CEE-3500 Handout on Viscosity and Similitude

viscosity conversions (additional)

dynamic or absolute viscosity :
Pas = Ns/m2
Pas * 2.088543E-2 gives one lbs/ft2
Pas * 1000 = one centipoise (cp)
Pas * 10 = one poise
cp * 2.088543E-5 gives one lbs/ft2
poise * 2.088543E-3 give one lbs/ft2
kinematic viscosity <
m/s * 10.764 = one ft/s
m/s * 1,000,000 = one centistoke (cs)
m/s *10,000 = one stoke
cs * 1.076391E-5 = one ft/s
stoke * 1.076391E-3 = one ft/s

Inertial Force FI
!Inertial force = density * volume * acceleration
!FI = D A A a
!Acts in almost all fluid problems except for static (no motion) or very small velocity.
!Acceleration exists whenever there is
change in flow direction or normal acceleration ie V/r
change in magnitude or tangential acceleration ie dV/dt
turbulence fluctuations in velocity (almost all real flows have turbulence)
!Inertial force directly related to density.
!Density is the significant fluid property for inertial force.
Gravity Force Fg
!Gravity force = weight = specific weight * volume
!FG = ( A
!Important whenever a difference in density or specific weight exists.
!Important when layers or an interface exists of different fluids or fluids with different
temperatures exist.
air - water
water - salt water
cold air - warm air
oil - water
!Surface flows, shape and depth are influenced by gravity.
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!Waves are influenced by gravity forces.

!Object floating (bouyancy) on surface are influenced by gravity.
!Submerged objects are not influenced by gravity forces (fluid gravity force).
!Specific weight or gravity is the significant fluid property for gravity force.
Viscous Force F<
!Viscous force = shear stress * area = viscosity * rate of deformation * area
!F< = JA A = :A du/dy A A
!Force that resists motion.
!Produces shear stress or friction on a fixed boundary (ie pipe wall)
!Most flows especially real flows are viscous.
!Flow with small or no rate of deformation du/dy are not viscous or affected by
viscous force.
!Usually the further away from a boundary, the less the viscous force.
!Shear stress exists wherever there is viscous force or rate of deformation, even in a
flow well away from a boundary.
!Viscosity is the significant fluid property for viscous force
Elastic Force FE
!Elastic force = Bulk Modulus * area
!FE = E A A
!Important where compressibility is a factor.
!Mach number = Velocity //(E /D)
!General rule: if Mach number is less than 0.3, the elastic force is not significant and
can be ignored for a fluid problem / phenomena.
!General rule: if Mach number is greater than 0.3 but less than 1.0, both the elastic force
and the viscous are significant and have to be considered.
!General rule: if Mach number is equal to or greater than 1.0, the elastic force is
significant and so much greater than the viscous force, the viscous force can be ignored.
!Bulk modulus is the significant fluid property for elastic force
Surface Tension Force FF
!Surface tension force = surface tension * length
!FF = F A L
!Important or significant if a small radius of curvature at interface exists.
!General rule: if the radius is greater than 10 cm, the surface tension force is not
significant and can be ignored for a fluid problem / phenomena.
!General rule: if the radius is less than 10 cm but greater than 1.0 cm, both the surface
tension force and the gravity forces are significant and have to be considered.
!General rule: if the radius is equal to or less than 1.0 cm, the surface tension force is
significant and so much greater than the gravity force, the gravity force can be ignored.
!Surface tension is the significant fluid property for surface tension force.

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Pressure Force FP
!Pressure force = pressure * area
!FP = P A A
!Acts in almost all fluid problems except for a liquid jet entering a body of liquid.
!Unique force that is the resultant force or applied force resulting from other forces.
!Pressure is the significant fluid property for pressure force.
Similitude

!3 types of similitude: geometric, kinematic, dynamic

!Two objects have geometric similarity if all angles the same, if ratio of all
lengths the same, if ration of all areas the same, if ration of all volumes the
same.
LR = Lprototype / Lmodel if LR =1 then both are same size
AR = Aprototype / Amodel = Lprototype / Lmodel = LR
VOLR = LR3
!Example of a prototype cube with 4" sides modeled by a cube with 2" sides.
The LR = 2 or 1:2
The volume of the prototype is 64in3 and the volume of the model is 8in3
The VOLR = 64 /8 = 8 which is = LR3
The angles of the corners are the same.
!Geometric similarity refers to flow boundaries and kinematic similarity refers to
flow patterns.
The kinematic ratios are timeR=tP/tM, velocityR=VP/VM, and flowR=QP/QM.
Acceleration is also a kinematic property and can be related to velocity and time
by the use of kinematics.
Often: the QR is related to the VR by the use of the area AR.
QR = VR @ LR
The velocity ratio is related to geometric ratios by the use of dynamic similarity.
!The keyword for dynamic similarity is forces.
FR = FP / FM
If dynamic similarity exists, the FR for each force in the prototype and model
is the same, ie FIP/FIM = FPP/FPM = F<P/F<M = etc.
If geometric similarity and dynamic similarity are satisfied, kinematic similarity
And complete similarity exist automatically.
The six fluid forces and be combined into 5 force ratios with the inertial
force common for all the ratios.

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!To model:
1. Select reasonable LR
2. Determine the significant or important forces.
3. Build a model to LR, AR (geometric similarity) etc.
4. Operate model with force ratios
! Similitude is the basis for physical modeling. A model (may be larger than the prototype) is
constructed with a specific length ratio (LR=LP/LM).
Based on the length ratio the model is built to satisfy geometric similitude. The model is
operated with kinematic similitude to correctly simulate the kinematic ratios such as velocity,
flow, time, and acceleration.
! The purposes of a model are:
1. To study the general appearance of the geometry;
2. To study the flow patterns;
3. To study the pressure distribution and resulting forces;
4. To determine flow capacity;
5. To determine efficiencies;
6. To determine energy loss due to friction and pressure drag;
7. To determine if the prototype will operate as intended;
8. To determine ways to improve the design and operation of the prototype;
! The ratio of significant forces are used to determine the model-prototype relationships
(scaling).
! The significant/dominant forces can be arranged into five dimensionless similitude
numbers/ratios. The dimensionless numbers are pairs of forces that always include the inertial
force FI
! FI = D a D L3 L/t2 and the inertial force is also FI = D A V2 D L2 V2
! Each dimensionless similitude number (ratio) is the inertial force divided by one of the other
fluid forces.
! FI / FG = [D L2 V2] / [ D g L3] = V / [g L] or the Froude Number (Fr) = V / /(g L)
! FI / F< = [D L2 V2] / [ : L2 V/L] = D V L / : = or the Reynolds Number (Re) = V L / <
! FI / FE = [D L2 V2] / [ E L2] = D V / E or the Mach Number (Ma) = V / /(E / D)
! FI / FF = [D L2 V2] / [ F L] = D L V2 / F or the Weber Number (We) = V / /( F / [D L])
! FI / FP = [D L2 V2] / [ P L2] = D V / P or the Euler Number (Eu) = V / /(P / D)
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! Some researchers present the FI / F< ratio as a Shear Number (Sn) instead of the Reynolds
number Sn = J / [D V / 2]
! The model-prototype relationships are used to compare / predict model to prototype or
prototype to model kinematic and dynamic properties.
! The dimensionless similitude numbers / ratios are used to determine the model-prototype
relationships (scaling).
! The model-prototype relationships are typically ratios of velocity, flow, time, force, pressure,
and power.
VR = VP/VM = one or more similitude numbers
QR = QP/QM = VR @ AR = VR @ LR2
ie. Q = VA
tR = LR / VR
ie V=L/t t=L/V
2
FR = DR @ VR @ AR = DR @ VR @ LR
ie FI = D A V2
PR(press) = FR / AR = DR @ VR
ie FP = P A
3
2
PoR(power) = FR @VR = DR @ VR @ LR
ie power = force times velocity

! The model-prototype relationships are then determined by substituting the velocity ratio from a
similitude number into the ratios of flow, time, pressure, and power. The key is that the
similitude number for the model equals the number for the prototype.
! There are four types of model-prototype relationships or similitude scaling, note that pressure
and Euler number are dependent, satisfied automatically by the use of either of the other four
! Froude similitude (where the only significant or dominant forces are inertia and gravity) then
results in
(Fr) = V / /(g L)
FrR= VR / /(gR LR) = 1
VR = [gR LR ] 1/2
QR = VR @ LR2 = [gR LR ] 1/2 @ LR2 = [gR]1/2 [LR]5/2
tR = LR / VR = LR / [gR LR ] = LR 1/2 / [gR]1/2
FR = DR @ VR @ LR 2 = DR @ [gR LR ] @ LR 2 = DR gR LR3
PR(press) = DR @ VR = DR @ [gR LR ] = DR gR LR
PoR(power) = FR @ VR = DR gR3/2 LR3/2 LR 2= DR LR 7/2 @ [gR]3/2

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! Froude similitude (inertia and gravity dominant)

VR = [gR @ LR ] 1/2
QR = [gR]1/2 @ [LR]5/2
tR = LR 1/2 / [gR]1/2
FR = DR @ gR @ LR3
PR(press) = DR @ gR @ LR
PoR(power) = DR @ LR 7/2 @ [gR]3/2
! Reynolds similitude (inertia and viscous dominant)
VR = <R / LR
QR = <R @ LR
tR = LR 2 / <R
FR = DR @ <R2
PR(press) = DR @ <R2 / LR2
PoR(power) = DR @ <R3 / LR
! Mach similitude (inertia and elastic dominant)
VR = [ER / DR ]
QR = LR @ ER1/2 / DR1/2
tR = LR @ DR1/2 / ER1/2
FR = ER @ LR2
PR(press) = ER
PoR(power) = ER3/2 @ LR2 / DR1/2
! Weber similitude (inertia and surface tension dominant)
VR = [FR / DR ] 1/2 / LR1/2
QR = LR3/2 @ FR1/2 / DR1/2
tR = LR3/2 @ DR1/2 / FR1/2
FR = FR @ LR
PR(press) = FR / LR
PoR(power) = FR3/2 @ LR1/2 / DR1/2
! Euler similitude is redundant because Euler number or pressure is dependent upon other forces
and similitude

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!Review of modeling (see page 30)

1. Identify dominant / significant forces and fluid properties
2. Select dominant dimensionless similitude number, select which similitude scaling
3. Derive velocity relationship / ratio from similitude number (see table page 30)
4. Derive relationships for flow, time, force, pressure, and power
5. Select length ratio to use, may be from size constraints or from other constraints such
as available flow, fluid properties etc.
6. Change model-prototype relationships to ratios of numerical values
7. Use relationships to converts between model and prototype
steps 3 and 4 may come from a prepared table (page 31)

! Froude similitude (inertia and gravity dominant)

! Reynolds similitude (inertia and viscous dominant)
! Mach similitude (inertia and elastic dominant)
! Weber similitude (inertia and surface tension dominant)
! Euler similitude is redundant because Euler number or pressure is dependent upon other forces
and similitude
! What if two forces (other than inertia and pressure are dominant)? How do we model?
For example FI, FP, F<, FG are dominant
by Froude VR=[gR LR]1/2 but by Reynolds VR = <R / LR
for the two velocity ratios to equal; [gR LR]1/2 = <R / LR
that is either <R = gR1/2 LR3/2 or
LR = <R2/3 / gR1/3
therefor we have to either test with a different viscosity or use a length ratio of 1
! Is this practical?, say LR=6, then <R = 14.7 or the viscosity of the model must be 14.7 times less
than the prototype. <P =1.4E-5 ft/s for water so <m =9.5E-7 ft/s mercury at 200 deg F.
! What do we do if cant resolve values to allow both similitude / scaling?
Run model at different dimensionless numbers and look for trend,
you may find answer is constant for certain ranges of a number (ie high Reynolds)
! It is also important to calculate the value for the dimensionless number
for example Froude numbers less than one may indicate sub-critical flow
for example Mach numbers greater than 0.3 indicate that compressibility is a factor
for example Reynolds numbers greater than 100,000 may indicate viscosity in not a
factor for friction loss coefficients

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