)=JV
sin
27r(^+ 7?J i+^)

;
-AfoQ+iBifrQ
!)-
where
(17 )
to (xyz)
is
....(1)
are the co-ordinates in the space reciprocal
and the summation
is
over
all
atoms in the
where s is the reciprocal radius, p is an arbitrary

is the number of electrons in the
parameter and
molecule.
As examples, the molecular transform of a plane
hexagon ("benzene") consisting of six atoms, with
unit scattering factors, lying in the xy plane with
distribution.
co-ordinates {a,0,0}, {aj2, (V3)a/2, 0}
/(5)= Ne-" VI*
(10)
is
T(gr))=2 cos 277-a+4 cos nag cos ^(vâ-q
The transform of an
of radius r
and pitch P, defined with respect to rectangular axes by
the equations
6.3.3.10
x=r cos
(2)
infinite helix
and the transform of a tetrahedron with atoms

(a,a,a),
(a,-a,-a), (-a,a,-a), (-a,-a,a)
T(gr)C)=4 COS 2rrag COS
(2ttz/P)\
y=rsm(27TZ/P)\
z=z
J
4i
....(11)
vanishes unless =n/P, where n is an integer and

the distance along the reciprocal axis parallel to
When =n/P the transform is proportional to
cos
2-nat,
sin 2-nag sin 2Tra-q sin 27ra
.... (3)
The molecular transform method can be helpful in

when the configurations of
solving crystal structures
is
may be assumed in advance.

one independent molecule in the unit
the approximate crystal structure is solved by
the constituent molecules
z.
If there is only
cell,
/(^,/P)=/n (2^/)exp[w(<A+W2)]
2irar)
at
is
.... (12)
finding three co-ordinates of orientation (since the

choice of origin is arbitrary). In principle this is done
is the angle
where t is the distance from the axis,
from the axis (reciprocal to x) in the plane perpen*/
by rotating the molecular transform in the reciprocal

324
6.3.
FOURIER TRANSFORMS
moduli of the transform
cal
volume of the
the
particle
the inverse Fourier transform of s(xyz).
points
lattice
V is
where
at the reciproagree with the structure factor

amplitudes. Problems in systems of higher symmetry
are attacked by combining the transforms of individual
molecules.
The use of molecular transforms is simplified if the
molecule is planar, as then the contours of the trigonolattice until the
00
W(hQ=j*
and S*(grjQ
Hence
00
00
js(xyz)exp{-2m^x+ Vy+Cz)}dxdydz
f f
-oo -oo -oo
0)
metric part of the transform form cylinders, and the

structure factors of any zone are obtained from sections through the cylinders. Their use is also simplified
if some of the orientation co-ordinates are already
known from other physical considerations.
The molecular transform method is useful in conjunction with the optical methods referred to in
Section 6.5.4.
References: [17], [28], [6], [19].
By
the convolution theorem (Section 2.5.3.1, page

and Table 2.5.4D, page 82) the Fourier transform of the crystalline particle is
66,
00
00
00
v l)=N^h^lkJjF(hkl)Qi-Z,k-'n,
l-Q
supposing that the particle has an integral number of

unit cells
N-V/V,
The
... .(4)
00 00
-00
Transforms of Crystal Shapes
6.3.5.
is
....(5)
Thus the Fourier transform of a
electron density of a finite perfect crystalline
crystalline particle is
(1)
the shape transform repeated at each reciprocal lattice

point Qikl), multiplied by NFQikl).
Table 6.3.5 (adapted from Patterson [23]) shows the
the electron density of the infinite

periodic crystal, represented by the Fourier series
shape transforms for a number of types of particle in

terms of variables
particle
may
be expressed as
o(xyz)^p 00 (xyz)s(xyz)
where p^xyz)
1
is
oo
oo
oo
p 00 (xyz)=-^h 2*
Ut-lirMflii-Zd,
2 F(hkl)exp{-2ni(hx+ky+lz)}
;
C-00 -00 -00
and
is
inside the
y W P
\0 outside the
where h x =h, h 2 =k, h 3 =l; ^=1, $2 ==,n> ^3=C, and where

2 =j>,
z =z are the intercepts the particles
x =x,
boundary
particle boundary
particle
<s(
'
the axes. The polyhedra are set with faces

as shown. The axes for the ellipsoid coincide with the
principal axes, and for the skew cylinder one axis
make on
the shape function.
We
define the shape transform of the crystalline
particle as
coincides with the cylinder axis
nfto=ls*(ho
....(2)
TABLE
Crystal Shape
6.3.5
U =2jrM (h i )
i
NKM.M.M,)
Shape Transforms ^(UtVÛJ
Ilfsin UJUi]
..
and the other two with
the principal axes of the cross section.

References: [18], [23], [12], [28].
Shape Transforms:
Parallelepiped {100}
0=1,2,3)
Octahedron {111}
62^ sin UAUS-Ufl-KW-U,*)-
..
4/3
Tetrahedron {111}
,v
..
Rhombic dodecahedron
Elliptic cylinder
Uk
sin Uj sin
/,-
cos U, cos
Uk )
8/3
16S{C/ sin \Ui[cos \U - cos %U cos iUk ]}

+ UM + C/3)(- Ux + U2 + Uz)(Ut - u2 + uûx + u2 - UJ
f
{110}
sin
w-u^w-u*)
r
(t/t
Ellipsoid
Ufa cos Ui
3i?" 3(sin
R-R cos R); R = t/ + U + U
2(pU3)- 1J1 (P)
sin
U3
325
= Ux *+ U2 *
2
3
4tt/3
2tt
6.4.
Method of Least Squares
6.4.1. Application of the
j to the parameters uh valid for small changes, are the

n simultaneous linear equations
Normal Equations
6.4.1.1.
The method of least squares (Section 2.6.6.4) can be

used in structure refinement (E. W. Hughes [13]) by
minimizing some function of the observed and calculated intensities with respect to the structure parameters. The function most commonly used is
R
The
=-Zw x {hkl)(\F
duj
V-
where the 8A(hkl)/8uj, etc., are evaluated for the trial

parameter values. Note the minus sign on the righthand side of (7).
.(2)
also sometimes used. In (1) and (2) the summations

are over the set of crystallographically independent
observed planes, the w's are the weights for each term,
F Sl
is
and
are the observed
To
and calculated
For*,:
struc-
OUj
Section 6.4.1.2 gives the values of 8\Fc \/8uj for some

parameters. Note the minus sign in the
relation between dA/dUj and d\Fc \/dUj.
- (3)
The weights w(hkl)
the variance, or square of the standard
or
R2
or
or
is a co-ordinate parameter of atom

denoted by xri (/= 1,2,3):
A(hkl)=\F
Let ux u 2
,
the
|.FC
(a) If Uj
the following description applicable either

2 we write
..-.(4)
A(hkl)=\F (hkl)\-\Fc (hkl)\ for
and
.,
(hkl)\
Values of d\Fc (hkl)\/8Uj
6.4.1.2.
respectively.
R=Hw(hkl)A\hkl)
where
-\Fc (hkl)\ 2
for
Rx
R2
8\Fc (hkl)\
8A r (hkl)
8uj
8xri
un be the n parameters occurring in
For
symmetry of the
A r =frA
where
is
a minimum,
Xw(hkl)A(hkl)
atoms (or atoms having
at
crystal class)
and
Br =frB
(9)
A and B are given for the different space groups
Volume
....(5)
t The reason for this is that if the \F are not fixed the criterion
of minimum R is no longer appropriate. It is desirable instead
to minimize some function of the proportionate discrepancies
between the |F and the \FC for instance, in place of i?! the
\
8A hkl)
i
OUj
=0
....(6)
function
RJVwihkDlFoVikDl*}
The parameters must be chosen to satisfy these n conditions. For a trial set of values of the w, close to the
correct set, the
.(8)
I, Section 4.7. Note that equations (9) are

not in general valid for non-spherical atoms, as symmetry-related atoms may then have different fs.
When the three co-ordinates of atom r are not
independent, the differentiations 8A r (hkl)/8xri and
in
duj
that
8xr
spherically symmetrical
least the
l^l-t
C/-1,2,...,ii)
sin
8A r(hkl)
8ui
=0,
BBtfkl)
,
8xr
8\Fc {hkl)\^
parameters heed not necessarily be atomic co-ordinates, but may include isotropic or anisotropic vibration parameters, site occupation factors, etc. If the
value of any parameter, most commonly just a scale
factor, needed to bring the |F to an absolute scale is
unknown, it must be determined by introducing the
appropriate inverse quantity as a parameter of the
|FC |.
When the least-squares refinement has been
completed the parameter is transferred back to the
8R
CQS x
r,
where A r and B r are the contributions of atom r and

its symmetry equivalents to A' and B' (Fc =A'+iB').
For centrosymmetrical space groups sin a=0, and
whose values are to be determined. These
When R is
in
(\F (hkl)\*-\Fc (hkl)\*)
To make
to
are discussed in Section 6.4.1.3
and possible approximate forms of the equations

Section 6.4.1.4.
(\F (hkl)\-\Fc (hkl)\)

i?!
OUj
common
deviation, of
for
dUj
~2|F.ffl
obtain the most accurate parameter
"^-sfe
is
= -m
OUj
values
where a\hkl)
.... (7)
duj
(1)
R 2 =Xw 2 (hkl)(\F (hkl)\ 2 -\F (hkl)\ 2) 2
ture factors.
= -^ w (hkl)A{hkl)^r^
function
and
dUi
0=1,2, ...,)
- \F {hkl)\Y
(hkl)\
&
The value of the scale factor, treated as a parameter of the

\F \, obtained by minimizing this function is the same as that
obtained from t by the method indicated in the text.
normal equations for the corrections
326
6.4.
REFINEMENT OF STRUCTURE PARAMETERS
dBr (hkl)/dxri must be made regarding xri
as a parameter, and not simply as one of three unrelated co-
Example
ordinates (see
where
fr
d\Fc (hkl)\ _d_AAhkl)
2).
atom
the scattering factor for
is
cos
a+
r at rest:
a^(p sin a
dQr
dQ r
= -(sin 6l\y{A r{hkl) cos +Br(hkl)
dUj
Examples (for spherically symmetrical atoms)

1. P2Jc. No. 14. Atom in general position.
sin a}
....(11)
A=4 cos 2-n(hx+lz) cos 2-nky 2?=0

k+l=2n
k+l=2n+l A=-4 sin 2-n(hx+lz) sin 2iTky: 5=0
A=B=0 if A=/=0 or if A;=0
;
and
with
value of Q r
by
defined
(9),
calculated with the trial
Hence
dA,
k+l=2n
= -%-nhfr sin 2ir(hx+lz) cos 27ry
dx
&4
=
dA
g^
dA
sin
2ttA:j>
r= %irlfr sin
dx
r,
2tt(Iix+Iz) cos 27ry
if,
for example,
cos 2n(hx + Iz) sin 2-nky
-= %Tikfr
sin 27r(hx+lz) cos 2-77&y
ay
2.
cos
a+ M*0 sin .
.(12)
db,
where A r and 5 r are the contributions of atom r and

its symmetry equivalents to A' and B'. In the space
group PI
A r {hkl)=fr cos 2-n(hxr +kyr +lzr)
-=%>nlfr cos 2n(hx+lz) sin 2?r^y

so that
No. 166. Atom in

Hexagonal co-ordinates.
i?3m.
-h+k+l=3n
db 12
db Xi
az
Uj=b 12
s\Fc (hkl)\ _eA r(hkl)

8-n-/i/r
fr =exp{-(b 11 h 2 +b 12hk+b 13hl+b 22 k +b 23kl+b 33 )}fr

where fr is the scattering factor for atom r at rest and
Sz
+ /= 2 + 1
atom
r= %7rkfr cos 2-n(hx+lz)
a>>
A:
one of the anisotropic thermal parameters

given by
(8) If Uj is
for
-M/ cos 2-n(hx

r
+kyr +lzr)
(13)
db Xi
A=6{cos2-n[(h-k)x+lz]
+
+
dA r (hkl)-=
special position (x,x,z).
where
COS 2-n[(k i)x+lz]

cos 2-n[(i-h)x+lz]}
fr
is
calculated with the trial set of thermal
parameters; similarly
dBr(hkl)
-h+k+l=3n+l A=B=0
= -hkfr sin 2-n(hxr +kyr +lzr)
(14)
db 12
Hence
-h+k+l=3n
In other space groups
dA
A r{hkl)=^f
î^-Un/Mh-k) sin 2n[(h-k)x+lz]
dx
cos
27r(/ix s
+ys +fes),
etc.
+(k-i)
sin 2-n[(k-i)x+lz]
where the summation is over all atoms related to r by

symmetry. Careful account must be taken of the
differing dependencies of the symmetry-related atoms
on the anisotropic parameters (see K. N. Trueblood
+(i-h) sin 2n[(i-h)x+lz]}
8A r
-1277-^*r {sin 2-n[(h-k)x+lz]
dz
sin 2ir[(k i)x+lz]+ sin 27r[(/ /j)x+/z]}
() If , is the isotropic
common
notation B)
to
[25]).
thermal parameter Q (usual

atoms, given by
(e)
If
^ is the
all
\,
given by
'(hkl)\
'\ is the value of |F

on an arbitrary scale,
then as indicated in Section 6.4.1, a parameter b=\/a
must be introduced as a parameter of \FC \, so that
where \F
where Fc (hkl) is the calculated structure factor without any temperature factor:
= _ (sin dmFe(hkJ)
scale factor of \F
\F {hkl)\=a\F
F (hkl)=exp{- g(sin 6/X) 2}F %hkl)
d\Fc {hkl)\
Relations of the type (9) are not generally valid.
\Fc (hkl)\=b\Fc '(hkl)\
(10)
dUj
F (hkl)
where
is
where \Fe '\
the structure factor with the trial
is
the value of |FC
value of Q.
and
when b=\. Conse-
d
-M^=\F
{hkl)\
CD
thermal parameter Q r for

symmetry equivalents, given by
(y) If Uj is the isotropic
atom
quently
its
/r =exp{-e
where \Fc (hkl)\
(sinW2}/r
ofZ>.
327
is
....(15)
the value of |Fe with the trial value

|
6.4.
When this scale factor b is required all the preceding

derivatives (8), (10), (11),
independently, except that the thermal parameters

of an atom with large vibrations may interact with
the co-ordinates of its neighbours
must be multiplied
(14)
.,
by the trial value of b. To avoid the extra computation

then involved the normal equations may alternatively
be divided by b 2 for R or b* for R 2 This is equivalent
and w, are co-ordinate parameters of different

atoms whose peaks do not overlap in the corresponding Fourier series, and if in a non-centrosymmetric space group the determination of the
phases is not dominated by either of these atoms;
(b) Ui
to leaving the earlier derivatives unaltered, to taking

an unsealed value of \Fc (hkl)\ on the right-hand side
of (15) and in A(hkl), and to using
A(hkl)Hm\F (hkl)\-\F (hkl)\
and ut are co-ordinate parameters in perpendicuof the same atom, whose Fourier
series peak is spherical.
for
Rx
for
R2
(c) Ut
or to using
lar directions
A(hkl)=(\lby\F {hkl)\*-\Fc {hkl)\*
These approximations are most satisfactory when a

large three-dimensional collection of data is used.
Choice of Weights
6.4.1.3.
If cKl-FoH^cl) is small in
Further details of the approximations possible for coordinate parameters will be found in D. W. J. Cruick-
comparison with \F
\\F \*-\Fc \*)=4\F \*o\\F \-\Fc \)
Rx
so that the relation between the weights for
shank
\,
.(16)
and
i? 2 is
4\F (hkl)\*w 2 (hkl)=wx (hkl)
With
.(17)
and o-(|F |-|Fc |) small, the parameters finally found by minimizing R x or R 2 differ only
by amounts small compared with their standard devia-
are always important and

the corresponding off-diagonal coefficients should not
be neglected
(a)
thus only a matter of computational convenience as to whether R x or R 2 is minimized.

In practice absolute estimates of the weights are
usually unknown in advance, and relative estimates
interaction between the scale parameter of

overall thermal parameters of the
and the
structure;
(b)
It is
must be made. In making
The
|F
this relation
tions.
[9].
The following interactions
The
interactions between the anisotropic para-
meters b n
b 22
and b 33 of any atom; also the

b 23 and b 13 when the
interactions involving b 12
corresponding axes are not nearly perpendicular;

(c)
account must be
taken both of the accuracy of the |F and of the
appropriateness of the calculated model on which the
|.FC
are based. The weights are often approximated
by a simple function of \F \, since the absolute values
of the uncertainties are frequently more strongly dependent on \F than on any other factor. The weights
introduced by Hughes [13] are often used. These are
these,
The interaction between the co-ordinate parameters of any atom when the corresponding axes
are not nearly perpendicular.
Refinement using Observed and Calculated

Syntheses in Conjunction, or by Difference
Syntheses
6.4.2.
Fourier
wx {hkl)oz
6.4.2.1.
Independently of the effects of experimental errors, the

by a Fourier series of observed
foihkl)\
for |F |>4|Fmln
electron density given
structure factors, |F |, differs from the true electron

density because of the use of a finite series. Further,
when the peaks overlap, the positions of the maxima
.(18)
1
for
16\Fm m\ 2
|FJ<4|Fm in|
of this finite series of observed electron density are not

the required atomic positions. These difficulties may
be largely overcome by using difference syntheses,
where \Fm i n is the minimum observable \F

Care must be taken to see that a weighting scheme is
appropriate. A good weighting scheme gives the leastsquares method an advantage over the Fourier method
in accuracy, but a bad one can give misleading con\.
having Fourier coefficients (F Fc), with terms present

only where a corresponding F is present. Difference
syntheses may be used to determine atomic co-ordinates, atomic scale and thermal parameters, to study
the distribution of electrons in bonds or ionized atoms,
and to locate light atoms. A difference synthesis is
the difference of the finite series observed and cal-
clusions.
6.4.1.4.
The
Approximate Equations
off-diagonal coefficients
Ywl

1|
Introduction
of
culated electron densities, and so these topics
e,-
alternatively be studied
in the
(a)
normal equations
(7)
may
often be neglected if
may
from separately computed
observed and calculated syntheses used in conjunction.

This section gives formulae for difference syntheses,
and for the joint use of observed and calculated
u t is a co-ordinate parameter and us a scale or

thermal parameter; accordingly the refinement of
co-ordinates and scale parameters may be treated
syntheses.
328
6.4.
The usual criterion for determining atomic coordinates is that the slopes of the difference synthesis
should be zero at the atomic positions, or equivalently
that the slopes of the observed and calculated finite
should be equal.
of the refinement of scale and thermal
parameters by difference syntheses will not be discussed (reference may be made to [7] and [10]), but
possible criteria to be employed may be stated as
of atom r and e ri a small correction

ment equations are of the type
to
The
it.
refine-
series electron densities
The
details
follows. If the scattering factors for the
atoms
If the thermal motion is assumed isotropic,

the single thermal parameter for an atom may be
position.
determined either from the criterion that the mean of

the principal second derivatives of the difference synthesis should be zero or simply that the difference
density itself should be zero at the atomic position. If
is
in addition
an uncertainty in the
scale as well
as in the thermal parameters, the criterion of zero

difference density must be added to those of zero
second derivatives. The refinement of co-ordinates by
the equations discussed in the remainder of Section
6.4.2 is valid only if the scale
and thermal parameters
(which are needed for the |FC |) are at least approximately correct.
When the refinement of a structure is incomplete,
each kind of parameter error causes characteristic
contour patterns in the difference synthesis. The
interpretation of these contours is discussed in [19]
and
General Co-ordinate Refinement
{l-nQix+ky+lz)
-oc(hkl)}
=^222^1 cos(0-)
Pc(xyz)=j2\Fc
say
cos (0-)
....(1)
sin a
sj
....(5)
where the summation
is
over the independent co-
A s and Bs are the contributions

symmetry equivalents to A' and B',
and hi is h, k or / as xf is x, y or z. There is one equation
ordinate parameters xsh
of atom s and
its
of this type for each independent r, L

are valid for small parameter changes.
The equations
For centrosymmetric space groups the equations

reduce to
|22BH=(
2f
e
s.j
d(po-pc)
),
-p cy
d(p
or
(6)
dXj
si
{f dx\dx ) r
t
where
Xi
' (7)
jr
S =*A S and p s (xyz) is the finite series calculated

electron density of atom s and its symmetry equiva,
lents.
The values of dA s (hkl)/dxsj and dBs (hkl)/dxsj are

the same as those in Section 6.4.1.2(a). Only the
right-hand sides of (4) and (6) are given by the difference synthesis. The coefficients on the left-hand
side have to be
computed
separately.
For examples of the non-approximate use of (4),

Ahmed and D. W. J. Cruickshank [1] for
application to an 'Unresolved projection, and M. R.
Truter [26] for application in a non-centrosymmetric
space group.
6.4.2.3. Approximate Co-ordinate Refinement

Equations, Centrosymmetric Space Groups
The coefficient of esj in (7) is* a function of p s

evaluated at the position of atom r. This coefficient
may be neglected when the summation is such that
the images of atom s and its equivalents do not appreciably overlap atom r. For r^s this is usually the case
in three-dimensional analyses, but the coefficient must
not be neglected for unresolved peaks in projections.
When none of the other atoms s appreciably overlap
(2)
The criterion determining the rth (*<= x,y,z) co-ordinate

of atom r is
the derivatives being evaluated at the position of
atom
^
dx
see F. R.
(xyz)=^h^kî\F (hkl)\cos
and
cos <x+
derivation of equations (4) and their close

relation to the normal equations of least squares for
the function i? x are discussed in [9]. See also [7].
Equations
Let p
'-
dxsj
sj
The
[15].
6.4.2.2.
4=
-Hp
dx
with
at rest
are accurate, the six three-dimensional anisotropic

thermal parameters of a given atom may be determined by the criteria that the six second derivatives of
the difference synthesis should be zero at the atomic
there
....(4)
atom
r,
(7)
becomes approximately
r.
y
f
Equations for the simultaneous refinement of all comay be derived from the first-order terms of
the multivariate Taylor expansions in all parameters
of each criterion (3). Let xri denote the z'th co-ordinate
ordinates
A.(zpr)
Wpq-pc)\
rf
ri
dxrj\dXi J r
8Xi
)r
'" (8)
where pr is the finite series electron density due to atom

and its symmetry equivalents. The co-ordinates of
329
6.4.
atom r are then determined by the three equations (8)

with Xi=x, y, z.
If the image of atom r is not appreciably overlapped
by any of its symmetry equivalents, (8) becomes
yJJ^-JKp-zpJ)
n
f \dXi dx ) \ 8Xi )
t
where p r
to
atom
is
now
r alone.
.... (9
K J
)
r
over all planes within the

observed region of reciprocal space (and this includes
planes which may have been systematically absent in
the original space group).
As a further approximation the off-diagonal terms
(d 2pr / dXidx3) r with zVy may be negligible when the (i,j)
axes are perpendicular; each co-ordinate is then determined by a single equation.
6.4.2.4.
Series
the coefficient of esj in

with s=r, may be neglected are the same as
those for centrosymmetric space groups with the addi-
atom s nor atom r must

dominate the determination of the phase angles a. If
also the image of atom r is not appreciably overlapped
by any of its symmetry equivalents, 6.4.2(4) reduces to
tional limitation that neither
a series
where the summation
Groups
The conditions under which
6.4.2(4),
the finite series electron density due
As
6.4.2.5. Approximate Co-ordinate Equations and

the "-Shift Rule," Non-centrosymmetric Space
2-1-^22?:!H=-ft?l
is
Booth's Back-shift
Method for
Finite
Correction
In Booth's back-shift method [4] a synthesis is computed with coefficients Fc calculated for the co-ordinates of the maxima of the final observed synthesis,
with terms present only where corresponding terms
are present in the observed synthesis, and the finite
series corrections are taken as the displacements to
the maxima of the calculated synthesis with reversed
signs. If differential syntheses are used these corrections are given by the equations (1) of Section 6.2.4
with the displacement signs reversed. In the present
m=\ for the reflections with general a values,

for the reflections with a=0 or tt, and the summation must include any planes systematically absent
where
m=2
group within the reciprocal region

of observation; such planes are given the same
values as those present in the same rows or zones.
Comparison of (13) with (9) and (10) shows that shifts
in the space group PI are twice those of a centrosymmetric space group, and that for non-centrosymmetric space groups centred in some projections the
shifts are between one and two times the centrosymmetric shifts, the exact multiple n depending on
the space group. This is the "-shift rule" introduced
by D. P. Shoemaker, J. Donohue, V. Schomaker and
R. B. Corey [24].
in the original space
6.4.3.
Standard Deviations of Structure Parameters
6.4.3.1.
Least Squares
The normal equations
6.4.1(7)
H&M. - }
At any
shifts are the differences
and calculated
of the
syntheses.
shifts
and
equations,
\dxt) r
\8XiJr
dx t
(Xi=x,y,z)
If the peak
is
spherical
it
may
(2)
and
(3)
If a{u}) is the standard deviation
of
u,
cal-
culated second derivatives are approximately equal,

as they must be for Booth's method to be applicable,
the shifts can be regarded as the solutions of the three
^"[dxidxjr
=2>
dUi duj
of the observed
If the observed
written
dA 8A
where
(U)
stage of the refinement, the best co-ordinate
may be
a)
notation the shifts are given by

(
(13)
}r
....(12)
<j%Ui)=a"
where a"
is
(a ij ) inverse to
This result is applicable when the absolute

weights are known.
If the weights are initially unknown, but their
relative magnitudes can be assigned satisfactorily, the
square of the standard deviation of an observation of
unit weight may be estimated at the end of a refine{a i}).
ment
as
not be necessary to
compute all six of the second derivatives on the lefthand side of the equations (12) (see Section 6.2.4).
The refinement equations (6) of the equal-slope
criterion are more exact than (12), as they take full
account of peak overlapping. The conditions of
validity of Booth's method are those under which (6)
(4)
an element of the matrix
-LwA 2 /(m-n)
....(5)
where the w's are the relative Weights, the J's have
their final values and (m-ri) is the difference between
the number of independent observations and the
number of parameters determined.

standard deviation
may
be reduced to (9), for then p c will be nearly equal

to p r near the co-ordinate of atom r.
s(,) is
s % {u})=a[
\m-
330
The estimated
then given by
.(6)
6.4.
where a"
calculated
is
from the matrix
(a {j) with the
Section 2.6.6.4, (22a) and (23)].

Similarly the estimated covariance of ut and u} is
relative weights
...(7)
\m-n)
"
8x
is
a{Po (xyz)-p c (xyz)}

2\
(8)
-form
pendent
is the standard deviation of F(hkl), the
inner summation is over all planes of the same crystallographic form, the outer summation is over the independent F's and d=27r(hx+ky+lz). At a general (xyz)
position, if there are sufficient terms in the summation,
this has the approximate value
where a{F(hkl)}
,+h+k+i
*<*-î222"V
vy -k
-h
The standard
synthesis
is
etc.
been used, 8 2 P /8r 2
is
6.4.2(10)
4^
d P
22
= -?LyYj
tf
y fl2 Z,Z,Z< h r
8r 2
1
>
with 8 2 p/8r 2 replaced by
which
the coefficient of erx in 6.4.2(13) in length
is
units.
(9)
use the above expressions for standard deviations it is first necessary to estimate the a{F(hkl)}.
simple way of estimating the combined effect of
the experimental errors in the iVs and the imperfec-
To
deviation of the slope of a difference
usually required in electrons/A 4
The
tions of the
model used
\\F (hkl)\-\Fc (hkl)\\

T2\
for the
an
as
F 's
c
is
estimate
AF=
to take
of o{F(hkl)}.
Estimates of the effects of various kinds of experimental errors may be obtained by studies of the agreement between sets of independent observations of the
....(10)
of intensities, of equivalent reflections and on

different crystals of the same substance. Further discussion of the estimation of a(F) and of the equations
for co-ordinate standard deviations can be found in
2/*sin(0-a)
-form
pendent
same
(xyz) position this has the approximate
value
^K!f!IW
(^
-ÎI21V'
-I
P^KtIi-"
monoclinic cells.
In non-centrosymmetric space groups with coordinates determined by the -shift rule, the above
expressions for co-ordinate standard deviations hold
.(13)
Care must be taken to see that an approximately

If a(8D/8x)
is used for/r
=a(8D/8y)=(i(8D/8z), (12) also holds for triclinic and
standard deviation of the x slope at a point (xyz)

assuming correct phase angles is
At a general
'
correct temperature factor
\ * {F(hkl)} y cos {d-<x(hki)}

inde-
deviation of the density of a difference

synthesis at a point (xyz), assuming correct phase
II
fix
5
in electrons/A thus
Fourier Methods
The standard
angles,
8 Pc
If equation 6.4.2(9) has

6.4.3.2.
8 2P
../Zwd 2 \
tive
[cf.
D=p -p c and 8 2P /8r 2 is the second deriva5

If the back shift
of the peak in electrons/A
method, equation 6.4.2(12), has been used
deviations,
<>
[11]
set
and
[19].
Bond Length and Bond Angle Standard
Similar expressions hold for the y and z slopes.

These expressions for the slope errors may be used
6.4.3.3.
in conjunction with the equations of Section 6.4.2 to
The standard deviation of a bond length between

two atoms whose co-ordinate errors are uncorrelated is
Deviations
determine the standard deviations of co-ordinates

found from difference syntheses or from the joint use
of observed and calculated syntheses.
For an atom with a well-resolved spherical peak in
an orthorhombic cell of a centrosymmetric space group
a(l)={a 2 (A)+a 2 (B)}i
.(15)
where a(A) and a(B) are the standard deviations of the

co-ordinates of the two atoms along the direction of
M =jm
the bond.
If the bond
/lii
\8xJ 8r
fs
across a centre of symmetry:
o(l)=2a(A)
^*(f)/|B
If
.(12)
AB
j8
is
....(16)
the angle formed at B between the bonds

errors of the three atoms being un-
and BC, the
correlated:
2
(i8)=-
where
a(x),
a(y),
a(z) are the co-ordinate standard
deviations in A, <j(8D/8x)
etc.,
are the slope standard
AB 2
+a
H-lB
a\C)
1
\
2c OSi6
AB.BC BC 2 ) BC 2
.(17)
331
6.4.
where a(A) and a(C) are the standard deviations of A

and C in the directions at right angles to AB and BC
respectively, and a(B) is the standard deviation of B
in the direction of the centre of the circle passing
through A, and C. If and are related by a centre
of symmetry, o (p) is given by replacing

centre of symmetry O, which has no error,
the half-length OA in place of AB.
The Discrepancy Index

The quantity
6.4.4.
p J.\\F
A by the
and using
(or Residual)
(hkl)\-\Fe {hkl)\\
Z\F
Several slightly different definitions of R have been

used, differing according to their treatment of reflections too weak for observation
for the multiplicity of the \F\'s.
and
As
their allowance
is not a fundamental quantity, there is usually little point in taking

account of multiplicity. The omission of the \Fe \'s for
unobserved [F |'s in the early stages of an analysis
may, however, be misleading. In the final stages this is
less important.
Published values of R should be
accompanied by a statement as to whether the unobserved planes were included or not. It is essential
that the observed and calculated F's are at least
approximately on the same scale, so that S|F.(AJfc/)|
~Z\Fc (hkl)\.
(hkl)\
A.
often used to follow the refinement of a structure as

a rough and ready indication of the progress made.
is
not directly related to the probable errors and in

replaces methods such as those of Section
6.4.3 for estimating final parameter standard deviations; but it has the great merit of being computed
quickly, and long use has endowed it with some
It is
no way
qualitative significance.
332
C. Wilson [27] has shown that the value of

the F^s are calculated for atoms in random
position is 0-828 in centrosymmetric space groups and
0-586 in non-centrosymmetric space groups.
J.
when
V. Luzzati [20] has discussed the variation of R,

for groups of planes of approximately equal
sin 0/A, with the mean square co-ordinate error and
with sin 6/X, assuming no experimental errors in the
summed
6.5.
The Practical Evaluation of Fourier
With the extension of
Series and Structure Factorsf
b as unique axis, is taken as an example, the electron

density formula becomes
crystal structure analysis to
many-parameter problems and the increasing use of

quantitative measurement of X-ray intensities, the
value of the Fourier synthesis was fully realized some
fifteen years after the original suggestion by W. H.
Bragg in 1915 [29]. The need for computational aids
in the calculation of Fourier series and structure
factors dates from about that time, for until practical
methods for doing the extensive calculations had been
P(XYZ)^ tf]r[{A(hkl)+A(hkl)}
^cl
cos 2-nhX COS
sin lirhX cos
sin
two
IrrhX COS 2-nk Y COS 2ttIZ
+{B(hkl)+B(hkl)}
structure analysis: (1) in the solution of the phase

(2) in the refinement of the analysis so as
make
2-nlZ
stages in a
problem and
to
Ink Y sin
+{B(hkl)-B(hkl)}
certain directions.
at
Y COS IttIZ
+{-A(hkl)+A(hkl)}
evolved the subject could not proceed very far in
Computational problems appear
2-rrk
cos 27rhX cos
2nk Y sin
2ttIZ] 1
the fullest use of the experimental data
where A(hkl)=\F(hkl)\ cos *(hkl)
would not be expected in general that

a computational aid suitable for (1) would also be
efficient for (2), where accuracy in dealing with a large
quantity of data is a paramount requirement.
Crystallographic calculations can be done very
rapidly and accurately on general-purpose electronic
computing machines, but because of the need for
specialized knowledge of programming and for the
economical use of the limited number of machines
available, some centralized planning of calculations
may often be necessary. While centralized computing
on general-purpose machines is likely to be employed
increasingly for the calculations encountered in the
final stages of refinement of analyses, there will probably always be a place for simpler aids to computation in the early stages of crystal analysis. For this
reason, and because of their ready availability, a
detailed account is given below of the Fourier strip
methods, the Bragg-Lipson charts, and some optical
methods.
(Section 6.4). It
and B(hkl)=\F(hkl)\
series in Section 2.5.4.7.
that section
Following the notation of
define
with appropriate care of the multiplicities when any

index is
as described in Section 2.5.4.7, or in Vol. I,
page 358. The calculation is carried out in three stages
of one-dimensional Fourier summations.
If
we
define
f(XYZ)=VcP (XYZ)
the electron density formula
may be
expressed as
follows
f(XYZ)^C(XZ,k) cos 2nkY
The Fourier Strip Methods

Three methods of computing Fourier syntheses by
means of strips which are commercially available or
simple to construct are associated with the names
Beevers-Lipson, Robertson, and Patterson-Tunell.
They are commonly used only for one- and two-
fc
.... (1)
oo
where C(XZ,k)^CC(X,kl) cos 2ttIZ

/=o
00
+^CS(X,kl)
sin 2-nlZ
.... (2)
/=i
dimensional Fourier syntheses, as the calculations

become very tedious for three-dimensional summa-
some
we
CCC(hkl)=4{A(hkl)+A(hkl)}
SCS(hkl)=4{-A(hkl)+A(hkl)}
SCC(hkl)=4{B(hkl)-B(hkl)}
CCS(hkl)=4{B(hkl)+B(hkl)}
6.5.1.
tions unless
sin a(hkl).
The summation may be carried out by an extension of

the method already described for two-dimensional
where CC(X,kl)=^CCC(hkl) cos 2-nhX

A=0o
and lines only are

computed (Section 6.2) or a sampling method is used.
However, as two-dimensional summations have already been described in some detail in Section 2.5.4
and as similar schemes are needed with punched-card
specific sections
'
00
+^SCC(hkl)
h
and CS(X,kl)=^CCS(hkl) cos
or electronic computers, a three-dimensional example

will be described now. The electron-density formulae
must be rearranged for computation into a product
form. If the space group Pm (Vol. I, page 377), with
sin
2-nhX
.... (3a)
2irhX
.... (3b)
2tt\iX
h=Q
00
+^SCS(hkl)
sin
h=l
The equations
t Most of the topics mentioned in this sub-section are discussed in detail and with examples in The Determination
of
Crystal Structures, by H. Lipson and W. Cochran [19].
are evaluated in the reverse order
(3a)
and (3b) first, then (2), and lastly (1); so that the
summations over h are first and those over k are last.
333
THE PRACTICAL EVALUATION OF FOURIER SERIES AND STRUCTURE FACTORS
6.5.
using the symmetry
As labour can be saved by
Stage
being carried out with a single value of
X and
X
properties (Section 2.5.4.5) of the one-dimensional
the whole process repeated with the next value of
cosine and sine series, it is wise to further subdivide

calculation of the
the stages of the calculation.
electron density for the complete asymmetric unit
after obtaining the f(Xx
(A =0->1,
r=0-4, Z=0-1) might
in the following
manner
If the elec-
is
above example, since no terms in sin 2-nk Y occur, the

labour will probably be least if advantage of this is
be postponed until a later stage.)

Stage la. Divide the coefficients CCCQikl), etc.,
into groups with h even and h odd, and evaluate for
(at intervals of, say, l/60th) the eight
to the best
required throughout the asymmetric

unit, the largest calculations usually arise in the Stage
III summations, and consequently the last summation
is ordinarily chosen to be for h, k or / according as to
which of /imax, k ma x or /max is least. However, in the
tron density
then be carried out
Stage 0. Combine the A(hkl) and A(hkl), etc., to

obtain the coefficients CCCQikl), etc., which appear on
the r.h.s. of (3a) and (3b), making allowance for multiplicity where necessary. (If desired the factor 4 may
X=0-+l
YZ).
Thought should always be given as

sequence of the summations in h, k and /.
2.
taken in Stage III (unless k ma x >2h m &x or 2/m ax). If

/*max>/max the summation in h should be in Stage I
,
summa-
as shown.
tions
oo
cos 27rhX
(even) h =
00
^CCC(hkl)
(odd)
The Beevers-Lipson Strip Method

The values of the functions C cos 2-nnhx and
sin 2-nnhx are printed on two sets of strips (cosine
6.5. 1.1.
^CCC(hkl)
cos l-nhX,
and
etc.
h=\
which appear on the
sine),
each
strip carrying the values
for a particular value of the amplitude
and
of (3a) and (3b).

Stage lb. Combine the results of the odd and even
summations of Stage la and of the two summations on
the r.h.s. of each of (3a) and (3b), in the manner of
Section 2.5.4.7, to obtain the CC(X,kl) and CS(X,kl)
r.h.s.
all
values of n.
On
of the function
C and order h,
the strips distributed prior to
949, 2-nx is 6
(x= l/60th), n runs from to 1 5, and the

function is given to two figures. The numerical values
of C run from l to 99, and of h from
to 20. The
positive and negative values of a given amplitude are
on front and back of the same strip (this is a convenient
arrangement for making the sign changes at l5/60ths
with cosines of odd order and sines of even order if it
is desired to use the strips directly for values of x
between 1 5/60ths and 30/60ths all the strips are then
read from right to left instead of left to right as
ordinarily). The strips issued since 1949 have x=
l/l20th and n from
to 30, with odd and even values
of n on front and back of the same strip, C has values
from l to 100 at intervals of l and thence to 900
1
forX=0-l.
Stage Ha. Divide the CC(X,kl) and CS(X,kl) each
two groups with / even and / odd, and evaluate
for Z=0-^ (and all X) the four summations
into
^CC(.[X,kl)
cos 2nlZ,
etc.
(evenT/=0
which appear on the
r.h.s.
of
(2).
lib.
Combine
manner
the results of Stage l\a, in the

of Section 2.5.4.7, to obtain the C(XZ,k) for
Z=0-1
(and
all
Stage
in hundreds,
X).
Stage Ilia. Divide the C(XZ,k) into two groups
with k even and k odd, and evaluate for Y=0-*l (and
all
and Z) the summations
^C(XZ,k)
(even) k
and
2nkY
=0
^C(XZ,k)
(odd) k
cos
geometric structure factors with co-ordinates defined

to 6 or 3 intervals, and similarly for the calculation
cos 2irk
of Fourier transforms.
which appear on the
r.h.s. of (l).
Stage IHb. Combine the results of Stage Ilia, in the
manner of Section 2.5.4.7, to obtain f(XYZ) for
y=0-4 (and all and Z).
6.5.1.2.
Values of C cos 2-nnx are printed on cardboard

with 2-nnx extending from 0 to 90 in intervals
of n with x=l/60th or l/48th. There is one strip for
each integral value of C between 1 and 1000, with
the signs distinguished by white strips for positive
values and coloured for negative. The arguments are
accurate to whole numbers. The strips for each amplitude in the one-dimensional summation are arranged
strips
Comments
not necessary that the calculations in Stage I
before Stages II and
all values of
III are carried out. The above scheme is convenient
with the strip methods, but for electronic computers
of limited storage capacity there is no objection to
l
The Patterson-Tunell Strip and Stencil
Method
It is
are completed for
with functions tabulated to the nearest
whole number h extends from to 30.

For computation the appropriate strips for the value
of C and h are selected from a box and the arguments
are summed for each particular value of nx, usually
with the aid of a desk adding machine.
These strips can also be used for calculating the
in order of their h values in a
334
grooved rack. These
6.5.
map and
then form a table from which can be selected

C cos 2-nhnx for each particular value of
nx. This selection is done by means of a series of
stencils which are placed over the strips in the racks
and which permit only the appropriate figures to be
seen through the holes. If a figure is seen through a hole
which is ringed in colour, the sign of that figure must be
reversed thus, for example, a number on a coloured
strip seen through a hole ringed in colour is positive.
Separate stencils are required for odd and even
values of the order h and for each value of n from
nx=0 to 0-250, but opposite sides of the same stencil
can be used for cosine and sine. For jc=6, 32 stencils
are required. Two stencils, one for odd h and one for
even h, must be placed over the strips and the visible
the contribution of each atom to the geometrical structure factor to be read off directly.
strips
the values of
See Reference
6.5.3.
Mechanical and Electromechanical Methods
Many
excellent computational aids have been invented which use a variety of principles and mechanical
devices, and range from a simple slide-rule to complicated machines.
Consultation of the original
publication is necessary to construct these instruments
and, in the case of the more complex machines, with
the designer also. The bibliography is arranged so as
to emphasize the principal objective of the method.
6.5.3.1.
numbers summed to give
[41].
^ C cos 2-nhnx for each value
See References [42]-[49].
of nx.
6.5.3.2.
Structure Factor Calculators
Robertson's Modified Strip and Stencil
6.5.1.3.
Method
This
is
essentially the
same
6.5.4. Optical
as the Patterson-Tunell
method, with the arguments on the
columns
instead of rows. Each strip contains 31 numbers corresponding to C cos 2-nnx for nx running from
to
0-250 with
x= 1/1 20th. To
There
avoid the dual signals for
mentioned above, the sign of the amplitude is

indicated by a small card which differentiates between
positive and negative by the position of a red band.
The appearance of this red band through additional
holes in the stencils shows that the summation term is
negative. Opposite sides of the same stencil can be
used for the cosine and sine terms for the same values
signs
6.5.4.1.
The Bragg-Lipson Charts
In the early stages of a crystal analysis it is frequently useful to be able rapidly to obtain approximate values of principal zone structure factors.
Bragg-Lipson charts enable the trigonometric components of the contributions of atoms to the structure
factors to be derived graphically.
The charts are contour maps of the geometrical
structure factors (Vol.
is
I,
p. 371).
common
The Huggins Masks
originally suggested by W. L. Bragg has

been systematized by Huggins [69], [70]. A cinematograph film of a set of masks with a density distribution
given by 1 cos 2Tr(hX+kY) for different values of h
and k is projected on to a sheet of photographic paper.
Each mask is given an exposure proportional to
F(hk0). Providing that the total exposure is within the
range of photographic proportionality, a Fourier synthesis is obtained on development of the photographic
projection data, as
is
A method
of nx.
mechanical sorting device for use in conjunction
with these strips has also been described.
6.5.2.
Methods
a close analogy between X-ray diffraction

and Fourier synthesis on the one hand and optical
diffraction and image formation on the other. This
similarity has been made the basis of a number of
aids for structure analysis, but because of the difficulty
of obtaining accuracy in these optical analogue
methods they are chiefly directed towards the solution
of the phase problem.
strips in
The maximum and minimum density on the

masks correspond to cos 27r(hX+ k 7)= + 1 and 1
respectively, and the positive and negative values of
F(hk0) are associated with the 1 - cos2<Tr(hX+k Y) and
1 + cos 27r(hX+k Y) masks respectively.
The resultant
Fourier pattern is consequently superimposed on a
constant background of 2|F(M0)|.
paper.
For considering only
practice, the seventeen
plane groups can be covered by ten sets of maps. Each

set will consist of a number of maps, one for each
6.5.4.2.
The "Photosommateur"
(G.
v. Eller)
A versatile machine based on the same principle has

been constructed by v. Eller [67]. A vertical slit source
reflection in the particular
zone under consideration.

It is possible to make standard sets of these maps to
cover all requirements, but it is more usual to select
the sensitive "key" reflections in a particular zone and
make the contour maps for those planes to scale for
of light passing through a specially designed grating

produces a sinusoidal distribution of intensity on a
photographic plate mounted at the centre of a movable
disc. The intensity depends on the exposure time, and
the correct orientation of the Fourier terms relative to
the particular unit cell dimensions. This procedure

enables a model of the molecule to be placed on the
335
6.5.
each other is achieved by rotating the disc carrying the

photographic plate. The spacing is altered by varying
the distance between grating and source, the grating
being geared to a cursor which permits the settings to be
made directly from a drawing of the reciprocal lattice
mounted on the rotating disc. The phase is introduced by an eccentric spindle which enables the grating
which produces the vertical fringes to be translated
horizontally by any amount up to one complete
period 2tt. It is thus just as easy to perform noncentrosymmetric summations as centrosymmetric ones.
Conversely, if a projection of the atoms in the unit
cell is fixed to the machine in place of the reciprocal
lattice, Fourier transforms can be prepared; and by
inserting in the film holder a card punched with small
holes at the positions of the reciprocal lattice points,
spots whose blackening is proportional to F(hkO) can
be obtained. As with the Huggins masks, the density
distribution recorded on the film is 1 + cos27r(hX+k Y),
so that the zero must be determined in order to decide
whether F(hkO) is positive or negative. This is done by
sampling, side by side on the same film, the transforms
prepared (a) for positive atoms and (b) for negative
atoms.
6.5.4.3.
The X-ray Microscope
If parallel
monochromatic
light is
passed through a
screen punched with holes to represent the magnitudes

of the structure factors and their positions in the
reciprocal lattice section, the image
the emergent
beam will be
diffraction pattern.
formed by focusing
the Fourier synthesis of the
This method can be used directly
6.5.5. Large-scale
must be introduced. This is done in the

Buerger instrument by means of mica plates which are
useful only to give
6.5.5.1.
Computing Methods
systems,
programs
for
also
drawn
in
to
Volume IV of
these
which some Sections are
relevant to computing problems.
The relevant Sections

on angle settings for four-circle diffractometers, thermal motion analysis and direct methods.
include those
6.5.5.2. Lists
of Programs
Many programs
are listed in the second edition of
World List of Crystallographic Computer Programs

[81]. A third edition is in preparation by the Commission on Crystallographic Computing and is expecthe
punched with holes representing the position

and X-ray scattering power of the atoms in a molecule,
or projected view of a molecule, the image formed by
light is
ted to be published in 1972-3.
focusing will be the Fourier transform of the molecule

or projected molecule. This is the basis of an optical
technique, due to Lipson and Taylor, for trial and
error solution of the phase problem, and also for the
study of the diffraction from imperfect structures.
If the screen transmits the light in a pattern corresponding to a large number of periodically repeated
is
computer
Tables,
is
International
The Analogue Diffraction Spectrometer

screen inserted in the beam of monochromatic
molecules, the Fourier transform
references.
Reference [78] covers the proceedings of an International Summer School on Crystallographic Computing organised by the Commission on Crystallographic Computing of the International Union of
Crystallography. Topics discussed include direct
methods of phase determination, automatic interpretation of vector maps, utilisation of anomalous dispersion and isomorphous replacement, least-squares
methods, analysis of atomic thermal vibration, absorption and extinction corrections, organisation of
Attention
Hanson and
only the reciprocal lattice positions, and the biaxial

optical properties of mica are used to control both the
amplitudes and the phases, which can only differ by
integral multiples of it.
If the
some of the main
remain relevant.
Lipson instrument the apertures in the screen represent
6.5.4.4.
Computing Equipment
Since the first edition of this Volume was published

in 1959, the field of electronic computing as applied to
crystallography has been growing so fast that it is
computer-controlled diffractometers, and Fourier

techniques. References [79] and [80] cover the proceedings of earlier meetings, many aspects of which
differences
In the
spectrum.
crystallographic
for the Patterson synthesis or for special cases of a

Fourier synthesis when the phases are all the same.
For general application to Fourier synthesis the phase
tilted to increase the optical path.
spectrum of the periodic structure. This forms the

method, in which a suitable
diffracting screen is made with a multiple-lens camera.
The pattern produced by this screen is directly comparable with the experimental F 2 values for the appropriate zone of X-ray reflections.
Neither the Fourier-transform nor the fly's-eye
method can indicate directly the phases of the diffracted pattern, but these can be determined in centrosymmetrical cases by observing the effect of introducing a heavy atom at the origin of the screen on the
intensity of different parts of the transform or of the
basis of the fly's-eye
Test Calculations
not easy to ensure that complex computer
programs are free from error. Accordingly the Commission on Crystallographic Computing have devised
a series of calculations to check programs. These have
been published in a report entitled "Standard Tests
for Crystallographic Computer Programs, Part I.
6.5.5.3.
It is
the diffraction
336
6.5.
Calculations used In Crystal Structure Analyses." [82}.

The test calculations include structure factors, interatomic distances and angles, Fourier syntheses and
least-squares refinements.
337
Note: In Vol. IV (to be published in 1972) Sections

5, and 6 are computer-oriented mathematical
sections, although they do not deal specifically with
computing.
3, 4,
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Shoemaker, D. P., Donohue, J., Schomaker, V., and
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and Stewart, J. M. Acta Cryst., A28, 000, 1972.
Ahmed,
Section 7
SPECIAL TOPICS
PAGE
Kasper)
7.1.
Close Packing (A. L. Patterson and
7.2.
The Use of Statistical Methods for the Detection of Symmetry Elements

(V.
7.3.
J. S.
342
Luzzati)
Inequality Relations between Structure Factors
355
(J.
Bouman)
358
Close Packing
7.1.
By A.
Patterson and
L.
7.1.1. Introduction
The
importance in
S.
Kasper
Close Packing in the Plane
7.1.2.
known
attempts to explain the regular

external form of crystals made use of the notion of the
close packing of spheres, and modern research has
shown that such packing is of the greatest structural
earliest
J.
In the general lattice close packing in the plane,

circles (diameter unity) occupy the special positions
0,0; $, (Wyckoff notation 2(a); see Vol. I, p. 52, and
Sections 4.2 and 4.3) of the plane group c2mm, with
translations a=2 sin y/2 and b=2 cos y/2. Secondary
contacts limit the parameter y to the range defined by
\< cos y<h. The two special cases of lattice close
packing of higher symmetry are listed in Table 7.1.2.
There are 33 plane-group packings (Niggli [11] [12],
Haag [2] [3]) of circles in a plane. Two of these of high
symmetry and of special interest are included in Table
7.1.2. There are at least 54 plane-group close-packed
arrangements of ellipses in the plane (Nowacki [13]).
many crystals. No attempt can be made
in the space available to
summarize the literature in a

of this importance. The tables of this section
contain some of the available data on the close packing
of circles in the plane and of spheres in space.
In the close packing of circles in the plane each circle
has at least three contacts in the plane, and not all of
field
these contacts fall in the same semicircle. In the close

packing of spheres in space each sphere has at least
four contacts to neighbouring spheres, and not all of
these contacts fall in the same hemisphere. For a
discussion of packing in space with less than four contacts reference is made to the literature (Heesch and
Laves [4], Melmore [7]).
lattice packingis one in which the packed objects are
equivalent under the operations of a translation group.
In plane-group packing and in space-group packing the
packed objects are equivalent under the operations of
a plane group and a space group respectively.
Note. In the following text it is assumed that the
packed circles and spheres have diameter unity, and all
dimensions must be interpreted accordingly.
Close Packing in Space
7.1.3.
In the general lattice close packing in space, spheres

(diameter unity) occupy the special position 0,0,0
(Wyckoff notation 1(a)) of the space group PI with
a=b=c=l and angles a, j8, y which are

arbitrary within ranges prescribed by secondary contranslations
tacts
(Minkowski,
[9]
[10]).
There are
fifteen lattice
number and
symmetry which include ten of the Bravais lattices,
excepting those of symmetry P2/m, Pmmm, Fmmm,
and P4/mmm (Patterson [14]). In Table 7.1.3 the five
lattice close packings of spheres whose parameters are
close packings of differing co-ordination
TABLE
7.1.2
Some Close-packed Plane Arrangements
of Circles
Notation
Z= number
of contacts per circle.

S=cell area for circles of diameter unity.
D=N/S=density in circles per unit area.
C=7rD/4=fractional coverage of plane by
Plane
Special
Group
Positions
p6m
pAm
p6m
p6m
3
3
t This
is
a,
1(a): 0,0
V3/2
1(a): 0,0
*-\P)' f3
33
6(e)t
V3
2+V3
3V3/2
(12+7V3)/2
2/V3=M547
1
4(7
circles.
4/3
V3 =0-7698
V3-
12) =0-4974
Remarks
0-9069
0-7854
Closest plane packingf
0-6046
0-3906
Triangular packing
Rarest close packing
Square plane packing
the densest packing in the plane, and
is unique.
with jc=1 l/\/3 =0-4226.
dense) possible plane-group packing and
| x,x; x,2x; 2x,x; x,x; x,2x; 2x,x;
will
This is the rarest (least

cover the plane.
342
is
probably the rarest close packing which
CLOSE PACKING
7.1.
TABLE
7.1.3
Some Close-packed Space Arrangements
of Spheres
Notation
Z= number of contacts per sphere.

V=cell volume for spheres of diameter unity.
D=N/V=density in spheres per unit volume.
C=fractional coverage of space by spheres.
Special
Space
Positions
Group
(Wyckoff
a, b, c
Remarks
C=ttD/6
notation)
12
Fm3m
Ma)
10
I4/mmm
2(a)
Im3m
2(a)
2/V3
P6/mmm
1(a)
Pm3m
1(a)
Fd3m
mt
Fd3m
32(e)J
V2
V(3/2)(c=l)
2V2
V2= 1-4142
0-7405
Cubic closest
packingf
3/2
4/3=1-3333
0-6981
Body-centred
(3V3)/4= 1-2990
0-6801
0-6046
0-5236
Body-centred cubic
Simple hexagonal
Simple cubic
tetragonal
8/OV3)
V3/2
2/^/3 = 1-1547
1
4/V3
64/(3V3)
(3 V3)/8 =0-6495
0-3401
Diamond
-[22V3
3[27V2
-22 V3] =0-2359
0-1235
Rarest
structuref
|[2V3+3V2]
+27V2]
(?)
packingf
t For generalizations of these packing types see 7.1.6.

j The origin is at the point of symmetry 43m.
The value of the x parameter is (3 -\/6)/8 =0-06881.
completely determined by symmetry are presented. To

these are added two space-group close packings of
high symmetry and special interest. The number of
space-group close packings of spheres is unknown
(cf.
Hilbert
and Cohn-Vossen
7.1.4. Closest
[5] [6]
and Toth
traditional closest-packing arrangements of spheres
with a density of \/2 spheres per unit of volume. In

the sequel we shall use the term closest packing of
spheres for the close-packed arrangements which contain closest-packed planes of spheres and possess the
same density as the cubic-lattice closest packing of
[16]).
Packing of Spheres
The hexagonal packing of
spheres
(i.e.
the face-centred cubic lattice).
We
recog-
however, that validity of the word "closest" in

the heading and elsewhere in this sub-section is still
in question. In particular, it has been shown that there
are special arrangements of spheres (in a finite volume)
with a density that exceeds that of the "closest-packed"
arrangements (Boerdijk [1]). For example, a configuration of 33 spheres based on an icosahedral
surrounding of a central sphere by its twelve neighbours has a smaller volume than that containing the
same number of spheres in a "closest-packed"
arrangement.
nize,
plane is
each
circle can have six neighbours in one and only one way,
and this is also the largest possible number of nearest
neighbours.
repetition of this arrangement covers
the plane uniquely, so that the densest lattice close
packing is also the closest packing for the plane.
It has been shown (Minkowski [9] [10]) that cubic
closest packing is the densest lattice close packing of
spheres, but so far it does not seem to have been
proved that this is the closest possible packing of
spheres which will fill space (cf. Toth [16]). The problem in space is complicated by the fact that there are
circles in the
clearly the closest possible planar packing, since
which twelve spheres can be
Symmetrical Closest-packed Stacking of Closestpacked Planes
made to contact a single sphere. Among these there

are two ways which when repeated in space lead to
closest-packed planes of spheres. These two methods
of arrangement of nearest neighbours lead to the
The close-packed plane has sphere centres at one of

the special points 1(a) :0,0; 1 (>):$, or 1(c) :, of the
plane group p3ml. In the following discussion a
hexagonal cell of translation a=l will be used for
infinitely
many ways
in
7.1.5.
343
7.1.
CLOSE PACKING
spheres of diameter unity, while the c translation will

be determined by the nature of the packing sequence.
A close-packed layer is said to be of type A when it
has co-ordinates 0,0,z. The next layer above it can be
of type B with co-ordinates ,%,z+ c or of type C with
co-ordinates i,f,z+c where c =Vf =0-8 1650 is the
separation between two close-packed layers. Similarly,
a B-layer may be followed by C or A, and a C-layer by
A or B. A change from A->B->C->A for z increasing
is called a positive change (+), while one from
the lattice will be hexagonal with
c=Nc
/>-=l (mod3)
If
....(2b)
the lattice will be rhombohedral. For the two signs

the three rhombohedral axes will have components in
the hexagonal system as follows
A-*C-B->A
is
The
called negative (-).
translations
corresponding to these changes and the locations and

dimensions of the interlayer voids are given in Table
7.1.5A.
TABLE
7.1.5A
Interlayer Translations and Locations of Voids
Vectors give co-ordinates with respect to initial layer

(A, B, or C) of layer above and of voids between the
two
layers (c
Octahedral voids can contain a sphere of diameter

(V2-1) =0-4142 which will be in contact with 6
spheres.
Translation
53> C
Tetrahedral
Octahedral
Voids
Void
^5^> c o/4
i!,c /2
has been shown (Zhdanov [17]) that a given packcharacterized by a sequence of numbers each of
which represents the number of repetitions or successions of a given sign for the change between layers,
while the succeeding number then represents the
number of successions of the opposite sign. Thus the
symbol 2,2,12,6 would represent the successions 2
positive, 2 negative, 12 positive, 6 negative, this
sequence then repeating indefinitely in a crystal packing. Clearly there must be an even number of numbers
in such a symbol. If all such succession numbers are
single digits the commas can be omitted thus 2,2,4,4,6,2
would become 224462.
Let p be the number of positive signs and n be the
number of negative signs in a given sequence. We then
It
ing
is
have
p+n=N
where
is
the
number of layers
pn^0 (mod
....(l)
in the period.
3)
Then
hi,Nc
-,-i,JVc
%,-i,Nc
c=3Nc
In these axes the plus sign corresponds to

the obverse setting and the minus sign to the reverse
for the rhombohedral axes (Vol. I, 2.5).
.
The symmetry of the possible packing arrangements

of close-packed planes is exhibited for N<12 in Table
7.1.5B, which is a modification and amplification of
that of Zhdanov [17].
detailed description of this
table precedes
it.
7.1.5B
Symmetry of Stacked Closest-packed Layers

Description
This table exhibits and classifies the closest-packed

which the period
is less than or equal
to 12. It is best described and explained in terms of
the methods which have been used in its construction
and which may be used in its extension.
structures for
hhco/2
if,c,>/4
0,0,3c /4
sign
Partitions
0,0,3c /4
3>if C
These rhombohedral axes can of course be described

in terms of threefold primitive hexagonal axes with
TABLE
spheres.
hhNco
hNc Q
sign
=V(!)=0-81650).
Tetrahedral voids can contain a sphere of diameter

(V(f)-l) =0-2247 which will be in contact with 4
Change
The period is first partitioned in all possible ways

of order two. One of the numbers of each partition
will correspond to positive changes between layers in
the Zhdanov notation, while the other will correspond
to negative changes. For example, for iV= 8 the secondorder partitions are 71,62,53,44. The lattice type for
each partition is then determined (e.g. 71,44 are hexagonal, 62,53 are rhombohedral). Each of the two terms
is then partitioned in all possible ways and the partitions which are of the same order are interleaved in
the possible ways which give different Zhdanov
symbols. Thus in 53, the partitions of 5 are 41,32,31 1,
221; while those of 3 are 21,111 and the possible
symbols are 4211,3221 and 311111,212111, where the
partitions of 5 which are of one sign are here underlined to distinguish them from the partitions of 3 which
are of opposite sign. Also in 44, the partitions of 4 are
31,22,211,1111 and the symbols of interest are
3113,3212,221111,211211. The symbols 2222 and
11111111 are discarded as belonging to iV=4 and JV=2
respectively. In this way all possible cases for a given
all
N can be exhibited.
Symmetry Properties
The lowest symmetries which can be exhibited by
periodic stacking of closest-packed layers are P3m
and Rim. Higher symmetries than these result from
the satisfaction of one or more of the following
if
.(2a)
344
7.1,
CLOSE PACKING
conditions in the partitions of sign changes obtained
Detailed tables of the co-ordinates for the closest-
from the above routine.

T
A symmetry centre appears in the Zhdanov notation as a symmetrical arrangement of the numbers
of like signs surrounding a single number. Thus
in (4)231(3)132, the sign successions (4) and (3)
packed arrangements are beyond the scope of the

present publication. A method which may be used
in deriving such tables can be learned from the following examples (see previous column) for explanation of
symbols (S), (O), (SO).
enclosed in parentheses each contain centres of

symmetry. Note that such parentheses contain a
single succession number and that (11) in the
tables means a sequence of eleven signs and not
two sequences of one sign. If the centrosymmetrical
succession is even, the centre lies in a sphere. If it
is odd, the centre lies in an octahedral void. Three
cases arise
\{S)
and are used
Example
symbol
is
P3ml Symbol 4221

:
layer
and
iV=9.
positive signs, the
translated as follows
The A-layers are then in the special positions

ofP3wl with z=0,f, |,|; the B-layersin 1(c):
Both centro-successions even and both centres
+ + ++--++ABCABACABA
0123456780
in classification:
in spheres, e.g. (4)3(2)3.

1(0) Both centro-successions
Space group
1.
Starting with an
1(a) 0,0,z
:
with
z=i,f,f; and the C-layers in 1(b): J,,z with z=f,f.
odd and both centres
,,.2
in octahedral voids, e.g. (3)2(1)2.

2. Space group R3m: symbol 4211: N=$.
In the rhombohedral lattices it is convenient to
work in the threefold centred hexagonal cell of period
3N. It is also convenient to allocate the signs to the
symbol so that pn^1 (mod 3) in which case a
B-layer in the first period becomes an A-layer in the
second period, while a C-layer in the first period
becomes an A-layer in the third period. We may thus
layers, the
record the co-ordinates of all layers as
corresponding B and C layers being located as the
space-group equivalents of the
layers. The symbol
in the present case satisfies these conditions if we start
with positive signs, i.e. (4+ 1)-(2+ 1)=2=-1 (mod 3).
We thus make the translation
Example
T(SO) One succession even and one odd, and one

centre of each type, e.g. (4)2(1)2.
:
In the tables parentheses enclose sequence numbers
which contain
centres.
symmetry plane appears as a symmetrical

arrangement of the numbers of opposite signs
grouped about the space between two succession
numbers, e.g. |311|113|. Here and in the tables a
vertical line is used to indicate a plane of symmetry
which can occur only within a close-packed layer
of spheres.
63
The screw axis 6 3 requires that the first halfperiod of the sequence contains an odd number of
succession numbers which is repeated identically
(but corresponding to opposite signs) in the second
half-period, e.g. 123123, which is the only sequence
with this symmetry in the range of the table.
Combinations of these symmetry elements with
the symmetry properties of the close-packed plane
and with those of the lattices P and R give rise to
seven space-group symmetries: P3ml; P3ml
(S,0,SO); Plml; P6 3mc; P6Jmmc(S,0); R3m;
+--+01234567
+ + +
ABCABACA[C]
which only the layers of the first period are shown
with the exception of [C], which indicates the start of
the second. The co-ordinates are thus R3m:l(a):0,0,z
in the hexagonal notation with z=0,m,4s (1+ 8)/24
(4+8)/24; (2+16)/24; (6+16)/24, i.e. the co-ordinates
in
R3m(S,0,SO).
are 0,3,5,7,9,12,18,22
For convenience of presentation the table is divided

into five parts. This division, which is quite arbitrary,
is summarized below.
Part
A.
N
Even
Basic
Lattice
Partition
Like
Example
N=12.
Even
Even
D.
Odd
Odd
E.
Unlike
Unlike
Unlike
Unlike
Space Groups
P3~ml(S,0);
R3m(S,0); R3m
P3ml(SO); P3ml
P
R
R3m(SO);
Space group P3ml(S): symbol (4)3(2)3:
P3ml(SO); R3m(S); R3m(SO).
---+ +---
+ +
P6Jmmc(S,0);
P6 3mc; P6m2;
expressed in 24ths.
Note. The procedure of this example applies with

obvious modifications to the space groups P6 3 /mmc(S) ;
(A)
B C B
12
P3ml(S,0); P3ml
B.
C.
3.
all
P3ml
Note now
A C
4
(A)
6
+ +
A C B C
10 11
(A)
12
up in the
C-layer provides the type position for
z hhz- Thus the positions occupied are
that in this space group as set
tables the
2(^):
R3m
hh
'>
1(a): 0,0,0; 1(b): 0,0,; 2(c):0,0,z; 0,0,z,
and
345
2(d): $,f,z; f,,z with z=-&-,&,r,&-
with z=rV;
7.1.
CLOSE PACKING
TABLE
7.1.5B (continued)
Symmetry of Stacked Closest-packed Layers

A. Period Even; Basic Partitions Like; Hexagonal Lattice
P6 3mmc
P3wl
Plml
P6 zmc
P3ml
S
2
l(l)l(DI
l(2)l(2)|
6
8
Cases
l(4)|(4)|;
|31|13|;
|1(2)1|1(2)1|
|211[112|
10
|21|12|
l(3)|(3)|
l(5)|(5)|;
|41|14|;
|1(3)1|1(3)1|;
|32|23|;
12(1)212(1)2)
|311|113|;
(3)2(1)2
(3)21(1)12
4312;
321211
12
5412;
342111;
312411;
312114;
332211;
322212;
32121111;
32111211
31
|221 122|;
|211111112|;
J1211 1121
12
123123
1(6)1(6)1;
1
1(4)1 1(4)11;
1
|11(2)11|11(2)11|
|51|15|;
(4)3(2)3;
(5)3(1)3;
|42|24|;
(4)21(2)12;
(1)221(1)122;
|411)114|;
(2)211(2)112
(3)211(1)112;
|123|321|;
(3)112(1)211
|231|132|;
|312|213|;
|2211|1122|;
|2121 1212;
|3111|1113|;
1311|1131|;
|21111|11112|;
|12111|11121|
TABLE
7.1.5B (continued)
B. Period Even; Basic Partitions Unlike; Hexagonal Lattice
N
8
10
P5wl
Basic
Partitions
PZml
8 2
(8)(2)
(7)0)
(7)1(1)1; (5)1(3)1
(6)1(2)1
12
9 3
(9)(3); (7)11(1)11;
(5)12(1)21; (1)14(1)41
8211; 7221; 6231;

5241
612111; 513111;
413121
346
11
7.1.
CLOSE PACKING
TABLE
7.1.5B {continued)
C. Period Even; Basic Partition Unlike;
N
4
6
Rhombohedral
Lattice
Rim
Basic
Kim
Partition
(3)(D
(5)(D
4 2
(4X2)
(3)1(1)1
6 2
(6)(2);(4)1(2)1
(5)1(1)1
(5)(3); (3)11(1)11;
5 3
4211; 3221
6211; 5221; 4231;

412111
5311; 4321; 421111;
322111; 321121;
312211
(1)21(1)12
10
9 1
7 3
(9)0)
(7)(3); (5)11(1)11;
(3)12(1)21; (1)31(1)13
6 4
(6)(4); (4)2(2)2;
(5)2(1)2; (3)3(1)3;
(4)11(2)11; (2)21(2)12
(3)111(1)111;
(1)211(1)112
12
23
14
(H)(1)
10 2
(10X2); (8)1(2)1;
(6)1(4)1
(9)1(1)1; (7)1(3)1
8 4
6 cases omitted
6 cases omitted
11
70
10 cases omitted
7 5
Note.
(10)
and
(11) in these tables refer to the single succession
TABLE
26
38
14 cases omitted
28 cases omitted
numbers ten and
eleven.
7.1.5B {continued)
D. Period Odd; Hexagonal Lattice
Basic
9
11
P3ml
Plm\(SO)
Cases
Partition
(4)(D
5 2
(5)(2); (4)1(1)1; (3)1(2)1
6 3
(6)(3); (2)3(1)3; (4)11(1)11
10
7 4
5211; 4221; 312111
(10)(1)
6
1
(7)(4); (6)2(1)2; (5)2(2)2; (4)2(3)2;
(5)11(2)11; (3)12(2)21; (2)31(1)13;
(4)111(1)111; (3)111(2)111; (2)121(1)121
347
6311; 5321; 4331; 521111;

422111; 421121; 412211;
313211; 322121; 31211111
20
21
7.1.
CLOSE PACKING
TABLE
E. Period
Basic
5
7
Rim
(2XD
3 2
(3X2); (2)1(1)1
(6XD
4 3
(4X3); (2)2(1)2; (2)11(1)11
(8XD
7 2
(7)(2); (6)1(1)1; (5)1(2)1; (4)1(3)1
5 4
(5X4); (4)2(1)2; (3)2(2)2; (3)11(2)11;

(2)21(1)12; (2)111(1)111
--(+)--
+
+
CACB
CBAB
13
5
11
13
(+)
In this case the z co-ordinates are odd numbers of

of the period, since the centre at the origin is
2.
p =0 (mod 3), the first and second half-periods

start
with A-positions, and there
is
a sphere
3.
If
3), the first sequence must start

the second with C (B->C: +), and the
in an octahedral void.
B and
is
pn= 1 (mod 3), the first sequence must start

C and the second with B (C-^B ), and the
with
&
p w=l (mod
origin
[31 13|
If
with
midway between two layers. Note also that a B-layer

must be taken below and a C-layer above if the sign at
the origin is + This is- to ensure that the void is in an
A-position. For the present case the positions are
2(c): 0,0,2; 0,0,z with z=
and 2(d): ,f,z; U,z with
:
26
at the origin.
15
Space Group Plm2 Symbol
If
both
2Mhs
5.
41
allocation of letter symbols in sequences of this

type is governed, in accordance with the setting of the
space group (Vol. I), by the following rules concerning
the signs in theyzm half-period:
(+)
5
10
7211; 6221; 5231; 512111;

413111
16 cases omitted
The
Note. The procedure of this example applies with

obvious modifications to the space groups P6 3/mmc(0)
R3m(0).
15
10
(9)(2); (8)1(1)1; (7)1(2)1; (6)1(3)1; (5)1(4)1
Space group Plm\(0): symbol (3)2(1)2:
4.
4311; 3321; 321111;

221211
(8X3); (2)4(1)4; (6)11(1)11; (4)12(1)21;

(2)13(1)31
10 cases omitted
3211
JV=8.
Example
Cases
6 5
Example
Lattice
(1X0)
9 2
8 3
11
Odd; Rhombohedral
R3m(SO)
Partition
7.1.5B (continued)
origin
is
in an octahedral void.
Setting I above obeys Rule 3, and C is therefore

chosen for z=0< The co-ordinates are then 2(a) 0,0,z,
0,0,%+z with z=l,5; 2(6):,f,z; hh\+ z witn z==
JV=8.
ABCACACBA
012345670
The
As an alternative we could write the symbol 231231

and obtain the arrangement (Rule 1)
.occupied positions are clearly 1(a): 0,0,0; 1(d):
i,f,i; 2(g): 0,0,*; 0,0,2 with
z=f
0,2,4,9 (twelfths).
2(/)
Example
#=12.
z=f
2(h): ,,z;
if,* with
f ,,z; f ,,z with z=|.

6.
_i__i_
--
_i__|__i_
0123456789
-++--CACBCABABCBAfC]
0123456789
+
_i_
ABCBACACBCAB[A]
Space Group P6 3mc: Symbol 123123:
+ + +
10 11
....(Setting II)
10 11
Co-ordinates: 2(a) with z=0,4; 2(b) with z=2,5,7,9
....(Setting I)
(twelfths).
348
7.1.
CLOSE PACKING
It is also permissible to split a sequence of signs to

permit a sphere to be located at the origin, e.g.
Similar generalizations are theoretically possible for

diamond structure and for the tetrahedral rarest
the
---+--
-+
+
+ +
+
ABABCBACACBC[A]
0123456789
10 11
....(Setting III)
satisfy
Rule
7.1.6. Structures related to Closest
In
many crystals
spinels;
Atoms
Cubic Structures
spherical
atom of diameter unity centred
at
the origin, the Cartesian co-ordinates of other atoms

and the formulae for their distances (R) are as shown
in Table 7.1.7A.
The distances, co-ordinates, and multiplicities of
1.
Packing
neighbours (R<6) are given in Tables

D. The construction and extension of
these tables is aided by the use of tables of the cubic
quadratic form (Table 3.8.6A, p. 124) and of multiplicities for the cubic system (Vol. I, Table 3.5.1).
also list the number of spheres
Tables 7.1.7B, C,
contained in or on a sphere of radius R.
successive
a "closest-packed" arrangement of
and the
halides
7.1.7. Radial Distribution of
With a
7.1.7B, C,
ionized atoms (not necessarily in contact) occurs in

which some of the interstices are filled with smaller
ions. Notable examples are to be found among the
alkali
7.1.3.
(a)
Co-ordinates: 2(a) with z=0,2; 2(b) with z=4,7,9,ll

(twelfths). This procedure would be necessary to
locate a sphere at the origin in 136136, since there is no
rearrangement that will
packing referred to in Table
and many other
examples are given in the literature.

In many covalent structures of the AB type in which
the co-ordination is tetrahedral an atom A lies in the
tetrahedral voids of a closest-packed arrangement of
the B atoms (although the latter are again not of course
in "contact"). An example is provided by the modifications of SiC. In these structures all the types of
closest-packed arrangements referred to in the preceding section can occur, although the sequence of
numbers seems to be limited to 2,3,4 by the physical
chemistry of the system (cf. Ramsdell and Kohn [15]).
In structures of this type any one of the space-group
symmetries mentioned above may be exhibited in the
arrangement of one type of atom taken alone. The
full symmetry is, however, lowered by the presence of
the second atom, and the structures of this type are
limited to the space groups P6 3mc, P3ml and R3m,
which have neither horizontal planes of symmetry nor
(b)
With a sphere of diameter unity centred at the origin

the Cartesian co-ordinates of the atoms are of two
types: (1) p, q, (Vf> and (2) (3/>-l)/3, (3*-2)/3,
r where p, q, r are positive or negative integers or
(
zero. Co-ordinates (1) are applicable for r even and
co-ordinates (2) for r odd. The corresponding distances are given by
VI
R *=P*W-pqHr*
x
3p-\\ 2
(3q-2
=[()M) -()()h
3
=p 2 +q 2 -pq-q+ + fr 2
Table 7.1.7E
lists
the distances
for successive neighbours to
and
multiplicities
R<6 and the total number
of spheres in or on a sphere of radius R.
centres.
TABLE
7.1.7A
Radial Distribution of Atoms in the Three Cubic Lattices
A spherical atom, diameter unity, is centred at the origin.

R
of atoms at
The
table gives Cartesian co-ordinates
and distances
lattice points pqr.
Cartesian
Structure type
R2
co-ordinates
Simple cubic
P,<l>r
pqr
V3
pqr
Body-centred cubic
Remarks
R*=p*+qz+r 2
All values of p, q,
R2=^(p2 + o 2 +r 2)
p, q, r all even or all odd.
R2 = %(j,2 +q 2 +r 2)
p+q+r=2n
V3' V3'
Face-centred cubic
V2' V2'
For
all
V2
cases p, q, r are positive or negative integers or zero.
349
r.
7.1.
CLOSE PACKING
TABLE
7.1.7B
Simple Cubic
pqr
Rz
000
100
110
111
200
210
211
220
300(6), 221(24)
310
311
222
320
321
400
410(24), 322(24)
411(24), 330(12)
331
420
421
332
422
500(6), 430(24)
510(24), 431(48)
511(24), 333(8)
520(24), 432(48)
521
440
522(24), 441(24)
530(24), 433(24)
531
600(6), 442(24)
Total
1-0000
1-4142
1-7321
2-0000
2-2361
2-4495
2-8284
3-0000
3-1623
3-3166
3-4641
3-6056
3-7417
4-0000
4-1231
4-2426
4-3589
4-4721
4-5826
4-6904
4-8990
5-0000
5-0990
5-1962
5-3852
5-4772
5-6569
5-7446
5-8310
5-9161
6-0000
350
12
19
27
33
57
24
24
12
9
10
11
30
24
24
12
179
13
24
48
203
251
257
305
14
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
24
25
26
27
29
30
32
33
34
35
36
6
48
36
24
24
48
24
24
30
72
32
72
48
81
93
123
147
171
341
365
389
437
461
485
515
587
619
691
739
12
751
48
48
48
30
799
847
895
925
CLOSE PACKING
7.1.
TABLE
7.1.7C
Body-centred Cubic
pqr
R2
000
111
200
220
311
531
600(6), 442(24)
3-4641
620
3-6515
3-7859
3-8297
4-0000
4-1231
4-1633
4-3205
331
420
422
511(24), 333(8)
440
533
622
444
711(24), 551(24)
640
642
731(48), 553(24)
800
733
820(24), 644(24)
822(24), 660(12)
751(48), 555(8)
662
840
911(24), 753(48)
842
664
931
844
933(24), 771(24), 755(24)
10,0,0(6); 860(24)
10,2,0(24), 862(48)
951(48), 773(24)
10,2,2(24), 666(8)
Total
1-000Q
1-1547
1-6330
1-9149
2-0000
2-3094
2-5166
2-5820
2-8284
3-0000
3-2660
3-4157
222
400
4-4347
4-6188
4-7258
4-7610
4-8990
5-0000
5-0332
5-1640
5-2599
5-2915
5-4160
5-5076
5-6569
5-7446
5-7735
5-8878
5-9722
6-0000
351
9
15
8/3
6
12
27
11/3
24
51
59
65
89
4/3
4
16/3
19/3
8
24
24
24
32
20/3
113
137
169
181
32/3
12
35/3
12
48
30
24
24
24
229
259
283
307
339
387
411
459
40/3
43/3
44/3
16
17
59/3
48
24
48
72
64/3
67/3
24
48
52/3
56/3
68/3
24
25
76/3
80/3
83/3
28
88/3
91/3
32
33
100/3
104/3
107/3
36
36
56
24
24
72
48
24
48
24
72
30
72
72
32
331
531
537
561
609
645
701
725
749
821
869
893
941
965
1037
1067
1139
1211
1243
7.1.
CLOSE PACKING
TABLE
7.1.7D
Face-centred Cubic
pqr
000
Total
110
10000
12
13
200
1-4142
19
211
1-7321
6
24
220
310
222
12
24
820(24), 644(24)
2-0000
2-2361
2-4495
2-6458
2-8284
3-0000
3-1623
3-3166
3-4641
3-6056
3-8730
4-0000
4-1231
4-2426
4-3589
4-4721
4-5826
4-6904
4-7958
4-8990
5-0000
5-0990
5-1962
5-2915
5-3852
5-5678
5-6569
5-7446
5-8310
653
5-9161
822(24), 660(12)
6-0000
321
400
411(24), 330(12)
420
332
422
510(24), 431(48)
521
440
530(24), 433(24)
600(6), 442(24)
611(24), 532(48)
620
541
622
631
444
710(24), 550(12), 543(48)
640
721(48), 633(24), 552(24)
642
730
732(48), 651(48)
800
811(24), 741(48), 554(24)
352
48
43
55
79
87
135
141
9
10
177
201
225
249
15
36
24
24
24
72
48
16
12
381
17
48
30
72
24
48
24
48
429
459
11
12
13
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
31
32
33
34
35
36
84
24
96
48
24
96
6
96
48
48
36
321
369
531
555
603
627
675
683
767
791
887
935
959
1055
1061
1157
1205
1253
1289
7.1.
CLOSE PACKING
TABLE
7.1.7E
R*
1-0000
1-4142
1-6330
12
13
6
2
19
21
1-7321
18
39
1-9149
11/3
12
51
2-0000
2-2361
2-3805
2-4495
2-5166
2-5820
2-6458
2-7080
2-8868
3-0000
12
57
69
17/3
12
81
6
6
12
Total
3-1091
3-1623
3-2146
3-2660
3-3166
3-3665
3-4157
3-4641
3-5119
8/3
Total
4-2817
4-3205
4-3589
4-4347
4-5092
4-5826
4-6547
4-6904
4-7258
4-7610
4-7958
4-8305
4-8648
4-8990
5-0000
5-0990
5-1316
5-1640
5-1962
55/3
12
479
56/3
12
19
24
59/3
12
22/3
25/3
9
12
29/3
10
24
31/3
12
32/3
209
5-2281
19/3
20/3
7
24
12
12
12
491
515
527
539
575
599
611
629
641
665
677
725
727
763
787
799
80/3
12
811
27
42
853
859
871
895
907
919
955
967
991
1063
1075
1099
1111
1159
1183
1207
1231
1243
1261
61/3
21
12
65/3
36
24
22
12
67/3
18
68/3
12
23
24
70/3
12
71/3
48
24
25
26
36
24
79/3
82/3
12
221
5-2599
83/3
12
34/3
227
28
24
35/3
12
24
251
5-2915
5-3229
85/3
12
12
12
5-3852
5-4467
29
37/3
13
89/3
36
5-5076
91/3
12
12
257
269
293
305
311
92/3
31
24
72
24
335
347
359
383
389
401
425
449
467
5-5377
5-5678
5-5976
5-6273
5-6862
97/3
12
5-7446
5-8023
5-8310
33
11
41/3
43/3
44/3
15
3-9158
46/3
12
3-9581
47/3
16
24
49/3
17
12
24
12
53/3
24
24
18
18
353
AA
R2
87
93
105
129
135
147
159
183
195
207
3-6056
3-6968
3-7859
3-8297
3-8730
4-0000
4-0415
4-1231
4-2032
4-2426
94/3
12
95/3
24
5-9161
34
35
48
24
24
24
5-9722
107/3
12
6-0000
36
18
101/3
References
[1]
Boerdijk, A. H. (1952).
7,
Philips Research Reports,
[5]
[6]
Idem
[3]
[4]
liche Geometrie.
[7]
[8]
[9]
(1907). Diophantische Approximation. Teubner,
Niggli, P. (1926). Zeits.f. Krist., 65, 391-^15.

Idem (1928). Ibid., 68, 404-66.
[13] Nowacki, W. (1948). Schweiz. Min. und Pet. Mit[11]
[12]
teilungen, 28, 502-8.

[14]
Springer, Berlin.
Geometry and
York, N.Y.
(1952).
New
Toem
Leipzig.
Haag, F. (1929). Zeits.f. Krist., 70, 353-66.

Idem (1937). Ibid., 96, 78-80.
Heesch, H., and Laves, F. (1933). Ibid., 85, 443-53.
Hilbert, D., and Cohn-Vossen, S. (1932). Anschau-
[2]
[10]
303-13.
[15]
the Imagination. Chelsea,
Melmore, S. (1942a). Nature, 149, 412.

Idem (19426). Ibid., 149, 669.
Minkowski, H. (1904). Nachr. Ges. Wiss. Gottingen
(Math. phys. Kl), 311.
Patterson, A. L. (1941). Rev. Sci. Insts., 12, 206-11.

Ramsdell, L. S., and Kohn, J. A. (1952). Acta Cryst.,
5,
215-24.
[17]
Toth, L. F. (1953). Lagerungen in der Ebene, aufder

Kugel, und im Raum. Springer, Berlin.
Zhdanov, G. S. (1945). Compt. rend. acad. sci.
[18]
USSR. 48 3942.
Idem(l945). Doklady Akad.NaukSSSR., 4S, 40-43.
[16]
354
The Use of
7.2.
Methods
Statistical
for the Detection of
Symmetry Elements
By V. Luzzati
same amplitude for all the atoms),
can be used to determine the absolute
scale and the thermal vibration factor, which affect the
Notation
s
vibration (the
equation
position vector in reciprocal space
(s={2 sin
0}/A).
experimental intensities.
N
#(s)
2-/i
( s )'
where
3(
s ) is
j=i
of the
atom and
the scattering factor
is
the
atoms contained in the unit
I(s)
<I(s)>
P(I)dI
(1)
TABLE
number of
Intensity-distribution Effects of
cell.
observed intensity corrected to give

end-point of s.
of the reciprocal
where the
intensity lies
(C=centrosymmetric distribution; A=non-centrosymZ= systematically zero. Axes are
metric distribution;
parallel to c, planes perpendicular to c.)
points
lattice
between
Symmetry Elements
not causing Systematic Absences
at the
average value of I(s) for all the points of the

reciprocal lattice contained within a thin
spherical shell of radius s.
fraction
7.2.1A
Symmetry
and
Reflections
Distribution
element
a = S/0
=/0
I+dl.
distribution parameter [9] [14].
all
Methods
all
Validity of Statistical
The rigorous and general validity of the methods

described below has been proved only when the
statistical analysis is performed using all the points of
the reciprocal space. Nevertheless, in practical applications, only a limited volume of the reciprocal space
is
accessible in this case the validity

;
is
subject to
2=m
some
(a) the number of the crystallographically

independent atoms must be large, (b) no atom must
be predominant, (c) the distribution of atomic positions in the unit cell must be random. These restric-
restrictions
A
C
00/
hkl
hkO
A
A
00/
hkl
A
A
A
tions are the

lattice points
origin [1]
hkl
hkO
more
hkO
severe the nearer the reciprocal
used in the
00/
statistical analysis are to the
[2] [4] [7] [12].
Determination of the Absolute Scale and of the
has been shown that
<I(s)> = a0(s)
(!)
00/
hkl
hkO
00/
hkl
hkO
00/
C
C
hkl
hkO
00/
hkl
hkO
A
A
00/
Thermal Vibration Factor

It
C
C
c
hkl
hkO
7.2.1.
1
1
(see references [1] [5] [12] [14]).
Equation (1) is valid for general reflections contained in the three-dimensional reciprocal lattice (hkl),
as well as for zones and rows containing the origin (say
hkO or /jOO) a
is an integral factor whose value depends

the class of reflections (that is, hkl, or hkO, or
MX)) and the symmetry elements of the unit cell. The
values of a are given in Tables 7.2.1
and 7.2. IB: the
;
upon
average always refers to all the reflections, even

when a fraction of the reflections are
systematically absent [14].
If the chemical composition of the unit cell is known,
6=3 jm
in the cases
and
if
the atoms are subject to an isotropic thermal
355
7.2.
THE USE OF STATISTICAL METHODS FOR THE DETECTION OF SYMMETRY ELEMENTS
TABLE
The
7.2.1B
Symmetry Elements
Intensity-distribution Effects of
relation
intensities
the thermal vibration,
causing Systematic Absences
K is
DistribuReflections
tion
(s)=KI abs (s)exp(-|s 2
42
62 64
,
the absolute scale factor
<I
hkl
hkO
A
A
00/
fZ + JA
.J
(1) in
equation
(2):
2
....(3)
<Iq(s)X
log
_
hkO
00/
fZ + JA
7.2.2. Detection of
0(s)
=log
K-|s 2
(4)
a Centre of Symmetry
has been shown that the probability distribution

of the intensities is approximately independent of the
actual positions of the atoms, and is characteristic of
the symmetry of the unit cell.
The distribution laws for all the space groups can be
expressed in terms of two fundamental laws, valid
respectively for centrosymmetric and non-centrosymmetric cases. If the number of crystallographically
independent atoms is large, the distribution laws are
hkO
[2] [3] [7] [13]:
00/
fZ + Â
hkl
It
hkO
00/
JZ + Â
hkl
hkO
00/
fZ + Â
hkl
hkO
00/
*Z + *A
hkl
hkO
iZ + iA
00/
0A:0
2^Z/+
hkh,
2^ + Â
hOh,
^Z + 1A
iZ + |A
MO,
00/
hkl
ttZ,
hkO, hOl, Okl

hhl, hkh, hkk
*Z + |A
iZ + |A
hOO, OkO, 00/
TtZz
hhO, hOh,
Okk
hkO, hOl, Okl

hhl, hkh, hkk
fZ + iA
fZ + iA
2^ ~T A
Okk
j^tjA
hkl
hhO, hOh,
2
2
2
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
+ TjA
]J
hOO, OkO, 00/
iZ + Â
hhh
(5)
(non-centrosymmetric)
.... (6)
These laws apply to zones and rows, as well as to the

whole three-dimensional reciprocal lattice. S is a
distribution parameter, proportional to 0: the ratio
S/& depends upon the space group and the class of the
reflections (that is, hkl, or hkO, or hOO). The values of
S/0 are given in the tables 7.2.1 A and 7.2. IB [9] [14].
The difference between the two distribution laws
(equations (5) and (6)) can be used to detect the
presence of a centre of symmetry, if the experimental
2
2
2
2
2
2
|Z + |A
hhh
(centrosymmetric)
+ Â
dl
iP^d^S-iexp
2
2
2
2
2
2
(4)
2^ + Â
hkl
hkk
Okk
hOO, 00
the parameter
straight line can be obtained by plotting the

logarithm of /a$(s) as a function of s 2 its
extrapolation toward s=0 determines the logarithm of
K, its slope is B/2.
hkO, mi, Okl
A/*/,
B is
(s)>=Ka<Z>(s)exp(-|s
iP(I)dI=(277lS)-* exp
63
and
2^Z/+
hkl
65
....(2)
that defines the magnitude of the thermal vibration.
Replacing equation
00/
hkl
4i,4,
S/0
hkO
^15 *2
/*
hkl
2,
6i,
intensities, corrected for
is
Symmetry
element
between the experimental (observed)
and the absolute
intensities are
For
(-D
dl
known.
it is convenient to normalize the experimental intensities, dividing them by

S.
new variable is so defined:
practical applications
z4
and the distribution laws become
T
....(7)
:
[4]
P(z)dz= (2t7z)"* exp ( -|) dz
.(8)
P(z)dz==exp( z)dz
(9)
Several practical tests have been devised.

these consist in
of the experimental intensities, with
356
Some of
comparing one parameter, a function

its
theoretical
7.2.
THE USE OF STATISTICAL METHODS FOR THE DETECTION OF SYMMETRY ELEMENTS
values expected in centrosymmetric and non-centro-
N(z)
symmetric cases. The simplest among the many possible tests of this kind are the average and the variance
test.
Average Test
[13]
[{V4T
N(z)^^^
.(10)
The
theoretical value of />
symmetric, and
7r/4
is Ijir
(~ 0-785)
(~ 0-637) for centro-
for non-centrosymmetric
cases.
X>(z)
Variance Test [15]
V=(z-z) 2
The
theoretical value of
is
....(11)
2 for centrosymmetric
and
1 for non-centrosymmetric cases.

Other tests consist in the comparison of the distribution law of the experimental intensities, or of some
of its moments, with the corresponding theoretical
Fig. 7.2.2
functions.
Zero Moment Test
The
[4]
cell,
fraction N(z) of the reciprocal lattice points
where the normalized
intensity
is
smaller than z
(centrosymmetric) f
iN(z)=erf(z)*
jN(z)=l exp( z) (non-centrosymmetric)

The functions (12) and (13) are compared
7.2.2 and in the graph (Figure 7.2.2).
they can provide a tool for the determination of

that cannot be detected by
some symmetry elements
is
the systematic absence of reflections
(12)
[9] [14].
has been shown experimentally that the statistical

methods in general yield useful information, even when
the number of atoms is small. In some cases, when
atomic positions are related by some geometrical
relationships, in addition to the symmetry operations of
the space group (for instance, extra centres of symIt
....(13)
in Table
In principle all the tests described above are equiNevertheless the zero moment test is recommended, since it leads to the comparison of two curves
instead of only two numbers, and is likely to be less
sensitive to the experimental errors.
Since the statistical methods can be used to detect
the presence of a centre of symmetry in plane and line
projections, as well as in the three-dimensional unit
valent.
metry, or translations), the distribution of intensities

can follow special laws [8] [11]. Finally it must be
pointed out that experimental errors can have a
serious influence upon the distribution laws [10].
t erf (x)
TABLE
is
the error function (Jahnke and
Emde
[6]).
7.2.2
Theoretical Values of the Function N(z) for Centrosymmetric and Non-centrosymmetric Cases
0-1
0-2
0-3
0-4
0-5
0-6
0-7
0-8
0-9
1-0
lN(z)
0-248
0-345
0-419
0-474
0-520
0-561
0-597
0-629
0-657
0-683
iN(z)
0-095
0-181
0-259
0-330
0-393
0-451
0-503
0-551
0-593
0-632
References
[1]
[2]
Harker, D. (1953). Acta Cryst., 6, 731.

Hauptman, H., and Karle, J. (1952). Ibid.,
[8]
5, 48.
[9]
Idem (1953). Ibid., 6, 136.

Howells, E. R., Phillips, D. C, and Rogers, D.
[10]
(1950). Ibid., 3, 210.

E. W. (1949). Ibid., 2, 34.
[6] Jahnke, E., and Emde, F. (1933). Tables of Functions.
Teubner, Berlin.
[11]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[7]
J.,
and Hauptman, H.
(1953).
Acta
M. M. (1952).
Ibid., 5,
Rogers, D. (1950). Ibid., 3, 455.

Rogers, D., Stanley, E., and Wilson, A.
680.
J.
C.
(1955). Ibid., 8, 383.
Hughes,
Karle,
Lipson, H., and Woolfson,
Rogers, D., and Wilson, A.
J.
C. (1953).
Ibid., 6,
439.
[12]
[13]
Cryst.,
[14]
6, 131.
[15]
357
Wilson, A. J. C. (1942). Nature, London, 150,

Idem (1949). Acta Cryst., 2, 318.
Idem (1950). Ibid., 3, 258.
Idem (1951). Research, 4, 141.
152.
Inequality Relations between Structure Factors
7.3.
By
J.
Bouman
Inequality relations between structure factors in

principle provide a
means of determining the
Table
signs of
structure factors for centrosymmetric structures and

an indication of the phases for non-centrosymmetric
ties
Actually, practical applications of such

have been made with varying degrees of
success in several structure determinations.
tance
are tabulated in Table 7.3.2
TABLE
Fundamental Set
their relative strengths.
The following
considerations are of prime impor-
1.
Relations in which a smaller number of structure factors appear are to be preferred to those with a
larger number. Generally, more unknown signs occur
in the latter case. Also, in practice, relations containing only the following limited set have been found to
(a)
2/H
(t/H =*7_H )
-l</2H
2
+ EW')(l+/H-H')
<(l-CW)(l-tfH -H')
3.
(/H -tfH')
4-
(W'-tfH-H') 2 <(l-tf2 H)(l-/2H')

(t/H+ H'+^H-H'-2/H t/H') 2
<(l+t/2H -2t/H 2)(l + C/2 H'-2C/H
5.
TABLE
FQikl), FQi'k'V)
Some
others,
may be derived by algebraic

which are then said to be more
no additional information is to be
gained from the derived inequalities. For a given
it is then possible to
define a fundamental set of inequalities as that set from
all
other inequalities
may
fundamental
(C/H +^H') 2 <1
+ ^2H + ^2H' + (^H + H'+^H-H')

<l+C/2H+i/2H'-(W'+tfH-H')
(C/H+ H'+ t/H -H') 2 <(l+ C/2H)(1+ /2H ')
(/H -/H')
TABLE
be derived. It is
first with the
work
7.3.3
Non-centrosymmetric Structures
set.
It may be advisable, nevertheless, to try first a

powerful inequality if it is simpler (i.e. contains
fewer structure factors) than a more stringent one.
(d) If possible, the relations between unitary structure/actors should be used, as these are more powerful
than those between the usual structure factors. The
Fundamental Set
(c)
unitary structure factor
is
la.
2
2
^h^h'| <(1-|^hI )(12
|
)(l-
I^H'I
)
2
-I^H'I
2
H +/H <2+/H _ H '+/H '_ H
4a. |/H -t/H f<2-/H -H'-tV-H
It has been shown recently (Bouman,
Fjhkl)
|/
'|
[1])
that all
fundamental inequalities for centrosymmetric structures belong to four series. The inequalities belonging
to any one series can be arranged in such a way that
each inequality contains more structure factors than
2m
where Z is the total number of electrons in the unit cell,
and
The relations 1 and 5 are the first

and second inequality of the first series, the relations
4, 2 and 3 are the first inequalities of the second, third
and fourth series. It does not seem probable that the
the preceding ones.
'j=i
expressed in absolute units. In the following

tables only unitary structure factor relations are given.
U{hkl) is denoted by
u U(h+h',k+k',l+l') by
is
Derived Inequalities
3a.
defined by
the unitary atomic scattering factor,
|W-
2a. I0H-H'- C/H C/. H f<(l-|C/H
U(hkl)-
is
8.
10.
less
u= 7^?fj
2m|/H +t/H <|<l + /H+H '+m 2 (l + /H _H ')

2m|C/H -t/H <|<l-/H+H <+m 2 (l-/H _H ')
(m is an arbitrary number)
9.
collection of structure factors
preferable, as a general rule, to
7.3.2
7.
6.
stringent, since
which
Derived Inequalities
inequalities
means from
'
Centre of Symmetry
F(2h, 2k, 21), F(2h', 2k', 2V)
F(h+h',k+k',l+l'),F(h-h',k-k',l-l')
FQikl)
7.3.1
Centre of Symmetry
be the most useful
Both these
(cf. (c)).
2. (/H +tfH') 2 <(l
(b)
of relations
set
Some derived inequali-
Table 7.3.3 gives the corresponding data for noncentrosymmetric structures. The latter relations are
valid for all space groups and those of Tables 7.3.1
and 7.3.2 for all space groups with a centre of symmetry. Inequalities for other symmetry elements are
given in Volume I, page 541. The references should
be consulted for applications to special space groups.
For a given
space group numerous inequalities may be found,

but there are no systematic tables for space groups
other than PI and Pi, and the problem of the most
systematic and economical application is a difficult
one to solve. In the present chapter there are given
guides on the basis of experience for an efficient procedure in working with inequalities in any space group
also inter-relationships of some simple inequalities,
which indicate
fundamental
tables refer to centrosymmetric structures or projections with a centre of symmetry.
structures.
relations
7.3.1 gives the
for the structure factors of (a).
higher inequalities will be of practical use.
358
7.3.
INEQUALITY RELATIONS BETWEEN STRUCTURE FACTORS
as described in Table 7.3.1, is

only possible for the structure factors from (a). The
nth inequality of the first series and the (n- l)th of the
fundamental
set,
series contain the same set of structure factors,

and they, together with all preceding inequalities, form
a fundamental set for these structure factors. The
same applies to the nth inequalities of the third and
second
but they contain another set of structure

factors. Only in the case of Table 7.3.1 can the four
series be combined to form one fundamental set.
fourth
series,
Numerical and Graphical Examples
H |>\/2=0-71,
|C/
Um
is
positive if
C/ 2H is
its
positive.
absolute value
exceeds (l-2t/H 2). If this is not true, nothing can be

said about the sign of /2H
Relations 2 to 10. It is assumed that the signs of
C/H and C/H ' are known and that those of / 2H and of
E/ 2H are determined With the help of relation 1. Now
the problem of determining the signs of C/h +h' and of
can be elucidated by a graphical representation
[/ _
.
'
H H
(CW>
*/H -H')-plane (Fig. 7.3). In this figure

the values of the several structure factors are chosen
=+0-29, l/2H '=
to be /h=+0-70, t/H '=+0' 20 >
in the
sented by curves or straight lines, which divide the

plane into permitted and forbidden domains. The four
inequalities 2, 3, 4, and 5 include the shaded area,
which is the permitted domain. It is seen that the
/H+H negative, t/H _H negative, is forand
bidden. Further, the inequalities 6 (with
m=iV2) are given. They are tangents to the hyperbola 2. 7 would be represented by a tangent to 3.
Also 8, 9, 10, and la, 2a, applied to the centrosymmetric structure, are to be found in the diagram. It
combination
Um
m= v%
be seen from the figure that 6
7 from
The relative situation of the fundamental

/ 2 h'
changed if other values of t/H
chosen (even if the signs only are changed). Thus
right answer.
inequalities
are
is
cannot be determined beforehand whether all the

fundamental inequalities are needed.
Relations 2 and 3. For these inequalities a table will
be given which illustrates their use. The symbols of
Table 7.3.4 are defined as follows:
-1
C/H -S H |C/H 1, where S H is +1 or
it
A=(1 + |C/H+H'|)(1 + I^H-H'|)

B-(l-|CWlXl+|tfH-H'l)
+0-32.
|W'h0-30,
'
'
is derived from 2,
la and 2a may be
5.
from
10
and
and
9,
8,
3,
derived from 2 and 3, and also from 4 and 5. In the
given example 6 or 8 could be used, too, to get the
may
Only centrosymmetric structures will be treated here.

Relation 1. If
If |C/H |<0-71,
The four possible combinations of signs correspond to

four points in the diagram. The inequalities are repre-
H -H 'h0-25
|/
c-ci+IiwIXHOh-h'I)
D-(i-|cwl)(HtfH-H'l)
If|l/H -H'I>|EW'I>A>B>C>D
2
E=(|/h |+|C/h'I)
F=(|t/H |-|M) 2
A>E>F
TABLE
7.3.4
Values f Sh+h' anc* S H -h'
A>E>F>B>OD
A>E>B>F>OD
A>E>B>OF>D
A>E>B>OD>F
A>B>E>F>OD
Impossible
Impossible
Impossible
Sh-h ,== S h+h'
Impossible
A>B>E>C>F>D
Sh-hShSh' and
Sh+h = ~ ShSh
Sh-h' = S h S h
'
'
'
A>B>E>OD>F
A>B>OE>F>D
A>B>OE>D>F
HSH
'
Sh-h'^ - Sh+h'
Sh-h ^ Sh +h ^ S h Sh
or S H -h' == Sh+h' == S h S H
or Sh-h' 33- Sh+h ,:i== ShSh'
'
'
'
'
Fig. 7.3
A>B>OD>E>F
359
All signs possible
References
Taguchi,
(a) Theoretical
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
Bouman,
Gillis,
J.
J.
(1956).
Acta
Naya,
Cryst., 9, 111.
I.,
and Naya,
(1948). Ibid., 1, 76.
Harker, D., and Kasper, J. S. (1948). Ibid., 1, 70.

Hughes, E. W. (1957). Ibid., 10, 376.
Karle, J., and Hauftman, H. (1950). Ibid., 3, 181.
MacGillavry, C. (1950). Ibid., 3, 214.
Okaya, Y., and Nitta, I. (1952). Ibid., 5, 564.
Sakurai, K. (1952). Ibid., S, 697.
de Wolff, P. M., and Bouman, J. (1954). Ibid., 7, 328.
Oda, T., Naya, S., and Taguchi, I. (1961). Ibid., 14,
456.
360
S. (1958). Ibid., 11, 543.
S. (1962). Ibid., 15, 69.
(b) Applications
[10]
[11]
Burbank, R. D. (1951). Acta

Idem (1952). Ibid., 5, 236.
[12] Gillis, J. (1948).

[13]
[14]
Cryst., 4, 140.
Ibid., 1, 174.
Grison, E. (1951). Ibid., 4, 487.

Kasper, J. S., Lucht, C. M., and Harker, D. (1950).
Ibid., 3, 436.
Woolfson, M. M.
(1961). Direct Method in Crystallography. (Oxford University Press.)
Section 8
MISCELLANEOUS EXPONENTIAL
AND TRIGONOMETRIC TABLES
PAGE
8.1.
The Exponential Function
8.2.
A Four-place
Table of
8.3.
Short Table of
8.4.
Table of Products
sin
e~
sinx
(J.
362
Sherman and
L.
Brockway)
..
2nx; cos 2-nx
379
f^lnx l)2*y
sinj
[
380
sin j
8.5.
Table of
8.6.
Conversion of Degrees, Minutes and Seconds to Radians; and of Minutes and
sin
366
2vhx; cos 2-nhx
Seconds to Decimals of a Degree; and vice versa
382
430
8.1.
The Exponential Function

TABLE
8.1
The Exponential Function e~ x
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
*9802
8869
8025
7261
6570
*9704
8781
7945
7189
6505
*9608
8694
7866
7118
6440
*9512
8607
7788
7047
6376
*9418
8521
7711
6977
6313
*9324
8437
7634
6907
6250
*9231
8958
8106
7334
6637
8353
7558
6839
6188
*9139
8270
7483
6771
6126
4493
4066
6005
5434
4916
4449
4025
5945
5379
4868
4404
3985
5886
5326
4819
4360
3946
5827
5273
4771
4317
3906
5769
5220
4724
4274
3867
5712
5169
4677
4232
3829
5655
5117
4630
4190
3791
5599
5066
4584
4148
3753
5543
5016
4538
4107
3716
3679
3329
3012
2725
2466
3642
3296
2982
2698
2441
3606
3263
2952
2671
2417
3570
3230
2923
2645
2393
3535
3198
2894
2618
2369
3499
3166
2865
2592
2346
3465
3135
2837
2567
2322
3430
3104
2808
2541
2299
3396
3073
2780
2516
2276
3362
3042
2753
2491
2254
2231
2019
1827
1653
1496
2209
1999
1809
1637
2187
1979
2165
1959
1773
1604
2144
1940
2122
1920
2080
2060
1864
1738
1572
1423
1395
1686
1526
1381
2039
1845
1670
1451
1755
1588
1437
2101
1901
1720
1557
1409
1340
1212
1097
*9926
1313
1188
1075
1300
1177
1065
0-0
*9730
8804
9633
2-4
8716
1287
1165
1054
*9537
8629
1275
1153
1044
2-3
1353
1225
0- 1108
0- 1003
8544
1262
1142
1033
*9348
8458
1249
1130
1023
*9255
8374
1237
1119
1013
*9163
8291
2-5
0-0
2-6
0-0
7808
7065
6393
5784
5234
7730
6995
6329
5727
5182
7654
6925
6266
5670
5130
7577
6856
6204
5613
5079
7502
6788
6142
5558
5029
4596
4159
3763
3405
4550
4117
3725
3081
3050
2760
2497
2260
2045
1850
1674
00
1-
0-1
0-
0-2
0-
0-3
0-
0000
9048
8187
7408
0-4
0-
6703
0-5
0-
0-6
0-
6065
5488
0-7
0- 496tf
0-8
0-
0-9
0-
1-0
0-
1-1
0-
1-2
0-
1-3
0-
1-4
0-
1-5
0-
1-6
0-
1-7
0-
1-8
0-
1-9
0-
2-0
0-
2-1
0-
9900
1481
1791
1620
1466
1882
1703
1541
9072
8981
1327
1200
1086
*9827
8892
8209
7427
0-0 6721
0-0 6081
0-0 5502
8127
7353
6654
6020
5448
8046
7280
6588
5961
5393
7966
7208
6522
5340
7887
7136
6457
5843
5287
3-1
0-0 4979
0-0 4505
0-0
3-3
0-0
3-4
4076
3688
0-0 3337
4880
4416
3996
3615
3271
4832
4372
3956
3579
3239
4784
4328
3916
3544
3207
4736
4285
3877
3508
3175
4689
4243
3839
3474
3143
4642
4200
3-2
4929
4460
4036
3652
3304
3-5
0-0
3-6
0-0
3-7
0-0
3-8
0-0
2960
2678
2423
2193
1984
2930
2652
2399
2171
1964
2901
2625
2375
2149
1945
1925
2844
2573
2328
2107
1906
2816
2548
2305
2086
0-0
2990
2705
2448
2215
2004
2872
2599
2352
2128
3-9
3020
2732
2472
2237
2024
1887
2788
2522
2282
2065
1869
4-0
0-0
1832
1813
1795
1777
1760
1742
1725
1708
1691
2-2
2-7
2-8
2-9
3-0
5901
362
9442
3801
3439
3112
1511
1367
3371
.1.
THE EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION
TABLE
00
4-0
0-0
4-1
0-0
4-2
0-0
4-3
0-0
4.4
0-0
1832
1657
1500
1357
1228
4-5
0-0
1111
4-6
0-0
4-7
4-8
4-9
5-0
5-1
5-2
5-3
5-4
1005
0-00 9095
0-00 8230
0-00 7447
0-00 6738
0-00 6097
0-00 5517
0-00 4992
0-00 4517
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
1813
1641
1485
1343
1216
1795
1624
1470
1330
1203
1777
1608
1455
1317
1191
1760
1592
1725
1561
1412
1278
1156
1708
1545
1398
1265
1145
1691
1304
1180
1742
1576
1426
1291
1168
1674
1515
1370
1240
1122
1100
*9952
9005
8148
7372
1089
*9853
8915
8067
7299
1078
*9755
8827
7987
7227
1067
*9658
8739
7907
7155
1057
*9562
8652
7828
7083
1046
*9467
8566
7750
7013
1036
*9372
8480
7673
6943
1025
*9279
8396
7597
6874
6671
6036
5462
6605
5976
5407
4893
4427
6539
5917
5354
4844
4383
6474
5858
5300
4796
4339
6409
5799
5248
4748
4296
6346
5742
5195
4701
4254
6282
5685
5144
4654
4211
6220
5628
5092
4608
4169
6158
5572
5042
4562
4128
4006
3625
3280
2968
2685
3966
3589
3247
2938
2658
3927
3553
3215
2909
2632
3887
3518
3183
2880
2606
3849
3483
3151
2851
2580
3810
3448
3120
2823
2554
3773
3414
3089
2795
2529
3735
3380
3058
2767
2504
2430
2198
2405
2177
1969
1782
1612
2382
2155
1950
2358
2133
1930
1747
2334
2112
2311
2091
1892
1712
1549
2288
2070
2265
2050
1873
1695
1534
1855
1678
1519
1459
1320
1195
1081
1059
*9586
9491
1402
1268
1148
1038
*9397
1388
1256
1136
1028
*9303
1374
1243
1125
1018
*9210
4942
4472
4046
2454
6-2
0-00 2479
0-00 2243
0-00 2029
6-3
0-00
6-4
000
6-5
6-7
0-00
0-00
0-00
6-8
000
6-9
0-00
7-0
7-4
0-000
0-000
0-000
0-000
0-000
7-5
0-000
7-6
0000 5005
7-7
7-9
0-000 4528
0-000 4097
0-000 3707
8-0
0-000
5-6
5-7
5-8
5-9
60
6-1
6-6
7-1
7-2
7-3
7-8
8.1 (continued)
01
0-00 4087
0-00 3698
0-00 3346
0-00 3028
0-00 2739
5-5
e~*
3661
3313
2997
2712
1441
1530
1384
1253
1133
1015
9187
8312
7521
6806
1836
1662
2221
2009
1818
1645
1503
1360
1231
1114
1008
1488
1347
1219
1103
*9978
1474
1333
1207
1092
*9878
*9780
1444
1307
1183
1070
*9683
9119
8251
7466
6755
6113
9028
8169
7392
6688
6052
8938
8088
7318
6622
5991
8849
8007
7245
6556
5932
8761
7928
7173
6491
5873
8674
7849
7102
6426
5814
8588
7771
7031
6362
5757
8502
7693
6961
6299
5699
8418
7617
6892
6236
5643
8334
7541
6823
6174
5586
5531
5476
4955
4483
4057
5421
3671
5367
4857
4394
3976
3598
5314
4808
4351
3937
3562
5261
4905
4439
4016
3634
4760
4307
3898
3527
5209
4713
4265
3859
3492
5157
4666
4222
3820
3457
5106
4620
4180
3782
3422
5055
4574
4139
3745
3388
3321
3288
3255
3223
3191
3159
3128
3097
3066
3355
1989
1800
1629
1764
1596
363
1581
1430
1294
1171
1911
1729
1565
1416
1281
1159
1049
8.1.
TABLE
X
8-0
8-1
8-2
8-3
8-4
8-5
00
0-000
0-000
0-000
0-000
0-000
3355
3035
2747
2485
2249
e~*
8.1 {continued)
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
3321
3005
3288
2975
2692
2436
2204
3255
2946
2665
2412
2182
3223
2916
2639
2388
2161
3191
2887
2613
2364
2139
3159
2859
2587
2340
2118
3128
2830
2561
2317
2097
3097
2802
2535
2294
2076
3066
2774
2510
2271
2055
1994
1805
1633
1477
1337
1975
1787
1617
1463
1324
1955
1769
1601
1448
1310
1916
1734
1569
1420
1284
1897
1717
1553
1405
1272
1878
1700
1538
1391
1259
1860
1683
1522
1378
1247
1186
1073
* 9709
8785
7949
1174
1062
*9612
1151
1041
1139
1031
*9328
8440
7637
1128
1021
*9235
8697
7870
1162
1052
*9516
8611
7792
6910
6253
5658
5119
4632
6842
2719
2460
2226
2014
8-9
0-000 2035
0-000 1841
0-000 1666
0-000 1507
0-000 1364
9-0
0000 1234
9-1
0-000 1117
0-000 1010
0-0000 9144
0-0000 8273
1222
1106
1000
9052
8191
1210
1095
*9905
8962
8109
1198
1084
*9806
8873
8029
7411
6706
6068
7265
6573
5948
5382
4870
7193
6508
5889
5328
4821
7121
6443
5830
5275
4773
7050
6379
5772
5223
4726
8-6
8-7
8-8
9-2
9-3
9-4
9-5
0-0000
0-0000
0-0000
0-0000
0-0000
1823
1649
1492
1350
1935
1751
1585
1434
1297
*9422
8525
7714
7486
6774
6129
5546
5018
4968
7338
6639
6008
5436
4919
4540
4108
3717
3364
00000 3044
4495
4068
3680
3330
3013
4451
4027
3644
3297
2983
4406
3987
3608
3264
2954
4362
3947
3572
3232
2924
4319
3908
3536
3200
2895
4276
3869
0-0000
0-0000
0-0000
0-0000
0-0000
2754
2492
2255
2040
2727
2467
2232
2020
2699
2443
2210
2000
2673
2418
2188
1980
2620
2370
2145
2594
2347
2123
1941
1921
2568
2323
2102
1902
1846
1828
1809
1791
2646
2394
2166
1960
1774
1756
1739
0-0000
0-0000
0-0000
0-0000
0-0000
1670
1654
1496
1354
1225
1109
1637
1481
1341
1213
1098
1621
1605
1452
1314
1189
1076
1589
1438
1301
1177
1065
1013
1003
9076
8212
7431
6724
*9931
*9832
8897
8050
7284
11-9
0-0000
0-00000
0-00000
0-00000
0-00000
*9734
8808
7970
7211
6525
*9637
8720
7890
7139
6460
12-0
0-00000 6144
9-6
9-7
9-8
9-9
10-0
10-1
10-2
10-3
10-4
10-5
10-6
10-7
10-8
10-9
11-0
11-1
11-2
11-3
11-4
11-5
11-6
11-7
11-8
0-0000
0-0000
0-0000
0-0000
1511
1368
1237
1120
9167
8295
7506
6791
5491
8987
8131
7357
6657
1467
1327
1201
1087
6591
364
6980
6316
5715
5171
4679
4234
8356
7561
6191
5601
5068
4586
4191
3793
3432
3105
2810
4150
3755
2542
2300
2517
2277
1721
2081
1883
1704
2061
1865
1687
1573
1423
1288
1165
1054
1557
1409
1275
1154
1044
1542
1395
1262
1142
1034
*9541
*9446
8548
7734
6998
6332
*9352
8462
7657
6928
6269
3501
3168
2866
8633
7812
7068
6396
3831
3466
3136
2838
3398
3074
2782
1527
1381
1250
1131
1023
*9259
8378
7581
6860
6206
8.1.
TABLE
e~*
8.1 (continued)
The Exponential Function e-MO*
12
10
10
4552
4119
3727
3372
1675
1241
3051
1122
11
4129
11
6160
2266
*8337
5044
1855
16
6808
2505
*9214
4564
11
1515
5574
2051
1371
15
5560
2045
7524
2768
1851
14
6144
2260
8315
3059
1125
5030
13
*7544
6826
1679
*6176
1519
*5588
17
12
18
12
19
.13
20
13
Where
1018
4140
21
14
1523
5603
2061
21!
14
21
14
2A[
15
7583
2790
1026
3775
the Table of Proportional Parts (given on

is not accurate enough for interpolation,
separate card)
the following
method may be used:
Tabular values of function
First differences
..
..
Second difference
..
..
/(I)
/(2)
/(3)
25
26
27
28
15
1389
5109
1880
6914
16
16
17
29
30
17
31
18
32
18
2498
*9190
3381
1244
*4575
2544
9358
3443
1266
18
This assumes that third differences are comparatively

a+b
^=e^ a .e- b for internegligible. Alternatively, use e-<
mediate values in the x=a+=12-32 range, or for
higher values.
/(4)
X3 X4
X
e*=lx+---
J (23) J(34)
A (2) A (3)
J(12)
Suppose it is desired to obtain a value f(q) at a fraction

q of the way between /(2) and/(3). Then
f(q)=f(2)+qA(23)+
2761
1016
3737
1375
*5057
q
-^{A(2)+A(3)}
1.
To
find e x , use table of e~* with table of reciprocals.
To
find e x , e~ x for large values of x:
If
x=a+b,
e x =e a xe b
e~ x =e~ a xe~ b
=f(2)+qA(23)+ -^{A(34)-A(l2)}
365
2.
log e*=0-43429x.
3.
In e x =x.
Use
Then use
table of antilogarithms.
table of natural logarithms inversely.
8.2.
By
J.
A Four-place Table of
Sherman,
assisted
by L.
sin
Brockway
x from
to 20 radians, values of
Introduction
dingly, for values of
The
function have been calculated for every 0-01

radian; from 20 to 40 radians, for every 0-02 radian;
and from 40 to 100 radians, for every 0-05 radian.
For x<0-25 radian the function was calculated by
means of a Taylor's series expansion about the origin.
For x between 0-25 and 6-00 radians, J. Peters' sixthe
intensities of waves diffracted by gas molecules

with random orientation may be expressed by a
formula of the following type
-s-*
in
which the
/.sin
a's are constants
dfX
and x
is
place table of natural sines was employed, and for x

between 6-00 and 100-00 radians, O. Lohse's five-place
proportional to
the sine of half the scattering angle, f The procedure

which is employed for determining the structure of a
was used. Table 8.2 was checked

and second differences throughout.
table of natural sines
by computing
single molecule by electron and X-ray diffraction experiments in the gas consists of calculating intensity
curves for as many molecular models as are compatible
with the known properties of the compound and then
of comparing the various calculated intensity curves
with the photographs, the model affording the best
correlation being considered as the. most probable.
In Table 8.2, (sin x)/x is given for values of the
argument from
to 100 radians. Inasmuch as the
function changes much more slowly for large values of
x than for small, it was found convenient to change
the value of the interval throughout the table. Accor-
first
Where
the second difference indicated probability of

an error in the function greater than one in the last
place, the value of the function was recomputed.
Inasmuch as (sin x)/x< 1 for all values of x, values
of the function multiplied by ten thousand are tabu-
avoid the extensive use of zeros. The sign of

is given only in the first column. Where
the function changes sign, the sign is given before each
value of the function throughout the row in which the
change occurs.
lated, to
the function
TABLE
Debye,
P.
Ann. Physik, 46, 809, 1915.
8.2A
{(sinx)/jc}xl0 4
radians
00
0-0
+ 10000
0-1
0-4
9983
9933
9851
9735
0-5
+ 9589
0-6
9411
9203
0-2
0-3
0-7
0-8
0-9
8967
8704
10
+ 8415
1-4
8102
7767
7412
7039
1-5
+ 6650
1-6
6247
5833
5410
4981
1-1
1-2
1-3
1-7
1-8
1-9
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10000
9980
9927
9840
9722
9999
9976
9919
9830
9709
9999
9972
9912
9820
9695
9997
9967
9904
9808
9680
9996
9963
9896
9797
9666
9994
9957
9889
9785
9651
9992
9952
9879
9774
9636
9989
9946
9870
9761
9620
9987
9940
9860
9748
9605
9572
9391
9181
8942
8676
9555
9372
9158
8916
8648
9538
9351
9135
8891
8620
9521
9331
9112
8865
8591
9503
9311
9089
8839
8562
9486
9290
9065
8812
8533
9467
9269
9041
8785
8504
9449
9247
9016
8758
8474
9430
9225
8992
8384
8069
7732
7375
7001
8354
8037
7698
7339
6962
8323
8004
7663
7302
6924
8292
7970
7627
7265
6885
8261
7937
7592
7228
6846
8230
7903
7556
7190
6807
8198
7870
7520
7153
6768
8166
7836
7484
7115
6729
8134
7801
7448
7077
6610
6206
6570
6165
5749
5325
4894
6530
6124
5707
5282
4851
6490
6083
5665
5239
4807
6450
6042
5623
5196
4764
6410
6000
5580
5153
4720
6369
5959
5538
5110
4677
6328
5917
5495
5067
4634
6288
5875
5453
5024
4590
5791
5368
4937
366
8731
8445
6690
8.2.
A FOUR-PLACE TABLE OF
TABLE
(sin x)/x
8.2A (continued)
{(sinx)/x}xl0 4
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
20
+ 4546
2-1
4459
4023
3588
3156
2730
4416
3980
3545
3113
2687
4372
3936
3070
2645
4329
3893
3458
3028
2603
4285
3849
3415
2984
2-4
4111
3675
3242
2814
4503
4067
3632
3199
2772
4241
3805
3372
2942
2519
4198
3762
3328
2899
2477
4153
3718
3285
2857
2436
2-5
+ 2394
2311
1902
1504
2228
2187
2146
1861
1465
1821
1781
1741
2105
1702
2064
1983
1583
1196
825
2352
1942
1544
2269
2-6
1159
789
1121
1083
717
1388
1009
646
1349
972
753
1427
1046
681
2023
1622
1234
x radians
2-2
2-3
2-7
2-8
2-9
3-1
+ 470
+ 134
3-2
-182
3-3
3-4
478
752
3-5
-1002
3-6
3-9
1229
1432
1610
1764
4-0
-1892
3-0
3-7
3-8
4-4
1996
2075
2131
2163
4-5
-2172
4-6
4-9
2160
2127
2075
2005
50
-1918
5-1
5-4
1815
1699
1570
1431
5-5
-1283
5-6
5-8
1127
966
800
5-9
634
6-0
-466
4-1
4-2
4-3
4-7
4-8
5-2
5-3
5-7
3501
2561
610
1311
935
575
1662
1273
898
540
861
505
436
402
368
334
300
266
233
200
167
+ 102
+ 69
+ 37
+5
-27
-58
-90
-121
-152
213
506
778
243
535
804
273
562
829
303
590
855
333
618
880
362
645
905
392
672
930
421
699
954
449
725
978
1026
1251
1451
1627
1777
1050
1272
1470
1643
1073
1293
1488
1659
1805
1096
1313
1506
1675
1818
1119
1334
1524
1690
1831
1141
1164
1374
1559
1720
1856
1186
1393
1576
1735
1868
1208
1413
1593
1749
1880
1903
2005
2082
2135
2165
1915
1926
2022
1936
1957
2046
1967
2030
2100
2146
2169
1947
2039
2106
2150
2170
2054
2116
2156
2172
1977
2061
2121
2158
2172
1987
2068
2126
2161
2172
2170
2150
2109
2049
2169
2146
2104
2042
2166
2139
2093
2028
2164
2136
2087
2020
1972
1963
2168
2143
2098
2035
1955
1946
1937
2162
2132
2081
2013
1927
1791
2014
2088
2139
2166
2094
2143
2168
1354
1542
1705
1844
2111
2153
2171
2172
2158
2123
2069
1997
2172
2155
2119
2063
1989
2171
2152
2114
2056
1981
1908
1804
1687
1557
1417
1899
1793
1674
1543
1402
1889
1782
1662
1530
1387
1879
1770
1649
1516
1373
1868
1759
1636
1502
1358
1858
1747
1623
1488
1343
1848
1735
1610
1474
1328
1837
1723
1597
1460
1313
1826
1711
1584
1445
1298
1268
1111
1237
1079
1221
1143
751
583
900
734
567
1175
1015
851
1159
999
917
1206
1047
884
718
550
1190
950
784
617
1252
1095
933
768
600
432
265
416
249
399
232
382
216
1063
1031
982
818
650
482
684
516
834
667
499
365
200
348
332
183
167
315
150
867
701
533
6-1
299
449
282
6-2
-134
-118
-102
-85
-69
-53
-37
-21
-5
+ 11
6-3
+ 27
43
58
121
136
152
182
197
212
90
242
105
6-4
74
227
257
272
287
302
167
316
367
8.2.
TABLE
(sin x)/x
8.2A (continued)
{(sinx)/jc}xl0 4
radians
00
6-5
+ 331
6-6
6-9
472
604
727
838
7-0
+ 939
94*
957
7-1
7-4
1027
1102
1165
1214
1035
1109
1171
1219
1043
1116
1176
1223
7-5
+ 1251
7-6
1274
1283
1280
1264
1254
1275
1284
1279
1262
6-7
6-8
7-2
7-3
7-7
7-8
7-9
8-0
8-1
+ 1237
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
346
486
617
738
849
360
499
630
750
859
374
513
642
388
526
654
773
880
403
539
667
784
890
417
552
679
795
900
431
566
691
806
445
579
703
817
919
458
966
975
1051
1123
1181
1227
1058
1129
1186
1231
984
1066
1135
1191
1234
993
1074
1142
1196
1238
1201
1241
1010
1088
1153
1206
1244
1019
1095
1159
1210
1248
1256
1277
1284
1278
1259
1259
1278
1284
1277
1257
1279
1284
1275
1255
1264
1280
1283
1274
1252
1266
1281
1283
1272
1249
1268
1282
1282
1270
1246
1270
1282
1282
1269
1243
1272
1283
1267
1240
1233
1193
1142
1080
1010
1230
1188
1136
1074
1002
1226
1183
1130
1067
995
1222
1179
1124
1060
987
1218
1174
1118
1053
1214
1169
1112
1046
972
1210
1163
1106
1039
1206
1158
1100
1032
956
1202
1153
1093
1025
948
931
845
915
827
733
635
532
906
818
724
625
898
809
714
614
511
880
790
694
594
490
771
521
889
800
704
604
500
872
781
752
655
552
923
836
743
645
542
684
584
479
675
573
469
447
340
231
437
329
220
426
318
210
415
307
404
296
394
286
275
372
264
253
199
188
177
123
+ 16
112
101
91
80
69
166
58
156
48
145
37
+5
-6
-16
-27
-37
-48
-58
^69
172
271
365
8-4
1197
1147
1087
1017
8-5
+ 939
8-6
8-9
854
762
665
563
90
+ 458
91
351
9-2
242
9-3
134
9-4
+ 26
9-5
-79
9-6
182
89
192
9-7
9-9
280
374
462
290
383
471
10-0
-544
10-1
552
626
692
10-4
619
686
745
796
10-5
-838
10-6
871
10-7
894
908
913
8-2
8-3
8-7
8-8
9-8
10-2
10-3
10-8
10-9
761
870
1261
979
910
1002
1081
1148
964
383
591
715
828
929
1281
863
361
100
110
120
131
141
151
161
202
299
392
479
212
309
222
241
337
251
346
261
318
231
328
401
410
496
419
504
428
512
436
520
356
445
528
575
647
711
767
814
582
653
717
772
818
590
660
723
777
822
597
667
728
782
826
604
673
734
787
830
612
680
740
852
855
883
902
912
912
859
886
904
912
912
862
888
905
913
865
890
906
913
911
868
892
907
913
487
567
640
705
751
801
560
633
699
756
805
842
873
896
909
913
845
876
898
910
913
849
879
899
911
913
761
809
881
901
911
913
368
911
454
536
791
834
910
8.2.
TABLE
(sin x)/x
8.2A (continued)
{(sinx)/x}xl0 4
radians
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
908
894
872
907
892
869
837
798
906
890
866
834
794
905
888
863
830
789
904
886
860
826
785
902
884
857
822
780
901
882
899
879
854
819
776
815
898
877
848
811
766
751
698
741
736
731
687
626
681
639
574
505
746
693
633
568
498
561
491
620
554
484
675
614
547
476
726
669
607
540
469
432
356
278
425
348
270
417
410
333
254
402
325
246
395
317
238
198
11-0
-909
11-1
11-4
896
874
844
806
11-5
-761
11-6
709
11-7
11-9
651
588
519
12-0
-447
12-1
372
12-2
12-3
294
214
440
364
286
206
125
117
101
174
93
166
85
158
134
190
109
182
12-4
12-5
-53
-45
-37
-29
-21
-13
12-6
+ 27
42
105
50
128
203
275
58
136
66
12-7
35
113
188
261
143
151
210
282
218
289
407
466
519
566
350
413
471
524
570
11-2
11-3
11-8
12-8
181
12-9
254
13-0
+ 323
13-1
13-4
388
448
503
552
13-5
+ 595
13-6
632
13-2
13-3
13-7
661
13-8
13-9
684
699
14-0
+ 708
14-1
14-3
709
703
690
14-4
671
14-5
+ 645
14-6
14-9
613
575
533
485
15-0
+ 434
151
378
320
259
197
14-2
14-7
14-8
15-2
15-3
15-4
841
802
756
704
645
581
512
120
196
268
341
262
+ 11
+ 19
89
166
173
225
296
82
158
232
303
240
310
247
316
356
419
477
529
575
363
425
482
534
579
369
431
488
538
583
376
437
493
382
443
498
548
614
647
673
692
704
618
650
676
694
705
622
653
678
695
706
625
656
680
697
706
628
659
682
698
707
709
706
696
679
656
709
705
695
677
653
709
705
693
675
650
709
704
692
673
648
623
587
546
500
449
620
583
542
495
444
616
579
537
490
439
395
338
278
216
152
390
332
272
209
384
326
265
203
140
611
641
644
669
689
703
671
691
703
708
708
702
688
668
708
708
701
687
666
709
708
700
685
663
709
707
699
683
661
709
707
697
642
609
636
602
563
519
470
633
599
559
514
465
630
595
555
509
460
626
480
639
606
567
524
475
428
373
314
253
190
423
367
308
247
184
417
412
355
296
234
406
349
290
228
401
171
165
159
302
241
178
369
BB
+3
74
607
361
462
-5
603
638
666
688
702
528
601
533
715
657
594
526
454
77
599
635
664
686
700
571
720
663
222
337
401
460
514
562
771
387
309
230
150
69
330
395
454
509
557
343
851
681
658
591
550
505
455
344
284
222
543
587
146
379
301
142
61
97
591
8.2.
TABLE
(sin x)/x
8.2A (continued)
{(sinx)/jc}xl0 4
x radians
00
01
02
04
03
05
06
07
08
09
15-5
+ 133
120
56
114
50
108
43
95
88
82
69
127
63
101
15-6
37
31
24
18
11
15-7
+5
-1
-8
-14
-20
-27
-33
-39
-46
-52
15-8
58
120
64
71
77
15-9
126
132
138
83
144
89
150
95
156
102
162
108
168
114
174
160
-180
186
243
297
347
393
254
307
357
402
203
259
312
362
407
209
265
318
366
411
215
270
16-4
237
292
342
389
192
248
302
352
398
415
220
276
328
376
419
226
16-1
380
423
232
286
337
385
427
16-5
-431
469
462
495
518
542
560
521
552
513
538
557
486
515
540
558
458
492
16-9
443
479
510
535
555
454
489
501
528
550
439
476
507
533
553
447
482
16-7
435
472
504
451
16-6
523
546
563
17-0
-566
17-1
567
576
580
577
569
568
577
580
577
568
569
577
580
576
567
570
578
580
576
566
571
578
579
575
565
572
579
579
574
563
573
579
579
573
562
574
579
579
572
571
17-4
575
580
578
570
561
559
17-5
-557
553
533
508
478
549
528
502
471
547
526
499
468
433
545
523
541
521
518
496
465
429
493
461
425
490
458
17-9
554
535
510
481
447
543
539
516
487
454
556
537
513
484
451
551
17-6
18-0
-417
18-1
413
372
328
281
231
409
368
323
276
226
389
346
300
385
341
18-4
376
332
285
236
16-2
16-3
16-8
17-2
17-3
17-7
17-8
18-2
18-3
531
18-5
-185
180
18-6
133
128
18-7
80
74
175
122
69
197
444
530
505
475
440
436
405
364
319
401
359
314
397
355
309
271
221
266
216
261
211
170
117
64
164
112
58
159
106
53
323
371
393
350
304
256
206
154
544
561
251
201
149
96
281
333
465
498
526
548
564
575
579
578
421
381
195
337
290
241
190
143
138
85
32
295
246
48
+6
42
90
37
101
76
18-8
-26
-21
-16
-10
-5
+ 11
+ 16
+ 21
18-9
+ 27
32
37
42
48
53
58
63
68
74
190
+ 79
84
130
179
135
184
89
140
188
94
19-1
145
193
99
150
198
104
155
110
159
115
164
120
169
19-4
230
274
235
278
239
282
244
286
207
252
295
212
257
299
216
226
270
202
248
290
125
174
221
261
303
265
307
19-5
+ 311
314
351
19-8
348
382
411
318
355
388
416
436
326
362
394
422
445
330
365
397
424
447
333
369
400
427
449
337
372
403
429
19-9
322
358
391
419
443
341
19-6
344
378
408
434
455
19-2
19-3
19-7
385
414
438
440
370
451
375
405
431
453
8.2.
(sin x)/x
TABLE 8.2B
{(sinjt)/x}xlO*
x radians
00
02
04
06
08
x radians
00
02
04
06
08
20-0
+ 456
466
479
487
490
488
-241
235
24-6
488
490
487
24-7
206
170
132
93
199
162
124
85
228
192
155
116
77
221
185
147
108
69
214
481
20-4
463
477
486
490
489
24-5
472
483
489
490
460
475
485
490
490
469
20-1
20-5
+ 486
482
470
454
434
409
480
467
450
429
404
-53
-13
37
29
21
25-1
-5
+3
+ 11
+ 19
25-2
+ 27
25-4
66
104
35
74
42
25-3
20-9
483
473
458
438
415
45
478
464
447
424
485
475
25-0
20-6
111
119
50
89
126
96
134
21-0
+ 398
393
362
328
292
252
387
356
381
375
342
307
268
228
25-5
+ 141
176
148
183
155
25-6
25-7
215
246
273
222
25-9
209
240
268
251
278
228
257
284
211
168
123
78
32
202
194
150
105
60
14
185
26-0
+ 293
141
26-1
26-2
51
26-3
26-4
361_
298
320
338
352
363
303
323
341
355
365
307
327
344
357
367
311
331
96
315
334
350
22
67
31
40
26-5
+ 370
371
76
119
85
128
169
209
26-6
26-7
374
375
26-8
371
372
375
374
369
26-9
365
374
374
370
363
373
375
373
368
359
373
375
372
366
357
346
20-2
20-3
20-7
-20-8
21-4
369
335
299
260
21-5
+ 219
21-1
21-2
21-3
21-6
21-7
461
442
420
21-8
176
132
87
21-9
42
22-0
-4
13
22-1
22-3
49
93
136
22-4
178
58
102
145
185
22-5
-217
22-6
22-9
253
287
317
344
23-0
23-1
22-2
321
284
244
159
114
69
23
111
349
314
276
236
24-8
24-9
25-8
153
161
193
201
224
260
293
323
349
231
239
274
305
334
359
246
280
27-0
+ 354
267
299
329
354
27-1
311
27-2
339
364
27-3
27-4
340
323
303
280
-368
372
226
406
416
423
384
400
413
27-6
23-2
23-3
23-4
380
397
410
419
424
+ 254
391
376
394
408
418
423
27-5
388
403
415
422
27-7
421
27-8
196
164
424
27-9
23-5
-425
425
422
415
403
388
424
419
23-9
423
418
408
395
425
423
416
406
392
424
23-6
411
398
381
24-0
-377
24-1
356
332
304
274
373
352
327
299
268
369
347
365
342
316
287
255
22-7
22-8
23-7
23-8
24-2
24-3
24-4
321
293
261
421
413
401
385
81
189
361
162
196
177
139
100
61
58
169
203
234
263
288
347
359
368
352
337
319
299
275
349
334
316
294
270
312
290
265
343
327
307
285
260
249
220
190
243
214
238
208
232
202
184
151
177
145
171
131
158
124
117
111
28-0
+ 97
90
28-2
62
+ 26
28-3
-9
55
19
16
83
48
76
28-1
28-4
44
51
361
28-5
-79
337
310
280
248
28-6
28-8
112
144
174
85
118
150
180
28-9
203
208
28-7
371
331
138
104
69
34
+ 12
41
+5
-2
23
58
30
65
37
72
92
99
125
131
156
186
162
192
105
138
168
197
213
219
224
8.2.
TABLE
(sin x)jx
8.2B {continued)
{(sin;t)/jt}xl0 4
x radians
00
02
04
06
08
x radians
00
02
04
06
08
29-0
-229
33-6
254
236
216
250
232
212
247
228
208
33-9
199
175
194
29-4
301
315
243
224
203
180
257
240
220
298
312
248
270
288
304
317
+ 260
261
281
243
266
285
33-5
253
274
292
307
234
257
278
295
310
239
29-1
171
190
166
161
29-5
-319
321
34-0
+ 156
151
29-6
329
334
335
333
34-1
124
145
119
140
113
135
108
91
63
34
86
57
28
51
29-9
328
333
335
334
22
328
320
308
293
29-2
29-3
323
330
334
335
332
335
335
332
327
317
305
290
272
325
315
302
287
268
252
229
204
30-9
188
160
256
233
209
182
154
31-0
-130
31-1
31-3
100
69
37
31-4
-5
31-5
31-6
325
33-7
33-8
185
326
332
335
334
34-3
130
102
74
331
34-4
46
97
69
40
323
313
300
283
34-5
+ 17
+ 11
+5
-1
-7
34-6
-12
18
24
30
34-7
47
75
35
63
264
34-9
96
102
52
80
107
58
34-8
41
69
85
112
91
117
247
224
243
219
35-0
-122
198
171
142
193
165
136
35-2
142
166
187
177
148
35-4
147
170
192
211
127
152
175
196
137
35-1
124
118
112
106
35-5
-228
231
94
62
87
56
81
35-6
50
75
43
31
24
18
11
35-8
+1
+8
14
+ 20
35-9
243
255
264
271
245
257
266
272
+ 27
33
45
76
36-1
36-2
277
276
36-3
271
31-9
52
82
112
140
167
-275
64
94
39
70
100
129
157
36-0
58
88
118
146
36-4
265
276
277
275
270
263
32-0
+ 172
177
182
192
36-5
-255
253
32-1
197
32-4
215
236
254
269
36-9
243
229
213
194
241
219
239
257
206
228
247
263
36-6
32-2
202
224
243
260
32-5
+ 272
277
288
296
-174
37-1
32-9
284
293
300
303
275
286
295
300
303
37-0
32-6
33-0
+ 303
33-1
300
294
286
274
303
299
293
284
272
29-7
29-8
30-0
-329
30-1
321
30-2
311
30-3
30-4
296
280
30-5
-260
30-6
238
214
30-7
30-8
31-2
31-7
31-8
32-3
32-7
32-8
33-2
33-3
33-4
276
124
151
331
106
135
162
187
211
232
250
266
34-2
35-3
35-7
36-7
36-8
214
226
209
132
157
179
199
218
234
248
259
268
273
276
277
274
269
261
251
238
223
206
161
183
203
221
80
207
225
261
240
253
263
269
274
270
275
277
276
273
268
259
277
276
272
266
257
248
235
220
202
182
246
232
216
161
156
133
109
237
250
190
186
170
147
124
99
74
165
143
119
37-4
152
129
104
79
68
114
89
63
198
178
301
280
290
297
302
303
303
282
292
299
302
303
302
298
302
297
290
279
266
301
37-5
-53
47
42
37
296
288
277
263
37-6
26
21
16
10
6
32
58
11
16
21
37
63
42
47
68
73
291
281
269
37-2
37-3
37-7
372
37-8
27
37-9
53
94
138
84
58
32
8.2.
TABLE
(sin
JC)/jC
8.2B {continued)
{(sinjc)/jc}xl0 4
00
02
04
06
38-0
+ 78
38-1
83
107
130
152
38-4
102
126
148
168
88
112
135
156
176
93
117
139
160
179
38-5
+ 186
190
193
197
38-6
203
218
230
240
206
220
232
209
223
234
243
212
225
236
244
radians
38-2
38-3
38-7
38-8
38-9
172
241
08
jc
radians
00
02
04
06
08
248
253
255
254
251
249
253
255
254
250
250
254
255
253
249
251
245
237
227
214
244
235
224
242
233
222
208
241
231
193
190
98
39-0
+ 247
121
39-1
143
164
39-2
183
39-4
252
254
254
252
200
215
228
238
246
39-5
+ 246
39-6
239
229
217
203
39-3
39-7
39-8
39-9
TABLE
211
196
199
254
255
252
248
219
206
8.2C
{(sinjc)/jc}xl0 4
X
radians
sin
jc
X
radians
sin*
JC
sin
radians
jc
JC
JC
radians
sin
jc
JC
radians
JC
sin
jc
JC
40-00
+ 186
41-25
-96
42-50
-234
43-75
-53
45-00
+ 189
05
30
41
05
85
30
10
194
199
90
19
15
70
233
231
228
225
80
45
107
118
128
138
55
20
177
168
159
149
95
20
204
208
40-25
+ 138
41-50
-148
42-75
-221
44-00
+4
45-25
+ 211
30
55
216
05
15
30
85
211
10
27
35
90
38
40
94
70
95
206
200
15
45
157
165
174
182
80
40
128
117
106
20
49
45
214
216
218
219
40-50
+ 83
41-75
-189
43-00
-193
44-25
+ 60
45-50
+ 219
55
71
80
196
05
30
71
55
60
59
47
34
85
10
35
81
60
15
171
40
91
65
95
202
208
213
187
179
20
163
45
101
70
220
219
218
216
+ 22
+ 10
42-00
-218
43-25
-155
44-50
+ 111
45-75
+ 214
80
05
30
121
80
-2
10
60
15
15
90
212
209
205
95
27
20
45
70
130
139
147
85
90
146
136
127
117
55
85
222
226
229
232
95
201
41-00
-39
42-25
-234
43-50
-107
44-75
+ 155
46-00
+ 196
05
51
30
55
191
35
163
170
177
183
05
62
74
85
96
86
75
64
80
10
235
236
236
235
10
185
179
173
10
15
35
65
70
40-75
15
20
35
40
60
65
90
40
45
60
65
35
40
60
65
70
373
65
85
90
95
15
20
8.2.
TABLE
(sin x)jx
8.2C (continued)
{(sin;c)/jc}xl0 4
shut
sin*
sin*
radians
radians
radians
radians
radians
sin
sin
46-25
+ 166
48-50
-202
50-75
+ 92
53-00
+ 75
55-25
-174
30
55
40
172
168
165
20
66
57
48
39
30
95
100
109
116
124
05
70
204
205
205
205
80
45
158
151
143
134
45
161
46-50
+ 126
48-75
-205
51-00
+ 131
53-25
+ 29
55-50
-156
55
80
05
30
20
55
151
10
138
145
35
11
60
146
90
204
202
200
15
151
40
+1
65
141
70
117
107
98
88
95
198
20
157
45
-8
70
135
46-75
+ 78
49-00
-195
51-25
80
05
191
30
85
68
58
10
35
90
47
15
40
95
37
20
187
183
178
47-00
+ 26
49-25
05
16
30
10
+5
35
40
60
65
60
65
-85
85
90
10
15
35
163
53-50
-17
55-75
-129
55
90
122
115
108
70
27
36
45
54
80
45
168
172
176
180
95
101
-173
51-50
+ 183
53-75
-63
56-00
-93
167
55
80
71
05
35
161
60
85
80
10
90
15
95
88
96
85
77
69
20
61
60
65
85
15
-6
40
16
45
154
147
65
20
70
186
188
190
192
47-25
-27
49-50
-140
51-75
+ 193
54-00
-103
56-25
-52
30
55
05
111
30
44
85
193
193
10
118
35
90
192
15
125
40
35
26
70
132
124
116
108
80
45
37
47
58
67
95
191
20
131
45
17
47-50
-77
49-75
-99
52-00
+ 190
54-25
-138
56-50
55
80
90
05
30
81
10
143
149
55
85
60
9
18
20
179
45
154
159
65
95
72
62
15
188
185
182
70
87
96
105
114
70
27
47-75
-123
50-00
-52
52-25
+ 175
54-50
-163
56-75
+ 35
80
131
05
30
171
55
44
10
35
166
60
85
15
40
161
65
95
139
146
153
20
13
45
156
70
167
170
173
176
80
85
43
33
23
95
52
60
69
48-00
-160
50-25
-3
52-50
+ 150
54-75
-178
57-00
+ 77
05
30
+7
55
180
05
35
17
60
85
181
10
40
27
36
65
90
70
95
182
182
15
45
144
137
130
123
80
20
166
172
178
183
20
84
92
99
106
48-25
-187
50-50
+ 46
52-75
+ 116
55-00
-182
57-25
+ 113
30
191
55
181
30
195
198
60
85
108
100
05
35
56
65
74
83
80
10
35
119
125
90
92
15
40
131
83
20
180
179
177
45
136
35
40
60
65
90
10
15
40
45
200
60
65
90
65
70
95
374
35
40
90
-9
8.2.
TABLE
(sin x)/x
8.2C (continued)
{(suijc)/jc}x10 4
X
radians
sin*
JC
JC
sin*
radians
radians
-10
62-00
57-50
+ 142
59-75
55
146
80
sin*
JC
radians
-119
64-25
sin
jc
sin
jc
JC
+ 154
66-50
-76
55
70
82
88
94
100
18
05
114
108
30
10
15
101
40
20
95
45
155
155
155
155
35
X
radians
60
60
151
85
65
90
70
155
158
95
27
35
43
57-75
+ 161
6000
-51
62-25
-88
64-50
+ 154
66-75
-105
59
66
74
30
81
55
80
35
60
20
81
45
74
67
60
70
153
152
150
148
95
110
115
120
124
80"
05
65
95
164
167
169
170
58-00
+ 171
60-25
-88
62-50
-52
64-75
+ 145
67-00
-128
95
102
55
44
80
131
60
85
10
65
171
45
108
114
90
20
70
37
29
21
142
139
135
05
15
172
172
172
30
95
131
20
135
137
140
58-25
+ 170
60-50
-120
62-75
-13
65-00
+ 127
67-25
-142
30
55
05
90
11
15
95
19
20
123
118
113
107
30
85
-5
+3
70
125
130
135
139
80
45
169
167
165
162
45
144
146
147
148
58-50
+ 159
60-75
-144
63-00
+ 27
65-25
+ 101
67-50
-148
96
89
55
85
90
05
10
35
40
10
15
35
40
60
65
40
15
35
40
30
15
57
45
83
76
65
20
70
148
148
147
146
-158
63-25
+ 64
65-50
+ 70
67-75
-144
71
55
143
35
60
85
141
40
78
85
90
45
91
70
63
56
48
41
80
20
160
162
163
163
30
95
138
135
80
147
05
60
151
85
151
10
65
90
70
147
142
95
154
156
58-75
+ 137
61-00
85
132
127
05
90
121
15
95
114
59-00
80
10
90
34
42
50
155
55
65
85
10
35
40
65
60
+ 108
61-25
-163
63-50
+ 98
65-75
+ 34
68-00
-132
05
101
30
55
26
05
35
85
19
10
129
125
90
11
15
121
20
94
87
80
45
70
104
109
115
120
80
10
163
162
161
160
95
20
116
59-25
+ 72
61-50
-158
63-75
+ 125
66-00
-4
68-25
-112
30
64
55
80
12
30
107
60
10
19
35
101
40
56
48
90
129
133
137
05
35
15
40
70
95
141
20
27
34
40
45
156
153
150
147
45
96
90
59-50
+ 32
61-75
-143
64-00
+ 144
66-25
-41
68-50
-84
55
23
80
05
78
85
60
65
+7
90
70
-2
95
48
55
62
69
55
15
147
149
30
60
139
134
130
125
72
65
59
15
40
65
60
65
85
10
35
15
151
40
20
153
45
375
65
70
8.2.
TABLE
(sin x)/x
8.2C (continued)
{(sin;c)/;t}xl0 4
sin*
radians
radians
68-75
-52
71-00
+ 134
73-25
80
45
05
30
85
38
-10
sin
a;
sinx
radians
radians
-114
75-50
+ 13
77-75
+ 91
55
20
27
80
40
118
121
124
65
90
45
127
70
33
39
87
82
77
95
71
sin
radians
sin
90
31
15
95
24
20
132
129
126
122
6900
-17
71-25
+ 119
73-50
-129
75-75
+ 45
78-00
+ 66
05
30
55
131
80
-2
60
35
60
85
15
+5
40
65
90
20
12
45
101
70
132
134
135
95
52
58
63
69
05
10
115
110
106
69-25
+ 19
71-50
+ 96
73-75
-135
76-00
30
55
91
80
60
85
135
135
05
35
27
34
10
95
135
134
35
60
85
10
55
15
20
49
43
+ 74
78-25
+ 37
30
30
24
40
18
20
80
85
90
94
45
11
40
41
65
45
47
70
85
80
74
69-50
+ 54
71-75
+ 68
74-00
-133
76-25
+ 99
78-50
+5
55
61
80
61
05
30
103
55
-1
60
85
55
10
35
90
15
65
14
95
49
42
20
45
107
110
114
60
70
67
73
79
132
130
128
126
70
20
69-75
+ 85
72-00
+ 35
74-25
-123
76-50
+ 117
78-75
-26
80
91
05
30
10
35
90
101
15
15
40
90
33
39
45
95
106
20
45
70
119
122
124
126
80
96
120
117
113
109
55
85
28
22
95
51
70-00
+ 111
72-25
+1
74-50
-105
76-75
+ 127
79-00
-56
05
30
-6
55
101
80
35
13
60
96
85
40
20
27
65
91
90
45
70
86
95
128
129
130
130
05
20
115
119
123
126
20
62
67
72
77
70-25
-129
72-50
-33
74-75
-81
77-00
+ 130
79-25
-82
30
55
40
46
80
87
35
91
53
59
90
40
95
20
129
129
128
126
30
70
75
70
64
58
05
45
132
134
136
138
45
95
99
70-50
+ 139
72-75
-65
75-00
-52
77-25
+ 124
79-50
-103
55
140
80
71
05
30
141
85
10
65
141
90
77
82
70
141
95
88
20
45
122
120
117
114
55
60
45
39
33
26
70
106
110
112
115
70-75
+ 141
73-00
-93
75-25
-20
77-50
+ 111
79-75
-117
80
140
139
138
136
05
30
13
55
119
35
-6
60
85
121
40
65
108
104
100
80
15
98
102
107
90
20
111
45
70
96
95
122
123
65
10
15
35
40
85
90
95
60
65
10
90
85
15
376
15
40
60
65
10
15
35
40
35
85
10
15
60
65
8.2.
TABLE
(sin x)/x
8.2C {continued)
{(sinx)/x}xl0 4
X
radians
sinx
sinx
radians
radians
sinx
JC
radians
sinx
sinx
radians
80-00
-124
82-25
+ 65
84-50
+ 38
86-75
-108
89-00
+ 97
05
30
80
85
106
103
05
60
32
26
65
20
90
101
15
45
70
75
80
84
55
20
125
125
125
124
70
14
95
98
20
99
102
104
1Q6
80-25
-123
82-50
+ 89
84-75
-94
89-25
+ 108
122
55
80
05
91
30
35
121
60
92
96
+9
+3
87-00
30
85
-3
10
35
109
110
40
119
117
65
40
111
95
9
15
15
70
100
103
90
45
20
87
83
79
45
111
80-50
-115
82-75
+ 106
85-00
-21
87-25
-75
89-50
+ 112
55
80
109
05
30
71
55
112
85
111
10
26
32
35
66
60
111
90
113
15
61
65
111
95
115
20
38
43
40
70
112
110
106
103
45
56
70
110
80-75
-99
83-00
+ 117
85-25
-49
87-50
-51
89-75
+ 109
80
95
05
30
46
80
91
10
60
15
65
90
95
87
83
41
35
85
90
20
45
54
59
64
69
55
85
118
119
120
120
70
30
95
107
106
104
102
81-00
-78
83-25
+ 120
85-50
-73
87-75
-24
90-00
+ 99
05
30
19
13
05
97
94
90
15
70
78
82
86
90
80
45
120
119
119
117
55
20
72
68
62
57
95
20
91
87
81-25
-51
83-50
+ 116
85-75
-93
88-00
+4
90-25
+ 84
30
46
55
80
60
40
70
95
103
105
15
45
34
28
10
15
21
30
41
97
100
05
35
114
112
110
108
-20
26
45
80
76
72
67
81-50
-22
83-75
+ 105
86-00
-107
88-25
+ 32
90-50
+ 63
55
16
10
80
05
55
58
54
90
40
37
43
48
70
95
91
20
109
111
113
114
30
-4
+2
102
99
95
45
53
70
49
44
81-75
+8
84-00
+ 87
86-25
-115
88-50
+ 58
90-75
+ 38
80
14
05
30
10
60
62
67
80
21
90
26
32
15
40
65
71
90
20
74
69
33
28
23
95
45
115
116
116
115
55
85
83
79
70
76
95
17
82-00
+ 38
84-25
+ 64
86-50
-115
88-75
+ 80
91-00
+ 12
05
44
30
55
35
85
84
87
05
50
55
60
114
113
112
110
80
10
59
54
49
43
10
+1
90
91
15
-5
95
94
20
10
10
15
60
65
10
15
60
65
15
20
35
40
35
40
65
85
40
45
35
40
60
65
85
90
10
15
35
60
65
70
377
85
10
35
10
10
35
40
60
65
85
8.2.
TABLE
(sin x)/x
8.2C (continued)
{(sinjc)/*}xlO*
sinx
sin*
radians
radians
radians
+ 51
96-50
+ 80
98-25
-77
55
55
30
80
60
35
90
60
64
65
95
68
70
77
73
70
66
45
83
86
89
-90
95-00
+ 72
96-75
+ 62
98-50
-91
05
57
55
85
53
60
90
95
49
44
65
20
76
79
82
86
80
45
87
84
80
77
70
93
95
97
98
-65
93-50
-73
95-25
+ 88
97-00
+ 39
98-75
-99
55
91
05
80
100
35
10
85
40
94
96
15
34
29
24
90
101
101
95
81
70
69
64
60
56
30
90
70
74
78
45
98
20
19
95
101
92-00
-85
93-75
-51
95-50
+ 99
97-25
+ 14
99-00
-101
05
88
80
46
55
101
30
05
101
10
91
85
41
60
35
+4
10
15
90
36
65
40
-1
15
20
94
96
95
31
70
102
103
104
45
20
100
99
98
92-25
-99
94-00
-26
95-75
+ 104
97-50
-11
99-25
-97
30
101
05
80
10
60
16
21
30
35
95
93
15
45
103
104
105
20
95
104
104
104
103
55
35
21
16
10
92-50
-106
94-25
96-00
55
30
05
35
11
10
40
45
16
21
15
70
107
108
108
108
92-75
-108
94-50
80
107
106
105
104
55
60
sin
sin
radians
radians
91-25
-16
93-00
-102
94-75
30
21
05
80
35
10
85
45
26
32
37
20
100
98
96
93
91-50
-42
93-25
55
47
30
60
35
65
52
56
70
61
91-75
80
40
85
40
60
65
85
90
95
15
40
60
65
10
15
85
40
sin
a:
65
26
40
91
70
31
45
89
+ 102
97-75
-36
99-50
-86
101
80
41
55
83
85
81
90
65
95
45
50
54
60
20
100
98
96
70
77
74
+ 26
96-25
+ 94
98-00
-59
99-75
-71
31
30
05
35
85
65
15
63
66
70
80
36
41
70
46
45
92
89
87
84
20
74
95
67
63
59
55
10000
-51
90
40
378
10
90
<
<
p- r- r r p~
MM (SfS
s +
CO CM
r-H
ON OO P- NO WO
o
oooo
On oo P~ no wo
r~ p~ p~ p~ p*
on oo r~ vo wo
Tt ro CM r"^ rf
"* Tf
ON OO P~ NO W->
CO CO CO CO CO
xt CO CM r-l
CO CO CO CO CO
ON OO P* NO WO
oo OO CO CO
no ^- g
on
P~ -T
<N
ON ON 0O 0O OO
Q
O
On rr
O
r- cm oo
OO
WO
CO
wo
en vo
-h
-<
OO
on Tf i
co
0O CM co
on on oo p wo
On On On On On
rj-
p-
O
On
no
CO
ON
On
^
Q
wo co p- p-
r- On P> M
M
co O P- "*
i
*-<
ON On oo oo oo
O
TtO(N-H
wo
ro <
t~-
p~ P~
co oo
P~ vo vo wo
w> ro
co
P- CO
t r~-
3-
i co On
On cm cm
OO Tt ON
vo no v>
i
Q
O
OO OO >
i W"> OO ON
OO CM NO
rf rr co co
I
Q
Ô
^H CO WO
WO
OO CO Pwo
rj- co co
^ P- y
i
fr
o
o
ed
VO
8
o
*8
CO
00
4*
1
H
t:
*a
xn
OO WO NO ^H CO
tJ- co i-H On no
WO ON CO NO
P- OO CO NO
ON P" WO CM
ON CO P- "-H
Tt r- ^h oo on
NO CM P^ ON
rf on co P- CM
wo -<fr * CO CO
OO
O
NO
wo p- cm co on
NO
>n "* ON
co < oo wo *-t
ON ON oo oo oo
tJ-
co vo
P- wo
On On
p~ cm oo On
CM ^h oo -h cm
OO
ON W>
t^ r> vOnono
NO
y*
WO
WO
ON
NO
CM
CO
ON ON O VO OO
NO WO T* ^^ OO
vOOÔO-h
(NtSÔO
wo
oo
wo
On
0O WO OO P- CO
CO -H oo wo CM
On On oo oo oo
ro "- co
1
PI
M
i
NO
WO
OO
CO
OO
<N
Tf
<*
CM
OO
ON
Tf
(S-HtnOO
CO
/***
.a
oa
Q
Q
Q
OO
w-j wo p~ -h On
OO P- CO P~ Pp^ co on rf On
r- p- no vo w->
X
V3
co oo
OO P~ WO CM
rfr OO <N no
-"
^h
CM
r~-
CO
CO
MMM M M
co
NO
-h
oo
On On oo oo oo
vo vo On
Tf
Tf
oo r wo
On On On
CO NO
-<t "O
On On oo
On On On
Tf co CM <
oo oo oo oo oo
rOO
On
On
ooooQ
p
On OO P- vo w-v
oo oo oo oo oo
00
rt co CM
^
CO CM i o
ON On Ov On On
On On 0O no wo
On On On On On
Tf co CM -h
wo wo wo wo wo
ON
ON OO P- NO W-i
wo wo wo wo wo
oo h- vo
On On On On on
CO
oo r> vo no
<3\
Tt CO CM ~h
NO NO NO VO VO
CS
<j\
CM
on oo p~ no wo
NO NO VO NO NO
p- wo
co
On wo no <*
on on oo p
On On On On
i^MrHinm
co
vo
oo
P-
On NO no ON
W1 CM NO Pw->
rt
P- P- NO NO
on no Tf Tt oo
NO CO OO i CM
WO
"^t ON CO
wo wo -^ CO CO
OONO'ih
CO CM O P- wo
pWO OO CM
MMhOO
wo
i-H
ts
wo
wo
On
On
On
no
wo
On
On
<
O p
O PTf ON NOM
p- On co
P~ wo
oo p~ no
On oo
CM
O
co O
^t CM
On On On
t- -<
On on oo oo oo
CM "- CO
P- -h
no
On wo
P- P- P- NO
OOO
i
ON
CM
vo
oO
MONrf
NO
WO
1-H
P~-
^h Tf
rjtJ- r-t
On oo no
p-HinoNm
(snhoo
CO
CO NO ^ P~
O
WO Tf CM Q POO CM NO O CO
M
M -h -h O
"<t OO CM NO WO
CM ON wo OO
p ^h vo
wo
wo wo -^CO
o g- oo no o
iiOMvOt
ON CO NO O 3
MM-hphO
VOM P-5 t
VO O
O
P- NO WO
oo
O
WO WO
r- oo
ON CO
Tf CO CO
co
vo On no
cm
CO
O
u
P~ -< P- co
ON no 0O P- CM
on on oo p- vo
On On On ON ON
OO
co
On
On On oo
ON NO
co
no co
oo oo
O
TT
co w->
On
Tf r-H NO P^
ON WO NO -i
P- P- P- vo NO
tj-
P>-*(3\M3
WO WO Tf
VO
<N
C
ro
CO
<
oo
On
On
On
pno
On
On
no
On
oo
On
vo
oo
P^
On
pco
vo
On
fTi
00
CM
on cm wo On tJO\c-O0\"n
On On On p- no
On On On On On
no CO r- o
q
pp- ~*
On oo no
On On On On
O On
5
Q
O
-i
*
S
4-
-i
tJ-
^^ TtMn
O
pP- wo on
<* cm on p~ co
on On oo oo oo
r Tf < co On
i
On P- CM co
ON On On oo oo
0O
P^
ON
P~
Tf
OO
WO
P-
ON P^ OO
WO
CM
~h t^ (N
P- vo NO
vo rf co co P-< cm
w-i rNO <N P~ CM
OO P- P- NO VO
Q
O
NO
CO WO P^
w-> vo "Jf
CM
no CM 00 co
oo P-r- novo
Q
O
^
P CM P- -h WO
WO WO Tt rt CO
P^ WO CM "i CO
(v)OvOO(S
OO CO P- CM NO
wo wo -^t ^t CO
MMM
< oo OO CO CO
ON ^ vo t
>n(SOc-T
On On On oo oo
W> O WO
Q
On O On ^t
P- CM 00
O
OO P P> NO
Tt
pCO
VO
OO
rOO
WO
. cm co <*
in wo wo wo wo
wo no P- oo On
rj-
WO NO P- OO ON
wo wo v> wo w->
wo vo p- oo on
MMMM
M
O
CO
wo vo r-~ oo on
p- p~ p~ p p-
O h
oo oo
OO
On ON OO no
On On On On
~
^M
P- NO
no r> "+
o\ vo n
m
On On oo oo oo
>o
OOOOO
CM co <*
CO CO CO CO
*-*
CM CO Tt
oo oo oo
On co p-
NO CM
O
CO CM ^
"* OO
O
CO CM <
i
ON CM
CM
i-H wo
-H WO
ON NO
-h wo
*
P- Tj- CO OO
On oo P- wo cm
"f OO CM NO
co CN t-h f-H
Q
Q
Q
O
WO VO P- OO ON
O
CM
*-h
CM co -^(N CM CM CM
WO
CM
^^ CM CO Tf
VO VO VO NO NO
wo vo p oo on
NO NO NO NO NO
O
p-
i-
CM CO ^t
p* p- p- r-
wo
r-
Wi NO P- 00 ON
CO CO CO CO CO
O
"*
WO VO P~ OO ON
O
wo
no P- oo on
OO OO OO 00 oo
<
O
on on
WO NO P- OO ON
ON ON ON ON ON
i-H
CM CO
w->
379
OO
wo
CO
WO
OO OO
1-h
i wo oo
i
OO CM vo
Tf Tj- CO
CM CO Tf
't -t Tf "*
*-i
CM CO <*
on on Ov
tt
TfTf
+ s
i
'
.a
CO
8.4.
TABLE
-75
-25
-25
76
74
26
24
000
063
125
187
004
008
016
023
031
012
023
035
047
039
046
053
060
067
058
069
080
090
100
106
120
133
073
080
086
091
096
110
119
128
136
144
146
159
170
182
192
- -75
75
75
25
25
76
77
78
79
74
26
27
28
29
24
80
81
82
83
84
*
8
'
73
72
71
70
69
68
67
66
23
22
125
187
012
21
249
016
30
20
19
32
33
34
18
309
368
426
482
536
019
31
35
36
37
38
39
15
17
16
85
86
87
88
89
65
64
63
62
90
60
59
40
10
41
58
57
56
42
43
44
09
08
07
06
95
96
97
98
99
55
54
53
52
51
45
46
47
48
49
1-00
50
50
61
000
063
14
13
12
11
008
023
027
030
034
588
637
684
729
770
037
040
043
046
048
77
73
27
23
78
72
28
29
22
21
80
70
30
20
249
016
79
71
031
047
062
077
092
8.4 Table of
31
82
68
32
83
67
33
84
66
34
85
65
35
86
64
36
19
18
17
16
15
14
309
368
426
482
536
588
637
019
039
058
077
023
046
069
092
027
053
080
030
060
090
034
067
037
073
040
080
106
120
100
133
110
146
119
159
095
114
135
132
158
149
177
166
197
158
177
197
181
205
228
205
232
258
228
258
287
283
307
330
315
271
291
391
114
132
149
166
81
69
182
197
216
250
283
315
234
375
406
436
464
490
271
307
341
250
225
238
216
234
252
268
283
310
328
351
361
413
346
375
402
429
453
345
360
373
386
396
390
407
422
436
448
434
452
470
485
498
476
496
515
532
547
515
538
558
576
592
458
467
473
478
481
510
519
526
532
535
559
570
577
583
587
606
617
626
632
636
536
588
637
182
197
211
341
367
91
92
93
94
05
04
03
02
809
844
876
905
930
051
101
151
201
250
298
053
106
110
113
116
158
164
170
261
271
311
174
210
218
225
232
365
367
405
413
418
423
425
055
057
059
280
287
322
333
342
951
060
119
178
237
061
121
181
241
062
01
969
982
992
998
062
123
124
125
184
186
187
245
247
249
294
300
304
307
308
00
1-00
063
125
187
249
309
368
426
482
00
01
50
49
02
48
03
47
53
97
04
46
05
45
55
95
06
44
07
43
08
42
56
94
57
93
92
062
350
357
361
+
+
+
50
51
1-00
99
52
98
380
54
96
58
09
10
11
41
59
91
40
60
90
39
61
89
Icosl 2rry
-T-l
89
(x,
fractional)
91
92
59
41
58
39
90
60
40
11
10
09
42
08
07
44
06
770
809
844
876
905
048
096
051
053
101
055
110
164
218
271
322
373
61
151
106
158
201
210
261
311
413
250
298
345
390
434
453
490
476
515
144
192
238
283
328
371
93
57
43
94
97
05
96
54
46
04
930
951
057
059
113
95
55
45
47
03
98
52
48
02
01
969
982
992
998
1-00
060
061
062
062
062
063
119
121
178
181
123
184
124
186
125
170
116
174
187
125
187
225
232
237
241
245
247
249
249
02
03
04
287
342
396
448
498
294
350
405
458
510
300
357
413
467
519
304
418
473
526
307
365
423
478
532
308
367
425
481
535
309
368
426
482
536
559
606
650
693
732
570
617
663
706
746
577
626
672
716
756
583
632
679
723
764
587
636
683
728
768
588
637
684
729
770
56
360
407
452
422
470
280
333
386
436
485
515
558
599
639
675
532
576
619
660
697
547
592
636
678
716
753
785
815
847
865
769
803
833
527
553
561
593
590
623
496
538
577
615
650
623
650
675
697
716
654
683
709
732
753
683
712
739
764
785
709
739
767
793
815
732
764
793
819
847
732
746
756
764
768
769
784
794
803
807
803
818
829
837
842
833
849
860
869
874
861
884
877
889
898
903
770
809
844
876
14
15
16
36
64
86
35
65
85
34
66
84
67
53
361
99
1-00
51
50
50
49
+
+
00
50
50
1-00
01
49
48
47
46
51
99
98
97
96
05
06
07
08
09
45
44
43
42
95
94
93
92
41
55
56
57
58
59
10
40
60
11
39
38
37
36
61
90
89
62
63
64
88
87
86
12
13
14
52
53
54
91
s*
B'
CO
861
784
818
849
877
884
901
901
913
923
928
904
922
934
943
949
922
939
952
967
934
952
964
974
980
905
930
951
969
982
992
17
18
19
21
33
32
68
82
31
22
28
72
78
23
27
73
77
83
69
81
20
30
70
80
961
29
71
79
794
829
860
889
913
803
837
869
898
923
807
842
874
903
928
809
844
876
905
930
15
943
961
974
984
990
949
967
980
990
996
381
18
35
34
33
32
19
31
951
20
969
982
992
998
21
22
23
24
30
29
28
27
26
72
73
74
80
79
78
77
76
998
100
25
25
75
75
24
26
74
76
25
25
75
75
16
17
-<
65
66
67
68
69
85
84
83
82
70
71
81
TABLE
sin 2-nhx
(h
odd)
8.5A
(x fractional. Decimal points omitted throughout)
Change
Sign as given.
3
11
13
15
17
19
500
499
498
497
496
000
006
013
019
025
000
019
038
057
075
000
000
044
088
000
057
000
069
000
082
000
094
000
000
500
107
119
501
237
005
006
007
008
009
495
494
493
492
031
094
113
132
150
156
187
491
038
044
050
057
010
490
489
488
487
486
063
069
075
082
088
015
016
017
018
019
485
484
483
482
094
020
480
479
478
477
476
125
132
138
144
475
474
473
472
156
163
169
175
471
181
470
469
468
467
466
187
000
001
002
003
004
011
012
013
014
021
022
023
024
025
026
027
028
029
030
031
032
033
034
035
036
037
038
039
481
465
464
463
462
461
100
107
113
119
150
194
200
206
212
218
224
230
237
243
169
187
206
224
243
261
279
297
315
333
351
368
386
403
420
437
454
471
487
504
520
536
552
567
583
598
031
sign.
h=\
x:
1000
999
998
997
996
138
163
187
224
206
273
243
321
279
368
212
315
414
460
502
503
504
218
261
303
345
386
279
333
386
437
487
339
403
465
525
583
397
454
536
613
685
750
509
598
680
754
820
562
657
742
816
879
505
506
507
508
509
995
994
993
992
309
339
368
397
426
426
465
504
536
583
628
729
782
809
831
873
905
671
578
712
910
969
876
923
959
983
997
930
967
990
1000
995
510
541
637
689
738
782
824
990
989
988
987
986
454
482
509
536
562
613
647
680
712
742
750
786
820
861
941
965
983
995
1000
988
998
1000
992
976
1000
990
970
939
897
976
943
897
838
767
515
516
517
518
519
985
984
983
982
879
894
923
947
967
588
613
637
661
685
771
905
927
947
964
977
982
993
999
1000
996
998
990
975
953
925
951
844
782
712
633
546
685
593
493
386
273
520
980
979
978
977
976
910
927
943
957
988
995
999
1000
998
988
975
957
934
907
891
851
805
707
637
562
482
397
454
356
255
038
044
-082
-200
-315
969
979
987
993
997
992
983
972
957
939
876
637
572
504
431
356
309
218
-063
-063
-169
-273
-374
-471
1000
1000
998
995
990
918
894
867
838
805
661
-156
-249
-339
-426
-509
-562
-647
-725
-794
-854
063
094
125
218
249
279
707
729
750
771
790
809
827
844
861
876
891
613
628
642
657
905
918
930
671
941
132
175
798
824
848
870
891
113
169
851
841
802
758
712
608
552
493
431
382
471
541
608
671
754
698
279
200
119
038
-044
861
941
918
876
827
771
125
031
150
351
511
512
513
514
521
522
523
524
991
981
525
526
527
528
529
975
974
973
972
-426
-531
-628
-716
-794
530
970
969
968
967
966
-861
-915
-957
-985
-998
535
536
537
538
539
156
531
532
533
534
971
965
964
963
962
961
COS 2irhx
rrhx;
TABLE
sin lirhx
(h
odd)
8.5A
Sign as given.
X
000
001
002
003
004
500
499
498
497
496
005
006
007
008
009
495
494
493
492
010
Change
/*=21
23
25
27
29
31
33
35
37
39
000
000
000
000
000
000
132
261
144
156
181
194
356
520
666
380
552
703
000
218
426
613
000
230
448
642
802
501
309
454
000
206
403
000
243
285
420
546
169
333
471
671
831
502
503
504
661
707
809
750
927
977
999
827
920
979
1000
983
918
985
998
959
867
941
995
891
951
790
888
957
994
998
990
925
805
505
506
507
508
509
969
907
816
698
557
930
397
224
044
386
504
588
487
628
491
613
712
798
870
927
762
848
915
964
490
489
488
487
486
969
993
1000
990
962
992
1000
987
953
899
1000
988
951
809
992
957
894
805
694
015
016
017
018
019
485
484
483
482
918
858
782
694
593
827
738
633
514
386
707
588
454
309
562
414
255
088
156
020
480
479
478
477
476
482
362
237
249
000
107
011
012
013
014
988
891
851
841
720
572
403
218
025
583
738
771
861
891
947
993
996
957
969
1000
982
918
876
758
608
809
431
237
031
661
515
516
517
518
519
985
984
983
982
-998
-986
-920
-805
-647
-982
-907
-778
-603
-391
520
980
979
978
977
976
-454
-237
-006
-156
525
526
527
528
529
-025
-685
-813
-910
-973
-999
-844
-937
-989
-998
-965
-951
-996
-038
-181
-321
-482
-633
-762
-867
-943
-454
-578
-689
-786
-867
-707
-809
-891
-951
-988
-891 -988
-955 -1000
-991 -979
-999 -925
-979 -841
-988
-939
-854
-738
-593
-891
-778
-633
-707
-536
-339
-125
471
-156
-285
-409
-525
-633
032
033
034
470
469
468
467
466
-729
-813
-882
-937
-975
-930 -1000
-973 -988
-996 -951
-998 -891
-980 -809
-930
-854
-754
-633
-493
-729
-593
-437
-267
-088
-426
-243
-050
035
036
037
038
039
465
464
463
462
461
-996
-999
-986
-955
-907
-941
-882
-339
-175
-006
094
273
443
163
598
733
509
666
798
899
967
030
031
-805
-712
-603
-707
-588
-454
-309
-156
327
144
333
383
-460
-267
-063
144
345
531
694
827
925
983
1000
973
512
513
514
-509
-703
-854
-955
-998
-249
-409
-557
-689
-802
475
474
473
472
200
990
989
988
987
986
-339
-546
-725
-864
-957
-156
-309
-454
-588
025
026
027
028
029
511
991
-156
-368
-562
-729
-861
-082
107
510
995
994
993
992
-113
-169
-356
-531
022
023
024
637
431
1000
999
998
997
996
-044
-285
-138
-315
021
500
482
279
063
-175
-374
-557
-716
481
729
552
345
sign.
-992
-941
-844
119
094
224
443
088
327
546
733
309
509
685
827
930
637
798
915
983
999
876
967
1000
973
888
988
998
960
876
750
960
870
733
557
750
567
351
113
351
-132
521
522
523
524
530
531
532
533
534
535
536
537
538
539
981
975
974
973
972
971
970
969
968
967
966
965
964
963
962
961
TABLE
sin 2-rrhx
Sign as given.
X
(h
odd)
8.5A {continued)
Change
h=l
11
460
459
458
457
456
249
255
685
698
712
725
738
951
982
973
962
949
934
771
960
969
976
982
368
303
045
046
047
048
049
455
454
453
452
279
285
297
303
750
762
775
786
798
988
992
996
998
1000
918
899
879
858
834
562
514
465
414
362
050
450
449
448
447
446
309
315
809
820
321
327
333
831
841
1000
1000
998
996
992
809
782
754
725
694
309
255
200
339
345
351
356
362
861
988
982
976
969
960
661
628
593
557
951
941
482
443
403
362
040
041
042
043
044
051
052
053
054
451
261
267
273
291
055
056
057
058
059
445
444
443
442
060
440
439
438
437
436
368
374
380
386
435
434
433
432
397
403
409
414
420
061
062
063
064
065
066
067
068
069
070
441
431
391
072
073
074
430
429
428
427
426
075
076
077
078
079
425
424
423
422
421
454
460
465
080
420
419
418
417
416
071
081
082
083
084
426
431
437
443
448
851
870
879
888
897
905
913
920
927
934
930
918
905
941
891
947
953
959
964
876
588
562
536
509
482
-930
-960
-982
-996
-996
-980
-953
-915
-867
-790
-712
-623
-525
-420
545
546
547
548
549
955
954
953
952
-309
-374
-437
-498
-557
-809 -1000
-854 -996
-894 -982
-927 -960
-955 -930
-809
-742
-666
-583
-493
-309
-194
-075
550
950
949
948
947
946
-397
-297
-194
-088
279
-891
-025
-082
-138
-194
-613 -976
-666 -990
-716 -998
-762 -1000
-805 -994
-844
-790
-729
-661
-249
-303
-356
-409
-460
-844
-879
-910
-937
-959
-982
-964
-939
-907
-870
-588
-509
-426
-339
-249
-509 -976
-557 -989
-603 -997
-647 -1000
-689 -998
-827
-778
-725
-666
-603
-156
-063
-729
-767
-802
-834
-864
-992
-981
-965
-945
-920
-536
-465
-391
-315
-237
-891
-915
-937
-955
-891
-858
-891
044
163
551
552
553
554
951
562
563
564
565
566
567
568
569
935
934
933
932
885
996
1000
990
965
927
309
397
482
562
637
930
964
987
998
999
876
813
738
652
557
570
930
929
928
927
926
-156
-075
707
006
088
827
876
918
454
345
230
575
576
577
578
579
925
924
923
922
-970
-820
-778
-733
988
965
932
888
834
-368 -982
-409 -991
-448 -997
-487 -1000
-525 -999
-685
-633
-578
-520
-460
249
327
403
476
546
580
920
919
918
917
916
321
279
237
-025
-069
-113
998
999
1000
1000
1000
-509
-578
-642
-703
-758
031
960
959
958
957
956
899
945
977
771
482
487
493
498
504
-038
-107
-175
-243
169
100
541
940
939
938
937
936
750
729
661
542
543
544
237
540
560
981
637
613
-998
-983
-955
-913
-858
561
063
019
476
471
-588 -905
-661
-945
-729 -975
-790 -993
-844 -1000
771
841
520
809
790
707
685
sign.
498
598
689
969
973
977
988
990
993
995
997
19
945
944
943
942
194
150
107
985
17
555
556
557
558
559
844
827
861
088
15
-125
^206
-285
-362
-437
733
694
652
608
144
13
-156
-200
-243
-285
-327
031
384
169
031
125
218
771
951
976
992
1000
998
019
125
230
333
431
525
613
694
767
831
771
698
618
531
437
391
113
-006
-125
-243
-356
-465
-567
571
572
573
574
581
582
583
584
941
931
921
TABLE
sin Infix
(h
odd)
8.5A {continued)
Change
Sign as given.
h=2l
23
25
27
29
31
33
000
482
623
746
848
925
844
927
980
1000
987
998
905
798
657
487
297
941
613
448
267
075
309
132
460
459
458
457
456
-844
-767
-675
-572
-460
-482
-351
-212
-069
045
046
047
048
049
455
454
453
452
-339
-212
-082
707
809
451
181
218
356
487
608
716
988
976
999
993
959
897
050
450
449
448
447
446
309
431
546
652
746
809
885
943
981
999
1000
988
951
891
809
809
698
567
420
261
055
056
057
058
059
445
444
443
442
827
894
945
980
998
996
972
927
864
782
707
588
454
309
094
060
061
062
063
064
440
439
438
437
436
998
947
897
685
572
448
315
831
175
065
066
067
068
069
435
434
433
432
431
750
657
552
437
315
-113
-255
-391
-520
070
430
429
428
427
426
187
040
041
042
043
044
051
052
053
054
071
072
073
074
441
057
-075
-206
-333
031
-1000
545
546
547
548
549
955
954
953
952
950
949
948
947
946
960
959
958
957
956
-861
-955
-998
-987
-923
-809
-652
-460
-243
-013
-309
-069
550
-050
-230
-403
-309 -809 -1000

-487 -913 -976
-647 -977 -905
-782 -1000 -790
-888 -980 -637
175
409
618
552
553
554
-075
-243
-403
-552
-562
-703
-820
-910
-970
-960
-996
-994
-955
-879
-918
-816
-680
-514
-327
-454
-249
-031
218
437
633
794
913
790
915
986
997
949
555
556
557
558
559
945
944
943
942
-685
-798
-888
-953
-990
-998
-993
-955
-885
-786
-771
-633
-471
-291
-125
588
-100
750
876
960
998
982
999
962
873
738
844
689
493
267
025
560
082
285
476
647
940
939
938
937
936
-707 -1000
-809 -980
-932
-891
-858
-951
-988 -758
-661
094
285
465
628
767
790
899
970
999
986
988
930
827
685
509
562
356
-100
-327
-218
-448
-652
-816
-932
565
566
567
568
569
935
934
933
932
-637
-498
-345
-181
-013
187
362
525
671
930
834
703
309
094
-125
-339
-536
-536
-716
-858
-953
-997
-992
-993
-934
-820
-657
570
794
876
953
994
997
962
572
573
574
930
929
928
927
926
891
891
156
959
994
997
967
786
652
493
315
-050
-255
-448
-623
-707
-844
-941
-992
-996
-988
-925
-813
-657
-465
-454
-224
487
575
576
577
578
579
925
924
923
922
921
125
-771
-885
-962
-998
-951
-861
-729
-562
-368
-249
-019
685
580
841
581
212
947
997
987
582
583
584
920
919
918
917
916
891
951
156
000
-156
-309
-454
-588
-637 -1000
-742 -988
-831
-951
-902 -891
-955 -809
420
419
418
417
416
-905
-953
-985
-999
-996
-844
-758
-657
-541
-414
000
156
309
454
588
156
321
476
618
742
844
923
975
998
994
864
758
628
476
-514
-351
-175
006
905
813
694
552
391
991
947
867
754
-119
-069
-261
-443
-608
385
cc
540
-454
-637
-790
-905
-976
421
080
-368
-583
-762
-897
-977
125
-031
-249
309
454
588
-707
-588
-454
-309
-156
425
424
423
422
082
083
084
981
588
397
187
sign.
39
37
-107
-333
-541
-720
156
-454 -988
-567 -1000
-991
-671
-762 -962
-913
-841
075
076
077
078
079
081
050
075
35
094
-113
-315
-504
-671
541
356
-990
187
397
132
431
628
-962
-867
-720
-531
019
261
541
542
543
544
551
561
562
563
564
571
951
941
931
TABLE
sin Infix
(h
odd)
8.5A {continued)
Sign as given.
Change
h=\
085
086
087
088
089
415
414
413
412
509
514
520
525
411
531
090
410
409
408
407
406
091
092
093
094
11
13
15
17
19
339
237
-661
-746
132
-820
-882
-932
1000
999
998
996
994
454
426
397
368
339
-562
-598
-633
-666
-698
-996
-989
-979
-965
-949
-397
-333
-267
-200
-132
613
675
733
786
834
988
969
941
905
025
861
-082
309
279
249
218
-729
-758
-786
-813
-838
-930
-907
-882
-854
-824
-063
546
552
557
992
990
987
983
980
876
913
943
967
985
809
750
685
613
536
-187 -969
-291
-991
-391 -1000
-487 -994
-578 -975
592
593
594
976
972
967
962
957
156
125
-861
-882
-902
-920
-937
-790
-754
-716
-675
-633
279
345
409
454
471
531
996
1000
998
989
973
-661
-738
-805
-864
-913
-941
-894
-834
-762
-680
595
596
597
598
599
536
541
187
006
075
144
212
585
586
587
588
589
590
591
095
096
097
098
099
405
404
403
402
401
562
567
572
578
583
100
588
593
598
603
608
951
000
-951
945
939
932
925
-031
-063
103
104
400
399
398
397
396
-964
-975
-983
-990
-588
-541
-493
-443
-391
588
642
694
742
786
951
923
888
848
802
-951
000
-094 -979
-187 -995
-279 -1000
-368 -994
-588
-487
-380
-267
-150
105
106
107
108
395
394
393
392
391
918
910
902
894
885
-156 -996
-187 -999
-218 -1000
-249 -999
-279 -997
-339
-285
-230
-175
-119
827
864
897
925
949
750
694
633
567
498
-454
-536
-613
-685
-750
-976
-947
-907
-858
-798
-031
109
613
618
623
628
633
110
390
389
388
387
386
637
642
647
652
657
876
867
858
848
838
-309
-339
-368
-397
-426
-992
-986
-977
-967
-955
-063
-006
969
983
994
999
1000
426
-809
-861
-905
-941
-969
-729
-652
-567
-476
-380
536
633
720
798
864
612
613
614
385
384
383
382
661
-454
-482
-509
-536
-562
-941
-925
-907
-888
-867
218
273
327
380
996
987
973
955
932
-988
031
-050 -998
-132 -1000
-212 -992
-291
-976
-279
-175
-069
918
959
986
999
998
615
616
617
618
619
771
-368
-443
-514
-583
-647
-951
-918
-876
-827
-771
249
982
953
910
854
786
620
622
623
624
-707
-762
-813
-858
-897
-707
-637
-562
-482
-397
707
778
707
618
520
414
303
625
626
627
628
629
101
102
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
094
063
031
-094
-125
050
107
163
381
675
680
827
816
805
794
782
380
379
378
377
376
685
689
694
698
703
-588
-613
-637
-661
-685
-844
-820
-794
-767
-738
482
758
746
733
720
578
623
666
905
873
838
798
754
375
374
373
372
707
712
716
720
725
707
694
680
666
652
-707
-729
-750
-771
-790
-707
-675
-642
-608
-572
707
746
782
816
848
707
657
603
546
487
371
666
671
431
531
386
351
273
194
113
368
279
187
094
038
144
351
448
541
628
841
894
937
088
206
321
431
sign.
600
601
602
603
604
605
606
607
608
609
610
611
621
915
914
913
912
911
910
909
908
907
906
905
904
903
902
901
900
899
898
897
896
895
894
893
892
891
890
889
888
887
886
885
884
883
882
881
880
879
878
877
876
875
874
873
872
871
TABLE
sin 2-nhx
(h
odd)
8.5A {continued)
Sign as given.
/i=21
23
25
27
29
-187
809
918
982
1000
969
876
742
567
362
-397 -1000
-546 -977
-680 -923
-794 -838
-885 -725
-339
-150
750
870
953
995
994
891
771
613
-588
-431
-261
-082
951
000
100
588
733
851
937
987
867
746
593
414
-218
-426
-613
-771
279
448
603
738
848
1000
975
913
816
689
218
013
-891
930
536
362
218
038
006
891
951
813
703
572
090
410
409
408
407
406
-637
-531
-414
-291
-163
426
552
666
767
426
267
100
095
096
097
098
099
405
404
403
402
-031
401
230
356
476
918
965
993
1000
986
100
588
689
778
854
915
951
897
102
103
104
400
399
398
397
396
105
106
107
108
109
395
394
393
392
391
960
989
1000
994
970
509
380
243
100
110
111
390
389
112
113
114
388
387
386
930
873
802
716
618
-187 -1000
-327 -988
-460 -951
-583 -891
-694 -809
115
116
117
118
119
385
384
383
382
381
509
006
-707
-588
-454
-309
-156
613
738
267
-790
-870
-932
-975
-997
120
-125
-255
-380
-498
-608
-998
-979
-939
-879
-802
000
122
123
124
380
379
378
377
376
125
126
127
128
129
375
374
373
372
371
-707
-794
-867
-925
-967
-707
-598
-476
-345
-206
101
121
100
391
138
824
733
628
-044
707
588
454
309
156
-069
-237
-951
000
-156 -990
-309 -1000
-454 -981
-588 -934
-707
-809
-891
-951
-988
-861
-762
-642
-504
-351
044
237
420
019
224
420
598
063
279
482
661
426
218
-969
-194 -1000
-982
-391
-572 -918
986
939
-019
-212
-729
-854
-943
-991
-997
861
-397
-567
-716
-838
-927
-960
-882
-767
-618
-443
156
368
562
729
-982
125
-057 -1000
-237 -980
-409 -923
-567 -831
-249
-044
951
309
454
588
998
994
962
902
816
362
546
941
707
809
707
578
891
951
988
431
273
107
-707
-824
-913
-972
-998
-707
-557
-386
-200
-006
707
838
932
987
999
707
536
339
156
918
794
623
414
-969
-902
-802
-671
-514
960
899
851
790
910
-637
-767
-870
-945
-989
707
809
092
093
094
39
-144
-321
-487
-279
-138
1000
988
951
891
809
37
-156
-976
-939
-885
-816
-733
091
35
-941
-851
-725
-567
-386
415
414
413
412
411
988
33
-750
-864
-945
-990
-998
085
086
087
088
089
150
291
31
-187
-019
150
315
471
981
1000
841
754
623
920
973
471
303
175
387
163
Change sign.
X
585
586
587
588
589
915
914
913
912
590
138
-063
-303
-525
-716
-864
592
593
594
910
909
908
907
906
-094
-321
-531
-712
-854
-960
-999
-979
-899
-767
595
596
597
598
599
905
904
903
902
901
-951
-997
-989
-927
-816
-588
-374
-138
600
345
602
603
604
900
899
898
897
896
-661
-471
-255
-025
605
606
607
608
609
895
894
893
892
206
562
746
885
972
1000
890
889
888
887
886
981
999
964
181
107
591
601
911
891
-809
-661
-482
-279
-063
426
623
786
907
980
969
879
738
552
333
610
1000
965
879
746
572
094
-150
-386
-598
-775
615
616
617
618
619
885
884
883
882
-905
-981
-999
-957
-858
620
880
879
878
877
876
-707
-514
-291
-050
625
626
627
628
629
861
996
992
844
125
-094
368
144
-088
-315
-525
-707
-851
-949
-996
-990
194
611
612
613
614
621
622
623
624
881
875
874
873
872
871
TABLE
sin 2-nhx
(h
odd)
8.5A (continued)
Sign as given.
X
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
370
369
368
367
366
729
733
738
742
746
637
623
608
593
578
-809
-827
-844
-861
-876
365
364
363
362
562
546
531
-891
-905
-918
361
750
754
758
762
767
514
498
-930
-941
360
359
358
357
356
775
778
782
786
482
465
448
355
354
353
352
790
794
351
350
349
348
347
346
809
813
816
820
824
345
344
343
342
827
831
834
838
11
-536
-498
-460
-420
-380
876
902
925
945
962
426
362
297
230
-339
-297
-255
-212
-169
976
987
994
999
1000
-044
-113
-181
-981
-962
-937
-951
-960
-969
-976
-982
-125
-082
-038
998
993
985
973
959
-249
-315
-380
-443
-504
-905
-867
-824
-775
-720
-988
397
-992
380
-996
362
-998
345
327 -1000
094
941
138
181
920
897
870
841
-562
-618
-671
-720
-767
-661
-598
-531
-460
-386
809
775
738
698
657
-809
-848
-882
-913
-939
-309
-230
-150
-069
-960
-977
-990
-997
420 -1000
255
333
409
431
414
309 -1000
291 -1000
-998
273
224
267
309
-930
-957
-977
-991
-999
094 -1000
-994
025
15
-309
-218
-125
-031
063
156
249
339
426
509
588
661
729
790
844
17
187
630
631
-050
-169
-285
632
633
634
960
925
879
824
758
-397
-504
-603
-694
-775
635
636
637
638
639
685
603
514
420
-844
-902
-947
-979
-996
321
-100
-206
-989
-964
-925
-873
013
1000
996
982
960
930
-309
-409
-504
-593
-675
-809
-733
-647
-552
-448
094
891
175
844
790
729
-750
-816
-873
-920
-957
-339
-224
-107
-982
-997
426 -1000
-991
339
-972
249
249
362
471
572
666
662
663
664
750
824
885
934
970
665
666
667
668
669
835
834
833
832
992
1000
994
973
939
670
830
829
828
827
826
006
685
716
746
775
802
368
315
261
206
150
-998
-991
-980
-964
-943
482
552
618
680
738
-891
827
851
094
038
873
894
913
-019
-075
-132
-918
-888
-854
-816
-775
790
838
879
915
945
-031
-125
-218
-941
-899
-848
-786
-716
930
945
959
970
980
-187
-243
-297
-351
-403
-729
-680
-628
-572
-514
969
986
996
1000
997
-309
-397
-482
-562
-637
-637
-552
-460
-362
-261
031
013
331
864
867
870
873
-006
-025
-044
-876
-861
-844
-827
330
329
328
327
326
876
879
882
885
888
-063
-082
-100
-119
-138
-809
-790
-771
-750
-729
388
860
859
858
857
856
113
-951
-941
-930
-918
-905
088
069
050
861
218 -1000
613
567
520
471
851
642
643
644
865
864
863
862
891
509
546
583
618
652
125
107
640
641
870
869
868
867
866
930
960
982
996
-988
-982
-976
-969
-960
844
848
sign.
069
218
200
181
19
969
990
999
998
985
-996
-992
340
339
338
337
336
170
006
050
163
13
255
237
841
861
351
391
431
471
341
854
858
163
144
335
334
333
332
172
173
174
771
798
802
805
165
166
167
168
169
171
Change
h=\
661
588
509
156
063
013
132
645
646
647
648
649
855
854
853
852
650
850
849
848
847
846
651
652
653
654
851
655
656
657
658
659
845
844
843
842
660
840
839
838
837
836
661
671
672
673
674
841
831
TABLE
sin 2-rrhx
(h odd)
(jc
8.5A {continued)
fractional.
Decimal points omitted throughout)
Change
Sign as given.
h=21
23
-992
-1000
-990
-964
-920
-063
132
133
134
370
369
368
367
366
135
136
137
138
139
365
364
363
362
361
-861
-786
-698
-598
-487
613
720
813
888
945
140
360
359
358
357
356
-368
-243
-113
019
150
982
999
995
970
925
778
680
567
443
130
131
141
142
143
144
145
25
27
249
006
640
-237
-465
-666
642
643
644
860
859
858
857
856
-976
-910
-805
-666
-498
454
637
790
905
976
645
646
647
648
649
855
854
853
852
-082
-827
-939
-994
-990
-927
1000
976
905
790
637
-309
-520
-703
-848
-947
-809
-642
-437
-206
650
850
849
848
847
846
454
249
-996
-990
-932
-824
-671
279
504
698
031
-941
-858
-742
-598
-431
661
-397
-525
-642
-746
-834
-707
-588
-454
-309
-156
918
972
998
995
964
160
340
339
338
337
336
771
-905
000
680 -957
-989
578
465 -1000
-990
345
156
905
820
712
583
437
172
173
174
905
979
1000
967
882
-150
-327
-493
-642
1000
987
957
910
848
-426
-541
-647
-742
-824
-588
-397
-187
-309
-107
345
344
343
342
341
330
329
328
327
326
-685
844
-820
725
-920
578
-981
409
224 -1000
-809
-907
-972
-999
-989
155
156
157
158
159
171
865
864
863
862
809
689
546
386
212
-119
-261
170
635
636
637
638
639
309
465
608
733
838
153
154
331
996
943
834
675
476
309 -1000
-988
-951
-891
-809
-044
-175
-303
-031
144
809
879
934
973
995
218
088
-988
-998
-960
-876
-750
-163
-351
-525
-680
350
349
348
347
346
335
334
333
332
279
075
960
995
997
965
902
150
165
166
167
168
169
630
-509
-356
-194
-025
351
162
163
164
426
633
802
923
989
-707
-809
-891
-951
-988
148
161
-930
-820
-666
-476
-261
368
149
152
-309
-509
-685
-827
-930
-982
-937
-864
-767
-647
000
-156
-309
-454
-588
279
403
520
628
725
151
969
897
786
642
471
-509
-345
-169
861
169
025
309
454
588
-960
-910
-841
-754
-652
707
809
279
891
951
988
-057
-224
-386
-536
-409
-273
-132
1000
988
951
891
809
-536
-671
-786
-879
-947
013
113
013
194
374
546
698
824
918
977
1000
985
932
531
675
798
894
031
-132
-333
-520
100
303
493
-482
-267
-038
-988
-930
-827
-685
-509
613
778
902
977
1000
-990
-999
327
504
661
339
794
897
138
-426
-255
-075
107
285
389
750
578
374
150
-588
-750
-876
-960
-998
982
923
824
689
525
998
-069
-273
-465
992
949
870
758
618
-637
-782
-894
-967
-999
965
249
-187
-397
-249
-057
138
031
200
420
618
782
802
907
975
1000
-771
-873
-947
-976
-920
-834
-720
-583
sign.
39
187
-790
-882
-949
-989
156 -1000
707
588
454
309
37
33
-992
-953
-882
-782
-657
1000
988
951
891
809
35
31
-063
-230
-391
-541
-675
082
224
362
493
355
354
353
352
146
147
29
031
-309
-094
125
339
536
194
414
038
851
953
998
983
910
782
608
397
163
-082
-321
-541
-729
969
-873
885
-965
754
583 -1000
380 -975
631
632
633
634
641
651
652
653
654
870
869
868
867
866
861
851
655
656
657
658
659
845
844
843
842
660
840
839
838
837
836
661
662
663
664
841
665
666
667
668
669
835
834
833
832
670
830
829
828
827
826
671
672
673
674
831
TABLE
sin 2-nhx
(h odd)
8.5A {continued)
Sign as given.
Change
h=l
11
13
15
17
19
-156
-175
-194
-212
-230
-707
-685
-661
-637
-613
988
994
998
1000
1000
-454
-504
-552
-598
-642
-454
-391
-327
-261
-194
988
972
949
920
885
-707
-771
-827
-876
-918
-156
-050
891
831
057
321
894
897
899
902
758
675
583
320
319
318
317
316
905
907
910
913
915
-249
-267
-285
-303
-321
-588
-562
-536
-509
-482
998
994
989
981
972
-685
-725
-762
-798
-831
-125
-057
-951
844
-976
798
-992
746
689 -1000
-998
628
368
465
557
642
720
315
314
313
312
-339
-356
-374
-391
-409
-454
-426
-397
-368
-339
960
947
932
915
897
-861
-888
-913
-934
-953
218
285
414
476
562
493
420
345
267
-988
-969
-941
-905
-861
790
311
918
920
923
925
927
310
309
308
307
306
930
932
934
937
939
-426
-443
-460
-476
-493
-309
-279
-249
-218
-187
-969
-981
-990
831
-997
805
778 -1000
536
593
647
698
746
187
107
195
196
197
198
199
305
304
303
302
941
-509
-525
-541
-557
-572
-156
-125
-094
-063
-031
750 -1000
-996
720
-990
689
-980
657
-967
623
790
200
300
299
298
297
296
951
953
955
000
951
957
959
-588
-603
-618
-633
-647
205
206
207
208
209
295
294
293
292
291
960
962
964
965
967
-661
-675
-689
-703
-716
218
249
279
210
290
289
288
287
286
969
970
972
973
975
-729
-742
-754
-767
-778
309
339
368
397
426
285
284
283
282
976
977
979
980
281
981
-790
-802
-813
-824
-834
454
482
509
536
562
175
176
177
178
179
325
324
323
322
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
201
202
203
204
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
301
891
943
945
947
949
876
854
675
676
677
678
679
825
824
823
822
482
374
680
261
144
025
682
683
684
820
819
818
817
816
902
943
973
-094
-212
-327
-437
-541
685
686
687
688
689
815
814
813
812
811
992
1000
996
981
955
-637
-725
-802
-867
-920
690
-057
-138
-809
-750
-685
-613
-536
692
693
694
810
809
808
807
806
-218
-297
-374
-448
-520
-454
-368
-279
-187
-094
918
870
813
746
-960
-987
-999
-997
-981
695
696
697
698
699
805
804
803
802
-588
-652
-712
-767
-816
000
094
-951
-907
-851
701
279
368
588
498
403
303
200
700
970
985
994
999
-782
-703
702
703
704
800
799
798
797
796
094
-013
-119
-224
-327
-613
-514
-409
-297
-181
705
706
707
708
709
795
794
793
792
-063
710
057
175
711
291
403
712
713
714
790
789
788
787
786
509
608
698
778
848
715
716
717
718
719
013
082
150
351
831
867
899
927
025
163
267
851
671
094
588
552
514
476
125
437
-951
-932
-910
-885
-858
156
187
397
356
315
273
230
-827
-794
-758
-720
-680
1000
995
986
972
953
-861
-899
-932
-959
-979
454
536
613
685
750
187
144
100
930
902
870
834
794
-992
-999
-999
-993
-980
809
905
057
013
-637
-593
-546
-498
-448
969
-426
-520
-608
-689
-762
-031
-075
-119
-163
-206
-397
-345
-291
-237
-181
750
703
652
598
-960
-934
-902
-864
-820
988
998
1000
992
976
-827
-882
-927
-962
-986
031
063
sign.
541
390
187
861
941
681
691
821
801
791
785
784
783
782
781
TABLE
sin 2-nhx
(h odd)
8.5A (continued)
Change
Sign as given.
h=2l
23
29
31
-988
707
588 -1000
-983
454
-939
309
454
608
742
454
273
082
851
156
-867
932
-113
-303
-771
-652
-514
982
1000
985
937
858
460
750
618
465
297
25
27
156
-891
-754
-572
-356
-119
-482
-642
-778
-885
-959
-368
-169
038
243
437
951
861
729
562
368
-844
-945
-995
-991
-934
-996
-995
-957
-882
-775
613
762
879
959
997
156
-063
-279
-482
-661
-063
-243
-414
-572
-712
-637
-476
-297
-107
-809
992
-918
945
-982
858
733 -1000
-969
578
409
608
775
899
-169
-403
996
965
907
824
716
-827
-915
-973
-999
-991
279
460
623
762
873
-891
-771
-613
-426
-218
976
1000
970
888
758
588
443
285
119
-951
-879
-778
-652
-504
993
997
964
894
000
218
426
588
386
613
771
-069
-297
891
969
1000
982
918
321
180
320
319
318
317
316
-982
-949
-899
-834
-754
771
000
854
920
967
994
-156
-309
-454
-588
185
186
187
188
189
315
314
313
312
-661
-557
-443
-321
-194
1000
985
949
894
820
-707
-809
-891
-951
-988
-031
603
119
190
310
309
308
307
306
-063
729 -1000
-988
623
-951
504
-891
374
-809
237
729
834
915
970
997
195
196
197
198
199
305
304
303
302
562
666
758
838
902
-707
-588
-454
-309
-156
200
300
299
298
297
296
951
983
-588
-698
-794
-873
-934
000
205
206
207
208
209
295
294
293
292
941
888
-976
-997
-998
-977
-937
707
809
210
290
289
288
287
286
536
420
297
285
284
283
282
-094
-224
-351
-471
-583
181
182
183
184
191
192
193
194
201
202
203
204
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
311
301
291
281
069
200
327
448
999
997
977
820
738
642
169
038
094
-050
-194
-333
-465
-876
-798
-703
-593
-471
-339
-200
-057
156
309
454
588
-362
-200
138
303
-050
088
951
397
200
-006
-212
-409
-588
-742
-864
-949
-994
-996
-955
-873
-754
-603
675
676
677
678
679
825
824
823
822
125
362
578
758
894
680
820
819
818
817
816
-827
-675
-487
-273
-044
976
1000
685
686
687
688
689
815
814
813
812
187
536
315
075
690
692
693
694
810
809
808
807
806
-613
-786
-913
-985
-998
695
696
697
698
699
805
804
803
802
801
-951
-848
-694
-498
-273
700
800
799
798
797
796
-509
-694
-841
-943
-994
-0j1
813
705
706
707
708
709
809
661
-992
-937
930
710
991
711
-831
-680
-493
994
937
824
712
713
714
661
715
716
717
718
719
-218
-380
-531
-666
-782
-339
-163
-876
1000
-945
988
-987
951
891 -1000
-985
809
536
680
802
897
962
-063
-255
-437
-603
-746
-426
-230
-025
380
482
279
063
-941
-870
-775
-657
-520
996
996
964
899
805
-861
-943
-990
-999
562
720
848
939
990
-156
-368
-562
-729
-861
891
951
988
088
707
588
454
309
230
156
790
657
498
019
200
374
321
132
-970
391
181
sign.
39
-075
-303
-514
-698
-891
-943
-979
-997
-998
431
557
671
37
707
844
941
992
996
325
324
323
322
156
35
-988
-934
-841
-712
-552
175
176
177
178
179
297
33
163
-279
-050
964
870
725
212
443
647
181
460
230
403
603
-013
-255
681
682
683
684
691
701
702
703
704
821
811
795
794
793
792
791
790
789
788
787
786
785
784
783
782
781
TABLE
sin Infix
(h
odd)
8.5A (continued)
Sign as given.
Change
h=\
280
279
278
277
276
982
983
985
986
987
-844
-854
-864
-873
-882
588
613
637
661
685
225
226
227
228
229
275
274
273
272
-891
-899
-907
-915
-923
707
729
750
271
988
989
990
990
991
230
270
269
268
267
266
992
993
994
994
995
-930
-937
-943
-949
-955
809
827
844
265
264
263
262
261
996
996
997
997
998
-960
-965
-970
-975
-979
260
259
258
257
256
998
998
999
999
999
-982
-986
-989
-991
-994
220
221
222
223
224
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
255
254
253
252
251
-996
1000
-997
1000
-998
1000
-999
1000
1000 -1000
250
250
1000 -1000
11
-249
-291
-333
-125
-069
-013
482
420
356
-374
-414
044
291
100
224
-454
-493
-531
-567
-603
13
707
637
562
482
397
-891
-838
-775
-703
-623
988
962
923
870
805
725
726
727
728
729
775
774
773
772
771
309
218
-536
-443
-345
-243
-138
729
642
546
443
333
730
770
769
768
767
766
218
100
735
736
737
738
739
765
764
763
762
740
760
759
758
757
756
321
374
-050
-119
-637
-671
-703
-733
-762
426
476
525
572
618
-187
-255
-321
-386
-448
-063
-790
-816
-841
-864
-885
661
703
960
969
976
982
988
992
996
998
1000
1000 -1000
891
905
918
930
941
951
722
723
724
780
779
778
777
776
-454
-380
-303
-224
-144
156
876
905
949
980
997
999
771
088
019
861
951
918
876
19
-998
-999
-989
-967
-934
156
790
17
-771
-716
-657
-593
-525
212
267
771
sign.
15
019
100
827
720
721
731
732
733
734
181
125
031
261
-063
339
414
487
557
-156
-249
-339
-426
-509
-031
742
778
813
-509
-567
-623
-675
-725
285
386
-019
-138
-255
-905
-923
-939
-953
-965
844
873
899
923
943
-771
-813
-851
-885
-915
685
742
794
-588
-661
-729
-790
-844
482
572
657
733
802
-368
-476
-578
-671
-754
742
743
744
-976
-985
-991
-996
-999
960
975
986
994
998
-941
-962
-979
-990
-998
918
947
970
987
997
861
-827
-888
-937
-972
-993
745
746
747
748
749
755
754
753
752
1000 -1000
750
750
1000 -1000
392
623
841
882
-891
-930
-960
-982
-996
1000 -1000
075
181
910
949
977
994
741
761
751
TABLE
sin Infix
(hodd)
8.5A (continued)
Change
Sign as given.
/j=21
23
280
279
278
277
276
-685
-775
-851
-913
-959
368
498
618
725
816
225
226
227
228
229
275
274
273
272
271
-988
-1000
-994
-972
-932
947
983
999
994
230
270
269
268
267
266
235
236
237
238
239
240
220
221
222
223
224
25
000
-156
-309
-454
-588
27
-368
-206
-038
132
297
29
685
541
380
206
025
31
33
998
964
888
775
628
-951
-996
771
897
-992
-941
-844
975
1000
972
-707
-536
-339
-125
891
454
-156
-333
-498
-647
-775
-156
454
598
725
831
913
038
230
414
583
261
-150
-351
-876
-805
-720
-623
-514
969 -1000
-988
923
-951
858
-891
775
-809
675
969
997
996
967
910
-876
-949
-990
-999
-975
729
848
934
986
1000
265
264
263
262
-397
-273
-144
-013
562
437
303
827
720
593
448
261
119
019
-707
-588
-454
-309
-156
260
259
258
257
256
249
374
493
603
703
-125
-267
-403
-531
-647
000
125
156
-044
-212
-374
-525
245
246
247
248
249
255
254
253
252
790
864
923
965
707
809
251
991
-750
-838
-907
-959
-990
250
250
231
232
233
234
241
242
243
244
163
1000 -1000
309
454
588
891
951
988
291
-661
-778
-873
-943
-986
1000 -1000
37
-905
-805
-675
-520
-345
-707
-809
-891
-951
-988
891
35
057
762
593
sign.
39
-482
-680
-838
-945
-996
720
722
723
724
780
779
778
777
776
-988
-920
-798
-628
-420
725
726
727
728
729
775
774
773
772
771
770
769
768
767
766
721
094
391
169
-536
-698
-831
-927
-985
309
509
685
827
930
-063
-291
-504
-689
-838
-187
730
057
297
520
712
731
-918
-831
-716
-578
-420
976 -1000
-972
915
820 -902
694 -794
-941
861
-652
-994
-993
-939
-834
959
999
980
902
735
736
737
738
739
765
764
763
762
541
988
998
960
876
750
-249
-069
368
588
397
740
119
321
-031
-249
144
741
742
743
460
-013
-206
-391
-685
-498
-285
-057
771
593
113
291
-482
-291
-088
175
-100
744
760
759
758
757
756
613
746
854
934
983
-562
-712
-834
-925
-981
509
675
813
915
979
-454
-637
-790
-905
-976
397
598
767
894
973
-339
-557
-742
-882
-970
745
746
747
748
749
755
754
753
752
1000 -1000
750
750
181
1000 -1000
393
187
1000 -1000
380
732
733
734
761
751
TABLE
sin l-nhx
(h even)
(x fractional.
8.5B
Sign as given.
Change
h=2
10
12
14
16
18
20
000
013
025
038
050
000
025
050
075
000
038
075
000
050
000
063
000
075
000
088
000
000
000
100
113
125
100
150
125
187
150
249
175
261
345
200
297
200
224
297
224
333
437
249
368
482
249
297
345
309
368
426
482
536
368
437
504
567
628
426
504
482
567
647
720
786
536
628
712
786
588
685
771
844
894
934
965
987
905
947
977
995
1000
951
905
771
000
500
001
501
002
003
004
502
503
504
005
006
007
008
009
505
506
507
508
509
063
075
088
125
150
175
224
100
113
200
224
297
333
437
010
510
011
511
012
013
014
512
513
514
125
138
150
163
175
249
273
297
368
403
437
471
504
482
525
567
608
647
588
637
685
729
685
738
786
771
870
824
870
910
943
015
016
017
018
019
515
516
517
518
519
187
200
212
224
237
368
391
685
720
754
786
816
809
844
876
905
905
934
959
977
990
969
987
997
1000
995
998
999
414
437
460
536
567
598
628
657
990
972
943
992
972
939
894
838
020
520
249
021
521
022
023
024
522
523
524
261
273
482
504
525
546
567
685
712
738
762
786
844
870
894
915
998
1000
996
987
972
982
962
934
899
858
905
858
802
738
666
694
608
514
414
025
026
027
028
029
525
526
527
528
529
588
608
628
647
666
809
951
831
851
951
925
809
754
694
628
557
588
504
870
888
965
977
987
994
030
530
031
531
368
380
032
033
034
532
533
534
403
414
685
703
720
738
754
905
920
934
947
959
998
1000
999
996
990
035
036
037
038
039
535
536
537
538
539
426
437
448
460
471
771
831
969
977
985
990
995
040
540
041
541
042
043
044
542
543
544
482
493
504
514
525
844
858
870
882
894
998
1000
1000
999
996
285
297
309
321
333
345
356
391
100
321
345
786
802
816
113
150
187
261
391
934
831
930
951
969
982
992
998
1000
998
992
982
969
894
858
816
951
771
930
905
876
844
720
666
608
546
982
972
959
943
925
809
771
482
414
345
273
200
905
882
858
588
536
482
426
368
831
802
729
685
637
125
050
-025
-100
-175
394
578
647
712
391
851
309
200
088
sign-
X
500
499
498
497
496
1000
999
998
997
996
495
494
493
492
995
994
993
992
491
991
490
489
488
487
486
990
989
988
987
986
771
485
484
483
482
685
481
985
984
983
982
981
588
482
368
249
480
479
478
477
476
980
979
978
977
976
475
474
473
472
471
975
974
973
972
971
771
844
905
951
982
998
998
982
844
125
000
-025
-138
-125
-249
-368
-482
-075
-175
-273
-249
-356
-460
-557
-647
-588
-685
-771
-844
-905
470
469
468
467
466
970
969
968
967
966
-025
-113
-200
-285
-368
-460
-546
-628
-703
-729
-802
-864
-915
-955
-951
-982
-998
-998
-982
465
464
463
462
965
964
963
962
461
961
-368
-448
-525
-590
-666
-771
-831
-882
-925
-959
-982
-997
-999
-989
-965
-951
-905
-844
-771
-685
460
459
960
959
958
957
956
482
403
321
237
150
063
414
321
224
125
025
458
457
456
TABLE
sin lirhx
(h even)
8.5B
Change
Sign as given.
sign.
A=22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
000
200
391
000
212
414
567
720
598
754
000
224
437
628
786
000
237
460
657
816
000
249
482
685
844
500
499
498
497
496
1000
999
998
997
996
809
905
969
998
992
844
934
987
999
972
876
959
997
990
939
905
977
1000
972
894
930
990
995
943
951
998
995
994
993
992
838
771
495
494
493
492
491
982
934
858
754
628
951
905
802
666
504
844
712
546
356
150
771
608
414
200
685
493
273
038
588
368
125
-025
-200
-125
-368
490
489
488
487
486
990
989
988
987
986
482
309
125
321
150
125
-075
-273
-460
-628
-063
-273
-471
-647
-794
-249
-460
-647
-802
-915
-426
-628
-794
-915
-985
-588
-771
-905
-982
-998
485
484
483
482
481
985
984
983
982
981
-905
-882 -975
-959 -1000
-996 -980
-994 -915
-982
-999
-965
-882
-754
-998
-955
-858
-712
-525
-951
480
479
478
477
476
980
979
978
977
976
-809
-666
-493
-297
-088
-588
-391
-175
-309
-075
475
474
473
472
975
974
973
972
598
000
249
482
685
844
471
971
482
666
816
925
987
771
899
951
998
150
345
525
125
333
525
694
831
977
1000
965
982
905
470
469
468
467
466
970
969
968
967
966
685
816
915
977
1000
930
987
999
965
888
998
959
870
738
567
876
738
557
345
588
368
125
965
964
963
962
113
-125
-368
465
464
463
462
461
961
982
925
771
618
368
150
831
437
237
025
-075
-297
-504
-125
-356
-567
-746
-882
-588
-771
-905
-982
-998
460
459
458
457
456
960
959
958
957
956
000
500
000
000
000
000
000
001
501
138
150
002
003
004
502
503
504
273
403
525
297
437
567
163
321
471
175
345
187
368
536
685
005
006
007
008
009
505
506
507
508
509
637
738
824
894
947
010
510
011
511
012
013
014
608
504
647
685
786
870
934
977
729
771
831
870
943
987
1000
512
513
514
982
999
996
975
934
998
996
972
925
858
998
975
925
015
016
017
018
019
515
516
517
518
519
876
802
712
608
493
771
637
504
356
200
038
-025
-200
-063
-249
-426
020
520
521
368
237
022
023
024
522
523
524
-038
-175
-025
-175
-321
-460
-125
-285
-437
-578
-703
-368
-525
-666
-786
-882
-588
-729
-844
-930
-982
-771
021
025
026
027
028
029
525
526
527
528
529
-309
-437
-557
-666
-762
-588 -809
-703 -894
-802 -955
-882 -990
-943 -1000
-951 -1000
-990 -982
-999 -930
-977 -844
-925 -729
-951
030
530
031
531
532
533
534
-982
-999
-994
-965
-915
-982
-939
-870
-778
-666
-844
-738
-608
-460
-297
-588
-426
-249
-063
-249
-050
032
033
034
-844
-910
-959
-989
-1000
035
036
037
038
039
535
536
537
538
539
-992
-965
-920
-858
-778
-844
-754
-647
-525
-391
-536
-391
-237
-075
-125
309
482
637
391
546
771
088
040
540
541
-249
-100
042
043
044
542
543
544
-685
-578
-460
-333
-200
249
403
546
675
786
685
802
894
959
994
951
041
100
666
546
414
273
125
050
200
345
910
965
995
851
754
050
224
876
771
637
482
321
-870
-754
-608
-437
125
876
992
998
969
905
703
546
395
050
273
163
391
982
905
-844
-685
-482
-249
771
991
TABLE
sin lirhx
(h even)
8.5B {continued)
Sign as given.
Change
sign.
h=2
10
12
771
738
309
249
703
666
628
187
125
-249
-321
-391
-460
-525
-729 -982
-780 -996
-838 -1000
-882 -994
-920 -977
-930
-882
-824
-754
-675
-588
-482
-368
-249
-125
455
454
453
452
955
954
953
952
451
951
-588
-647
-703
-754
-802
-951
-975
-990
-999
-999
-951
-915
-870
-816
-754
-588
-493
-391
-285
-175
000
-063
-125
-187
-249
450
449
448
447
446
950
949
948
947
946
-309
-368
-426
-482
-536
-844
-882
-915
-943
-965
-992
-977
-955
-925
-888
-685
-608
-525
-437
-345
-063
445
444
443
442
945
944
943
942
441
941
-982
-994
-999
-999
-994
-844
-794
-738
-675
-608
-249
-150
-050
951
150
482
578
666
746
816
440
439
438
437
436
940
939
938
937
936
771
435
434
433
432
935
934
933
932
685
431
931
588
482
368
249
430
429
428
427
426
930
929
928
927
926
-125
-249
-368
-482
425
424
423
422
421
925
924
923
922
420
419
418
417
416
920
919
918
917
916
415
414
413
412
411
915
914
913
912
045
046
047
048
049
545
546
547
548
549
536
546
557
567
578
905
915
925
934
943
992
987
980
972
962
050
550
951
551
052
053
054
552
553
554
588
598
608
618
628
951
051
959
965
972
977
939
925
910
894
055
056
057
058
059
555
556
557
558
559
637
647
657
666
675
982
987
990
994
996
876
858
838
816
794
998
999
1000
1000
999
771
125
746
720
694
666
075
025
-025
-075
-588
-637
-685
-729
-771
588
546
504
460
414
368
321
273
224
175
063
000
14
16
18
163
771
273
380
844
905
560
561
062
063
064
562
563
564
685
694
703
712
720
065
066
067
068
069
565
566
567
568
569
729
738
746
754
762
998
996
994
990
987
637
608
578
546
514
-125
-175
-224
-273
-321
-809
-844
-876
-905
-930
-982
-965
-943
-915
-882
-536
-460
-380
-297
-212
249
345
437
525
608
876
925
962
987
999
070
570
071
571
771
778
572
573
574
786
794
802
482
448
414
380
345
-368
-414
-460
-504
-546
-951
-969
-982
-992
-998
-844
-802
-754
-703
-647
-125
-038
072
073
074
982
977
972
965
959
224
685
754
816
870
915
998
985
959
920
870
075
076
077
078
079
575
576
577
578
579
809
816
824
951
943
934
925
915
309
273
237
-588 -1000
-628 -998
-666 -992
-703 -982
-738 -969
-588
-525
-460
-391
-321
309
951
391
471
977
994
1000
996
809
738
657
567
471
080
580
844
-951
081
581
851
082
083
084
582
583
584
858
864
870
-249
-175
-100
-025
685
746
802
050
085
086
087
088
089
585
586
587
588
589
876
882
888
894
899
125
831
838
905
894
882
870
858
844
831
816
802
786
200
163
-025
-771
-802
-831
-858
-882
-930
-905
-876
-844
-063
-100
-138
-175
-212
-905
-925
-943
-959
-972
-809
-771
-729
-685
-637
125
088
050
013
200
273
345
414
396
138
546
618
249
368
482
588
685
060
050
125
050
061
050
20
982
998
998982
951
905
844
125
000
851
982
959
925
882
038
894
831
-075
-588
-685
-771
-844
-905
930
959
980
994
1000
771
703
628
-187
-297
-403
-504
-598
-951
-982
-998
-998
-982
546
460
368
261
150
921
911
TABLE
sin lirhx
(h even)
8.5B (continued)
Change
Sign as given.
h=22
24
26
28
30
32
482
608
720
816
894
876
943
985
1000
989
998
972
915
809
685
536
368
187
368
175
951
951
888
802
588
437
273
694
567
100
045
046
047
048
049
545
546
547
548
549
-063
050
550
051
052
053
551
054
552
553
554
588
694
786
864
925
055
056
057
058
059
555
556
557
558
559
969
994
1000
987
955
905
060
560
061
561
062
063
064
562
563
564
905
838
754
657
546
368
224
075
065
066
067
068
069
565
566
567
568
569
070
570
071
571
072
073
074
075
076
077
078
079
075
212
345
471
987
1000
990
959
831
720
-025
-224
-414
-905
-965
-996
-996
-965
-951
-876
-771
-637
-482
-482
-297
-100
-075
-224
-368
-514
-647
-762
-858
-368
-504
-628
-738
-831
-930
-977
-999
-994
-962
-905
-816
-703
-567
-414
-309
-125
-905
-824
-720
-598
-460
-249
-075
572
573
574
-249 -905
-380 -959
-504 -990
-618 -1000
-720 -987
575
576
577
578
579
-809
-882
-939
-977
-997
-951
-894
-816
-309
-150
588
720
013
175
333
915
972
080
580
081
581
082
083
084
582
583
584
-998
-980
-943
-888
-816
-482
-345
-200
-050
482
618
738
838
915
998
994
959
894
802
085
086
087
088
089
585
586
587
588
589
-729
-628
-514
-391
-261
249
969
996
997
972
920
685
546
163
-113
-720
-608
100
391
525
647
754
-951
-995
-951
-858
-994
-947
-858
-720
-546
-345
-588
-380
-150
000
249
482
685
844
450
449
448
447
446
950
949
948
947
946
-125
951
445
444
443
442
441
945
944
943
942
941
-125
-368
440
439
438
437
436
940
939
938
937
936
-588
-771
-905
-982
-998
435
434
433
432
431
935
934
933
932
931
430
429
428
427
426
930
929
928
927
926
-729
-567
-380
-175
-050
-212
025
955
954
953
952
-998
-965
-894
-786
-647
738
628
504
426
297
455
454
453
452
451
-809
-905
-969
-998
-992
-249
-414
-567
-703
-816
100
273
437
831
391
224
050
sign.
40
-951
-844
-685
-482
-249
-075
426
273
38
-685 -969
-831 -1000
-934 -975
-990 -894
-996 -762
-588
-738
-858
-943
-990
000
36
-187
-391
-578
-738
-864
-187
-368
-536
-685
831
113
34
088
321
951
038
100
321
525
703
536
720
864
959
999
297
249
448
628
778
894
844
943
994
994
943
982
910
786
618
414
063
249
426
482
647
786
894
965
969
999
985
925
824
844
703
525
321
100
-050
-285
-504
-694
588
729
844
930
982
998
990
943
858
738
685
514
-125
-345
-546
-720
-858
-844
-947
-996
-989
-925
-951
1000
982
930
844
729
414
224
025
-951
-996
-990
-934
-809
-647
-448
-224
425
424
423
422
925
924
923
922
-831.
013
000
249
482
685
844
421
921
249
951
471
998
982
905
420
419
418
417
416
920
919
918
917
916
415
414
413
412
915
914
913
912
911
588
426
249
063
-125
100
588
-175
321
113
-100
-309
-504
-675
-816
-920
-368 -982
-546 -1000
-703 -972
-831
-899
-925 -786
-309 -982
-482 -1000
-637 -977
-771
-915
-876 -816
397
-637
-460
-261
-050
163
-685
-504
-297
-075
150
368
567
738
870
959
187
666
824
934
998
982
905
771
588
368
125
-844
-685
-482
-249
771
992
994
939
588
368
125
831
-125
-368
675
411
TABLE
sin 2-nhx
(h even)
(jc
8.5B {continued)
fractional.
Change
Sign as given.
h=2
4
771
754
738
720
703
10
12
14
16
-249 -982
-285 -990
-321
-996
-356 -999
-391 -1000
-588
-536
-482
-426
-368
482
546
608
666
720
990
989
962
947
915
368
273
175
075
18
20
-685
-762
-831
-888
-934
-951
-905
-844
-771
-685
410
409
408
407
406
910
909
908
907
906
778
720
657
-125 -969
-224 -990
-321 -1000
-414 -996
-504 -980
-588
-482
-368
-249
-125
405
404
403
402
905
904
903
902
401
901
588
514
437
356
273
-588
-666
-738
-802
-858
-951
000
400
-910
-858
-794
-720
125
399
398
397
396
900
899
898
897
896
187
100
-075
-163
-905
-943
-972
-990
-999
-637
-546
-448
-345
-237
395
394
393
392
895
894
893
892
391
891
-249
-333
-414
-493
-567
-998
-987
-965
-934
-894
-125
-013
390
389
388
387
386
890
889
888
887
886
385
384
383
382
885
884
883
882
381
881
380
379
378
377
376
880
879
878
877
876
375
374
373
372
875
874
873
872
371
871
370
369
368
367
366
870
869
868
867
866
090
590
091
591
092
093
094
592
593
594
905
910
915
920
925
095
096
097
098
099
595
596
597
598
599
930
934
939
943
947
685
666
647
628
608
-426
-460
-493
-525
-557
-998
-994
-987
-977
-965
-309
-249
-187
-125
-063
771
876
816
858
894
925
831
100
600
951
602
603
604
-934
-915
-894
-870
000
063
102
103
104
955
959
962
965
-588
-618
-647
-675
-703
951
601
588
567
546
525
504
-951
101
105
106
107
108
109
605
606
607
608
609
969
972
975
977
980
482
460
437
414
-729
-754
-778
-802
-824
110
610
111
611
368
345
112
113
114
612
613
614
982
985
987
989
990
115
116
117
118
119
615
616
617
618
619
992
994
995
996
997
249
224
200
120
620
125
-025
249
972
987
996
1000
-844
-816
-786
-754
-720
309
368
426
482
536
998
990
977
959
934
-844
-864
-882
-899
-915
-685
-647
-608
-567
-525
588
637
685
729
905
870
771
786
738
-930
-943
-955
-965
-975
-482
-437
-391
-345
-297
809
844
876
905
930
685
628
567
504
437
-637
-703
-762
-816
-864
-844
-786
-720
-647
-567
426
525
618
703
778
951
-982
-989
-994
-997
-999
-249
-200
-150
-100
-050
951
368
297
224
150
075
-905
-939
-965
-985
-996
-482
844
899
943
975
994
588
482
368
249
000 -1000
000
050
1000
998
992
982
969
000 -1000
000
391
321
297
273
175
150
121
621
122
123
124
622
623
624
998
999
999
1000
1000
125
126
127
128
129
625
626
627
628
629
1000
1000
1000
999
999
-025
-050
-075
-100
-999
-997
-994
-989
130
630
131
631
132
133
134
632
633
634
998
997
996
995
994
-125
-150
-175
-200
-224
-982
-975
-965
-955
-943
100
075
050
025
100
150
200
249
297
345
391
437
125
187
969
982
992
998
951
930
905
876
844
831
013
-391
-297
-200
-100
100
212
321
249
368
482
588
685
771
844
905
951
982
998
998
982
905
844
771
685
125
000
391
1000
994
975
943
899
-125
-249
-368
-482
482
567
647
720
786
844
778
703
618
525
-588
-685
-771
-844
-905
-075
-150
-224
-297
-996
-985
-965
-939
100
200
297
-368
-437
-504
-567
-628
-905
-864
-816
-762
-703
398
sign.
JC
TABLE
sin Infix
(h even)
8.5B {continued)
Change
Sign as given.
h=22
24
26
844
915
965
994
999
844
746
628
493
345
187
090
590
-125
091
591
092
093
094
592
593
594
013
150
285
414
095
096
097
098
099
595
596
597
598
599
536
647
746
831
899
982
943
882
802
703
30
32
34
36
38
-125
-297
-460
-608
-738
-951
-992
-998
-969
-905
-685
-525
-345
-150
368
557
720
482
050
943
998
987
925
816
666
-138
-297
-448
-844
-925
-977
-999
-990
-809
-685
-536
-368
-187
249
437
608
754
870
992
996
955
870
746
-951
-882
-786
-666
-525
000
951
187
368
536
994
996
959
882
588
403
200
809
905
969
998
992
025
28
-013
-224
900
899
898
897
896
-982
-915
-802
-647
-460
-063
951
175
460
273
075
-426
-608
-762
-882
-962
998
982
905
395
394
393
392
391
895
894
893
892
-125
-321
-504
-666
-802
-998
-989
-934
-838
-703
-249
-025
905
980
999
962
870
390
389
388
387
386
890
889
888
887
886
-063
-249
-426
-905
-972
-999
-987
-934
-536
-345
-138
385
384
383
382
885
884
883
882
381
881
-588
-729
-844
-930
-982
000 -1000
602
603
604
025
105
106
107
108
109
605
606
607
608
609
930
870
794
703
-125
-273
-414
-546
-666
-992
-999
-980
-934
-864
-368
-200
-025
110
610
111
611
112
113
114
612
613
614
482
356
224
088
-771
-657
-525
-050
-771
-858
-925
-972
-996
482
628
754
858
934
115
116
117
118
119
615
616
617
618
619
-187
-321
-448
-567
-675
-998
-977
-934
-870
-786
-063
-771
-851
-915
-962
-685
-567
-437
-297
-150
685
794
882
947
987
1000
987
947
882
794
122
123
124
622
623
624
-990
125
126
127
128
129
625
626
627
628
629
-1000
-990
-962
-915
-851
000
130
630
131
631
132
133
134
632
633
634
-771
-675
-567
-448
-321
685
786
870
934
977
150
297
437
567
685
557
414
261
100
901
400
399
398
397
396
102
103
104
621
401
000
249
482
685
844
-588
-712
-816
-899
-959
620
905
904
903
902
-951
-851
-703
-514
-297
460
120
405
404
403
402
-588
-754
-882
-965
-999
588
985
999
995
972
121
-951
-987
-997
951
414
557
910
909
908
907
906
-175
-391
600
100
261
410
409
408
407
406
-844
-685
-482
-249
601
-380
-224
-588
-771
-905
-982
-998
-637
-802
100
598
025
-212
-437
sign.
482
273
050
101
321
175
851
261
40
150
321
982
1000
987
943
870
771
647
504
345
175
685
951
876
771
637
482
309
125
-175
-345
-504
-647
-982
-930
-844
-729
-771
-870
-943
-987
-588
-426
-249
-063
-1000
125
771
628
200
414
608
-920
403
608
778
771
588
368
125
-125
-368
891
075
285
894
972
1000
977
-138
-588
-771
-905
-982
-998
-844
-720
-567
-391
-200
482
657
802
910
977
905
786
628
437
224
-368
-578
-754
-888
-972
-951
-844
-685
-482
-249
380
379
378
377
376
880
879
878
877
876
000
200
1000
977
910
802
657
000 -1000
-224
-437
-628
-786
-972
-888
-754
-578
000
249
482
685
844
375
374
373
372
875
874
873
872
371
871
-905
-977
-368
-138
951
-1000
-972
100
333
546
370
369
368
367
366
870
869
868
867
866
391
567
720
844
934
987
999
972
399
482
285
075
-138
-345
771
-894
729
546
333
100
998
982
905
771
TABLE
sin 2irhx
(h even)
8.5B {continued)
Change
Sign as given.
h=2
10
809
135
136
137
138
139
635
636
637
638
639
992
990
989
987
985
-249
-273
-297
-321
-345
-930
-915
-899
-882
-864
482
525
567
608
647
140
640
141
641
142
143
1.44
642
643
644
982
980
977
975
972
-368
-391
-414
-437
-460
-844
-824
-802
-778
-754
685
720
754
786
816
145
146
147
148
149
645
646
647
648
649
969
965
962
959
955
-482
-504
-525
-546
-567
-729
-703
-675
-647
-618
844
870
894
915
934
150
650
951
151
651
152
153
154
652
653
654
947
943
939
934
-588
-608
-628
-647
-666
-588
-557
-525
-493
-460
155
156
157
158
159
655
656
657
658
659
930
925
920
915
910
-685
-703
-720
-738
-754
160
660
905
899
894
888
882
729
685
637
588
536
482
426
368
14
16
18
426
365
364
363
362
865
864
863
862
-013
361
861
998
999
990
972
943
-125
-237
-345
-448
-546
-951
-905
-844
-771
-685
360
359
358
357
356
860
859
858
857
856
905
858
802
738
666
-637
-720
-794
-858
-910
-588
-482
-368
-249
-125
355
354
353
352
855
854
853
852
351
851
588
504
-951
000
-980
-996
414
321 -1000
-990
224
125
350
349
348
347
346
850
849
848
847
846
345
344
343
342
845
844
843
842
341
841
340
339
338
337
336
840
839
838
837
836
335
334
333
332
331
835
834
833
832
831
330
329
328
327
326
830
829
828
827
826
325
324
323
322
321
825
824
823
822
-637
-567
-493
-414
-333
844
894
934
965
987
-905
-934
-959
-977
-990
-249
-163
-075
-998
309
249 -1000
187
273
356
437
514
321
212
100
-996
-987
-972
951
000
965
977
987
994
-063
-125
-187
-249
-951
-925
-894
-858
-816
588
657
720
778
-426
-391
-356
-321
-285
998
1000
999
996
990
-309
-368
-426
-482
-536
-771
-720
-666
-608
-546
876
915
947
972
989
-075
-175
-273
-969
-934
-888
-831
-762
-771
-786
-802
-816
-831
-249
-212
-175
-138
-100
982
972
959
943
925
-588
-637
-685
-729
-771
-482
-414
-345
-273
-200
998
1000
994
980
959
-368
-460
-546
-628
-703
-685
-598
-504
-403
-297
951
-844
-858
-870
-882
-894
-063
-025
905
882
858
-125
-050
930
894
951
905
025
100
851
-771
-831
-882
-925
-959
-187
-075
802
-809
-844
-876
-905
-930
125
163
771
738
703
-951
-969
-982
249
666
628
-992
-998
460
525
-982
685
-996
618
546 -1000
-994
471
368
471
567
657
738
309
345
380
588 -1000
-998
546
-992
504
414
448
460
414
588
647
703
754
802
661
162
163
164
662
663
664
165
166
167
168
169
665
666
667
668
669
876
870
864
858
170
670
171
671
844
838
172
173
174
672
673
674
831
824
816
-905
-915
-925
-934
-943
175
176
177
178
179
675
676
677
678
679
809
802
794
786
778
-951
-959
-965
-972
-977
013
050
088
200
237
273
831
-982
-969
175
321
391
400
831
802
746
125
025
391
-977
309
224
050
-951
-915
-870
-816
-038
-754
138
sign.
-951
-982
-998
-998
-982
-685
-738
-786
-831
-870
013
100
20
187
125
063
161
851
771
12
038
150
261
809
870
920
959
985
249
368
482
588
685
771
844
905
982
998
998
982
844
771
685
588
482
368
249
125
000
-125
-249
-368
-482
.821
TABLE
sin 2irhx
(h even)
8.5B (continued)
Sign as given.
30
32
771
905
802
666
504
876
321
34
h=22
24
-187
-050
088
224
356
998
996
972
925
858
-063
-224
-380
-525
-657
-982
-934
-858
-754
-628
309
482
637
139
635
636
637
638
639
140
640
482
771
-771
-864
-934
-482
-321
-150
951
125
-980
-999
025
200
992
998
969
905
-075
-273
-460
-628
-992
-959
-899
-816
-712
368
525
666
786
882
809
685
536
368
-771
-882
-959
-996
187
-994
-588
-448
-297
-138
951
000
-951
746
647
-588
-703
-802
-882
-943
025
990
999
977
925
-187
-368
-536
-685
-870
-754
-608
-437
588
746
870
955
996
X
135
136
137
138
598
703
666
546
414
273
26
28
930
972
995
999
985
150
650
151
651
152
153
154
652
653
654
951
899
831
155
156
157
158
159
655
656
657
658
659
536
414
285
150
013
-982
-999
-994
-965
-915
187
345
493
628
746
844
738
608
460
297
-809
-905
-969
-998
-992
-249
-050
992
943
150
345
525
851
160
660
-844
-754
-647
-525
-391
844
920
972
997
996
125
-951
-876
-771
-637
-482
685
816
915
977
1000
368
163
969
915
838
738
618
-685
-802
-894
-959
-994
-309
-125
982
925
482
-998
-972
-915
-831
-720
588
729
844
930
982
-025
-224
-414
-588
-437
-273
-100
1000
982
930
844
729
-588
-738
-858
-943
-990
161
661
662
663
664
165
166
167
168
169
665
666
667
668
669
-729
-816
-888
-943
-980
-249
-100
170
670
171
671
172
173
174
672
673
674
-998
-997
-977
-939
-882
482
608
720
816
894
175
675
676
677
678
679
-809
-720
-618
-504
-380
951
176
177
178
179
050
200
345
987
1000
990
959
333
175
013
-150
-309
-460
-598
-720
-824
-050
-224
-391
-546
075
063
249
426
175
-588
-771
-905
-982
-998
360
359
358
357
356
860
859
858
857
856
982
999
965
882
754
-063
-297
-514
-703
-851
-951
-844
-685
-482
-249
355
354
353
352
855
954
853
852
200
403
351
851
588
391
-951
-997
-987
-920
-802
000
249
482
685
844
350
349
348
347
346
850
849
848
847
846
-482
-666
-816
-925
-987
-637
-437
-212
951
998
845
844
843
842
-414
-200
025
175
-050
-273
-125
-368
365
364
363
362
025
982
905
345
344
343
342
261
771
341
841
-998
-959
-870
-738
-567
482
675
831
588
368
125
939
994
-125
-368
340
339
338
337
336
840
839
838
837
836
-637
-786
-899
831
-972
703
546 -1000
-368
-150
992
934
824
666
-588
-771
-905
-982
-998
335
334
333
332
835
834
833
832
331
831
-982
-920
-816
-675
-504
685
330
329
328
327
326
830
829
828
827
826
-309
-100
325
324
323
322
825
824
823
822
321
821
368
175
401
DD
361
-426
-224
-013
645
646
647
648
649
Change sign.
X
865
864
863
862
861
905
778
608
403
145
146
147
148
149
162
163
164
588
368
125
249
460
647
802
915
642
643
644
-125
-261
-391
-514
-628
729
870
962
999
980
-998
-962
-882
-762
-608
641
-025
-175
-321
-460
40
-771
-608
142
143
144
125
38
-536
-703
-838
-934
-989
141
794
870
36
720
557
-050
-261
-460
113
321
514
075
297
504
471
831
249
013
934
990
996
-224
-448
-647
-951
-844
-685
-482
-249
951
-809
-925
-989
-996
-947
000
249
482
685
844
858
720
546
345
TABLE
sm
2-nrhx
(h even)
8.5B (continued)
Sign as given.
Change
h=2
-982
-987
-990
-994
-996
482
514
546
578
608
-998
729
-999
720
712 -1000
189
685
686
687
688
689
703
694
-1000
-999
637
666
694
720
746
-998
-996
-994
-990
-987
180
680
771
181
681
182
682
683
684
762
754
746
738
183
184
185
186
187
188
368
321
273
224
175
sign.
10
12
14
16
-951
844
882
915
943
965
-125
-212
-297
-380
-460
-685
-608
-525
-437
-345
998
999
987
962
925
-588
-685
-771
-844
-905
320
319
318
317
316
820
819
818
817
816
-536
-608
-675
-738
-794
-249
-150
-050
876
816
746
666
578
-951
-982
-998
-998
315
314
313
312
815
814
813
812
-982
311
811
-951
-905
310
309
308
307
306
810
809
808
807
806
-930
-905
-876
-844
125
-809
075
025
-771
18
-025
-075
-729
-685
-637
982
994
999
999
994
794
816
838
858
-125
-175
-224
-273
-321
-588
-536
-482
-426
-368
982
965
943
915
882
-844
-888
-925
-955
-977
249
345
437
525
608
050
-844
-771
-685
050
150
20
190
690
191
691
192
193
194
692
693
694
685
675
666
657
647
195
196
197
198
199
695
696
697
698
699
637
628
618
608
598
-982
-977
-972
-965
-959
876
894
910
925
939
-368
-414
-460
-504
-546
-309
-249
-187
-125
-063
844
802
754
703
647
-992
-999
-999
-990
-975
685
754
816
870
915
-063
-175
-285
-391
-493
-588
-482
-368
-249
-125
305
304
303
302
805
804
803
802
301
801
-951
-943
951
000
063
588
525
951
125
187
460
-920
-882
-838
-786
977
994
1000
996
-588
-675
-754
-824
-882
000
-934
-925
-915
-588
-628
-666
-703
-738
-951
962
972
980
987
300
299
298
297
296
800
799
798
797
796
982
959
925
882
-930
-965
-989
-999
-997
588
685
295
294
293
292
795
794
793
792
-050
-729
-666
-598
-525
-448
291
791
-368
-285
-200
-113
-025
771
703
-982
-955
-915
-864
-802
951
290
289
288
287
286
790
789
788
787
786
285
284
283
282
281
785
784
783
782
781
280
279
278
277
276
780
779
778
777
776
771
200
700
201
701
202
203
204
702
703
704
588
578
567
557
546
205
206
207
208
209
705
706
707
708
709
536
525
514
504
493
-905
-894
-882
-870
-858
992
996
999
1000
1000
-771
-802
-831
-858
-882
309
368
426
482
536
210
710
482
211
711
471
212
213
214
712
713
714
460
448
437
-844
-831
-816
-802
-786
998
995
990
985
977
-905
-925
-943
-959
-972
588
637
685
729
771
-125
-200
-273
-345
-414
215
216
217
218
219
715
716
717
718
719
426
414
403
-771
-754
-738
-720
-703
809
844
876
905
930
-482
-546
-608
-666
-720
063
391
-982
969
-990
959
-996
947
-999
934
920 -1000
220
221
720
722
723
724
-998
-994
-987
-977
-965
951
222
223
224
368
356
345
333
-771
-816
-858
-894
-925
721
380
321
-685
-666
-647
-628
-608
905
888
870
851
831
391
321
249
969
982
992
998
249
175
100
025
402
150
831
628
546
460
368
273
237
175
321
075
403
-025
482
557
628
694
754
-125
-224
-321
-414
-504
482
380
273
163
-729
-647
-557
-460
-356
-249
-138
-025
088
200
125
249
368
482
771
844
905
982
998
998
982
951
905
844
771
685
588
482
368
249
125
TABLE
sin 2-rrhx
(h even)
8.5B {continued)
(x fractional.
Change
Sign as given.
h=22
24
-249
-113
905
738
628
504
28
30
-905
-962
-994
-999
-977
249
414
567
703
816
426
249
063
-125
-930
-858
-762
-647
-514
905
965
996
996
965
26
32
-125
345
557
738
588
368
125
-125
-368
290
289
288
287
286
790
789
788
787
786
-998
-987
-925
-816
-666
876
965
1000
977
899
-588
-771
-905
-982
-998
285
284
283
282
785
784
783
782
281
781
-482
-273
-050
771
598
391
163
-951
280
279
278
277
276
780
779
778
777
776
930
876
786
675
546
403
-998
-994
-959
-894
-802
809
905
969
998
992
210
710
249
249
088
525
647
754
-075
-237
-391
-685
-546
-391
-224
-050
951
391
844
915
965
994
999
-536
-666
-778
-870
-939
125
309
297
460
608
738
125
-063
-249
-426
-982
982
943 -1000
-990
882
-955
802
-894
703
844
925
977
999
990
-588
-729
-844
-930
-982
722
723
724
-368
-567
-738
-870
-959
-685
-525
-345
-150
-482
-345
-200
-050
222
223
224
791
965
999
987
-063
-200
-333
-460
-578
-844
-762
-666
-557
-437
291
-977
-915
-816
705
706
707
708
709
721
771
771
888
205
206
207
208
209
720
795
794
793
792
-982
-175
221
295
294
293
292
876 -1000
368
536
685
220
998
982
905
685
504
297
075
702
703
704
-588
-720
-831
-915
-972
-992
-1000
-989
-959
-910
951
-187
202
203
204
989
1000
985
943
715
716
717
718
719
-969
-882
-746
-567
-356
-368
-546
-703
-831
-925
951
-894
-816
-720
-608
215
216
217
218
219
800
799
798
797
796
996
990
934
588
471
345
-951
701
712
713
714
300
299
298
297
296
951
-864
-738
-578
-391
700
201
212
213
214
000
249
482
685
844
-951
200
711
-588
-762
-894
-975
831 -1000
588
414
224
025
426
567
694
802
888
211
801
187
-905
969
-959
925
-990
864
786 -1000
-987
694
-685
-778
-858
-920
-965
301
000
695
696
697
698
699
100
805
804
803
802
125
345
546
720
858
195
196
197
198
199
212
075
-150
-380
305
304
303
302
-729
-858
-947
-994
-995
692
693
694
-368
-212
-050
273
-844
-685
-482
-249
998
990
943
858
738
691
192
193
194
-368
-504
-628
-738
-831
113
-951
-809
-685
-536
-368
-187
191
905
955
987
1000
994
-100
-273
-437
771
637
482
403
025
237
437
618
831
050
694
525
333
249
437
608
754
870
-088
-297
-493
-666
125
982
999
959
864
720
536
249
075
690
-125
-368
321
-175
-380
-567
-844
-703
-525
190
297
618
786
910
810
809
808
807
806
249
038
-075
-224
100
588
368
310
309
308
307
306
482
647
786
894
965
426
546
657
754
838
187
-588
-771
-905
-982
-998
-951
-992
-998
-969
-905
685
686
687
688
689
414
811
905
816
703
567
414
185
186
187
188
189
368
224
075
311
-844
-943
-994
-994
-943
025
297
815
814
813
812
969
894
778
628
448
682
683
684
951
998
315
314
313
312
-482
-297
-100
182
183
184
-844
-694
-504
-285
-050
sign.
40
820
819
818
817
816
-309
-482
-637
-771
-876
681
38
320
319
318
317
316
685
824
925
985
999
680
181
163
36
-998
-965
-894
-786
-647
588
180
831
34
125
-100
-321
-525
-703
-321
-100
-150
175
391
088
113
-075
982
905
771
125
-844
-685
-482
-249
TABLE
sin 2-rrhx
(h even)
8.5B {continued)
Sign as given..
Change
h=2
x:
10
12
14
16
18
20
-951
1000
-972
998
-987
992
-996
982
969 -1000
809
858
899
934
962
-588
-666
-738
-802
-858
309
414
514
608
694
-125
-249
-368
-482
-998
-990
-977
-959
-934
982
995
1000
997
987
-905
-943
-972
-990
-999
771
838
894
939
972
-905
-870
-831
-786
-738
969
943
910
870
824
-998
-987
-965
-934
-894
-685
-628
-567
-504
-437
771
-844
-786
-720
-647
-567
426
345
261
-588
-567
-546
-525
-504
809
786
762
738
712
-951
-934
-915
-894
-870
732
733
734
249
237
224
212
200
-482
-460
-437
-414
-391
685
657
628
598
567
-844
-816
-786
-754
-720
235
236
237
238
239
735
736
737
738
739
187
175
163
150
138
-368
-345
-321
-297
-273
536
504
471
437
403
-685
-647
-608
-567
-525
240
740
241
741
125
113
242
243
244
742
743
744
100
088
075
-249
-224
-200
-175
-150
368
333
297
261
224
-482
-437
-391
-345
-297
245
246
247
248
249
745
746
747
748
749
063
050
038
025
013
-125
-100
-075
-050
-025
187
150
113
309
249
075
038
-249
-200
-150
-100
-050
063
-368
-297
-224
-150
-075
250
750
000
000
000
000
000
000
225
226
227
228
229
725
726
727
728
729
309
297
285
273
230
730
231
731
232
233
234
951
930
905
876
844
809
771
729
685
637
588
536
482
426
368
187
125
404
712
647
578
504
000
sign.
275
274
273
272
775
774
773
772
271
771
-588
-685
-771
-844
-905
270
269
268
267
266
770
769
768
767
766
992
1000
995
977
947
-951
-982
-998
-998
-982
265
264
263
262
765
764
763
762
261
761
905
-951
-905
-844
-771
-685
260
259
258
257
256
760
759
758
757
756
255
254
253
252
755
754
753
752
251
751
250
750
851
786
712
628
261
176
088
-482
-391
-297
-200
-100
536
437
333
224
113
-588
-482
-368
-249
-125
000
000
000
000
TABLE
sin 2-nhx
(h even)
(jc
8.5B (continued)
fractional.
Sign as given.
h=22
24
588
26
28
-809
-703
-578
-437
-285
951
-125
-273
-414
-546
-666
-/25
368
200
025
225
226
227
228
229
725
726
727
728
729
-309
-175
-038
100
237
025
460
321
175
882
786
666
525
32
30
-1000
-982
-930
-844
-729
951
-588
-426
-249
-063
771
994
996
959
882
34
36
38
40
Change sign.
X
-809
-915
-980
-1000
-975
588
754
882
965
999
-309
-525
-712
-858
-955
000
249
482
685
844
275
274
273
272
775
774
773
772
271
771
-905
-794
-647
-471
-273
982
915
802
647
460
-998
-985
-915
-794
-628
951
998
270
269
268
267
266
770
769
768
767
766
-063
249
025
-426
-200
-200
-414
-608
038
273
493
588
368
125
-125
-368
265
264
263
262
765
764
763
762
261
761
-771
844
-894
939
-972
990
997 -1000
-977
959
685
838
943
995
990
-588
-771
-905
-982
-998
260
259
258
257
256
760
759
758
757
756
230
730
231
731
232
233
234
732
733
734
368
493
608
712
802
235
236
237
238
239
735
736
737
738
739
876
934
975
996
999
-771
-858
-925
-972
-996
637
754
-482
-628
-754
-858
-934
309
482
637
240
740
741
242
243
244
742
743
744
-998
-977
-934
-870
-786
-982
998
995 -1000
-987
965
-943
910
-870
831
951
241
982
947
894
824
738
992
998
969
905
-905
-972
-999
-987
-934
245
246
247
248
249
745
746
747
748
749
637
525
403
273
729
608
471
138
-685
-567
-437
-297
-150
163
-771
-647
-504
-345
-175
809
685
536
368
187
-844
-720
-567
-391
-200
876
754
598
414
212
-905
-786
-628
-437
-224
930
816
657
460
237
-951
-844
-685
-482
-249
255
254
253
252
251
755
754
753
752
751
250
750
000
000
000
000
000
000
000
000
000
000
250
750
038
200
356
504
851
925
975
321
-150
-321
125
771
876
628
460
273
075
-125
-321
-504
-666
-802
405
150
356
546
712
982
905
771
TABLE
cos lirhx
{h
odd)
(x fractional.
8.5C
Sign as given.
h=l
1000
999
998
997
996
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
999
998
997
1000
1000
998
996
992
1000
999
996
991
985
1000
998
994
986
975
1000
998
005
006
007
008
009
995
994
993
992
996
994
988
982
976
969
960
976
965
953
939
923
960
943
923
899
873
941
991
1000
999
999
999
998
010
990
989
988
987
986
998
998
997
997
996
982
979
975
970
965
951
941
905
885
864
771
816
844
813
778
742
703
015
016
017
018
019
985
984
983
982
996
995
994
994
993
960
955
949
943
937
790
762
733
703
661
618
572
525
509
448
386
339
321
100
671
476
255
020
980
979
978
977
976
992
930
923
915
907
899
637
603
567
426
374
187
321
050
531
267
212
025
026
027
028
029
975
974
973
972
988
987
986
985
983
891
882
873
864
854
707
685
661
637
613
454
414
374
333
156
100
030
982
980
979
977
844
834
824
813
802
588
562
536
509
482
249
206
032
033
034
970
969
968
967
966
035
036
037
038
039
965
964
963
962
961
976
975
973
972
970
790
778
767
754
742
454
426
397
368
339
040
960
959
958
957
956
969
967
965
964
962
729
716
703
689
675
309
279
249
218
000
001
002
003
004
011
012
013
014
021
022
023
024
031
041
042
043
044
981
971
991
990
990
989
981
991
989
986
930
918
905
891
876
861
844
827
809
790
771
750
729
187
11
13
15
17
19
Change sign.
X
1000
997
987
970
947
1000
996
982
960
930
1000
994
977
949
910
1000
993
972
937
888
500
499
498
497
496
918
882
841
794
742
891
861
844
790
729
802
733
657
572
827
754
671
578
495
494
493
492
476
491
482
386
285
368
255
181
019
075
-100
490
489
488
487
486
-218
-333
-443
-546
-642
485
484
483
482
019
-031
-125
-218
-031
-138
-243
-345
-443
-309
-397
-482
-562
-637
-536
-623
-703
-775
-838
-729
-805
-870
-923
-962
480
479
478
477
476
520
-019
-088
-063
-144
-224
-303
-380
-013
-069
-156
-224
-291
-356
-420
-454
-525
-593
-657
-716
-707
-771
-827
-876
-918
-891
-934
-967
-989
-999
-988
-999
-997
-980
-949
475
474
473
472
525
526
527
528
529
-125
-181
-237
-291
-345
-482
-541
-598
-652
-703
-771
-951
-820 -976
-864 -992
-902 -1000
-934 -998
-998
-986
-962
-927
-882
-905
-848
-778
-698
-608
470
469
468
467
466
-013
-057
-100
-144
-397
-448
-498
-546
-593
-750
-794
-834
-870
-902
-960
-980
-993
-999
-999
-988
-969
-941
-905
-861
-827
-762
-689
-608
-520
-509
-403
-291
-175
-057
465
464
463
462
461
535
536
537
538
539
-187
-230
-273
-315
-356
-637
-680
-720
-758
-794
-930
-953
-972
-986
-995
-992
-979
-959
-932
-899
-809
-750
-685
-613
-536
-426
-327
-224
-119
-013
063
460
459
458
457
456
540
841
493
291
163
119
075
031
044
990
979
962
915
885
851
813
725
675
623
567
119
406
685
623
557
487
414
261
181
661
588
509
426
339
249
156
063
138
181
297
409
514
481
471
500
501
502
503
504
505
506
507
508
509
510
511
512
513
514
515
516
517
518
519
521
522
523
524
530
531
532
533
534
541
542
543
544
TABLE
cos 2-nhx
(h
odd)
(jc
fractional.
8.5C
Sign as given.
33
35
37
39
Change sign.
X
h=2l
23
25
27
29
31
1000
999
998
997
996
1000
991
965
923
864
1000
990
959
907
838
1000
988
951
891
809
1000
986
943
873
778
1000
983
934
854
746
1000
981
925
834
712
1000
979
915
813
675
1000
976
905
790
637
1000
973
894
767
598
1000
970
882
742
557
500
499
498
497
496
500
005
006
007
008
009
995
994
993
992
790
703
603
493
374
750
647
661
525
613
460
562
391
509
321
454
249
397
175
339
100
374
212
044
291
403
267
707
588
454
309
156
113
206
013
-069
505
506
507
508
509
010
990
989
988
987
986
249
125
000
119
-013
-144
-273
-019
-163
-303
-437
-156
-309
-454
-588
-125
-291
-448
-593
-720
-249
-420
-578
-716
-831
-562
-675
-775
-858
-923
-707
-809
-891
-951
-988
X
000
001
002
003
004
011
012
013
014
991
119
031
-181
-088
-291
-187
-397
-057
-285
-498
-144
-380
-593
-368
-541
-694
-820
-915
-482
-652
-794
-902
-972
-588
-750
-876
-960
-998
-685
-834
-939
-993
-994
-771
-902
-980
-999
-959
490
489
488
487
486
510
-827
-910
-967
-996
-997
-918 -976 -1000

-975 -1000 -985
-999 -986 -927
-990 -934 -831
-949 -848 -698
-988
-930
-827
-685
-509
-941
-838
-689
-861
-712
-520
-297
-057
485
484
483
482
515
516
517
518
519
-969 -1000
-994 -988
-999 -951
-983 -891
-947 -809
-969
-913
-831
-725
-598
-876
-775
-647
-498
-333
-729
-583
-414
-230
-038
-536
-351
-150
-309
-094
-063
187
125
057
261
339
536
391
593
420
628
798
920
480
479
478
477
476
520
169
-156
541
156
345
520
675
805
454
628
775
888
964
707
844
941
992
996
988
996
945
838
680
475
474
473
472
471
525
526
527
528
529
951
861
729
562
368
482
255
013
470
469
468
467
466
530
531
985
984
983
982
981
-397
-514
-623
-720
-805
020
980
979
978
977
976
-876
-932
-972
-994
-1000
025
026
027
028
029
975
974
973
972
-891
-816
-725
-618
-498
-707
-588
-454
-309
-156
-454
-297
-132
971
-988
-959
-913
-851
-775
030
970
969
968
967
966
-685
-583
-471
-351
-224
-368
-230
-088
000
368
520
657
775
870
685
805
899
964
996
905
970
999
990
943
998
990
939
848
720
035
036
037
038
039
965
964
963
962
-094
707
809
996
962
897
802
680
562
380
961
941
985
1000
987
945
861
297
420
339
471
593
703
798
040
960
959
958
957
956
536
642
737
820
888
876
937
977
998
997
1000
988
951
891
809
876
782
666
531
536
374
200
019
380
-163
022
023
024
031
032
033
034
041
042
043
044
038
169
502
503
504
495
494
493
492
491
015
016
017
018
019
021
501
057
200
156
309
454
588
891
951
988
038
206
025
206
380
746
603
437
255
063
-132
-321
-498
-657
407
-504
-291
762
891
972
1000
975
897
771
603
403
181
-050
-230
-460
481
511
512
513
514
521
522
523
524
531
532
533
534
-279
-493
-680
-831
-937
-661
-063
-279
-482
-661
-824
-937
-994
-991
465
464
463
462
461
535
536
537
538
539
-426 -809
-603 -918
-754 -982
-873 -1000
-955 -969
-992
-994
-943
-841
-694
-930
-813
-647
-443
-212
460
459
458
457
456
540
181
-025
-230
156
541
542
543
544
TABLE
cos 2-rrhx
(h
odd)
8.5C {continued)
(x fractional.
Sign as given.
X
045
046
047
048
049
050
051
052
053
054
055
056
057
058
059
Changf;
h=\
955
954
953
952
951
960
959
957
955
953
950
949
948
947
946
949
947
945
943
945
944
943
942
951
941
661
647
633
618
603
107
-309
-339
-368
-397
-426
-876
-897
-915
-932
-947
-969
-953
-934
-913
-888
-536
-476
-414
-351
-285
-454
-482
-509
-536
-562
-960
-972
-981
-989
-994
-861
-831
-798
-762
-725
-218
-150
-082
-013
-588 -998
-613 -1000
-637 -1000
-661
-998
-685 -994
-707
-729
-750
-771
-790
930
929
928
927
926
905
902
899
897
894
075
076
077
078
079
925
924
923
922
891
156
138
119
921
888
885
882
879
080
920
919
918
917
916
876
873
870
867
864
915
914
913
912
861
858
854
851
848
085
086
087
088
089
911
588
671
746
813
870
454
536
613
685
750
931
084
-951
-218
-138
-057
339
081
082
083
094
200
303
403
498
-790
-746
-698
-647
-593
918
915
913
910
907
072
073
074
-454
-368
-279
-187
-094
-750 -1000
-778 -1000
-805 -997
-831
-990
-854 -981
374
356
321
303
285
267
249
230
212
194
175
100
082
063
044
025
006
-013
-031
-050
-069
-088
-107
613
703
782
-861
-816
-767
-712
-652
-156
-187
-218
-249
-279
391
19
-827 -1000
-858 -999
-885 -994
-910 -985
-932 -970
509
493
476
460
443
000
-031
-063
17
-397
-437
-476
-514
-552
-094
-125
935
934
933
932
070
15
000
094
426
409
071
13
-588
-520
-448
-374
-297
930
927
925
923
920
065
066
067
068
069
031
11
-951
-927
-899
-867
-831
940
939
938
937
936
062
063
064
094
063
-967
-980
-990
-996
941
061
156
125
-588
-623
-657
-689
-720
588
572
557
541
525
y39
937
934
932
060
025
187
279
368
918
955
981
996
1000
187
809
267
345
420
493
861
905
941
969
057
562
628
689
746
798
-685
-642
-598
-552
-504
125
194
261
327
391
844
885
920
949
972
918
876
827
057
771
-050
-988
-980
-970
-959
-945
-454
-403
-351
-297
-243
454
514
572
628
680
988
997
1000
996
986
707
637
562
482
397
-156
-261
-362
-809
-827
-844
-861
-876
-930
-913
-894
-873
-851
-187
-132
-075
-019
729
775
816
854
888
969
945
915
879
838
309
218
-063
-891
-905
-918
-930
-941
-827
-802
-775
-746
-716
094
261
918
943
964
980
315
991
790
738
680
618
552
-156
-249
-339
-426
-509
038
150
206
408
992
973
943
902
851
455
454
453
452
907
451
951
981
450
449
448
447
446
997
999
987
960
920
867
802
725
445
444
443
442
637
440
439
438
437
436
541
441
851
437
327
212
988
998
1000
992
976
790
720
642
557
465
-025
-144
-261
-374
431
951
368
267
-482
-583
-675
-758
-831
430
429
428
427
426
-891
425
424
423
422
163
125
031
094
-939
-973
-994
435
434
433
432
-460
-552 -1000
421
-637
-716
-786
-848
-899
-992
-970
-934
-885
-824
420
419
418
417
416
-941
-972
-991
-750
-666
-572
-471
-362
415
414
413
412
-1000
-997
sign.
411
545
546
547
548
549
550
551
552
553
554
555
556
557
558
559
560
561
562
563
564
565
566
567
568
569
570
571
572
573
574
575
576
577
578
579
580
581
582
583
584
585
586
587
588
589
TABLE
cos 2-nhx
Sign as given.
X
27
941
976
934
218
050
794
698
707
588
454
309
156
588
000
39
sign-.
-119
-285
-443
031
273
498
163
694
455
454
453
452
386
848
451
-951
-873
-762
-623
-460
-588
-409
-212
-006
000
218
426
200
613
771
588
758
888
970
1000
450
449
448
447
446
550
050
-951
-991
-999
-973
-915
951
-156
-309
-454
-588
-588
-716
-824
-907
-965
-094
-237
-374
-504
-623
-707
-809
-891
-951
-988
-996
-997
-970
-915
-834
-827
-712
-572
-414
-243
-279
-088
969
1000
982
918
976
899
775
608
409
613
403
445
444
443
442
555
556
297
476
397
578
733
858
945
-729 -1000
-820 -988
-894 -951
-949 -891
-985 -809
-729
-603
-460
-303
-138
-063
637
775
882
957
995
992
997
959
879
762
-707
-588
-454
-309
-156
031
750
200
362
514
652
858
937
985
1000
996
959
885
778
642
613
437
243
038
-771
-671
-557
-431
-297
000
771
867
982
932
939
983
1000
851
303
113
742
608
-891
-824
-742
-647
-541
-156
-013
707
809
454
285
132
273
409
891
951
920
919
918
917
916
-426
-303
-175
-044
536
652
754
1000
988
951
841
891
224
057
088
910
809
915
914
913
912
218
345
465
578
680
960
990
1000
989
957
707
588
454
309
945
944
943
942
941
562
448
327
200
069
060
940
939
938
937
936
-063
-194
-321
-443
-557
065
066
067
068
069
935
934
933
932
931
-661 -1000
-754 -994
-834 -967
-899 -920
-949 -854
070
930
929
928
927
926
-982
-998
-997
-979
-943
075
076
077
078
079
925
924
923
922
080
085
086
087
088
089
37
-509
-297
-069
055
056
057
058
059
082
083
084
35
-891
-771
-613
-426
-218
465
333
081
33
-996
-994
-949
-864
-742
902
838
758
666
072
073
074
31
-790
-894
-964
-997
-993
951
071
29
-339
-504
-652
-778
-879
950
949
948
947
946
062
063
064
Change
25
050
061
(x fractional.
23
955
954
953
952
052
053
054
odd)
h=2l
045
046
047
048
049
051
(h
8.5C {continued)
951
921
911
977
997
999
983
873
194
156
309
454
588
988
156
107
119
297
465
618
891
809
661
482
279
063
998
985
913
786
169
-075
-315
441
545
546
547
548
549
551
552
553
554
557'
558
559
-536
187
-044 -725
-273 -870
-487 -964
-675 -1000
440
439
438
437
436
560
565
566
567
568
569
561
562
563
564
-827
-934
-991
-995
-945
-976
-894
-758
-578
-362
435
434
433
432
-169
-156
-368
-562
-729
-861
-951
-996
-992
-941
-844
-844
-698
-514
-303
-075
-125
430
429
428
427
426
570
-082
-273
-368
-552
-712
-841
-934
-075
-255
-454
-618
-758
-870
-949
-988
-999
-967
-894
-782
-707
-536
-339
-125
575
576
577
578
579
-992
-998
-965
-897
-794
-637
-465
-273
-069
-113
-426
-583
-720
-834
-920
-279
-437
-583
-712
-820
-976
-999
-990
-947
-873
-661
988
947
879
786
671
536
386
107
482
-504
-327
-138
057
409
119
356
572
754
431
571
572
573
574
156
891
975
1000
965
425
424
423
422
094
380
583
754
885
873
421
969
1000
977
902
778
729
420
419
418
417
416
580
138
309
509
685
827
930
339
525
689
824
923
988
998
960
876
750
613
414
415
414
413
412
585
586
587
588
589
194
-038
-267
541
321
082
-163
-397
-608
-782
-910
-983
411
581
582
583
584
TABLE
cos Infix
Sign as given.
X
090
091
092
093
094
910
909
908
907
906
(h
odd)
8.5C {continued)
Change
h=l
11
13
368
482
409
567
998
1000
997
990
977
094
013
831
-125
-144
-163
-181
-200
-960
-969
-976
-982
-685
-652
-618
-583
-546
827
824
820
816
813
-218 -988
-237 -992
-255 -996
-273 -998
-291 -1000
-509
-471
-431
-391
-351
613
657
698
737
775
960
939
913
882
848
809
805
802
798
794
-309 -1000
-327 -1000
-345 -998
-362 -996
-380 -992
-309
-267
-224
-181
-138
809
809
767
720
790
786
782
778
775
-397
-414
-431
-448
-465
-988
-982
-976
-969
-960
-094
-050
-006
844
841
838
834
-951
420
471
520
15
17
-588
-661
-729
-790
-844
-982
-957
-920
-873
-816
-249
-132
-013
-891
-930
-960
-982
-996
-750
-675
-593
-504
-409
339
448
552
647
733
405
404
403
402
-309
-206
-100
809
873
925
964
989
400
399
398
397
396
600
618
-309 -1000
-386 -996
-460 -982
-531
-960
-598 -930
562
504
443
380
315
-661
-891
218
-720
-775
-824
-867
-844
-790
-729
321
-661
420
514
603
1000
996
979
947
902
395
394
393
392
391
605
606
607
608
609
-905
-937
-962
-981
-994
-588
-509
-426
-339
-249
685
758
824
879
925
844
775
694
603
504
390
389
388
387
386
610
960
985
998
999
990
397
285
050
385
384
383
382
-069
381
615
616
617
618
619
-187
-303
-414
-520
-618
380
379
378
377
376
620
-707
-786
-854
-910
-953
375
374
373
372
625
626
627
628
629
-982
-998
-999
-986
-959
370
369
368
367
366
333
255
175
095
096
097
098
099
905
904
903
902
100
101
900
899
102
103
104
898
897
896
105
106
107
108
109
895
894
893
892
110
890
889
888
887
886
771
767
762
758
754
-482
-498
-514
-531
-546
-951
-941
169
-930
-918
-905
212
255
297
998
1000
999
994
987
885
884
883
882
-562
-578
-593
-608
-623
-891
-876
-861
-844
-827
339
380
420
460
498
976
962
945
925
902
-094 -1000
-163 -999
-230 -991
-297 -977
-362 -957
-156
-063
881
750
746
742
738
733
880
879
878
877
876
729
725
720
716
712
-637
-652
-666
-680
-694
-809
-790
-771
-750
-729
536
572
608
642
675
876
848
816
782
746
-426
-487
-546
-603
-657
-930
-897
-858
-813
-762
309
397
482
562
637
969
937
894
125
126
127
128
129
875
874
873
872
707
703
698
694
689
-707
-720
-733
-746
-758
-707
-685
-661
-637
-613
707
737
767
794
820
707
666
623
-707
-647
-583
-514
-443
707
707
628
578
531
-707
-754
-798
-838
-873
827
876
918
448
130
870
869
868
867
866
685
680
675
-771
-782
-588
-562
-536
-509
-482
844
867
888
907
925
482
431
380
327
273
-905
-932
-955
-973
-987
-368
-291
-212
-132
-050
951
249
976
992
1000
998
144
038
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
131
132
133
134
901
891
871
671
666
-794
-805
-816
038
082
125
841
870
897
920
941
959
973
985
993
sign.
19
671
249
181
113
044
-025
410
-069
-150
-230
031
125
218
771
006
113
841
778
541
351
-069
-175
107
224
169
410
409
408
407
406
401
371
590
591
592
593
594
595
596
597
598
599
601
602
603
604
611
612
613
614
621
622
623
624
630
631
632
633
634
TABLE
cos 2-nhx
(h
odd)
8.5C {continued)
(x fractional.
Change
Sign as given.
/j=21
JC
090
091
092
093
094
910
909
908
907
906
111
848
910
957
987
23
905
834
746
642
525
397
261
25
27
-279
-038
405
404
403
402
595
596
597
598
599
-309 -1000
-498 -976
-666 -905
-805 -790
-910 -637
-309
-082
809
927
990
994
939
400
399
398
397
396
602
603
604
-976
-224 -1000
-409 -981
-578 -920
-725 -820
-454
-249
-031
187
397
750
882
967
1000
979
827
666
465
237
-006
395
394
393
392
391
605
606
607
608
609
-844
-932
-985
-169 -1000
-345 -977
-685
-520
-333
-132
588
750
876
960
998
905
782
618
420
200
-249
-476
-675
-834
-943
390
389
388
387
386
610
-509
-657
-782
-882
-953
-918
-824
-698
-546
-374
279
988
930
827
685
509
-031
-261
-996
-989
-923
-802
-633
385
384
383
382
615
616
617
618
619
969
999
987
932
838
-930
-990
-996
-949
-851
-426
-194
62Q
291
514
380
379
378
377
376
-707
-525
-315
-088
707
858
957
999
375
374
373
372
144
981
371
625
626
627
628
629
368
572
746
879
965
905
775
598
386
150
370
369
368
367
366
989
999
972
907
493
303
809
902
965
997
995
809
680
525
351
960
894
798
675
-031
-861
-925
-707
-588
-454
-309
-156
509
647
767
864
937
109
-996
-947
-848
-703
-520
212
386
546
689
279
108
-454
-637
-790
-905
-976
661
895
894
893
892
891
150
-031
-249
941
-309
-144
025
194
356
-113
-243
-970
-995
-999
-368
-487
-598
-698
-786
-982
-945
-888
-813
-720
000
156
309
454
588
982
1000
989
949
882
-861
019
590
031
-309 -1000
-443 -988
-567 -951
-680 -891
-778 -809
531
163
368
194
013
100
-107
111
890
889
112
113
114
888
887
886
115
116
117
885
884
883
882
881
-920
-964
-990
-1000
-613
-493
-362
-224
-082
707
809
790
675
891
951
541
391
988
230
880
879
878
877
876
-992
-967
-925
-867
-794
063
206
345
476
598
1000
988
951
891
809
-992
-998
-972
-913
-824
-187
-107
-273
-431
-578
125
126
127
128
129
875
874
873
872
-707
-608
-498
-380
-255
707
802
879
939
979
707
588
454
309
-707
-816
-902
-962
-994
-707
-567
-409
-237
-057
707
923
980
1000
-044
-707
-844
-941
-992
-996
130
870
869
868
867
866
-125
998
997
975
932
870
-998
-973
-920
-841
-738
125
303
471
623
754
982
927
838
716
567
-249
-443
-618
-767
-882
-951
-861
-729
-562
-368
110
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
131
132
133
134
871
006
138
267
391
156
000
-156
-309
-454
-588
063
sign.
JC
410
409
408
407
406
-918
-838
-733
-608
-465
809
725
628
520
403
39
-998
-953
-851
-698
-504
-707
-809
-891
-951
-988
900
899
898
897
896
37
-482
-671
-824
-932
-990
982
1000
975
907
802
100
105
106
107
588
397
187
249
431
598
742
858
901
102
103
104
35
-771
-642
-493
-327
-150
1000
995
973
934
879
101
33
-905
-964
-995
-998
-972
000
905
904
903
902
-025
-169
31
-156
-309
-454
-588
095
096
097
098
099
119
29
006
200
386
557
831
411
075
471
642
786
897
707
546
362
163
309
094
-125
-339
-536
150
374
578
-476
-666
-820
206
437
642
050
401
381
591
592
593
594
600
601
611
612
613
614
621
622
623
624
630
631
632
633
634
TABLE
cos Infix
odd)
(h
8.5C (continued)
Sign as given.
A-l
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
218
-996
-1000
-999
-994
050
-006 -983
031
163
107
113
194
273
988
969
941
905
861
-918
-864
-798
-720
-633
365
364
363
362
351
-279
-380
-476
-567
-652
861
955
967
977
986
860
859
858
857
856
637
633
628
623
618
-876
-885
-894
-902
-910
-309
-279
-249
-218
-187
992
997
999
1000
999
-063
-119
-175
-230
-285
-969
-949
-925
-897
-864
426
498
567
633
694
809
750
685
613
536
-729
-798
-858
-907
-947
-536
-431
-321
-206
-088
360
359
358
357
356
640
855
854
853
852
-918
-925
-932
-939
-945
-156
-125
-094
-063
-031
996
990
983
975
964
-339
-391
-443
-493
-541
-827
-786
-742
-694
-642
750
802
848
888
923
-976
454
-994
368
279 -1000
031
150
355
354
353
352
851
613
608
603
598
593
094
645
646
647
648
649
850
849
848
847
846
588
583
578
572
567
-951
-957
000
951
031
063
125
937
920
902
882
-588
-633
-675
-716
-754
-588
-531
-471
-409
-345
951
973
989
998
1000
845
844
843
842
562
557
552
546
156
861
187
841
541
-790
-824
-854
-882
-907
-279
-212
-144
-075
-006
-930
-949
-965
-979
-989
063
840
839
838
837
836
661
094
218
249
279
838
813
786
758
525
520
514
-992
-994
-996
-998
-999
309
339
368
397
426
729
698
666
633
598
509
504
498
493
487
-1000
-1000
-1000
-1000
-999
454
482
509
536
562
-996
562
-999
525
487 -1000
-997
448
-991
409
397
460
520
-998
-997
-995
-993
-990
588
613
637
661
685
368
327
285
243
-982
-970
-955
-937
-915
685
733
778
820
858
-988
-985
-981
-977
-973
707
729
750
771
790
156
113
-891
-864
-834
-802
-767
920
945
965
536
531
835
834
833
832
170
482
476
172
173
174
830
829
828
827
826
175
176
177
178
825
824
823
822
454
448
443
437
179
821
431
831
-962
-967
-972
941
-976
-980
-983
-987
-990
165
166
167
168
169
171
19
-454
-426
-397
-368
-339
140
145
146
147
148
149
17
-827
-838
-848
-858
-867
865
864
863
862
142
143
144
15
657
652
647
642
135
136
137
138
139
141
Change sign.
x
13
11
471
465
460
200
069
025
-019
132
200
267
333
578
633
891
981
412
361
-995
-979
267
380
487
351
-094
-187
-279
-368
-951
-913
-864
-805
-738
588
680
762
834
894
350
349
348
347
346
996
985
967
943
913
-454
-536
-613
-685
-750
-661
-578
-487
-391
-291
941
975
994
1000
345
344
343
342
991
341
876
834
786
733
675
-809
-861
-905
-941
-969
-187
-082
969
932
882
820
746
340
339
338
337
336
-988
-998
476 -1000
-992
403
-976
327
339
437
661
335
334
333
332
771
125
834
888
932
965
006
-075
-951
-918
-876
-827
-771
-113
-230
-345
-156
-237
-315
-391
-465
-707
-637
-562
-482
-397
988
999
998
987
964
-454
-557
-652
-738
-813
187
000
613
546
249
169
088
006
025
132
237
531
618
698
567
465
356
243
331
330
329
328
327
326
325
324
323
322
321
635
636
637
638
639
641
642
643
644
650
651
652
653
654
655
656
657
658
659
660
661
662
663
664
665
666
667
668
669
670
671
672
673
674
675
676
677
678
679
TABLE
cos Infix
{h
odd)
8.5C {continued)
Sign as given.
h=2l
960
915
854
778
689
-509
-628
-733
-824
-897
-707
-588
-454
-309
-156
861
279
934
100
981
1000
-082
588
-951
000
951
-986
476
356 -1000
-993
230
-965
100
156
885
794
680
546
850
849
848
847
846
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
218
414
593
746
867
504
642
762
150
156
157
158
159
-1000
-100
-243
-380
855
854
853
852
851
155
809
918
982
1000
969
930
848
738
603
448
145
146
147
148
149
152
153
154
-729
-572
-391
-194
351
142
143
144
151
-536
-689
-816
-913
-975
187
-988
-951
-891
-809
460
327
044
309
454
588
990
-261
-431
35
-156
-1000
187
583
33
-960
-997
-991
-943
-854
-175
-362
930
970
994
1000
989
141
397
212
019
981
860
859
858
857
856
140
861
019
861
139
-707
-809
-891
-951
-988
939
986
1000
790
694
865
864
863
862
27
31
-613
-471
-315
-150
509
618
716
802
873
135
136
137
138
25
23
29
-987
-937
-851
-733
-588
-725
-838
-923
-977
-588
-420
-237
-044
397 -1000
-989
237
-945
069
339
514
150
063
279
482
661
37
39
1000
980
907
786
623
426
206
Change sign.
X
-094
-333
-552
-738
-879
365
364
363
362
-969
360
359
358
357
356
640
645
646
647
648
649
-1000
361
-972
-885
-746
613
426
218
-661
-816
-927
-989
-997
-562
-345
-107
138
355
354
353
352
374
351
951
000
-951
-218
-426
-613
-771
-854
-712
588
767
899
979
999
350
349
348
347
346
650
994
995
953
870
-891
750
-969
598
420 -1000
-982
224
-918
019
-094
960
864
716
525
345
344
343
342
341
655
656
657
658
659
660
-414
-623
-794
340
339
338
337
336
-918
-987
-997
-947
-841
335
334
333
332
331
665
666
667
668
669
670
675
676
677
678
679
013
891
771
-531
-321
707
809
841
-918
-851
-767
-666
-552
951
988
-100
-267
-870
-767
802
902
840
839
838
837
836
-637
-733
-816
-885
-939
-426
-291
-150
-006
1000
988
951
891
809
-426
-572
-703
-813
-899
-637
-487
-321
-144
969
998
990
945
864
-187
-386
-567
-725
-851
-809
-661
-482
-279
-063
876
964
999
981
910
835
834
833
832
279
414
707
588
454
309
-960
-994
-998
-975
-923
218
750
608
443
-941
156
368
562
729
790
628
831
-976
-996
-999
-985
-953
861
-019
830
829
828
827
826
-905
-841
-762
-671
-567
844
913
962
-844
-742
-618
-476
-125
-315
-493
-652
-786
-771
-623
-448
-255
951
-249
-465
-657
-813
-925
-685
-487
-261
-019
-321
905
967
997
994
959
224
330
329
328
327
326
825
824
823
822
156
356
821
-891
-962
-997
-994
-953
-988
-997
-953
-858
-716
454
657
820
934
993
325
324
323
322
321
138
541
657
758
891
156
000
038
391
552
694
813
991
1000
-156
-309
-454
-588
-454
-333
-206
-075
988
955
902
-707
-809
-891
-156
891
013
794
181
671
831
057
742
-951
-988
345
498
525
362
671
261
069
413
641
-025
-255
-471
-031
-163
-291
-414
-531
845
844
843
842
635
636
637
638
639
-990
-998
-962
-885
-050
996
992
941
844
541
707
536
339
703
834
-094
125
138
362
567
742
431
212
303
063
-181
642
643
644
651
652
653
654
661
662
663
664
671
672
673
674
TABLE
cos lirhx
(h
odd)
8.5C (continued)
Change
Sign as given.
h=\
820
819
818
817
816
426
420
414
409
403
-969
-964
-959
-953
-947
185
186
187
188
189
815
814
813
812
397
-941
891
391
-934
-927
-920
-913
905
918
930
941
190
810
809
808
807
806
368
362
356
-905
-897
-888
-879
-870
951
805
804
803
802
339
333
327
801
315
-861
-851
-841
-831
-820
800
789
798
797
796
309
303
297
291
285
205
206
207
208
209
795
794
793
792
279
273
267
791
210
11
13
-063
-107
-150
-194
-237
-729
-689
-647
-603
-557
992
998
1000
997
989
-536
-603
-666
-725
-778
-279
-321
-362
-403
-443
-509
-460
-409
-356
-303
976
959
937
-827
-870
-907
-939
-964
-482
-520
-557
-593
-628
-249
-194
-138
-082
-025
988
992
996
998
1000
-661
031
-694
-725
-754
-782
088
-809
-798
-786
-775
-762
1000
1000
998
996
992
-809
-834
-858
-879
-899
309
362
414
465
514
255
-750
-738
-725
-712
-698
988
982
976
969
960
-918
-934
-949
-962
-973
790
789
788
787
786
249
243
237
230
224
-685
-671
-657
-642
-628
951
941
215
216
217
218
219
785
784
783
782
218
212
206
200
891
781
194
-613
-598
-583
-567
-552
220
780
779
778
777
776
187
-536
-520
-504
-487
-471
809
790
180
181
182
183
184
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
211
212
213
214
221
222
223
224
811
386
380
374
351
345
321
261
181
175
169
163
809
827
844
861
876
960
969
976
982
910
879
-982
844
-994
805
762 -1000
-998
716
-990
666
15
-309
-218
-125
-031
063
17
sign.
19
-876
-927
-965
831
-990
767
694 -1000
320
319
318
317
316
680
685
686
687
688
689
930
885
681
682
683
684
249
339
426
509
613
525
431
333
230
-996
-977
-945
-899
-841
315
314
313
312
588
661
125
729
790
844
-088
-194
-297
-771
-689
-598
-498
-391
310
309
308
307
306
690
019
891
075
305
304
303
302
695
696
697
698
699
156
311
691
692
693
694
-976
-955
-927
-894
-854
930
960
982
996
-397
-493
-583
-666
-742
-279
-163
-044
194
301
1000
996
982
960
930
-809
-867
-915
-953
-980
309
420
038
-809
-758
-703
-642
-578
300
299
298
297
296
562
608
652
694
733
-031
-100
-169
-237
-303
-509
-437
-362
-285
-206
891
-996
844 -1000
-993
790
-975
729
295
294
293
292
661
-945
790
858
913
955
983
-982
-990
-995
930
-998
918
905 -1000
771
805
838
867
894
-368
-431
-493
-552
-608
-125
-044
588
509
038
200
426
339
249
-905
-854
-794
-725
-647
998
998
985
957
915
290
289
288
287
286
712
713
714
-1000
-997
-993
861
-987
844
-979
827
918
939
957
972
983
-661
-712
-758
-802
-841
279
356
-562
-471
-374
-273
-169
861
063
285
284
283
282
281
715
716
717
718
719
-969
-957
-943
-927
-910
992
998
1000
999
995
-876
-907
-934
-957
-975
637
698
754
805
280
720
279^
721
278
277
276
722
723
724
876
771
750
729
144
200
255
613
557
498
437
374
309
243
175
107
414
119
431
504
572
851
156
-031
-125
-218
-309
-397
-482
-562
-637
-063
044
150
255
356
525
623
712
794
716
628
,-531
426
315
200
082
-038
291
700
701
702
703
704
705
706
707
708
709
710
711
TABLE
cos 2-nhx
(h
odd)
8.5C {continued)
Change
Sign as given.
h=2l
637 -1000
-988
520
437
552
657
391
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
815
814
813
812
811
750
190
181
25
187
315
820
819
818
817
816
180
23
27
637
758
858
932
980
29
187
006
-175
-351
-514
31
33
35
37
-876
-767
-628
-465
-285
930
986
999
970
899
-309
-509
-685
-827
-930
-536
-327
-100
790
647
476
285
082
320
319
318
317
316
680
132
356
992
932
816
652
448
-988
-998
-960
-876
-750
562
737
873
962
999
218
-025
-267
-493
-689
315
314
313
312
685
686
687
688
689
-844
-949
-997
-986
-915
310
309
308
307
306
690
218
-790
-618
-409
-175
305
304
303
302
069
301
695
696
697
698
699
309
300
299
298
297
296
700
1000
977
897
762
583
295
294
293
292
705
706
707
708
709
368
132
290
289
288
287
286
710
715
716
717
718
719
113
-951
-891
-809
-707
-588
-454
-309
-156
1000
990
953
888
798
-661
-786
-885
-955
-993
-094
981
-031
-175
-315
-448
-572
810
809
808
807
806
998
998
980
945
894
-685
-782
-864
-927
-972
000
685
552
403
243
075
-998
-970
-910
-820
-703
771
-125
-327
-514
-680
-816
-588
-397
-187
249
982
913
794
633
437
195
196
197
198
199
805
804
803
802
827
746
652
546
431
-996
-999
-981
-943
-885
707
809
891
951
988
-094
-261
-420
-567
-698
-562
-403
-230
-050
960 -918
-980
888
782 -1000
-977
647
-913
487
454
637
790
905
976
-013
-243
-460
-652
200
800
799
798
797
796
309
-809
-716
-608
-487
-356
1000
988
951
891
809
-809
-897
-959
-993
-999
309
476
628
758
864
-809
-671
-504
-315
-113
1000
976
905
790
637
-809
-923
-987
-998
-955
-218
-075
454
249
-861
351
156
-976
-925
-848
-746
-623
941
069
212
707
588
454
309
-156
-309
-454
-588
191
192
193
194
201
202
203
204
801
831
897
947
181
050
-082
-212
255
119
-075
-267
-448
531
720
867
962
798
-187
-397
-998
-967
-899
-798
-666
905
973
1000
983
925
-588
-750
-876
-960
-998
125
351
557
733
175
844
733
598
443
273
-707
-809
-891
-951
-988
339
493
633
754
854
094
-088
-267
-437
-593
-509
-333
-144
827
694
050
243
345
144
-988
-930
-827
-685
-509
-750
960
-888
999
-973
983
915 -1000
-967
798
285
284
283
282
930 -1000
-988
867
-951
786
-891
689
-809
578
930
979
999
426
-063
-267
-460
-633
-778
-309
-094
637
443
224
-876
-733
-546
-327
-088
280
279
278
277
276
791
210
790
789
788
787
786
-844
-907
-955
-986
-999
482
603
712
805
882
215
216
217
218
219
785
784
783
782
941
781
-996
-975
-937
-882
-813
220
780
779
778
777
776
-729
-633
-525
-409
-285
222
223
224
309
094
297
487
657
-339
-460
-572
-675
-767
221
132
031
-613
-754
-867
-947
-991
795
794
793
792
212
213
214
309
454
588
879
955
994
996
311
987
1000
980
927
205
206
207
208
209
211
156
100
291
471
633
980
998
996
973
000
-482
-327
-163
006
-729
-841
-925
-979
991
955 -1000
593
737
854
939
415
531
sign.
39
031
125
339
536
-720
-541
-333
-107
870
-006
-237
-113
-351
-567
291
281
681
682
683
684
691
692
693
694
701
702
703
704
711
712
713
714
720
721
722
723
724
TABLE
cos Irrhx
(h
odd)
8.5C (continued)
(x fractional.
Sign as given.
h=\
x:
156
150
144
138
132
-454
-437
-420
-403
-386
707
685
770
769
768
767
766
125
119
113
107
100
-368
-351
-333
-315
-297
588
562
536
509
482
-742
-712
-680
-647
235
236
237
238
239
765
764
763
762
-279
-261
-243
-224
-206
454
426
397
368
339
-613
-578
-541
-504
-465
750
712
761
094
088
082
075
069
240
242
243
244
760
759
758
757
756
063
057
050
044
038
-187
-169
-150
-132
-113
309
279
249
218
245
246
247
248
249
755
754
753
752
751
031
-094
-075
-057
-038
-019
156
025
019
013
006
250
750
000
000
225
226
227
228
229
775
774
773
772
230
231
232
233
234
241
771
661
637
613
-891
-870
-848
-824
-798
-771
11
-988
988
-996
977
964 -1000
-999
947
-993
927
905
879
851
820
786
-982
-967
-947
-923
-894
15
891
-707
-771
-827
-876
-918
454
546
633
712
782
-156
-273
-386
-493
-593
271
-951
998
-976
1000
-992
995
983 -1000
-998
965
844
897
939
970
990
-685
-767
-838
-897
-943
270
269
268
267
266
-988
-969
-941
-905
-861
1000
997
983
959
923
-976
-995
-1000
-990
-967
265
264
263
262
-809
-750
-685
-613
-536
876
820
754
680
598
-930
-879
-816
-742
-657
260
259
258
257
256
740
509
414
315
212
255
254
253
252
107
-562
-460
-351
-237
-119
251
745
746
747
748
749
000
000
250
750
925
953
975
990
-861
941
910
873
628
583
-824
-782
-738
-689
-426
-386
-345
-303
-261
536
487
437
386
333
-637
-583
-525
-465
-403
729
279
224
031
-218
-175
-132
-088
-044
057
-339
-273
-206
-138
-069
082
-454
-368
-279
-187
-094
000
000
000
000
000
000
187
125
094
063
671
169
113
416
Change sign.
X
13
831
782
671
608
541
471
397
321
243
163
17
19
275
274
273
272
261
725
726
727
728
729
730
731
732
733
734
735
736
737
738
739
741
742
743
744
TABLE
cos lirhx
Sign as given.
X
225
226
227
228
229
775
774
773
772
230
770
769
768
767
766
231
232
233
234
771
(x fractional.
Change
h=2l
23
-156
-025
454
321
107
181
237
362
038
482
593
694
782
858
-107
-249
-386
-514
-633
-738
25
-707
-588
-454
-309
-156
000
156
309
454
588
27
891
802
689
557
409
249
082
-088
-255
-414
29
31
988
999
973
910
813
-891
-965
-998
-989
-482
-315
-138
685
044
224
169
-025
-844
-716
-557
-374
-175
397
557
698
816
907
-218
-403
-572
-720
-841
531
356
988
969
927
870
798
712
-992
-964
-915
-848
-762
1000
988
951
891
809
-992
-999
-977
-927
-851
969
998
994
957
888
-930
-983
-1000
-979
-920
-661
-546
-420
-285
-144
707
588
156
-750
-628
-487
-333
-169
790
666
520
356
751
613
504
386
261
132
181
-827
-703
-552
-380
-194
750
000
000
000
000
000
000
240
760
759
758
757
756
245
246
247
248
249
755
754
753
752
250
761
707
809
891
951
454
309
417
EE
33
-988
-943
-867
-762
-633
-562
-694
-805
-894
-957
765
764
763
762
242
243
244
odd)
-827
918
-899
962
-953
990
-987
1000
993 -1000
235
236
237
238
239
241
(h
8.5C (continued)
-937
35
37
sign.
39
707
844
941
992
996
-454
-647
-805
-920
-986
778
907
951
861
-998
-957
-864
-725
-546
982
998
955
854
703
270
269
268
267
266
730
-339
-113
509
285
044
735
736
737
738
739
729
562
368
156
391
603
275
274
273
272
271
725
726
727
728
729
731
732
733
734
119
345
552
-200
265
264
263
262
-431
261
-809
876
-918
957
-982
996
993 -1000
-969
947
729
867
959
998
985
-637
-805
-925
-990
-995
260
259
258
257
256
740
738
583
403
206
-891
-771
-613
-426
-218
918
802
642
448
230
-941
-831
-671
-471
-243
255
254
253
252
251
745
746
747
748
749
000
000
000
000
250
750
031
156
237
-063
-279
-482
-661
431
608
758
861
741
742
743
744
TABLE
cos 2nhx
(h even)
8.5D
Sign as given.
h=2
1000
1000
999
997
995
1000
999
997
994
989
1000
999
995
989
980
1000
998
992
982
969
1000
997
989
975
955
1000
996
985
965
939
1000
995
980
955
920
1000
994
975
943
899
1000
992
969
930
876
930
899
864
824
778
905
864
816
762
703
876
824
762
694
618
844
778
703
618
525
729
675
618
557
493
637
567
493
414
333
536
448
356
261
163
426
356
285
212
249
063
163
10
000
500
001
501
002
003
004
502
503
504
1000
1000
1000
999
999
005
006
007
008
009
505
506
507
508
509
998
997
996
995
994
992
989
985
980
975
982
975
965
955
943
969
955
939
920
899
951
010
510
771
512
513
514
930
915
899
882
864
851
012
013
014
969
962
955
947
939
809
511
992
990
989
987
985
876
011
824
794
762
729
685
637
015
016
017
018
019
515
516
517
518
519
982
980
977
975
972
930
920
910
899
844
824
802
778
754
729
694
657
618
578
588
536
969
965
962
959
955
876
864
729
703
675
647
618
536
493
448
403
356
888
020
520
021
521
022
023
024
522
523
524
025
026
027
028
029
525
526
527
528
529
951
947
943
939
934
809
794
778
762
746
588
557
525
493
460
113
030
530
531
532
533
534
729
712
694
675
657
063
013
032
033
034
930
925
920
915
910
426
031
035
036
037
038
039
535
536
537
538
539
905
899
894
888
882
637
618
598
249
212
578
557
138
100
040
540
041
541
542
543
544
536
514
493
471
448
063
025
042
043
044
876
870
864
858
851
851
838
824
391
356
321
285
175
-013
-050
-088
12
20
& ven
h=4n + 2
h=4n
for
252
253
254
752
753
754
809
729
637
536
426
255
256
257
258
259
755
756
757
758
759
426
309
260
760
321
187
261
761
212
063
100
-013
-063
-187
262
263
264
762
763
764
-013
-100
-038
-138
-237
-333
-125
-237
-345
-448
-546
-309
-426
-536
-637
-729
265
266
267
268
269
765
766
767
768
769
-187
-273
-356
-437
-514
-426
-514
-598
-675
-746
-637
-720
-794
-858
-910
-809
-876
-930
-969
-992
270
770
-013
-088
-163
-237
271
771
272
273
274
772
773
774
-809 -951 -1000

-864 -980 -992
-910 -996 -969
-947 -1000 -930
-975 -990 -876
275
276
277
278
279
775
776
777
778
779
280
780
281
781
282
283
284
782
783
784
285
286
287
288
289
785
786
787
788
789
290
790
482
426
368
138
063
075
309
000
-063
-125
-187
-249
-309
-380
-448
-514
-578
-588
-657
-720
-778
-831
-038
-088
-138
-309
-368
-426
-482
-536
-637
-694
-746
-794
-838
-876 -992
-915 -1000
-947 -997
-972 -985
-989 -962
-969
-934
-888
-831
^762
-809
-729
-637
-536
-426
-187
-237
-285
-333
-380
-588
-637
-685
-729
-771
-876 -998
-910 -1000
-939 -994
-962 -980
-980 -959
-930
-888
-838
-778
-712
-685
-598
-504
-403
-297
-309
-187
-063
-426
-471
-514
-557
-598
-809 -992
-844 -999
-876 -1000
-905 -995
-930 -985
-930
-894
-637
-557
-471
-380
-285
-187
-075
309
426
536
637
729
163
sign for
Sign as
750
261
212
Change
751
876
844
063
18
250
905.
187
125
16
251
930
309
249
14
418
-851
-802
-746
038
150
261
063
187
291
791
292
293
294
792
793
794
TABLE
cos
S,gnasg,ven.
000
500
2-rrhx
(h even)
(jc
fractional.
8.5D
1000
990
962
915
851
1000
989
955
899
824
1000
987
947
882
794
1000
985
939
864
762
1000
982
930
844
729
1000
980
920
824
694
1000
977
910
802
657
1000
975
899
778
618
1000
1000
250
750
972
969
876
729
251
751
252
253
254
752
753
754
771
729
618
493
356
212
685
557
414
637
493
333
588
536
356
426
212
368
138
309
063
261
100
163
426
249
063
-013
255
256
257
258
259
755
756
757
758
759
Change
001
501
002
003
004
502
503
504
005
006
007
008
009
505
506
507
508
509
010
510
187
063
011
511
050
012
013
014
512
513
514
-088
-224
-356
-088
-237
-380
-514
-063
-224
-380
-525
-657
015
016
017
018
019
515
516
517
518
519
-482
-598
-703
-794
-870
-637
-746
-838
-910
-962
020
520
021
521
022
023
024
522
523
524
-930 -992
-972 -1000
-995 -985
-999 -947
-985 -888
025
026
027
028
029
525
526
527
528
529
-951
-899
-831
-746
-647
030
530
031
531
032
033
034
532
533
534
035
036
037
038
039
888
754
578
^ sign
536
as
sign for h
g^n
= An + 2
for
163
482
285
075
-125
-038
-237
-138
-345
-013
-237
-448
-100
-333
-546
-187
-426
-637
-187
-356
-514
-657
-778
-309
-482
-637
-771
-876
-426
-598
-746
-864
-947
-536 -637
-703 -794
-838 -910
-934 -980
-989 -1000
-729
-870
-962
-999
-980
-809
-930
-992
-992
-930
260
760
261
761
262
263
264
762
763
764
-876
-771
-864 -947
-934 -989
-980 -1000
-999 -980
-951
-992
-998
-969
-905
-992
-997
-962
-888
-778
-998
-962
-882
-762
-608
-969
-888
-762
-598
-403
-905
-778
-608
-403
-175
-809
-637
-426
-187
265
266
267
268
269
765
766
767
768
769
-992
-959
-899
-816
-712
-930
-851
-746
-618
-471
-809
-685
-536
-368
-187
-637
-471
-285
-088
-426
-224
-013
-187
770
271
771
113
200
403
657
851
309
536
729
876
969
270
261
471
063
297
514
703
272
273
274
772
773
774
-809
-712
-598
-471
-333
-588
-448
-297
-138
-309
-138
000
025
368
536
685
588
746
870
955
996
809
920
985
999
962
951
038
212
380
309
493
657
794
899
1000
969
876
729
536
275
276
277
278
279
775
776
777
778
779
-536
-414
-285
-150
-013
-187
-038
187
345
493
628
746
536
675
794
888
955
809
905
969
998
992
969
999
989
939
992
943
876
746
637
437
212
309
063
280
780
281
781
-187
-426
-637
282
283
284
782
783
784
535
536
537
538
539
125
261
391
536
657
762
514
628
851
992
999
975
920
838
951
876
771
637
920
844
920
972
997
996
729
578
403
212
013
-809
-930
-992
-992
-930
285
286
287
288
289
785
786
787
788
789
040
540
729
598
448
285
-809
-637
-426
-187
790
791
542
543
544
969
915
838
738
618
291
042
043
044
969
995
999
980
939
290
541
729
816
888
943
980
309
041
292
293
294
792
793
794
675
567
448
321
113
261
403
113
187
-063
-249
-426
997
987
920
802
851
578
720
557
380
368
163
-482
-675
-460
-063
-285
-493
-675
-824
-187 -637
-380 -786
-557 -899
-712 -972
-838 -1000
-930
-989
-997
-955
-864
-992
-934
-824
-666
-471
851
482
125
038
419
-050
-261
163
-025
-261
-831
-939
-994
063
063
*=.,
TABLE
cos 2-nhx
(h even)
8.5D {continued)
(x fractional.
Change
Sign as given.
A=2
x
045
046
047
048
049
545
546
547
548
549
844
838
831
824
816
10
12
14
426
403
380
356
333
-125
-163
-200
-237
-273
-637
-675
-712
-746
-778
-951
-969
-982
-992
-998
-969
-947
-920
-888
-851
-685
-618
-546
309
285
-309
-345
-380
-414
-448
-809 -1000
-838 -998
-864 -992
-888 -982
-910 -969
-809
-762
-712
-657
-598
-309
-224
-138
-050
-482
-514
-546
-578
-608
-930
-947
-962
-975
-985
-951
-930
-905
-876
-844
-536
-471
-403
-333
-261
-809
-771
-729
-685
-637
-187
-113
-038
050
550
051
551
052
053
054
552
553
554
809
802
794
786
778
055
056
057
058
059
555
556
557
558
559
771
187
762
754
746
738
163
261
237
212
138
113
088
-471
-391
038
16
-187
-088
1!
368
471
567
h=4n + 2
295
296
297
298
299
795
796
797
798
799
212
657
737
809
876
930
969
992
309
403
493
578
657
809
870
920
959
985
1000
992
969
930
876
300
800
301
801
302
303
304
802
803
804
729
794
809
729
637
536
426
305
306
307
308
309
805
806
807
808
809
309
310
810
187
311
811
063
-063
-187
312
313
314
812
813
814
315
316
317
318
319
815
816
817
818
819
320
820
321
821
822
823
013
113
212
297
380
460
899
939
998
999
987
962
925
536
608
675
737
794
969
989
999
999
989
876
816
746
666
578
969
939
899
482
380
273
851
163
794
050
-309
-426
-536
-637
-729
-809
-876
-930
-969
-992
125
sign for
20 Sign as given for h = 4n
851
562
563
564
729
720
712
703
694
-013
-038
-637 -992
-666 -997
-694 -1000
-720 -1000
-746 -997
065
066
067
068
069
565
566
567
568
569
685
675
666
657
647
-063
-088
-113
-138
-163
-794
-816
-838
-858
-992
-985
-975
-962
-947
-588
-536
-482
-426
-368
187
261
333
471
844
888
925
955
977
070
570
071
571
072
073
074
572
573
574
637
628
618
608
598
-187
-212
-237
-261
-285
-876
-894
-910
-925
-939
-930
-910
-888
-864
-838
-309
-249
-187
-125
-063
536
598
657
712
762
992
999
999
990
975
729
657
578
493
403
-063
-175
-285
-391
-493
075
076
077
078
079
575
576
577
578
579
588
578
567
557
546
-309
-333
-356
-380
-403
-951
-962
-972
000
063
809
951
851
125
249
888
920
947
920
882
838
786
309
212
-980
-987
-809
-778
-746
-712
-675
-088
-588 -1000
-675 -992
-754 -969
-824 -930
-882 -876
325
326
327
328
329
825
826
827
828
829
080
580
309
368
426
482
536
969
985
995
1000
999
729
666
598
525
448
-187
-285
-380
-471
-557
-930
-965
-989
-999
-997
-809
-729
-637
-536
-426
831
582
583
584
-637
-598
-557
-514
-471
331
082
083
084
-426 -992
-448 -996
-471
-999
-493 -1000
-514 -1000
830
581
536
525
514
504
493
330
081
332
333
334
832
833
834
085
086
087
088
089
585
586
587
588
589
482
-536
-557
-578
-598
-618
-426
-380
-333
-285
-237
588
637
685
729
992
980
962
939
910
368
285
-637
-712
-778
-838
-888
-982
-955
-915
-864
-802
-309
-187
-063
335
336
337
338
339
835
836
837
838
839
060
560
061
561
062
063
064
471
460
448
437
063
038
013
-771
-998
-995
-990
-985
-977
187
038
113
403
771
420
200
113
025
113
013
063
187
322
323
324
824
TABLE
cos Inhx
(h even)
8.5D {continued)
Change
Sign as given.
=22
24
26
28
32
30
34
36
-588 -930
-729 -985
-844 -1000
-930 -975
-982 -910
-982
-920
-816
-675
-504
-729
-557
-356
-138
38
-249
-013
40
Si 8 n
088
224
448
647
795
796
797
798
799
309
514
694
838
939
809
925
989
996
947
1000
969
876
729
536
300
800
301
801
302
303
304
802
803
804
844
694
504
285
050
309
063
-187
-426
-637
305
306
307
308
309
805
806
807
808
809
-187
-414
-618
-786
-910
-809
-930
-992
-992
-930
310
810
311
811
312
313
314
812
813
814
-982
-999
-959
-864
-720
-809
-637
-426
-187
315
316
317
318
319
815
816
817
818
819
-809 -1000
-899 -982
-962 -930
-995 -844
-997 -729
-809
-675
-514
-333
-138
-309
-100
-138
-285
-309
-460
-598
-720
-824
-905
-962
-994
-999
-977
-969
-910
-824
-712
-578
-588
-426
-249
-063
063
-025
-163
-297
-426
-557
-675
-778
-864
448
618
762
685
824
925
985
999
992
995
947
-930
-975
-997
-997
-975
-930
-858
-762
-647
-514
-426
-261
-088
309
482
637
771
261
876
969
894
778
628
448
536
333
088
876
955
995
995
955
-113
-333
876
762
618
448
261
249
038
-536
-712
-175
-380
-567
-947
-995
-729
-858
-947
-994
-995
-992
-939
-838
-694
-514
-536
-321
-088
380
309
536
729
876
969
-951
-309
-088
356
557
588
762
894
975
1000
729
864
955
997
989
969
882
746
567
356
930
824
675
493
285
-113
-345
-557
-738
998
997
977
939
882
876
794
694
482
333
578
448
013
050
550
809
720
618
504
380
309
163
175
051
551
052
053
054
552
553
554
055
056
057
058
059
555
556
557
558
559
060
560
061
561
062
063
064
562
563
564
-426
-546
-657
-754
-838
065
066
067
068
069
565
566
567
568
569
-905
-955
-987
-1000
-994
-930
-864
-778
-675
-557
-368
-212
-050
426
951
578
712
113
273
824
910
992
998
969
905
-426
-285
-138
426
567
694
802
888
969
997
995
962
899
951
249
113
013
125
261
113
321
514
070
570
071
571
072
073
074
572
573
574
-969
-925
-864
-786
-694
075
076
077
078
079
575
576
577
578
579
-588
-471
-345
-212
-075
309
448
578
694
794
989
1000
985
943
809
694
557
403
237
-809
000
-187 -910
-368 -975
-536 -1000
-685 -985
080
580
082
083
084
582
583
584
876
939
980
999
995
876
786
675
546
403
-113
-285
-448
-598
-809
-905
-969
-998
-992
-930
-838
-712
-557
-380
-187
581
063
200
333
460
063
081
085
086
087
088
089
585
586
587
588
589
969
920
249
088
771
888
-075
-237
-391
-951
-876
-771
-637
-482
-187
851
-729
-838
-920
-975
-999
578
685
778
858
920
965
013
163
762
657
809
685
536
368
187
063
-138
-333
-514
-675
013
212
403
578
421
-864
-738
-578
-391
025
237
437
618
965
999
987
851
712
113
-851
138
150
125
063
X
295
296
297
298
299
-150
545
546
547
548
549
=A
309
536
729
876
969
-063
-237
-403
-557
-694
045
046
047
048
049
sign for h
as given for
320
820
321
821
322
323
324
822
823
824
1000
969
876
729
536
325
326
327
328
329
825
826
827
828
829
309
063
330
830
331
831
-187
-426
-637
332
333
334
832
833
834
-809
-930
-992
-992
-930
335
336
337
338
339
835
836
837
838
839
TABLE
cos
2-rrhx
(h even)
8.5D {continued)
(x fractional.
Sign as given.
h=2
10
12
876
838
794
746
694
-063 -930
-150 -962
-237 -985
-321
-997
-403 -1000
-729
-647
-557
-460
-356
309
426
536
637
729
340
840
341
841
342
343
344
842
843
844
637
578
514
448
380
-482
-557
-628
-694
-754
-992
-975
-947
-910
-864
-249
-138
-025
088
200
809
876
930
969
992
345
346
347
348
349
845
846
847
848
849
309
237
-809
-858
-899
-934
-962
-809
-746
-675
-598
-514
309
414
514
608
694
1000
992
969
930
876
350
850
351
851
352
353
354
852
853
854
-063 -982
-138 -995
-212 -1000
-285 -997
-356 -987
-426
-333
-237
-138
-038
771
809
729
637
536
426
355
356
357
358
359
855
856
857
858
859
-426
-493
-557
-618
-675
-969
-943
-910
-870
-824
063
309
360
860
187
361
861
063
-063
-187
362
363
364
862
863
864
-729
-778
-824
-864
-899
-771
-712
-647
-578
-309
-426
-536
-637
-729
365
366
367
368
369
865
866
867
868
869
-809
-876
-930
-969
-992
370
870
371
871
372
373
374
872
873
874
000 -1000
375
376
377
378
379
875
876
877
878
879
380
880
-637
-657
-675
-694
-712
-969
-959
-947
-934
-920
-187
-138
-088
-038
013
809
844
876
905
930
-729
-746
-762
-778
-794
-905
-888
-870
-851
-831
063
951
113
261
969
982
992
998
261
-809
-824
-838
-851
-864
-809
-786
-762
-738
-712
309
356
403
448
493
1000
998
992
982
969
249
237
224
212
200
-876
-888
-899
-910
-920
-685
-657
-628
-598
-567
536
578
618
657
694
951
109
605
606
607
608
609
110
610
111
611
112
113
114
612
613
614
187
175
163
150
138
-930
-939
-947
-955
-962
-536
-504
-471
-437
-403
729
762
794
824
115
116
117
118
119
615
616
617
618
619
125
-969
-975
-980
-985
-989
-368
-333
-297
-261
-224
876
899
920
939
955
120
620
121
621
122
123
124
622
623
624
-992
063
-995
050
-997
038
-999
025
013 -1000
-187
-150
-113
-075
-038
969
980
989
995
999
125
126
127
128
625
626
627
628
629
000 -1000
-013 -1000
-025 -999
-038 -997
-050 -995
000
038
075
-063
-075
-088
-100
-113
090
590
091
591
092
093
094
592
593
594
095
096
097
098
099
595
596
597
598
599
368
356
345
333
100
600
101
601
102
103
104
602
603
604
309
297
285
273
105
106
107
108
129
130
630
131
631
132
133
632
633
634
134
426
414
403
391
380
321
113
100
088
075
-992
-989
-985
-980
-975
113
150
187
224
261
297
333
163
212
851
20
Change sign for h =

Sign as given tor
930
905
876
844
809
771
729
685
637
163
088
013
14
16
163
261
356
448
18
838
894
939
972
992
1000
995
977
947
905
-504
536
618
694
762
824
-930
-955
-975
-989
-997
-426
-345
-261
-175
-088
876
920
955
980
995
536
437
333
224
000 -1000
000
088
175
261
345
1000
995
980
955
920
-113
-224
-333
-437
-992
-969
-930
-876
426
504
578
647
712
876
824
762
694
618
-536
-628
-712
-786
-851
-809
-729
-637
-536
-426
588
536
482
426
368
309
249
187
125
063
1000
999
995
989
980,
-063
-125
-187
-249
-997
-989
-975
-955
969
955
939
920
899
-309
-368
-426
-482
-536
-930
-899
-864
-824
-778
422
851
786
712
628
113
381
881
382
383
384
882
883
884
TABLE
cos 2rrhx
(h even)
8.5D (continued)
(x fractional.
Sign as given.
h=22
24
536
403
261
-038
-187
-333
-471
-598
-712
092
093
094
592
593
594
992
1000
989
959
910
095
096
097
098
099
595
596
597
598
599
844
762
666
557
437
100
600
090
091
590
591
26
113
30
729
930
063
851
831
063
249
426
939
989
999
694
525
333
-163
-380
-578
-746
-982
-536
-380
-212
-038
588
729
969
899
794
657
493
125
-1000
-990
-955
-894
138
-809
-703
-578
-437
-285
309
471
618
930
980
1000
989
947
601
602
603
604
105
106
107
108
109
605
606
607
608
609
-368
-493
-608
-712
-802
-992
-962
-910
-838
-746
-125
110
610
111
611
-637
-514
-380
-237
-088
637
754
038
200
356
504
746
851
844
930
982
1000
982
930
844
729
309
063
355
356
357
358
359
855
856
857
858
859
-809
-930
-992
-992
-930
360
860
361
861
362
363
364
862
863
864
-809
-637
-426
-187
365
366
367
368
369
865
866
867
868
869
-426
-618
-778
-899
-975
-930
-816
-657
-460
-237
309
536
729
876
969
370
870
371
871
372
373
374
872
873
874
1000
980
920
824
694
000
1000
-212
-414
-598
-754
-975
-899
-778
-618
000
237
460
657
816
1000
969
876
729
536
375
376
377
378
379
875
876
877
878
879
-876
-959
-997
-990
-939
-426
-212
930
990
995
943
838
309
063
380
880
381
881
-187
-426
-637
382
383
384
882
883
884
-637
-493
-333
-163
632
633
634
998
985
915
794
628
876
754
598
414
212
-729
-831
-910
-965
-995
631
187
536
694
824
920
980
187
132
133
134
852
853
854
-809
-685
-536
-368
-187
000
131
851
352
353
354
-637
-762
-864
-939
-985
-985
-939
-864
-762
729
618
493
356
212
850
351
-212
000 -1000
637
738
824
894
947
350
356
-163
-321
-471
-608
630
1000
969
876
729
536
-163
-333
-493
729
608
471
130
309
525
712
858
955
-685
-838
-943
-995
-990
729
824
899
955
989
273
403
525
-809
-657
-471
-261
-038
844
939
990
997
959
-637
-525
-403
-273
-138
1000
989
955
899
824
075
309
536
729
876
969
-426
-237
-038
620
138
845
846
847
848
849
-771
-598
-391
-163
-951
-992
-998
-969
-905
120
000
345
346
347
348
349
-876
-962
-999
-985
-920
187
998
995
965
910
625
626
627
628
629
-975
063
842
843
844
-063
063
212
356
493
618
125
126
127
128
129
-1000
841
342
343
344
-992
-947
-864
-746
-598
-982
-947
-894
-824
-738
321
163
840
341
-309
-482
-637
-771
-876
615
616
617
618
619
622
623
624
-088
-285
-471
-977
-899
340
876
778
657
514
356
115
116
117
118
119
831
113
--1000
-809
-637
-426
-187
-125
612
613
614
925
975
-809
-915
-980
309
-876
-965
-905
-794
-647
-471
-273
112
113
114
851
-088
-297
-493
-666
38
Change sign for h=4i

si 8 n as given for h
X
-637
-778
-888
-962
-997
588
426
249
063
-876
-934
-975
-996
-999
122
123
124
36
-309
-125
102
103
104
621
34
-992
-955
-888
-794
-675
101
121
32
-536
-666
-778
-870
-939
-809
-888
175
-947
038
-100 -985
-237 -1000
309
28
40
013
013
368
536
685
809
905
969
998
992
163
536
356
163
-038
-237
423
150
356
546
712
403
598
762
888
969
1000
980
910
794
637
448
237
013
013
237
448
426
200
-038
-273
-493
-187
-426
-637
063
TABLE
cos l-nhx
(h even)
8.5D (continued)
(x fractional.
h=2
876
10
12
14
-729
-675
-618
-557
-493
771
824
870
910
943
635
636
637
638
639
-125
-138
-150
-163
-175
-969
-962
-955
-947
-939
368
403
437
471
504
824
794
762
-588
-637
-685
-729
-771
140
640
141
641
142
642
643
644
-187
-200
-212
-224
-237
-930
-920
-910
-899
-888
536
567
598
628
657
729
694
657
618
578
-809
-844
-876
-905
-930
-426
-356
-285
-212
-138
969
987
997
1000
995
-249
-261
-273
-285
-297
-876
-864
-851
-838
-824
685
712
737
762
786
536
493
448
403
356
-951
-969
-982
-992
-998
-063
149
645
646
647
648
649
-309
-321
-333
870
888
-1000
-998
-992
212
-982
163
-969
113
309
380
448
514
-951
637
694
746
794
838
135
136
137
138
139
143
144
145
146
147
148
851
150
650
151
651
152
153
652
653
654
-345
-356
-809
-794
-778
-762
-746
159
655
656
657
658
659
-368
-380
-391
-403
-414
-729
-712
-694
-675
-657
905
920
934
947
959
-038
-088
-138
160
660
161
661
162
662
663
664
-426
-437
-448
-460
-471
-637
-618
-598
-578
-557
969
977
985
990
995
-187
-237
-285
-333
-380
665
666
667
668
669
-482
-493
-504
-514
-525
-536
-514
-493
-471
-448
998
1000
1000
999
996
-426
-403
-380
-356
-333
-309
-285
-261
-237
-212
154
155
156
157
158
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
670
171
671
172
672
673
674
-536
-546
-557
-567
-578
675
676
677
678
679
-588
-598
-608
-618
-628
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
sign for h = An + 2
Sign as given for h=An
Change
Sign as given.
809
831
851
013
088
163
237
309
261
063
013
578
-930
-905
-876
-844
-809
16
20
18
-905
-947
-977
-995
261
163 -1000
-309
-187
-063
-992
-972
-939
-894
-838
309
426
536
637
729
390
890
-038
-138
-237
-333
391
891
392
393
394
892
893
894
982
962
934
899
858
-426
-514
-598
-675
-746
-771
-694
-608
-514
-414
809
876
930
969
992
395
396
397
398
399
895
896
897
898
899
809
754
694
628
557
-809
-864
-910
-947
-975
-309
-200
-088
400
900
401
901
138
1000
992
969
930
876
402
403
404
902
903
904
-992
482
403 -1000
-997
-985
-962
249
356
460
557
647
809
729
637
536
426
405
406
407
408
409
905
906
907
908
909
309
187
063
410
910
411
911
321
237
150
536
448
356
063
063
187
025
385
386
387
388
389
885
886
887
888
889
-729
-685
-637
876
910
939
962
980
-025
-113
-200
-285
-930
-888
-838
-778
-712
729
802
864
915
955
-063
-187
412
413
414
912
913
914
-426
-471
-514
-557
-598
-588
-536
-482
-426
-368
992
999
1000
995
985
-368
-448
-525
-598
-666
-637
-557
-471
-380
-285
982
997
999
989
965
-309
-426
-536
-637
-729
415
416
417
418
419
915
916
917
918
919
992
987
980
972
962
-637
-675
-712
-746
-778
-309
-249
-187
-125
-063
969
947
920
888
-729
-786
-838
-882
-920
-187
-088
930
882
824
754
675
-809
-876
-930
-969
-992
420
920
421
921
422
423
424
922
923
924
951
-809
-838
-864
-888
-910
000
063
809
762
712
657
598
-951
-975
309
403
493
578
657
425
426
427
428
429
925
926
927
928
929
939
925
910
894
-771
851
125
187
249
424
063
-990
-999
-999
013
113
212
588
493
391
285
175
-1000
-992
-969
-930
-876
TABLE
cos l-nhx
(h even)
(jc
8.5D (continued)
fractional.

sign for h An + 2
Sign as given for h = An
Change
Sign as given.
h=22
24
982
999
996
975
934
063
139
635
636
637
638
639
140
640
141
641
876
802
712
608
493
x
135
136
137
138
142
143
144
642
643
644
145
146
147
148
149
645
646
647
648
649
150
650
30
187
951
34
36
38
685
493
273
038
385
386
387
388
389
885
886
887
888
889
-426
-628
-794
-915
-985
-809
-637
-426
-187
390
890
391
891
063
392
393
394
892
893
894
-998
-955
-858
-712
-525
309
536
729
876
969
395
396
397
398
399
895
896
897
898
899
-809
-920
-985
-999
-962
-309
-075
1000
969
876
729
536
400
900
401
901
402
403
404
902
903
904
-876
-746
-578
-380
-163
771
309
063
405
406
407
408
409
905
906
907
908
909
-809
-930
-992
-992
-930
410
910
637
794
910
980
1000
-200
-992
-997
-962
-888
-778
063
273
471
647
794
969
888
762
598
403
-588
-729
-844
-930
-982
-637
-471
-285
-088
187
113
905
975
1000
980
915
-038
-261
-471
-657
309 -1000
-982
-930
-844
-729
309
493
657
794
899
809
666
493
297
088
-637
-746
-838
-910
-962
-637
-504
-356
-200
-038
876
947
989
1000
980
125
930
851
876
771
637
482
309
125
-063
-249
-426
40
-809
-930
-992
-992
-930
-844
-712
-546
-356
-150
356
514
657
778
-992
368
237 -1000
-985
100
32
-426
-598
-746
-864
-947
-088
-237
-380
-514
-038
-175
-947
-888
285
437
578
703
-809
-712
-598
-471
-333
809
894
955
990
1000
-038
-212
-380
982
939
870
778
666
-536
-675
-794
-888
-955
-588
-426
-249
-063
969
999
989
939
125
851
-125
-333
-525
-694
-831
536
309
482
637
729
578
403
212
013
-930
-987
-999
-965
-888
063
285
493
675
824
876
738
557
345
-187
-380
-557
-712
-838
-771
-618
-437
-237
-025
930
989
997
955
864
-125
-356
-567
-746
-882
-809
-637
-426
-187
-969
-1000
-975
-894
138
-088 -762
152
153
154
652
653
654
155
156
157
158
159
655
656
657
658
659
-844
-910
-959
-989
-1000
-187
-038
160
660
536
657
762
651
28
-998
-975
-925
-851
-754
-309
-437
-557
-666
-762
151
26
113
261
403
746
618
471
138
851
237
075
920
-088
-992
-999
-975
-920
-838
-685
-578
-460
-333
-200
969
995
999
980
939
-249
-403
-546
-675
-786
-729
-598
-448
-285
-113
951
670
-063
671
075
212
345
063
237
403
557
694
809
685
536
368
471
-876
876
-943
794
-985
694
578 -1000
-989
448
588
309
013
-951
-888
-802
-138
-285
-694
-567
809
899
962
995
997
161
661
162
163
164
662
663
664
-992
-965
-920
-858
-778
165
166
167
168
169
665
666
667
668
669
170
171
172
173
174
672
673
674
175
176
177
178
179
675
676
677
678
679
694
786
864
925
163
391
771
876
992
998
969
905
-930
-985
-1000
-975
-910
187
000
-187
-368
-536
-685
-809
-675
-514
-333
-138
425
187
391
578
737
864
951
995
994
947
858
163
391
598
899
977
1000
965
113
729
557
356
-309
-514
-694
-838
-939
-588
-380
-150
088
321
-187
-426
-637
411
911
412
413
414
912
913
914
415
416
417
418
419
915
916
917
918
919
309
536
729
876
969
420
920
421
921
422
423
424
922
923
924
1000
969
876
729
536
425
426
427
428
429
925
926
927
928
929
063
TABLE
cos 2-nhx
(h even)
8.5D (continued)
h=2
10
12
14
536
471
-992
-977
-955
-925
-888
899
939
-050
-163
-273
-380
771
969
989
999
999
989
-482
-578
-666
-746
-816
-309
-187
-063
-038
-113
-844
-794
-738
-675
-608
309
426
536
637
729
441
941
442
443
444
942
943
944
682
683
684
-187
-163
-138
-113
-088
876
858
838
816
794
-930
-947
-962
-975
-985
309
368
426
482
536
685
686
687
688
689
-685
-694
-703
-712
-720
-063
-038
-013
771
-992
588
637
685
729
063
088
680
681
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
-637
-647
-657
-666
-675
180
181
sign for h = An + 2
Sign as given for h=4n
Change
Sign as given.
013
038
190
690
191
691
192
193
194
692
693
694
-729
-738
-746
-754
-762
195
196
197
198
199
695
696
697
698
699
-771
-778
-786
-794
-802
285
200
700
201
701
202
203
204
702
703
704
-809
-816
-824
-831
-838
309
333
356
380
403
205
206
207
208
209
705
706
707
708
709
-844
-851
-858
-864
-870
426
448
471
493
514
210
710
211
711
212
213
214
712
713
714
-876
-882
-888
-894
-899
215
216
217
218
219
715
716
717
718
719
220
720
221
721
222
223
224
722
723
724
113
138
163
187
212
237
261
-997
746
720 -1000
694 -1000
-997
666
403
333
261
187
113
038
16
729
794
851
18
063
20
-809
-729
-637
-536
-426
063
187
430
930
431
931
432
433
434
932
933
934
435
436
437
438
439
935
936
937
938
939
440
940
637
608
578
546
514
-992
-985
-975
-962
-947
809
844
876
905
930
-187
-261
-333
-403
-471
-536
-460
-380
-297
-212
969
939
899
794
-876
-925
-962
-987
-999
482
448
414
380
345
-930
-910
-888
-864
-838
951
969
982
992
998
-536
-598
-657
-712
-762
-125
-038
729
657
578
493
403
-998
-985
-959
-920
-870
809
876
930
969
992
445
446
447
448
449
945
946
947
948
949
309
273
237
200
-809
-778
-746
-712
-675
1000
998
992
982
969
-809
-851
-888
-920
-947
309
309
212
-809
-738
-657
-567
-471
1000
992
969
930
876
450
950
451
951
452
453
454
952
953
954
951
-969
-368
-261
-150
-038
075
809
729
637
536
426
455
456
457
458
459
955
956
957
958
959
187
309
460
960
297
403
504
598
187
063
461
961
-063
-187
462
463
464
962
963
964
465
466
467
468
469
965
966
967
968
969
470
970
163
050
138
224
391
471
546
618
851
113
013
-088
-025
-637
-598
-557
-514
-471
-985
930
-995
905
876 -1000
-999
844
536
557
578
598
618
-063
-100
-138
-175
-212
-426
-380
-333
-285
-237
809
771
729
685
637
-992
-980
-962
-939
-910
-905
-910
-915
-920
-925
637
657
675
694
712
-249
-285
-321
-356
-391
-187
-138
-088
-038
588
536
482
426
368
-876
-838
-794
-746
-694
-930
998
-962
989
-985
972
-997
947
915 -1000
685
762
934
-309
-426
-536
-637
-729
-930
-934
-939
-943
-947
729
746
762
778
794
-426
-460
-493
-525
-557
063
309
249
-637
-578
-514
-448
-380
876
-992
-975
-947
-910
-864
969
990
1000
996
980
-809
-876
-930
-969
-992
125
088
050
013
013
113
163
212
261
187
125
063
426
894
-187
-285
-380
-471
-557
930
959
980
994
1000
-637
-712
-778
-838
-888
685
746
802
851
831
778
720
657
831
888
471
971
472
473
474
972
973
974
TABLE
(h even)
cos 1-nhx
Sign as given.
(x fractional.
"
-088
-261
190
690
426
297
-930
-864
-778
-675
-557
930
977
999
994
962
-426
-578
-712
-824
-910
-309
-125
905
824
720
-969
-997
-995
-962
-899
588
729
844
191
691
192
193
194
692
693
694
-113
195
196
197
198
199
695
696
697
698
699
-249
-380
-504
-618
-720
-426
-285
-138
200
700
201
701
163
025
013
598
163
460
309
448
578
694
794
309
150
-013
-175
-333
261
088
-809
-694
-557
-403
-237
931
-187
-426
-637
432
433
434
932
933
934
-249
-448
-628
-778
-894
-536
-333
-113
982
910
786
618
414
-809
-930
-992
-992
-930
435
436
437
438
439
935
936
937
938
939
876
762
618
448
261
-969
-999
-985
-925
-824
536
712
187
940
441
941
947
995
-809
-637
-426
-187
440
-050
-285
-504
-694
063
442
443
444
942
943
944
063
-685
-514
-321
-113
992
939
838
694
514
-844
-947
-996
-989
-925
309
536
729
876
969
445
446
447
448
449
945
946
947
948
949
309
088
-809
-647
-448
-224
1000
969
876
729
536
450
950
451
951
452
453
454
952
953
954
309
063
455
456
457
458
459
955
956
957
958
959
-809
-930
-992
-992
-930
460
960
461
961
462
463
464
962
963
964
-809
-637
-426
-187
465
466
467
468
469
965
966
967
968
969
470
970
471
971
472
473
474
972
973
974
876
955
995
995
955
187
188
189
426
930
431
-951
-876
-771
-637
-482
368
514
647
762
858
578
430
-038
-930
-975
-997
-997
-975
185
186
050
212
309
063
729
567
380
905
838
754
657
546
182
183
184
536
720
864
959
999
063
261
448
618
762
685
686
687
688
689
681
-992
-995
-947
-851
-712
-809
-905
-969
-998
-992
682
683
684
181
-426
-273
-113
969
910
824
712
-426
-557
-675
-778
-864
680
063
249
426
930
982
-138
-333
-514
-675
175
100
-930
-838
-712
-557
-380
982
1000
972
899
786
-729
-864
-955
-997
-989
249
471
666
824
934
637
460
-930
-824
-675
-493
-285
992
994
939
-063
482
163
261
380
578
746
-212
-437
876
962
999
985
920
-637
-802
-920
-987
-997
205
206
207
208
209
705
706
707
708
709
-998
-980
-943
-888
-816
876
939
980
999
995
-482
-618
-738
-838
-915
-063
588
113
285
448
598
426
249
063
-125
210
710
-729
-628
-514
-391
-261
969
920
-969
-996
-997
-972
-920
729
838
920
975
999
-309
-482
-637
-771
-876
-187
536
403
-844
-746
-628
-493
-345
992
955
888
794
675
-951
-992
-998
-969
-905
729
939
989
999
-368
-557
-720
-851
-943
-187
-025
536
380
212
038
-809
-685
-536
-368
-187
969
899
794
657
493
-992
-996
-955
-870
-746
712
713
714
215
216
217
218
219
715
716
717
718
719
-125
220
720
536
647
746
221
721
222
223
224
722
723
724
013
150
285
414
831
899
851
762
657
261
113
-038
-187
-333
-471
-598
-712
138
297
448
-138
851
-138
-356
-557
702
703
704
212
213
214
113
333
309
504
675
816
920
202
203
204
711
-809
1000
-910
982
-975
930
844 -1000
-985
729
-809
-882
-939
-977
-997
211
sign for h = An + 2
sign as given for /,=4
Change
969
994
1000
987
955
180
Decimal points omitted throughout
8.5D (continued)
013
212
403
578
851
427
261
050
-163
013
831
675
025
-187
-426
-637
063
309
536
729
876
969
TABLE
cos lirhx
(h even)
8.5D {continued)
sign for h = 4n + 2
Sign as given for h=4n
Change
Sign as given.
h=2
4
809
824
838
225
226
227
228
229
725
726
727
728
729
-951
-955
-959
-962
-965
10
12
14
16
-309
-237
-163
-088
-013
588
514
437
356
273
-809
-746
-675
-598
-514
063
-426
-333
-237
-138
-038
18
20
951
910
858
794
720
-1000
-992
-969
-930
-876
475
476
477
478
479
637
546
448
345
237
-809
-729
-637
-536
-426
480
980
481
981
482
483
484
982
983
984
063
125
163
261
013
-309
-187
-063
485
486
487
488
489
985
986
987
988
989
864
-588
-618
-647
-675
-703
309
356
403
448
493
-063
-125
-187
-249
876
888
899
910
920
-729
-754
-778
-802
-824
536
578
618
657
694
-309
-368
-426
-482
-536
138
187
100
212
285
356
-075
-163
-588
-637
-685
-729
-771
426
493
557
618
675
-249
-333
-414
-493
-567
356
448
-100
-212
-321
729
778
824
864
899
-637
-703
-762
-816
-864
536
618
694
762
824
-426
-525
-618
-703
-778
309
426
536
637
729
490
990
491
492
493
991
494
992
993
994
930
955
975
989
997
-905
-939
-965
-985
-996
876
920
955
980
995
-844
-899
-943
-975
-994
809
876
930
969
992
495
496
497
498
499
995
996
997
998
999
1000 -1000
1000
500
1000
851
000
230
730
231
731
232
233
234
732
733
734
-969
-972
-975
-977
-980
235
236
237
238
239
735
736
737
738
739
-982
-985
-987
-989
-990
930
939
947
955
962
-844
-864
-882
-899
-915
729
762
794
824
969
975
980
985
989
-930
-943
-955
-965
-975
876
899
920
939
955
-809
-844
-876
-905
-930
851
240
740
241
741
242
243
224
742
743
744
-992
-994
-995
-996
-997
245
246
247
248
249
745
746
747
748
749
-998
-999
-999
-1000
-1000
992
995
997
999
1000
-982
-989
-994
-997
-999
969
980
989
995
999
-951
-969
-982
-992
-998
250
750
-1000
1000
-1000
1000
-1000
013
1000 -1000
428
063
187
975
976
977
978
979
TABLE
coslrrhx
(h even)
8.5D {continued)

*
"
30
32
-309
-471
-618
-746
-851
000
309
187
113
368
536
685
-088
-285
-471
-992
-962
-910
-838
-746
-930
992
-980
999
980 -1000
-989
934
-947
864
809
905
969
998
992
771
-876
-778
-657
-514
-356
951
-050
-637
-514
-380
-237
-088
-187
-321
-448
-567
-675
063
212
356
493
618
-187
-013
309
-100
-261
-414
-557
729
824
899
955
989
-685
-794
-882
-947
-987
h=22
x
225
226
227
228
229
725
726
727
728
729
951
230
730
930
870
794
703
231
731
232
233
234
732
733
734
235
236
237
238
239
735
736
737
738
739
240
740
985
999
995
972
598
482
356
224
088
241
741
242
243
244
742
743
744
245
246
247
248
249
745
746
747
748
749
-771
-851
-915
-962
250
750
-1000
-990
24
-809
-888
-947
-985
-1000
26
588
712
816
899
959
657
525
380
224
063
1000 -1000
28
876
771
637
482
125
333
493
-063
-249
-426
637
762
864
939
985
-588
-729
-844
-930
-982
163
1000 -1000
sign for h = 4n + 2
Sign as given for h = 4n
Change
Sign as given.
34
36
38
1000
969
876
729
536
475
476
477
478
479
975
976
977
978
979
309
063
480
980
175
481
981
403
608
778
-187
-426
-637
482
483
484
982
983
984
-969
998
989 -1000
-980
934
-910
838
-794
703
905
980
999
962
870
-809
-930
-992
-992
-930
485
486
487
488
489
985
986
987
988
989
-637
-448
-237
-013
729
546
333
100
-809
-637
-426
-187
490
990
491
991
212
-138
063
492
493
494
992
993
994
426
618
778
899
975
-368
-578
-754
-888
-972
309
536
729
876
969
495
496
497
498
499
995
996
997
998
999
1000 -1000
1000
500
1000
-951
-851
-703
013
224
809
657
471
261
038
-637
-778
-888
-962
-997
426
608
762
882
962
-187
-403
-598
-762
-888
-063
-992
-947
-864
-746
-598
-426
-237
-038
536
345
163
356
-075
-285
536
694
824
920
980
-482
-657
-802
-910
-977
-588
-403
-200
138
1000 -1000
429
40
-514
-297
8.6.
Conversions of Degrees to Radians,
TABLE
etc.
8.6
Conversion of Degrees, Minutes and Seconds to Radians; and of Minutes and Seconds to Decimals of a Degree;
and vice versa
No. of
degrees,
Degrees in
minutes
or seconds
radians
Minutes in
decimals of
degree
Minutes in
radians
0-01745
0-03491
0-05236
0-06981
0-08727
0-01667
0-03333
0-05000
0-06667
0-08333
0-00029
0-00058
0-00087
0-00116
0-00145
0-10472
0-12217
0-13963
0-15708
0-17453
010000
0-11667
0-13333
0-15000
0-16667
0-19199
0-20944
0-22689
0-24435
0-26180
Seconds in
Seconds in
decimals of
degree
radians
No.
xlO 6
0-00028
0-00056
0-00083
14
000111
19
0-00139
24
0-00175
0-00204
0-00233
0-00262
0-00291
0-00167
0-00194
0-00222
0-00250
0-00278
29
34
39
44
48
6
7
0-18333
0-20000
0-21667
0-23333
0-25000
0-00320
0-00349
0-00378
0-00407
0-00436
0-00306
0-00333
0-00361
0-00389
0-00417
53
58
63
68
73
0-27925
0-29671
0-31416
0-33161
0-34907
0-26667
0-28333
0-30000
0-31667
0-33333
0-00465
0-00495
0-00524
0-00553
0-00582
0-00444
0-00472
0-00500
0-00528
0-00556
78
82
87
92
19
97
20
0-36652
0-38397
0-40143
0-41888
0-43633
0-35000
0-36667
0-38333
0-40000
0-41667
0-00611
22
23
24
25
0-00640
0-00669
0-00698
0-00727
0-00583
0-00611
0-00639
0-00667
0-00694
26
27
28
29
30
0-45379
0-47124
0-48869
0-50615
0-52360
0-43333
0-45000
0-46667
0-48333
0-50000
0-00756
0-00785
0-00814
0-00844
0-00873
9-00722
0-00750
0-00778
0-00806
0-00833
31
0-54105
32
33
34
35
0-55851
0-51667
0-53333
0-55000
0-56667
0-00861
0-00889
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
36
37
38
39
40
0-57596
0-59341
0-61087
0-5833-3
0-00902
0-00931
0-00960
0-00989
0-01018
0-62832
0-64577
0-66323
0-68068
0-69813
0-60000
0-61667
0-63333
0-65000
0-66667
0-01047
0-01076
0-01105
0-01134
0-01164
430
0-00917
0-00944
0-00972
0-01000
0-01028
0-01056
0-01083
001111
10
102
107
112
116
121
126
131
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
136
28
141
29
30
145
150
155
160
165
170
175
179
184
189
194
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
8.6.
CONVERSIONS OF DEGREES TO RADIANS, ETC.
TABLE
No. of
8.6 {continued)
Seconds in
Seconds in
radians
decimals of
degree
radians
0-68333
0-70000
0-71667
0-73333
0-75000
0-01193
0-01222
0-01251
0-01280
0-01309
0-01139
0-01167
0-01194
0-01222
0-01250
0-80285
0-82030
0-83776
0-85521
0-87266
0-76667
0-78333
0-80000
0-81667
0-83333
0-01338
0-01367
0-01396
0-01425
0-01454
0-01278
52
53
54
55
0-89012
0-90757
0-92502
0-94248
0-95993
0-85000
0-86667
0-88333
0-90000
0-91667
56
57
58
59
60
0-97738
0-99484
1-01229
1-02974
1-04720
0-93333
0-95000
0-96667
0-98333
1-00000
degrees,
Degrees in
minutes
or seconds
Minutes in
radians
decimals of
degree
42
43
44
45
0-71558
0-73304
0-75049
0-76794
0-78540
46
47
48
49
50
51
41
Degrees
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
Radians
Degrees
Radians
1-06465
1-08210
81
1-41372
1-43117
1-09956
1-11701
1-13446
1-15192
1-16937
1-18682
1-20428
1-22173
1-23918
1-25664
1-27409
1-29154
1-30900
1-32645
1-34390
1-36136
1-37881
1-39626
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
41
42
0-01306
0-01333
0-01361
0-01389
223
228
233
238
242
46
47
48
49
0-01484
0-01513
0-01542
0-01571
0-01600
0-01417
0-01444
0-01472
0-01500
0-01528
247
252
257
262
267
0-01629
0-01658
0-01687
0-01716
0-01745
0-01556
0-01583
272
276
001611
281
0-01639
0-01667
286
56
57
58
59
291
60
Degrees
1-50098
1-51844
1-53589
1-55334
1-57080
1-58825
1-60570
1-62316
100
199
1-48353
91
No.
xlO 6
204
208
213
218
1-44862
1-46608
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
Minutes in
1-64061
1-65806
1-67552
1-69297
1-71042
1-72788
1-74533
431
Radians
Degrees
43
44
45
50
51
52
53
54
55
Radians
200
300
400
500
600
3-49066
5-23599
6-98132
8-72665
10-47198
180
7T
270
360
450
540
1-577
700
800
900
1000
1100
12-21730
13-96263
15-70796
17-45329
19-19862
630
720
810
900
990
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
20-94395
22-68928
24-43461
26-17994
27-92526
1080
1170
1260
1350
1440
1700
1800
1900
2000
29-67059
31-41593
33-16126
34-90659
1530
1620
1710
1800
3t7
3-14159
4-71239
6-28319
7-85398
9-42478
3-5tt
10-99557
4?r
12-56637
14-13717
2tt
2-5tt
4-5tt
5t7
5-5t7
6tt
6-5tt
7tt
7-5tt
8tt
8-5tt
9tt
9-5tt
IO77
15-70796
17-27876
18-84956
20-42035
21-99115
23-56194
25-13274
26-70354
28-27433
29-84512
31-41593
8.6.
CONVERSIONS OF DEGREES TO RADIANS, ETC,
TABLE
Degrees
8.6 {continued)
Degrees
Degrees
Radians
Dec.
0-2
12
0-3
18
0-4
24
30
0-6
36
0-7
0-8
42
48
0-9
54
Rad.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Min.
0-1
0-5
Radians
Dec.
0-001745
0-003491
0-005236
0-006981
0-008727
Min. Sec.
0-01
0-010472
0-012217
0-013963
0-015708
0-000174
0-000349
0-000524
0-000698
0-000873
36
0-02
0-03
0-04
0-05
12
48
24
0-06
3.
36
0-07
12
0-08
4
4
0-09
0-001047
0-001222
0-001396
0-001571
48
24
Radians
Dec.
Sec.
0-001
3-6
0-002
7-2
0-003
10-8
0-004
0-005
18-0
14-4
0-006
0-007
21-6
0-008
0-009
28-8
25-2
32-4
0-000017
0-000035
0-000052
0-000070
0-000087
0-000105
0-000122
0-000140
0-000157
Deg.
Rad.
Deg.
Rad.
Deg.
Rad.
Deg.
Rad.
Deg.
5-7296
11-4592
001
0-5730
0-001
1-1459
1-7189
2-2918
0-002
0-003
0-004
2-8648
0-005
0-0573
0-1146
0-1719
0-2292
0-2865
0-0001
0-0002
0-0003
0-0004
0-0005
0-0057
0-0115
0-0172
0-0229
0-0286
0-0006
0-0007
0-0008
0-0009
0-0344
0-0401
0-0458
0-0516
57-2958
0-1
114-5916
171-8873
0-2
229-1831
286-4789
0-4
17-1887
22-9183
002
003
004
0-5
28-6479
0-05
343-7747
401-0705
458-3662
515-6620
0-6
34-3775
40-1070
45-8366
51-5662
0-06
3-4378
0-006
0-3438
0-07
4-0107
4-5837
5-1566
0-007
0-4011
0-008
0-009
0-4584
0-5157
0-3
0-7
0-8
0-9
0-08
0-09
432
Section 9
DICTIONARY OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC
TERMS FOR VOLUME II
In English, French, German, Russian and Spanish,
together with the Greek and Russian Alphabets
PAGE
9.1.
Greek Alphabet
435
9.2.
Russian Alphabet
435
9.3.
in English, French, German, Russian

L. Amoros, V. Balashov, M. L. Canut, G. Donnay, J. D. H. Donnay, P. P. Ewald,
Henry, F. Laves, A. L. Mackay, A. V. Rzhanov, A. V. Shubnikov, A. V. Spitsin and others)
Dictionary of Crystallographic Terms
and Spanish
N. F. M.
9.3.1. List
{J.
of terms in English which are similar (or easily recognizable) in
the five languages
all
of terms which are similar (or easily recognizable) in English, French,

Spanish (English and Russian equivalents only are given)
9.3.2. List
9.3.3. List
of other English terms used in Volume
and Spanish
FF
II,
436
436
German and
.
438
with equivalents in French, German, Russian
439
9.1.
A
B
a
jS
alpha
beta
kappa
lambda
gamma
delta
epsilon
JVv nu
t,
zeta
2f
o
77
theta
9.2.
Sound as
T
y
M/i mu
eta
r]
P
Z
iota
Greek Alphabet
tt
upsilon
pi
jQ
Sound as
in
II
peak
hexagon (unstressed)
ratio (strongly rolled)

sign, cell
base
T
y
tensor
group
JX
fl
dyad
<E>
(J)
E
E
yellow
loch
yon
nets, quartz
5K
>K
measure
IX
*!
*i
chart
zone
TTT
in
shape
machine
IH
wiesh
chaw
ray
-b
(or
silent;
')
key; cone
JI
Jl
line
LI
i>i
pyramid
minus
silent; denotes soft
net
preceding
node
odd
(stressed)
K)
K)
uraf
error (unstressed)
yard
is
omega
denotes hard consonant
Tr
psi
film
H
K
letter
chi
in
arc (stressed)
goniometer
phi
Russian Alphabet
vector
The
omicron
tau
iff
B
r*
sigma
<f>
xi
rho
Zx
W
B
B
r
H
K
often used where
consonant preceding
h would occur in the English equivalent. There
Russian alphabet
435
is
no
aspirate in the
9.3.
Dictionary of Crystallographic Terms in English, French, German,
Russian and Spanish

9.3.1. List of
Terms
in English
which are similar (or easily recognizable) in
all
the Five Languages
Abelian group
cosine
Icosahedron
aberration
absolute configuration
cotangent
covalent
covariance
identical
index; indices
algebra
criterion
integral (calculus)
analogue (optical)
cubo-octahedron
integration
analysis
cycle; cyclic
intensity
cylinder
interference
abstract group
analytical
geometry
identification
anisotropic
interpolation
anomalous dispersion
invariant
antisymmetric
inverse; inversion
argument
Delta function
arithmetic
delta,
aspect
determinant
diagonal form
associative (rule)
azimuth
Kronecker
irrational
isomorphous
isotropic
iteration
diagonalization
differentiation
diffraction
Linear
logarithm
Lorentz factor
Lorentz-polarization factor
duality
dyad
Bessel function
bibliography
binomial theorem
bivariate
Eccentricity
Machine
element
ellipse; ellipsoid
enantiomorphous
equatorial
Canonical form
extinction
Cartesian
Euclidean
central
moment
maximum
median
extrapolation
meridian
Miller indices
centrosymmetry
minimum
characteristic
class
coefficient
Formal
collimator
function
(solution)
collinear
minor (of determinant)

minus
mnemonic
mode
modulo
modulus
column
commutative
complex
Geometric
concrete
gnomonic
cone
goniometer
group
configuration
mantissa
massive (specimen)
matrix
molecular transform
(net or projection)
congruent
contour
moment
monochromatic
monoclinic
morphology
mosaic
contravariance
convention
coplanar
Harmonic
Hermite function; Hermitian
hexagon; hexagonal
Napier's rules
natural (number, logarithm)
homogeneous
homometric
normal
correlation
cosecant
hyperbola; hyperboloid
null
co-ordinates
co-ordination
436
normalize
9.3.
DICTIONARY OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC TERMS

Tangent
progression
projection
proportionality
Octahedron
octant
operation
optical isomers
temperature factor
tensor
tetragonal
tetrahedral; tetrahedron
order (of determinant or spectrum)
texture
orientation
orthohexagonal
orthorhombic
Quadrant
transcendental (equations)
quadratic
transform
transpose
quantum mechanics
triclinic (anorthic)
trigonal
trigonometry
Radian
trinomial
Parabola; paraboloid
rational indices
parallel
rhombohedral; rhombohedron
parallelogram
triplet
trivial (solution)
parallelepiped
parameter
peak (maximum)
Scalar
period; periodic
secant
phase
Unitary structure amplitude
sine
photosommateur (G.
v. Eller)
singular (matrix)
polar (co-ordinates, direction)

polarization
polarized (beam)
sinusoidal
pole
statistical; statistics
polyhedron
polynomial
steradian
precession (camera, method)

prefactor
structure factor
primitive
synthesis
translation, triplet)
(of computer)
Vector; vectorial
sphere
Wulff net
stereogram
(cell,
programme
special (case, position, vector)
summation
system; systematic
437
Zone
) )
9.3.
List of terms which are similar (or easily recognizable)

and Russian equivalents only are given)
9.3.2.
ENGLISH
RUSSIAN
Absorption
nomomeHHe
adjoint
conpHêHHbiii
npHSjIHHCeHHH,
approximations,
successive
Concave
BOrHVTblH
conpnraTfc;
convex
Decimal
conpn>KeHHbiH
coeAHHeHHe
CXOflHIUHfiCH;
CXOAHMOCTB
BbinyKJifeiii
density, electron
difference synthesis
fleCHTH^HblH
SJieKTpOHHaH nJIOTHOCTB
pa3HOCTHbIH CHHTC3
differential calculus
AHdpdpepeHi^HajiBHoe
dimensions
HC^HCJieHHe
pa3Mepbi
direct (lattice, vector)
direction cosine
discontinuity
discrete values
divergent-beam method
divide; division
pemeTKa, BeKTOp b
peajiBHOM npocrpaHCTBe
HanpaBJiHiomHii KocHHyc
npepblBHOCTB
flHCKpeTHbie BeJIHMHHbl
MeTOfl pacxo^HmerocH
nyîna
êjiHTB; fleneHHe
Elastic constants
eliminate
KoHcraHTbi ynpyrocTH
explicit
To^Hbiii (onpeAeJieHHbifi)
Festoon (Weissenberg)
frequency
rHpuHHâ
Idemfactor
imaginary
eAHHHMHaH MaTpHrâ
MHHMblH
npOMOKyTOHHblH
intermediate
German and Spanish
ENGLISH
(English
RUSSIAN
Multiplicity
MHOrOKpaTHOCTB
Negative (
numerical
^HCJieHHblH
nocneflOBaTejiBHfeie
conjugate
conjunction
convergent;
convergence
in English, French,
HCKJIIOtiaTB
OTpHIjaTeJI&HfelH
Parity
êTHOCTB
particle
âcTHrj;a
permutation
nepecTaHOBKa
positive
nojio>KHTejiBHbiii
(+
primary (extinction)
nepBHMHaH (SKCTHHKlUiH)
Quotient
*iacTHoe
Reciprocal
rectangular
reduced
cell
oGpaTHbiii
npHMoyrojiBHbiH
npHBe/jeHHaH imemca.
reference
ccbijina
Secondary (extinction)
BTopiniHaH (skcthhkijhh)
OAHOBpeAieHHblft
3aiviemeHHe, nOflcraHOBKa
simultaneous
substitution
subtraction
BblÎHTaHHe
Transformation
npeo6pa30BaHne
Vertical divergence
BepTHKajiBHoe
pacxo>KfleHHe
MacTOTa
438
;;
9.3.
9.3.3. List of other English
ENGLISH
terms used, with equivalents in French, German, Russian and Spanish
FRENCH
Abbreviation
absence
abreviation
absolute value
accuracy
adding machine
valeur absolue
exactitude; veracite
machine a additionnef
addition
adjacent
addition
contigu
absence
GERMAN
Abkiirzung
Abwesenheit;
Ausloschung
absoluter
Wert
Genauigkeit
Addiermaschine
Additionsmaschine
Addition
anliegend; benachbart
RUSSIAN
SPANISH
coKpameHHe
abreviacion
orcyTCTBHe (noracaHHe)
extinci6n; ausencia
a6cojnoTHaH BejurcHHa
tohhoctb
cyMMHpyiomaH MauiHHa
valor absoluto
exactitud
cjioHteHHe
suma
CMOKHbHIJ
adyacente
maquina sumadora
npHJieraiouiHii
yroji
antecedent
antecedent
vorhergehend
anti-equi-inclination
anti-equi-inclinaison
entgegengesetzte gleiche
angulo
difracci6n andmala
aHOMajibHoe pacceHHHe
antecedente
npefltiflymHH
aHrapaBHoe HaioiOHeHHe anti-equi-inclinaci6n
approximate
approximatif
Neigung
annahernd
npn6jiH>KeHHi>iH
aproximado
arbitraire
willkiirlich
npOH3BOJIbHWH
arbitrario
arc
autocorrelation
Bogen
flyra
Selbstfaltung
cajwocBepTKa
(caiwocBepTbiBaHHe)
arco
autoconvolucidn
average
axis; axes
moyenne
Durchschnitt; Mittelwert
axe; axes
Achse; Achsen
cpeflHee
OCbi OCH
Basic operation
operation fondamentale
binary computer
calculateur binaire;
calculateur a base deux
ocHOBHan onepauHH
Grundoperation
Fundamentaloperation
ABOHUHan BbraacjiHbinare Rechenmaschine
angle
angle
anomalous
scattering
arbitrary
arc
auto-convolution
binomial theorem
body diagonal
bond
bond
angles
lengths
diffusion
anomale
bindme de Newton
diagonale du cube,
du solide
angles des liaisons
longueurs de liaison
Winkel
anomale Streuung
TejibHan
binomischer Lehrsatz
Raumdiagonale;
Korperdiagonale
Bindungswinkel
Bindungslangen
untere Schranke
obere Schranke
promedio
eje; ejes
operacion fundamental
calculadora binaria
Mammia
SHHOMHajibHan TeopeMa
npocrpaHCTBeHHaH
flHaroHajib
yrjibi MtTKffy cbh3hmh
flJIHHbl CBH3eil
rpaHHixa, hhh<hhh
teorema del binomio

diagonal espacial
angulos de enlace
distancias de enlace
rpaHHua, BepxHHH
limite inferior
limite superior
noHCHan npoeKHHH
proyeccion limitada
largeur de la raie
largeur a mi-hauteur
begrenzte Projektion;
Schichtprojektion
Linienbreite
Halbwertsbreite
UIHpHHa, JIHHHH
noirymnpHHa
anchura de la raya
anchura media
Calculation;
calcul
Berechnimg; Rechnung
BblMHCJieHHe
calculo
computation
calculating (computing)
machine
machine a calculer
Rechenmaschine
cqeTHan Mauimia
mdquina de
calculus, differential
calcul differentiel
Differentialrechnung
HCMHCJieHHe,
AH<|>4>epeHqHajibHoe
calculo diferencial
calculus, integral
calcul integral
Integralrechnung
HCMHdieHHe,
calculo integral
bound, lower
bound, upper
borne inferieure
borne superieure
bounded projection
projection limitee
breadth, line
breadth, half-value
calibration
etalonnage
Kalibrierung; Eichung
cell
maille
centre de gravite
Zelle; Elementarzelle
abaque
Tafel;
centre of gravity
chart
Schwerpunkt
Diagramm;
Nomogramm
chemical composition
composition chimique
chemische Zusammen-
HHTerpajibHoe
KaxraSpoBKa
HMeiiKa
neHTp THH<eCTH
AHarpaMMa; laSjimjaj
calcular
calibrado
celda
centro de gravedad
carta; canevas; falsilla
HOMorpaMMa
XHMHMecKHii cocraB
composicion quimica
setzung
circumference
circonference
Kreisumfang; Umfang
OKpy>KHOcn>
(oKpyeHne)
circunferencia
cleavage
close-packing
clivage
Spaltbarkeit; Spaltung
dichteste Packung
cnaiiHocTb
njioTHan ynanoBKa
exfoliacidn
dichteste Packung,
iuioTHaH ynanoBKa,
empaquetado denso
cubico; empaquetado
close-packing, cubic
empilement compact;
assemblage compact
assemblage compact
cubique
kubische
Ky6HuecKan
empaquetado denso
cubico
close-packing, hexagonal
assemblage compact
senaire
dichteste Packung,
hexagonale
439
ruiOTHan ynaKOBKa,
reKcaroHajibHan
empaquetado hexagonal
9.3.
ENGLISH
column matrix
FRENCH
matrice forme colonne
GERMAN
RUSSIAN
einspaltige Matrix;
croji6*iaTaH
MaTpmja
SPANISH
matriz de una columna
Kolonnenmatrix
commute
commuter
vertauschen
nepecraHOBJiHTb
component
commutar
composante
Bestandteil ; Komponente
KOMnoHeHTa
componente
condition
conic section
condition
Bedingung
(cocraBJiHiomaH)
ycjioBHe
section conique
consequence
consequent
Kegelschnitt
KOHHMeCKOe ceMCHHe
consequence
consequent
Folge
cjieflCTBHe
folgend; sich aus etwas
cjie^yiomHH
condicidn
secci6n c6nica
consecuencia
consecuente
constant
constant
unveranderlich;
nOCTOHHHaH
constante
constituent
constituant
Bestandteil
cocTaBJiHiourHH
(cocraBJiHiornaH)
constitutive;
constituyente
continued fraction
continuous function
fraction continue
HenpepbiBHan ;rpo6b
HenpepbiBHaa (pyHKirHH
cociente continuo
convolution
co-prime
produit de composition
premiers entre eux
Kettenbruch
stetige Funktion; kontinuierliche Funktion
Faltung
relativ prim
CBepTKa
convoluci6n
primos entre
ergebend
Konstante
fonction continue
B3aHMH0 npocTbie
funci6n continua
si
(vacua)
counter
compteur
CMeTMHK
contador
nonepenioe ceîeHHe
noji3yHOK
secci6n recta
ecuaci6n cubica
cursor
integral definida
cross-section
section
Zahler; Zahlrohr
Schnitt; Querschnitt
cubic equation
cursor
equation du 3 e degre
curseur
Gleichung
Laufer
Definite integral
integrate definie
bestimmtes Integral
orrpeflejieHHtifi
Entartung
HHTerpaJi
Bbipo>KfleHHe
BbipO>KfleHHbIH
degeneracy
degenerate
degree
degree of freedom
degenerescence
degenere
degre
degre de liberte
denominator
derivative
desk machine
machine de bureau
drittes
Grades Ky6HMecKoe ypaBHeHHe
degeneraci6n
Freiheitsgrad
creneHb
creneHb CBo6o,o;bi
degenerado
grado
grado de libertad
denominateur
Nenner
3HaiweHaTejib
denominador
derivee
Ableitung; Differentialquotient
Tisch- (Rechen-)
npOH3BOflHaH
derivada
apHd)MOMeTp
calculadora
Uberbestimmung
cBepxonpeflejieHHocTb
superdeterminacidn
Unterbestimmung
minimale Ablenkung;
Minimalabweichung
HefloonpeflejieHHocTb
subdeterminaci6n
OTKJIOHeHHe
MHHHMaJlbHOe
OTKJIOHeHHe
desviaci6n
entartet
Grad
-Maschine
determination, over-
determination, underdeviation,
minimum
deviation, standard
surdetermination; cas
d'equations surabondantes
sous-determination
deviation minimum
ecart
normal
Streuung
digit
chiffre
Ziffer
displacement
distribution function
deplacement
fonction de repartition
Verschiebung
diviseur, plus grand

commun (p.gx.d.)
Teiler, grosster
Verteilungsfunktion
craHAapTHoe
UHcppa
CMeineHHe
(hVHKUHH
minima
desviacidn standard
digito
desplazamiento
funcidn de distribuci6n
pacnpeflejieHHH
divisor, greatest
common
(g.c.d.)
gemein-
flejiHTejib,
HaH6ojibiiiHH o6ihhh
samer
Equality
equation
egalite
Gleichheit
equation
Gleichung
equidistant
equidistant
gleich entfernt (in
paBeHCTBO
ypaBHeHHe
paBHOOTCTOHHTHH
maximo comun
divisor
(m.c.d.)
igualdad
ecuacidn
equidistante
gleichen Abstanden
equi-inclination
equivalent position
equi-inclinaison
homologue
befindlich)
gleiche Neigung
gleichwertige Punktlage
error function
fonction erreur
Fehlerverteilungsgesetz,
site
-funktion
440
paBHoe HaKJiOHeHHe
3KBHBaJieHTHOe
nojioH<eHHe
KpHBaa oiuh6ok
equi-inclinaci6n
posicidn equivalente
funci6n error
9.3.
GERMAN
FRENCH
ENGLISH
error, probable
errors, random
erreur probable
erreurs accidentelles
estimation
estimate, over-
evaluation
surestimation
sousestimation
berceau eulerien
ou
estimate, underEulerian cradle
evaluate
evaluation
even
example
expand; expansion
Abschatzung
Uberschatzung
Unterschatzung
Eulersche Aufhangung,
developper; developpeserie
gerade
tieTHwii
par
ejemplo
npHMep
entwickeln; Entwicklung
(Reihen)
extinction (absent reflection)
extinction
Ausloschung
method
finite series
flat-cone
method
fly's-eye
fractional co-ordinates
desarrollar, desarrollo
paCXOflHTbCH,
en serie
paCXOflHMOCTb (pHflOB)
OHomaeMan (BepoHTHaa) valor esperado o
previsto
BejiH^HHa
noraiueHHe (noracaHne) extinci6n
famille (de plans)

fibre; fibreux
Ebenenschar
pellicule; film
films superposes
Film
Filmpack
Schrumpfung des Films
ceMeficrBO (ruiocKocreft)
BOJIOKHO; BOJIOKHHCTbrH
(<pH6pHJuiHpm>iii)
ruieHKa
cronKa ruieHOK
XcaflKa rureHKH
fingerprint method
Fingerabdruckmethode
MeroA orneâTKOB
serie finie
endliche Reihe
contraction de la
pellicule
fingerprint
HeflooneHKa
jnojn.Ka (noflBecKa)
ou
methode cone
Faser; faserig
retrait
plat
ceil de mouche
coordonnees fraction-
estima
superestimado
subestimado
criba de Euler
evaluar
evaluaci6n
Beispiel
exemple
oneHKa
nepeoneHKa
Auswertung
Erwartungswert
film
film pack
film shrinkage
error probable
errores accidentales
ornHOKH, orytiaftHbie
OUeHHBaTb
oueHKa
valeur probable
fibre; fibrous
onmSKa, BepoaTHaH
3fijiepa
(Krippe)
auswerten
evaluer
evaluation
pair
expected value
Family (of planes)
SPANISH
unsystematische
aleatoires
ment en
(series)
Fehler, warscheinlicher
Fehler, zufallige, oder
RUSSIAN
Fliegenauge"
relative Koordinaten
naires
pelicula
paquete de peliculas
contracci6n de la pelicula
metodo de huellas
dactilares
najn>na
Flachkegelmethode
familia (de pianos)

fibra; fibroso
KOHe^Hfaiii pH
Merofl Konyca c Tynbiiw
yrjiOM pacraopa
MyuniHfaiH rJia3
KOOpflHHaTbl B JJOJIHX
nepnofla
serie finita
metodo
del
cono piano
ojo de mosca
coordenadas
fraccionarias
reducci6n (engranajes)
Ubersetzungverhaltnis
Getriebeubersetzung
nepeflaTo^Hoe mhcjio
grain size
rapport des vitesses

(engrenages)
granulation; taille des
Korngrosse;
paaivtep
greater than (>)

group multiplication
grains
superieur a
multiplication sym-
grosse
grosser als
6ojanie MeM
mayor que
Gruppenmultiplikation
rpyrmoBoe yMHO>KeHHe
producto de grupos
Orientierungssinn
pyna (npaBaH,
mano
Gear
ratio
Kristallit-
tamafio de grano
3epeH
bolique du groupe
Hand
(right, left)
sens (dextro, laevo)
BHHTOBoe pacnojioH<eHHe
(derecha,
izquierda)
distribuci6n helicoidal
cimpajiB
helice
orpaHirqeHHbiH poraTop
rotator con giro hmitado
jieBaa)
(rechts, links)
helical array
arrangement helicoldal
helix
helice
hindered rotator
rotateur g6ne
schraubeirformige
Anordnung
Helix; Schraube
gehinderter Rotator
441
...
9.3.
ENGLISH
FRENCH
GERMAN
Identity element
element unitaire; identity Einheitselement
image
improper fraction
image
RUSSIAN
SPANISH
Bild
uneigentlicher Bruch
eflHHirmaH (TOJKflecrBeHHan) onepauHH

H3o6pa>KeHHe
HenpaBHJibHan ppo6t>
fraccidn impropia
equations incompatibles
unvereinbare
HecoBMecrHbie
ecuaciones incompatibles
expression fractionnaire;
elemento de identidad
imagen
fraction impropre
incompatible equations
integrate indefinie
Gleichungen
unbestimmtes Integral
independence
independance
index, repeated
indice repete
indefinite integral
ypaBHeHHH
HeonpeAejieHHtift
HHTerpaji
integral indefinida
Unabhangigkeit
He3aBHCHMOCTb
independencia
Index, wiederholter
HHfleKC,
indice repetido
nOBTC-pmOIiniHCH
inequality
inegalite
Ungleichung
infinite
infini
infinitesimal
infinitesimal
unendlich
unendlich klein
valeur initiale
Anfangswert
HepaBeHCTBO
6eCKOHeHHbIH
6ecKOHeMHo Majibifi
nepBOHaMajibHaa
integer
integrated reflection
nombre
entier
reflexion integree
ganze Zahl
nejioe mhcjio
entero
integrales Reflexionsvermogen ; integrierte
HHTerpajibHoe
oipa>KeHHe
reflexi6n integrada
interaction
intercepts
interaction
Wechselwirkung
B3aHMOaeHCTBHe
interaction
coordonnees a
1'origine
intervertir (rangees,
Achsenabschnitte
Vertauschung (von
oceBbie eoHHHUbi
segmentos interceptados
intercambio (de filas,
colonnes)
angle des faces
distance interreticulaire
Flachenwinkel
Netzebenenabstand
initial
value
desigualdad
infinite
infinitesimal
valor inicial
BejiHHHHa
Reflexion
interchange (of rows,
columns)
interfacial angle
interplanar distance
intersect
intersection
se rencontrer; se
interstice
interstice
Kernel
key result
noyau
couper
point de rencontre;
Zeilen, Spalten)
(sich)
schneiden
Schnitt
nepecraHOBKa
(crpoK, ctoji6i;ob)
yroji
MKffy rpaHHMH
columnas)
angulo interfacial
MOKIIJIOCKOCTHOe
distancia interplanar;
paCCTOHHHe
nepeceKaTbCH
TOMKa nepeceweHHH
cortar
intersecci6n
npoMOKyroK
intersticio
espaciado
intersection
knife-edge (reference)
resultat
Liicke;
de base
ombre repere
(de forme
triangulaire)
Lattice
layer line
least squares
Zwischenraum
Kern
Hflpo
nucleo
aufschlussreiches Ergeb-
Ba>KHeHuiHH pe3yjn>TaT
resultado fundamental
nis; Hauptresultat
Messerschneide; Bezugs-
jie3BHe HOH<a (naK
curia (de referenda)
marke
HaMano OTCMeTa)
reseau (reseau-periode)
Translationsgitter
pemeTKa
red; reticulo
strate
(Gitter)
Schichtlinie
kleinste Quadrate
cnoeBaH JIHHHH
HaHMeHbuiHe KBa^paTbi
nivel
moindres carres
minimos cuadrados
(qnceji)
left-handed system
less
than (<)
location; situation
triedre sinistrorsum;
triedre oriente a gauche
inferieur a
Linkssystem
reperage; emplacement
Ort; Lage
jieBan cHcreiwa
sistema izquierdo
Koop,znfflaT
MeHbiue MeM
onpeAeneHHe
kleiner als
menor que
localizaci6n; situation
nojio>KeHHH; jioKaujui
Magnitude
grandeur
matrix multiplication
multiplication matricielle
matrix notation
notation matricielle
mean
Grosse;
BejIHMHHa
magnitud
Matrizenmultiplikation
MaTpmmoe yMHo>KeHHe
producto matricial o de
moyenne
Matrizenschreibweise
Mittel; Mittelwert;
Durchschnitt
MaTpHMHoe o6o3HaweHHe notation matricial

MareMaTHwecKoe
valor medio
mesh
maille plane
Masche
Mem
multinomial
polyndme; polynomial
polynomisch
multiple
multiple-exposure
technique
multiple
vielfach
nOJIHHOMHaJIbHblH
MHoroKpaTHbiii
procede des poses
Verfahren der mehrfachen Belichtung
Grossenordnung
matrices
multiples
442
o>KHAaHHe
XCXHHKa MHOrOKpaTHblX
3KCn03HUHft
trama
multin6mico
multiple
tecnica de exposition
multiple
9.3.
ENGLISH
vernachlassigen
Translationsnetz
negliger
Neglect
net (2-dimensional lattice) reseau plan
canevas
net (chart)
noeud
node (lattice, wave)
number
nombre
numerator
numerateur
Netz; Diagramm
Gitterpunkt; Schwingungsknoten
Zahl; Anzahl
Zahler
Obliquity
obliquite
Winkelabweichung
odd
impair
oscillation
oscillation
Parenthesis
penultimate
parenthese
penultieme
perfect crystal
cristal parfait
permitted operation
operation permise
pas (de l'helice)
plan
panneau a fiches
erlaubte Operation
SPANISH
RUSSIAN
GERMAN
FRENCH
npeHe6peraTb
ceTKa
ceTKa
despreciar
red
y3eji
nudo
HHCJIO
MHCJIHTeJH.
numero
numerador
OTKJIOHeHHe
inclination
HeMeTHblH
KoneSaHHe
impar
cKo6Ka
parentesis
npeAnocjieflHHH
coBepmeHHbifi KpHcrajui
pa3peiueHHaa onepainiH
mar (Bmrra)
penultimo
falsilla
(Zwilling); Schiefe
ungerade
Schwingung; Schwen-
oscilaci6n
kung
pitch (of helix)
(runde)
Klammer
vorletzt
Idealkristall
Ganghohe
cristal perfecto
operation permitida
paso (de una helice)
piano
tablero de mando
Ebene
nnocKocn.
Schaltbrett
pacnpeflejmTejibHaH
plus
point
plus
runoc
mas
Punkt
TO*H<a
punto
port, entrance
port, exit
position
fenfitre d'entree
bxoa (oTBepcrHe)
fenetre de sortie
position
Eintrittsdffnung
Austrittsdffhung
Punktlage; Platz
power
puissance
precision
Potenz
Genauigkeit
creneHb (jwaT.)
TOHHOCTb
puerta de entrada
puerta de salida
posicidn
potencia
Strich
npmw
primo
prime
prime number
prime
nombre premier
npocroe mhgjio
numero primo
axe principal
rjiaBHaa ocb
eje principal
principal axis
probability
probable error
proper fraction
punched cards
probability
erreur probable
fraction proprement dite
cartes perforees
Primzahl
Hauptachse
Wahrscheinlichkeit
Lochkarten
BepOHTHOCTb
BepoHTHaa otimoKa
npaBHJIbHUH flpo6b
nep<hopHpoBaHHbie
probabilidad
error probable
fracci6n propia
cartas perforadas
pure number
nombre pur (ou
reine Zahl
npocroe hhcjio
Random
erreur accidentelle (ou
zufalliger (unsystematischer) Fehler

zufallige (statistische)
cjtyMaHHan
plane
plug-board
flocKa
plus
point
precision
(')
random
error
position
noJio>KeHHe,
wahrscheinlicher Fehler
echter Bruch
no3HUHH
precisidn
KapTbi
aleatoire)
position prise
abstrait)
au hasard;
numero puro
omn6Ka
error .estadistico
oryqaHHoe nojio>KeHHe
posicidn aleatoria
OTHomeHHe
razon
AeHCTBHTejibHaH Macn.
parte real
refinamiento; refino;
refinado
Lage
position quelconque
ratio
real part
rapport
refinement (of atomic

co-ordinates)
reflection; reflexion
refraction
refractive index
relatively
BblXOfl (OTBepcrHe)
partie reelle
reflexion
refraction
indice de refraction
representation
representation
resultat
regie de la
right-hand rule
Reflexion; Spiegelung
oipa>KeHHe
Brechung
Brechungsindex
npejioMJieHHe
noKa3aTeju>
npejioMJieHHH
relativ
premiers entre eux

parametre de la rangee
result
yrOMHeHHe
Verbesserung
amelioration
prime
repeat distance
Verhaltnis
reellerTeil;Realteil
Verfeinerung;
B3aHMH0 npocTbie
prim
droite
primos entre
si
(MHCJia)
Identitatsabstand
Periode
Darstellung
Ergebnis
main
reflexidn
refraccion
indice de refraccidn
Rechte-Hand-Regel
nepnofl noBTOpHeMocTH
distancia de repetici6n
npeflcraBJieHHe
pe3yjibTai
npaBHJio npaBoii
representaci6n
resultado
pyKH
regla de la
mano
derecha
Schraubenregel
rigorous solution
mean square
root
solution rigoureuse
ratine
du
carre
moyen
strenge
quadratischer Mittelwert*
cpeflHe KBaflpaTHMHwii*
raiz cuadratica
noBopoT; BpameHne
pnfl peuieTKH
3aKOH
rotation
jiHHeHKa
regla
rotation
Drehung
row
rangee reticulaire
Gittergerade
Regel; Gesetz
Lineal
rule
ruler
loi
regie
The German and Russian
expressions include
solution rigurosa
pemeHne
rotation
line
crporoe (TO^HOe)
Losung
no
translation of the
443
word "root."
fila
ley; regla
media
9.3.
ENGLISH
FRENCH
Sample; sampling
echantillon;
scale, arbitrary
echelle arbitraire
facteur d'echelle
GERMAN
RUSSIAN
Probe; Probenahme
echantillonnage
scale factor
scattering
diffusion
screw axis
axe helicoldal
sign
signe
simple continued fraction fraction continue simple
sinueux
Masstab
site
slide-rule
regie
slit
system
npoH3Bojn>HaH
Macurra6HbiH <paKTop
uiKajia,
difracci6n
eje helicoidal
signo
fracci6n continua simple
wellenformig gewunden
po6i>
H3BHJIHCTblii
sinuoso
Rechenschieber
nojio>KeHHe (tomkh)
JiorapH<J)MHMecKaH
jnnie^Ka
Spaltsystem
CHcreiwa
HaKJIOH
solution (of equation)

sorting device
Neigung
Raumwinkel
Losung
space group
groupe spatial
Raumgruppe
spheroid, oblate
spheroid, prolate
spheroide aplati
spheroide allonge
square
abgeplattetes Spharoid
verlangertes Spharoid
carre
stacking
stage (of calculation)
empilement
quadratisch
Schichtung; Packung
solid angle
stencil
step function
strips
superlattice
stade (d'un calcul)

pochoir; masque
fonction en escalier
bandelettes
reseau multiple
Streifen
Ubergitter
terme
Glied
limitation (de la serie)

trace
essai
Abbruch
trial
trial
and error
essais et retouches
TejiecHbifi yroji
Stand (einer Rechnung)

Schablone
Treppenfunktion
Term
pacKonoB
peineime
Sortiermaschine;
Sortierverfahren
termination (of series)

trace
escala, arbitraria
paccemme
systeme de fentes
inclinaison
angle solide
solution
dispositif de triage
slope
muestra; muestreo
BHHTOBaH OCb
3HaK
npocraH HenpepbiBHan
sinusartig
Punktlage; Platz
a calcul
SPANISH
Konversionsfaktor
Angleichungsfaktor
Streuung
Schraubenachse
Zeichen; Vorzeichen
einfacher Kettenbruch
;
site
o6pa3en, npo6a;
onpoSoBaHHe
willkurlicher
(s.cf.)
sinuous
(einer Reihe)
Spur
Versuch
trial and error"
COpTHpOBOHHOe
yCTpOHCTBO
npocrpaHCTBeHHaH
((peflopoBCKaH) rpynna
factor de escala
lugar; posici6n
regla de calculo
sistema de ranuras
pendiente
angulo sdlido
soluci6n
aparato de clasificaci6n
grupo espacial
c4>epoH, c>KaTbift
BbiTHHyrbiS
esferoide oblato
esferoide prolato
KBa^paTHblH
Hano>KeHMe; ynaKOBKa
3Tan (pacneta)
cuadrada
C(j)epoHfl 3
apilamiento
etapa de calculo
TpacbapeT
estarcido
cryneHwaTaH <J>yHKipiH
funcidn de paso
uiTpHncw
cBepxpemeTKa
tiras
superred
ûieH
t^rmino
terminaci6n de serie
o6pwB (phaob)
cnefl
npo6a
npo6 h oihhSok
traza
tanteo
(Merofl)
metodo de tanteo
systematisches
triangle; triangular
triangle; triangulaire
Probieren
Dreieck; dreieckig
twin
made
Zwilling
ABO&IHK
macla; geminaci6n
Uncertainty
incertitude
Unsicherheit;
HeonpeflejieHHOCTb
incertidumbre
eHHCTBeHHbrii
HeH3BecTHbiii
BepxHnii CJIOH
unico
desconocido
TpeyrojibHHK;
tridngulo; triangular
TpeyrojrbHbift
Unbestimmtheit
unique
unknown
unique
inconnu
einzig; eindeutig
upper layer
strate superieure
obere
unbekannt
Schicht;
schicht
Ober-
estrato (nivel) superior
Variable
variable
verSnderliche Grosse
nepeMeHHbili
vertex
sommet
variable
void
BepniHHa
nycroTa
vertice
trou;vide;lacune
Scheitel
Liicke; leer; nichtig
Weight (of observation)
poids
Gewicht
Zero
zero
Null
hueco
peso
Hyjit
444
cero
PROPORTIONAL PARTS
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
11
1-2
1-3
1-4
1*5
16
1-7
1-8
19
20
21
2-2
2-3
24
2-5
2-7
2
3
2-2
2-6
2-8
4*2
30
3-6
4-2
4*4
54
2-8
5-6
54
60
6-3
6-6
6*9
4-8
7-2
50
51
3'8
5-7
4*0
4-5
3*2
4-8
3*4
3-3
2-4
3-6
2-6
"-2
7-5
7-8
8-1
84
4
5
6
4-4
4*8
9-2
96
100
110
10-8
13-5
12-6
13-2
120
144
12-5
7-2
11*5
13-8
104
130
11-2
105
66
8*0
10*0
12-0
8-8
60
$2
6*5
7-8
84
5-5
15
15 6
162
16-8
154
i6-i
18-2
18-9
184
16-8
19-2
17*5
17-6
19-8
200
20-8
19 6
22-4
20-7
21-6
22-5
234
21-6
24-3
252
42
43
44
3-9
5-6
60
70
7-5
64
80
6*8
8*5
90
7-6
9-5
8-4
90
9*6
102
10-8
114
10-5
11-2
12-8
11 -9
12*6
144
13-5
144
13-6
15-3
13-3
15*2
140
120
16-2
17-1
18-0
14-7
16-8
18-9
33
34
35
36
37
7
8
7-7
8-4
88
96
91
104
9-9
108
11*7
9*8
11-2
12-6
29
30
31
32
2-9
5-8
8-7
7*2
160
38
39
40
41
3-7
7-4
3-8
7-6
3*9
7*8
40
80
41
4*2
8-2
84
12-3
12 6
31
32
3*3
34
3-5
60
90
6*2
9-3
6*4
9-6
6-6
9*9
6-8
10-2
70
3*6
7*2
10*5
10-8
111
114
11-7
12-0
12-4
12-8
140
14-4
17-5
180
15-6
19-5
18*6
19-2
170
204
14-8
18-5
15-2
160
13-2
16*5
19-8
13-6
155
210
21*6
22-2
22*8
22-4
25*6
28-8
23*8
27-2
30-6
24*5
280
25-2
28-8
31-5
324
25-9
29-6
33-3
26-6
26-4
29*7
50
4
5
11-6
17-4
120
150
180
7
8
9
20-3
21*0
23-2
240
26-1
27-0
21*7
24-8
27-9
47
48
49
51
52
53
54
4-7
9-4
4-8
9-6
14-4
4-9
5-0
51
5-2
5*3
54
9*8
10 2
104
15*6
10-8
16-2
15*3
10*6
15-9
110
14-7
100
150
200
250
300
20-4
25*5
30-6
20*8
21*2
26-5
31-8
270
324
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
14-5
14-1
19-2
23-1
21-6
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
5*5
5*6
5-7
6-1
6-2
6-3
6-4
114
120
16*8
171
17*4
12-2
18-3
124
16-5
5*9
11-8
17-7
60
1-2
5-8
11-6
12-6
18-9
12-8
19-2
22*0
27-5
224
22-8
28-5
34-2
240
300
24-8
290
23*6
29-5
244
28-0
33-6
310
354
36-0
37-2
25-2
31-5
37-8
25-6
32-0
34-8
30-5
36-6
41-3
47-2
42-0
48-0
434
44-1
44-8
49-6
504
512
531
540
42-7
48*8
54-9
558
56-7
57-6
77
78
79
80
81
7-7
7-8
7-9
8-0
81
8-2
15*4
23-1
15 6
15-8
160
16-2
164
234
23-7
240
24-3
24-6
31-2
23-2
37-8
43-2
48-6
440
39-2
44-8
39-9
45-6
49-5
504
51-3
40-6
46-4
52-2
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
7-0
7-1
72
14*4
20*4
20'7
210
14-2
21-3
21-6
26-0
32-5
26-4
27*6
34*5
41-4
280
350
420
28'8
35-5
360
39*6
27*2
34-0
40-8
284
390
26*8
33-5
40-2
42-6
45-5
52-0
58-5
46-2
52-8
59-4
46*9
53-6
60*3
47*6
54-4
61*2
48*3
55-2
490
560
62-1
63
49-7
56-8
63-9
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
8*5
8-6
8*7
8-8
8-9
170
17*2
17*4
17-6
17*8
25*5
25'8
261
264
26-7
35-2
44-0
52-8
61-6
7
8
9
351
37-1
140
19-5
330
8-4
16-8
25*2
8-3
2
3
16-6
24-9
4
5
6
33-2
41-5
49-8
33-6
42-0
7
8
9
58-1
66-4
74-7
340
34*4
430
504
42*5
51-0
51*6
34-8
43*5
52-2
58*8
67-2
75*6
59*5
68-0
76-5
60-2
68*8
77*4
60*9
69-6
78-3
330
38-5
74
7*5
14-8
150
7-6
15-2
22-2
22*5
22-8
29-6
300
30-4
370
37-5
380
43*2
29-2
36-5
43-8
44-4
45*0
45*6
504
51-1
584
600
53-2
60-8
65-7
51-8
59-2
66-6
52*5
57-6
64*8
67-5
90
91
92
93
90
9-1
9-2
180
270
18*2
27-3
35*6
44-5
53-4
360
450
540
62-3
71*2
63-0
704
79*2
801
81-0
63-7
72*8
81-9
720
64
34-2
42-4
47-7
6*9
13*8
414
34 4
364
6-8
13*6
36-8
40-5
301
33-6
37-8
41-6
46*8
6-7
322
360
294
280
320
360
35-7
40-8
45-9
13-4
20* 1
31-5
38-7
30*8
35-2
39-6
28-7
32-8
36-9
27-3
31*2
350
400
450
6-6
138
304
34*3
39-2
44-1
13-2
19-8
135
184
258
33-6
38-4
43-2
6-5
92
13 2
23
27-6
25*2
32-9
37-6
42-3
130
90
18-0
17-2
21-5
28-8
4-6
8-8
22*5
27-0
16 8
210
19-6
24-5
29-4
31-2
46
4-5
17-6
164
20*5
24*6
240
260
45
44
220
264
160
200
234 240
18-8
23-5
28-2
2
3
5
6
190
4-3
8*6
12-9
140
7-3
14-6
21-9
18-0
18-6
384
82
324
32-8
48-0
40-5
48-6
49-2
711
560
640
720
56-7
64-8
72-9
57 4
65-6
73-8
97
98
99
100
9-7
9-8
9-9
30*8
38-5
46*2
390
31-6
39-5
320
400
46-8
474
54-6
62*4
70-2
55-3
63-2
684
53*9
61-6
69-3
94
95
96
410
100
94
95
9-6
184
9-3
18-6
18-8
190
19 2
19
19 6
19-8
20
27-6
27*9
28-2
28'
28-8
29
2-:>4
29-7
300
364
36-8
37-6
47-0
384
396
47-5
490
49*5
55-2
564
570
48-0
57-6
38-8
48*5
392
460
37-2
46-5
55-8
380
45-5
54-6
582
58-8
644
65-1
74*4
83-7
65-8
75-2
84-6
66-5
73-6
82-8
67-9
77*6
87-3
68-6
78-4
88-2
760
67*2
76-8
85-5
864
400
500
594 600
69*3
79-2
89-1
700
800
900
PROPORTIONAL PARTS
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
101
10-2
10 3
10-4
10-5
10*6
10-7
10 8
109
110
111
11-2
11-3
2
3
20-2
30-3
20-4
30-6
206
21
21-6
32-4
21-8
32-7
220
330
22-2
33-3
22-4
33*6
22-6
33-9
230
31-5
21-2
31-8
21*4
30-9
20-8
31-2
11-4
22-8
34-2
4
5
6
40-4
40-8
41-2
41*6
420
42*4
52-5
530
57-5
61-2
62-4
630
63-6
45-2
56-5
67-8
570
60-6
44*4
55*5
66-6
460
520
440
550
660
45-6
51-5
61-8
43-6
54-5
65-4
44-8
510
42*8
53-5
64*2
43-2
50-5
68-4
690
70-7
80-8
72-1
74*9
85-6
96-3
75*6
86-4
97-2
76-3
87*2
78-4
89-6
100-8
90-4
101-7
79-8
91-2
102-6
920
98*1
880
990
77-7
88-8
99-9
79-1
94*5
74-2
84-8
95-4
77-0
82*4
92*7
72-8
83-2
93-6
73-5
90-9
71-4
81-6
91-8
103-5
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
n-7
11-8
121
12-2
12-3
12-4
12-5
12 6
12-7
12-8
12-9
23-4
23-6
35-4
11-9
23-8
35-7
12*0
240
360
24*2
36-3
24-4
24-6
36*9
24*8
37*2
250
37-5
25-2
37-8
25-4
11-6
23-2
34-8
25-6
38-4
25-8
38-7
130
260
390
46-4
47-2
47-6
50-4
620
62-5
630
640
74-4
750
75-6
50-8
63-5
76-2
51-2
59-5
71-4
49*2
61-5
73-8
500
590
48*4
60-5
72-6
49-6
580
480
600
48-8
5
6
51-6
64-5
77-4
520
650
780
7
8
9
81-2
92-8
104-4
81-9
93-6
105-3
85-4
97*6
109-8
86-1
86-8
99-2
111-6
87-5
98-4
110*7
1000
88-9
101-6
114-3
89-6
102-4
115-2
90-3
103-2
104
112-5
88*2
100*8
113*4
116-1
1170
8
9
69-6
35-1
46-8
58-5
70-2
70-8
840
72-0
82-6
94-4
106-2
83-3
95-2
840
960
1071
1080
84-7
96-8
108-9
32-1
366
61
73-2
540
64-8
560
67-2
38-1
76-8
11-5
34-5
80-5
910
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
131
13-2
13-3
13-5
13-6
13-7
13-8
13-9
140
14-1
14-2
14-3
2
3
26-2
26-4
39-6
26-6
39-9
13-4
26-8
27-0
40-5
27-2
40-8
27*4
27*6
41-4
27-8
41-7
280
420
28-2
42-3
28-4
42*6
28-6
42-9
14-4
28-8
290
43*2
43-5
4
5
6
52-4
65-5
78-6
52-8
53-6
54-0
67-5
54-4
81-6
560
700
840
56-4
70-5
84*6
56*8
71*0
85*2
57-2
71-5
85-8
580
810
55-6
69-5
83-4
57-6
80-4
54*8
68-5
82*2
55-2
670
79-2
53-2
66-5
79-8
91-7
104-8
117 9
92-4
105-6
118-8
93-1
106-4
119-7
93-8
107-2
120-6
94*5
95-2
97-3
111-2
1120
121-5
122 4
96-6
110-4
124*2
1251
126-0
98*7
112*8
126*9
99-4
113-6
127*8
1001
108*8
95-9
109-6
123*3
980
1080
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
15-2
30-4
45-6
15*3
15*4
30*8
15-5
15*6
30*6
45-9
310
31
46-2
46-5
61-6
620
63-2
770
77-5
92-4
930
8
9
39-3
660
40-2
680
411
690
82-8
720
72-5
86*4
870
114-4
128-7
100-8
115*2
129-6
101-5
116-0
158
159
160
15-7
15-8
31-6
47-4
15-9
31-8
320
46-8
31-4
47-1
47-7
48-0
62-4
78-0
93-6
62-8
78-5
94-2
640
800
94-8
63-6
79-5
95-4
109-9
125-6
141-3
110-6
126*4
142-2
111-3
127-2
112-0
143-1
144-0
146
147
148
149
14-6
14-8
14-9
15
151
29-2
43-8
14-7
29-4
441
29-6
44-4
29-8
44-7
300
450
30-2
45-3
58-4
730
87-6
58-8
73-5
88-2
59*2
74-0
88-8
59-6
74-5
89-4
600
750
900
60-4
75-5
90-6
60-8
102-2
116-8
131-4
102-9
117-6
132-3
103-6
118-4
133-2
104*3
119*2
105-7
120-8
135-9
106*4
121-6
136*8
1071
122-4
137-7
107-8
123-2
138-6
108-5
1341
1050
1200
1350
139-5
109-2
124-8
140-4
8
9
760
91-2
61-2
76*5
91 8
1240
14-5
790
130 5
16-0
96-0
1280
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
16-1
16-2
16-3
16-4
16-5
16-6
16*7
16-8
16-9
170
171
17-2
17*3
32-2
48-3
32-4
48-6
32-6
48*9
32-8
49-2
330
33-4
33-6
50-4
33-8
50*7
340
510
34-2
51-3
34-4
51-6
34-6
51-9
350
49*5
33-2
49-8
17-4
34-8
52-2
52-5
64-4
80-5
96-6
64-8
81*0
65-6
660
66-4
680
850
990
99-6
100-8
1020
103-2
69-2
86*5
103*8
700
98-4
68-4
85-5
102-6
69-6
830
67-6
84*5
101*4
68-8
82*5
66-8
83-5
100-2
67-2
820
97*2
65*2
81*5
97*8
112*7
128-8
144-9
113-4
129-6
145-8
114-8
131-2
147-6
115-5
132-0
148*5
116-2
132-8
149-4
116*9
133-6
150-3
117-6
134-4
151-2
1190
1360
1530
119-7
136-8
153-9
120-4
137-6
154-8
3
4
5
6
7
8
11
31
130-4
146-7
50-1
840
118*3
135-2
152-1
860
1211
138-4
155-7
17-5
870
87-5
104*4
1050
121-8
139-2
156-6
122*5
1400
157-5
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VOLUME
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THE INTERNATIONAL UNION OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

THE KYNOCH PRESS

printed in Great Britain

THE KYNOCH PRESS

2nd edition, reprinted with

edition, reprinted with corrections

1969 International Union of Crystallography.

Kathleen Lonsdale (Chairman)

of these Tables was

possible by very generous financial help

and from the U.S.A. National Research Council. This

Volume II. The

possible the publication of

to express its sincere gratitude to both these organizations.

Purpose and Scope of the Tables

Miscellaneous Power Series

Determinants and Rank

2.1.8.5. Characteristic Values.

Diagonalization of a Quadratic Form. Example

Numerical Solution of a System of Linear Equations

Table 2.1. 9.4C. Ditto. Third Example

2.1.10.1. Single Variable

Table 2. 1. 10 .1 A. Example of the Newton-Raphson Method

Simultaneous Equations in Several Variables

Table 2.1.11 AA. Horner's Reduction

Trigonometry and Geometry

Functions of Multiple Angles

2.2 2.2. Basic

Formulae and Properties

Special Properties of the Plane Triangle

Curves of the Second Degree

2.2.5. Solid Analytic

Trigonometry and Geometry (continued)

The Line (Line through Two

Perpendicular Equation, Plane through Three

One Point in a Given Direction,

of the Second Degree

and Integral Calculus

2.3.1. Differential Calculus.

2.3.2.1. Indefinite Integrals

2.3.2.2. Definite Integrals

Vector and Tensor Analysis

Absolute Vector Analysis

and Notations, Basic Forms, Derivatives of Simple

Functions, Taylor's Series, Differentiation of an Integral

2.5.3.2. Evaluation of Fourier Transforms

Three-dimensional Fourier Transforms

Fourier Transform of a Periodic Function

Fourier Theory (continued)

Properties of Fourier Series

Calculation of Fourier Coefficients

Fourier Series in Two Dimensions

Table 2.5.4E. Forms for Auto-convolutions

Discrete and Continuous Distributions

2.6.3.2. Poisson's Distribution

The Normal Distribution

Two-dimensional Probability Distributions

Multi-dimensional Probability Distributions

2.6.6. Statistical Inference

One-dimensional Confidence Intervals

General Relations, valid for

General Relations, valid for

Crystal Systems (continued)