SECONDARY STAGE
BIOLOGY
BOOK ONE
FOR CLASS IX
For
Biology
CONTENTS
SECTION
CHAPTER
INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY
SECTION
ORGANIZATION OF LIFE
CHAPTER
SECTION
BIODIVERSITY
CHAPTER
40
CHAPTER
45
CHAPTER
53
CHAPTER
58
CHAPTER
INVERTEBRATA
65
CHAPTER
71
SECTION
MAINTENANCE OF LIFE
CHAPTER
78
CHAPTER
10
RESPIRATION
102
18
Biology
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY
Biology, the study of life is the most vital and challenging branch of science. Why?
Because it is concerned with and affects all the aspects of human life. This field is
ever growing, as old questions are answered and new questions are raised. When
and where living organisms originated? How do they grow? How did this diversity
of organism come into being? Who created it? This is just a glimpse of questions,
biologists are working upon right from the day one. They are using this acquired
knowledge of the basic natural processes for the welfare of mankind.
Learning objectives:
The word science is derived from a Latin word meaning "to know" Science is a
way of knowing. It emerges from our curiosity about ourselves, the world and the
universe.
Science helps human beings to understand the natural world and is concerned
solely with information gained by observing and testing that world. Natural world
cannot be understood with out asking questions, like how did variety of living
things evolve on earth? In what way they interact? What processes must occur in
each organism? Why living things differ from non-living? Common questions like
these form the basis of the science of biology.
1.1
WHAT IS BIOLOGY?
On your way across school campus take a moment to look around you. You will
notice a variety of organism around you, e.g. sparrows, squirrels trees, bushes,
grasses etc. In addition to the countless tiny ones. These all living things are
studied under the head of scientific discipline called Biology. The word biology is
composed of two Greek words bios meaning life and logos meaning discourse,
thought, and reasoning or in simply the study. It is a branch of natural science
that deals with organisms and different phenomena of life. Biology is further
divided into two main branches i.e. Botany and Zoology. Botany (Gr: Botane
means plants) is a branch of biology which deals with scientific study of plants
while Zoology (Gr: Zoo means animals) deals with the scientific study of
animals. According to the revised classification system all the small, usually,
microscopic organisms which were previously classified as plants or animals have
now been separated into independent groups. Study of these micro-organisms is
called Microbiology.
The study of biology provides information about:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
Biology
1.2
QURANIC TEACHING ABOUT ANIMALS AND PLANTS LIFE
Almighty Allah has conveyed a great knowledge about animals and plants through
our Holy book the Quran. A few of the Ayah are quoted as under:
It says about the origin of life that;
"We made every living thing of water. Will they not then believe?"
(Surah Al-Anbiya, Ayah 30)
"And Allah has created every animal of water. Of them is (a kind) that goes upon
its belly and (a kind) that goes upon two legs and (a kind) that goes upon four.
Allah creates what He will. Lo! Allah is able to do all things."
(Surah Al-Nur, Ayah 45)
An Egyptian mufassir, Allama Abdullah Yusuf Ali has symbolised water with the
protoplasm and thus explains that the protoplasm is the basis of all living matter
and "the vital power of protoplasm seems to depend on the constant presence of
water."
"He it is who sends down water from the sky and therewith we bring forth buds of
every kind; We bring forth the green blade from which we bring forth the thickclustered grain; and from the date-palm, from the pollen thereof, spring pendant
bunches; and (we bring forth) gardens of grapes, and the olive and the
pomegranate, alike and unlike. Look upon the fruit thereof, when they bear fruit,
and upon its ripening. Lo! Herein verily are portents for a people who believe."
(Surah Al-An'am, Ayah 100)
Holy Quran has explained the significance of water for plants and animals at
several places.
"Who has appointed the earth as a bed and has threaded roads for you therein
and has sent down water from the sky and thereby We have brought forth divers
kinds of vegetation."
(Surah Ta-ha, Ayah S3)
Glorious Quran has also revealed some facts about the growth and variety of
plants.
"And in the Earth are neighbouring tracts, vineyards and ploughed lands, and
date-palms, like and unlike which are watered with one water. And We have
made some of them to excel others in fruit. Lo! herein verily are portents for
people who have sense."
(Surah Al Ra'd, Ayah 4)
"Lo! Allah (it is) who splitteth the grain of corn and the date-stone (for sprouting).
He brings forth the living from the dead, and is the bringer-forth of the dead from
the living. Such is Allah. How then are you pervented?"
(Surah Al-An'am, Ayah 96)
Above passage refers to the wonderful act of production and also interaction of
living and dead.
Allah has also indicated the usefulness of some of the plants and animals to the
human welfare. The following Ayah can be quoted for reference.
Biology
"And Lo! In the cattle there is a lesson for you, We give you to drink of that which
is in their bellies, from betwixt the refuse and the blood, pure milk palatable to
the drinkers."
(Surah An-Nahal, Ayah 66)
"And the earth have We spread out and placed therein firm hills, and caused each
seemly thing to grow there in."
(Surah Al-Hijr, Ayah 19)
The
Holy
Quran
also
informs
us
about
the
mechanism
of reproduction.
"Glory be to Him Who created all the sexual pairs, of that which the earth
groweth, and of themselves, and of that which they know not!"
(Surah Ya-sin, Ayah 36)
"And thy Lord inspired the bee, saying: choose thou habitations in the hills and in
the trees and in that which they hatch; then eat of all fruits, and follow the ways
of thy lord made smooth (for thee). There cometh forth from their bellies a drink
diverse of hues, wherein is healing for mankind Lo! Here is indeed a portent for
people who reflect."
(Surah Al-Nahal, Ayah 68-69)
1.3
BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY
Nearly two million species (kinds-types) of plants and animals are known to the
world. Modern biology does not concern only with the recognition and
classification of these species but also deals with their structural and functional
aspects. Extensive research during the 20 century has led to the division of
biology into a large number of specialized branches. Some of the important
branches of biology common to botany and zoology are:
i)
Morphology (Gr: Morphe = form): This branch deals with the study of
external structural characteristics of plants and animals.
ii)
Anatomy (Gr: Ana = up, tome = to cut): It deals with the internal
structures or organs of an organism. In plants it deals with the
arrangement of different types of tissues in root, stem leaf etc.
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
vii)
Biology
viii)
ix)
x)
large quantities of dead organisms were fossilized and formed coal, oil and other
xi)
xii)
xiii)
1.4
BIOLOGY AND OTHER SCIENCES
Biology is a multi dimensional science. It is linked with the knowledge of
chemistry, physics, mathematics, sociology, statistics etc. and these branches
which are related to biology are biochemistry, biophysics, biometry, etc. Some of
them are discussed below.
1.
2.
3.
Biology
statistics
and
mathematics.
4.
5.
Finally, we can say that biology is related with each branch of science.
1.5
BIOLOGICAL METHOD
A biological method is a scientific approach used to resolve a biological problem
related to or produced by a living organism. In order to resolve a specific
biological problem a biological method is adopted, which consists of following
steps.
(i)
Observation
(ii)
Hypothesis
(iii)
Deduction
(iv)
Experiment
(v)
Result
(vi)
Law or theory
1.
Observation:
Most of the biological investigations start with an observation. After selecting,
specific biological problem, observations are made to collect relevant information.
For example; take the case of malaria. Malaria is a the greatest killer disease of
man for centuries. Malaria was the one among many other diseases for which a
cure was needed.
In 1878, a French physician, Laveran, studied the blood sample of malaria patient
under microscope and observed tiny creatures in it. These creatures were later
named Plasmodium.
2.
Hypothesis:
In the light of observed facts and previously collected information (data)
biologists make 'intelligent guesses' as to what may be the possible answer to
this particular question. This intelligent guess in a form of a statement is called
hypothesis. So, the hypothesis is a statement made by scientists about a certain
phenomenon, on the basis of available information. For example, an observation
was made that Plasmodium is present in the blood of malaria patients. So a
question was raised, is Plasmodium the cause of malaria? It would be a good
guess to say 'yes' but it is only a guess which can be presented as a hypothesis
that:
"Plasmodium is the cause of malaria.
3.
Deduction:
To test the hypothesis certain deductions that are logical prediction are made. In
other words deduction is the logical explanation of a hypothesis. It does not
require any type of experimentation. For example, to test the above hypothesis
the following deductions were made.
"If Plasmodium is the cause of malaria, then all the patient suffering from malaria
should have malarial parasite in their blood while healthy people should not have".
A number of deductions can be made to explain the hypothesis. These deductions
can be tested and verified by experiments.
4.
Experiment:
The next step is to test each deduction (prediction) practically to find out whether
or not the hypothesis is correct. In testing the deduction we are actually testing a
hypothesis. This is where the scientist shows his skill as an experimenter. For this
Biology
purpose, scientist performs two types of test i.e. control and experimental groups.
Control group means a group of healthy people and experimental group means
group of malaria patients. Both groups were kept in identical conditions. In order
to find out the real cause of malarial, scientists examined the blood of about 100
malaria patients and also examined the blood of 100 healthy persons.
5.
Result:
From above experiment it was found that all the malarial patients had
Plasmodium in their blood, where as the blood of healthy persons were free from
Plasmodium. These results verified the deduction and finally the hypothesis i.e.
"Plasmodium is the cause of malaria".
6.
Theory:
It is not always possible to confirm a hypothesis immediately. The validity of a
hypothesis rests on a gradual accumulation of indirect evidences. As more and
more evidence come to hand, the hypothesis gain increasing acceptance and
eventually is promoted to the rank of a theory: A theory is a set of scientific
assumptions consistent with one another and supported by evidence, but not fully
proved e.g. theory of evolution
Thus a biologist studies a problem in a sequential manner through observations,
questions, hypothesis, deduction, testing or experimentation. A set of data taken
from experiment, proves or disproves the hypothesis. A cautious attitude
expressed in the form of criticism and further tests are performed until a
satisfactory answer is obtained.
The results of observations and experiments are published in scientific journals or presented in
conferences, where they can be examined by all. These results must be repeatable that is they should
be obtained by any one doing the same procedure.
1.6
HISTORY OF BIOLOGY
The history of biology goes back to the ancient and pre historic time. Very briefly,
perhaps the first noticeable development in our knowledge of biology occurred
during the Greek period. Individual like Aristotle (322-384 B.C) is remembered
even today. He wrote a book "Historia Animalia". Carolus Linnaeus founder of
biological classification, classified animals into two units i.e. genus and species.
The Phrastus, discovered sex in plants and described about five hundred plants
therefore, known as founder of Botany. Hardly any original addition to biological
knowledge was made by the Romans, who followed the Greeks. It was not until
the beginning of the Muslim period, nearly a thousand years later that
revolutionary developments occurred not only in biology but in the science in
general.
From the 8th to the 15th century, Muslims studied Greek and other literature,
translated books of Roman and Sanskrit into Arabic, wrote new books and opened
numerous centers of learning which encouraged original research and exchange
of ideas between different human societies. The most outstanding contribution of
Muslim scientists had been the use of experiments for the first time in scientific
study. This period was truly a period of progress in biology and medicine. The
following is a modest list of contributions by the Muslim and other scientists
between the 8th and 20th century.
Muslim and other Biologists:
Muslims have made important contributions in the field of biology in earlier ages.
Jabir-Bin-Hayan (722-817 A.D), wrote books named "Al-Nabatat" and "AlHaywan" on plants and animals respectively.
Biology
Abdul Malik Asmai (741 A.D), wrote books "Alkheil, Al-IbiL "Al-wahoosh", "AsSha" and "khalaqul Insan", describing structure and function of body parts of
horses, camels, sheep, wild animals and human being. "Khalaqul Insan" was
popular among the western experts in Zoology. He was regarded a specialist of
his time.
Ali bin Rabban Tubri (775-870 A.D), wrote book "Firdus-ul-Hikma" having
many illustrations and detailed articles on Philosophy, Zoology, Psychology and
Astronomy.
Abu-Usman Umer Aljahiz, wrote book "Al-Haywan" which
characteristics of 350 species of animals especially, about life of ants.
described
Al-Farabi (870-950 A.D) and Abul-Qasim Al-Zahravi (936-1004 A.D). Both were
the renowned hakim and surgeon of the Islamic World. Al Farabi is the author of
two very well known books i.e. "Kitab-i-Nabatat" and "Kitab-ul-Haywanat" and
Zahravi was famous for the removal of urinary bladder stone.
Ibn-al Haitham (965-1039 A.D), wrote books like "Kitabul Manazir" and
"Mizanul-Hikma", He explained the phenomenon of vision and corrected the
Greek conception about vision.
Bu-Ali Sina (980 A.D), wrote books "Al-Qanoon" and "Fil Tib Al-Shifa", about
plants, animals and non-living things. He is considered as one of the founder of
medicine, acknowledged by the greatest expert of his time in medicines in east
and west.
Ziauddin Ibn-Baitar (13th century A.D) specialized in the study of plants. He
travelled to several countries, observed and studied many species of plants.
Ibn-al Nafees (13th century A.D) described the process of blood circulation in
human body.
Kamal-ud-Din al-Damiri (14th century A.D) compiled a book "Hayat-alHaywan" deals with the characteristics of 1000 kinds of animals.
Ali bin Isa was a well known eye-specialist of his time and worked on structure,
function and the diseases of the eye. He wrote three volumes on this subject in
which he described 130 diseases of the eye.
Abul Qasim Majreeti is especially known in Europe for his book on animal
species.
Other Biologists:
After 15th century, European and other biologists made important contribution in
the field of Biology.
William Harvey (1578-1657 A.D), described circulation of blood.
Galileo (1610) invented microscope to examine small organisms.
Robbert Hook (1665) discovered "cell" the basic unit of living organism.
Linnaeus (1707-1778 A.D),
developed
methods
of classification for
organisms and gave nomenclature and therefore, called father of taxonomy.
Schleiden and Schawann (1839), worked on the detailed structures of plant
and animal cell, finally formulated cell theory.
Biology
10
Biology
1.8
ORIGIN OF LIFE
11
Biology
12
Biology
These experiments provide evidence supporting the idea that only living beings
give rise to living beings. Thus, the concept of Biogenesis is correct and that of
Abiogenesis is wrong.
Needham's experiment:
In 1748, an English Scientist Needham, boiled meat in water, poured this gravy
in bottles and closed their mouth with cork. After a few days many microorganisms were produced in these covered bottles. This once again excited the
believers of Abiogenesis i.e. life from non-life (Fig: 1.3).
Pasture's experiment:
The argument on the issue of biogenesis and abiogenesis continued up to the
middle of nineteenth century, till Louis Pasture, a renowned French scientist
proved with experiments, that abiogenesis could not occur in the present
environment of earth.
In 1864, Pasture performed his experiment, in front of the commission formed of
noted biologists, to resolve this issue. He took flasks which had long curved Sshaped necks (Fig. 1.4). He added fermentable infusion (yeast + sugar + water)
in bottles and left their mouth open.
The yeast infusions were boiled in the flasks and let steam released out of the
neck of each flask. Then flasks were allowed to cool. No life was produced even
after the lapse of several days; because micro-organisms entering along with
incoming air got stuck up in on the curved walls of the glass neck. To prove this
he broke up the curved necks, so that now contaminated air could reach directly
to the infusion. It was observed that micro-organisms were produced within 48
hours. This proved that if care was taken and no micro-organisms or their spores
were allowed to reach the infusion, no life could be produced. He rejected
spontaneous generation. Commission decided in favour of bio-genesis.
1.8.3 Concept of chemical and organic evolutional
The modern view of origin of life stresses upon the idea of chemical evolution and
ties its origin to the history of the earth and the primitive atmosphere.
How did it happen and what evidence supports this idea?
In the beginning, the universe was an intensely hot point where matter and
energy were indistinguishable. About 15 billion year ago, there was a Big Bang
(huge explosion). The universe started expanding and the temperature dropped
drastically. In time, about 4.6 billion years ago our earth and other planets
appeared as part of the solar system. The Primitive atmosphere of the earth was
rich in Hydrogen. Soon gases from the very hot and liquid core of the earth added
more elements to this atmosphere. It is believed that the earth's atmosphere at
this stage consisted carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, water
vapours and was exposed to intense radiation and electric spark. It hardly had
any free oxygen. With the passage of time, the atmospheric temperature
gradually dropped. This allowed condensation and heavy rains which caused
formation of oceans. Thunder and lightning sparks together with ultraviolet
radiation caused reactions of the atmospheric gases. This led to formation of
simple organic molecules. These molecules I came down with rain and
accumulated in the oceans, lakes, rivers and the soil over a very long period of
time. These molecules had enough chances to interact in this environment and
produce amino acids and proteins which are the building blocks of life. This
sequence of chemical evolution was demonstrated in the middle of the 20th
century by some clever laboratory experiments. Scientists were able to produce
amino acids and simple sugars from a mixture of methane, ammonia, hydrogen
and water by exposing it to electric sparks. More recent experiments using
electric sparks in laboratory chambers have successfully produced not only amino
acids and sugar but also the basic ingredients of fatty substances and DNA, all of
which are the constituents of life.
13
Biology
Life originated on earth more than 3.5 billion years ago. We do not know how life formed, although
the evidence is consistent with the hypothesis that it evolved spontaneously from chemicals. There is
considerable discussion among biologists about what the early stages of such an evolutionary process
might have been like.
What was the first life form like? The first life form, perhaps, was a sphere of
naked protein or RNA and was capable of making its copies (reproduction). At
some stage, a membrane assembled around the sphere giving rise to the first cell.
There is now general agreement that this first life form respired anaerobically
because the earth's atmosphere lacked free oxygen; it reproduced asexually. Our
present day knowledge of viruses, bacteria and how DNA makes its copies
provide enough hints in support of the above view. The first living organism may
have been like viruses.
The next step in this story was appearance of an autotrophic way of life, that is,
an organism capable of photosynthesis, adding free oxygen into the atmosphere.
This availability of free oxygen opened the way for an explosion of a variety of
organisms in times to come. Further improvement became possible as some of
the organisms achieved the capability, to reproduce sexually.
For at least the first 2 billion years of life on earth, all organisms were bacteria. About 1.5 billion years
ago, the first eukaryotes appeared.
The story of origin of life highlights change in matter. First inorganic molecules
interacted in a way that organic molecules came into existence. The latter formed
aggregates capable of making their copies and existed as naked spheres of
protein or nucleic acids (RNA or DNA). Ultimately there arose the first cell a unit
with a membrane. This tells us that life eventually arose by a slow process of
chemical changes or organic evolution. The basic underlying concept in this
process is that over a period of time (a very long period) one form gave rise to
another. The idea of organic evolution was supported by scientist like Lamarck
and Charles Darwin. They argued that new forms of life must have arisen from
older ones through variations and that it was something in the process of heredity
which was responsible for variations.
14
Biology
SUMMARY
Biology is the study of living things. It is further divided into three main
branches Botany, Zoology and Microbiology.
Biology can be divided further into a large number of branches like
morphology, anatomy, histology, cytology, physiology ecology, embryology,
taxonomy, genetics, paleontology, biochemistry, biotechnology, etc.
Biology and other natural and social sciences like chemistry, physics,
mathematics, sociology and statistics are inter-related.
The systematic process used in resolving a biological problem is called a
biological method.
Biological investigation starts with observations and collection of information
about the biological problems.
Hypothesis is a guess made by scientist about the solution of a certain
phenomenon.
Deduction is a logical explanation of hypothesis.
Experiment is the practical testing of hypothesis and deduction.
New discoveries in the field of biology are bringing revolution in the fields of
medicine, public health, agriculture, veterinary, landscape etc.
The old discarded belief that the living beings can spontaneously develop
from the non-living is termed as abiogenesis, and the view that only living
things can produce their own kind is called biogenesis.
Modern view of origin of life stresses upon the idea of chemical evolution and
ties it with the origin of earth and the primitive atmosphere.
Living organisms had a common origin but, with the passage of time, they
gradually changed and became different from one another.
15
Biology
EXERCISE
1.
2.
3.
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
5.
4.
Biochemistry
16
Biology
iii)
v)
6.
Observation
iv)
Genetic Engineering vi)
Deduction
Biogenesis
17
Biology
Chapter 2
STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION OF LIFE
The cell is the basic unit of life. It is the smallest entity in which the life can exist.
All the things that living organism can do are done by its cells. In fact some living
things are made up of only one cell. Each cell gets food for energy, obtains
oxygen, produces energy, gets rid of wastes, maintains homeostasis and
produces new cells. How are all these life activities carried out? The answer can
be found by examining the composition and working of its parts.
Learning objectives:
18
Biology
observed nuclei in all types of animal cells but failed to observe cell-wall in them.
From here the difference between plant and animal cell started to establish. In
1858, Rudolf Virchow stated that new cells come only from other cells i.e animals
cells come from animal cell and plant cells from plant cell. The combined efforts
of Schleiden, Schwann and R.Virchow finally gave rise to cell theory.
The salient features of the cell theory are as under:
i)
ii)
iii)
2.2
LIGHT MICROSCOPY AND ELECTRON MICROSCOPY
The evolution of biology as well as science often parallels the invention of
instruments that extend human senses to new limits. The discovery and early
study of cells progressed with the invention and improvement of visual
instrument, like microscope. Microscopes of various types are still important
tools for the study of cells.
Resolution
Resolution is the capacity to
separate adjacent objects.
Resolution is maintained upto
certain magnification.
Resolution improves
as
the
wave
length
of
illumination
become shorter.
Magnification
Magnification
is
a
means
of
increasing size of the object.
By
increasing
magnification
resolution is disturbed.
Magnification improves with the
focal length of lens.
The microscopes first used by scientist, as well as the microscope you use in the
biology laboratory are light microscopes. These microscope use visible light as the
source of illumination and glass lenses for magnification. These lenses reflect the
light in a way that the image of the specimen is magnified as it is projected into
the human eye. The light microscope can magnify the object upto 1000 times but
its resolving power is very limited, i.e just 0.2m (Resolving power is a measure
of the clarity of the image).
In 1935, a new type of power full microscope called Electron microscope was
invented by scientist to improve the resolving power of microscope. It uses a
beam of electron as a source of illumination. The electron beam increases its
resolving power. Modern electron microscope can achieve a resolution of about
0.2 nm, a thousand times improvement over light microscope. The electron
microscope uses electromagnet as lenses instead of glass lenses. This image
cannot focus in human eye, therefore screen or photographic plates are used to
review and focus these images.
Units of measurement
1 centimeter (cm) = 10-2 meter.
1 millimeter (mm) - 10-3 meter.
1 micrometer (m) =10-6 meter.
1 nanometer (nm) = 10-9 meter.
Electron microscopes reveals many organelles that are impossible to be seen with
the light microscope. But the light microscope has many advantages especially for
the study of live cells. In electron microscopy, chemicals and physical methods
are used to prepare sample which kills cells.
19
Biology
2.3
BASIC STRUCTURE OF CELL
Cells are of different shapes and size according to their functions. inspite of
variation found in their shape, all cells basically share many structures in common
like cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, etc. In plant cell, cell-membrane is
surrounded by a cell-wall.
2.3.1 Cell - Structural and Functional unit:
Microscopic studies reveal that all living organisms are composed of cells.
Therefore, cell is a unit of structure of living organisms. Cells are of different
shapes and sizes, as they have to perform different functions. All basic functional
activities, characteristic of living things, occur in the cell. Therefore, cell is also a
unit of function of all living organisms.
1. Cell-wall:
Cell-wall is the non living, outermost boundary of plant cells, bacterial cells and
fungal cells. It is not found in animal cell. It is secreted by the protoplasm of the
plant cell. In plant cell it is mainly composed of cellulose and pectin. Ultra
microscopic structure of cell-wall shows that cellulose make the fibers which are
arranged in criss cross manner. These fibers are kept in their position by a
cementing material called calcium pectate (Pectin).
Bacterial cell-wall is made up of protein and carbohydrate while fungal cell wall is
made up of fungal cellulose and chitin.
Thickness of cell-wall varies in different cells of plant. It is composed of three
main layers: middle lamella, primary wall, secondary wall and some times tertiary
wall. Middle lamella is formed between the primary walls of neighbouring cells.
Primary wall, the first wall of plant cell is chemically composed of cellulose and
pectin, some limes, lignin. Cell-wall provides protection and support to the cell. It
gives a definite shape to the cell. It also performs the function of transport of
material from outside to inside or vice versa, therefore, it is permeable in nature.
2. Cell- membrane:
The
cell-membrane
or plasma
membrane
surrounds nucleus and
cytoplasm in all types of cells. However in bacteria and plants, plasma
membrane itself is surrounded by a cell-wall. It can repair itself to some extent.
Different models have been presented to understand the structure of cell
membrane. The most acceptable model among them is Fluid mosaic model
presented
by Singer and Nicholson (1972). According to it, cell membrane
consists of lipid (Phospho-lipid) bilayer, in which protein molecules float like
iceberg in the sea. This basic structure is found in all the membranes of
mitochondria, chloroplast etc. Therefore, it is also called unit membrane.
Cell membrane is a selectively permeable membrane because it regulates
selective movement of molecules. In many animal cells the cell membrane infolds,
taking in materials in the form of vacuoles. This process is called endocytosis.
3. Nucleus or Karyon:
Nucleus (discovered by Robert Brown in 1831) is an important arid prominent
structure present inside the cell. It controls all the activities of cell. It may be
spherical or irregular in shape. In animal cell it is usually present in the center but
in plant cell, due to presence of large vacuole it is pushed
towards
cellmembrane. Nucleus is enveloped by a double membrane called nuclearmembrane. This membrane possesses large number of nuclear pores. Nucleus is
filled with a gel like substance called nucleoplasm. The nucleoplasm contains
nucleoli and a network of thread like structures called chromatin network. The
threads of chromatin become prominent during cell-division. Each thread is called
chromosome. These structures of major importance. They are composed of
Deoxyribo nucleic acid (DNA) and protein. DNA plays significant role in the
20
Biology
No. of Chromosomes
46
26
48
08
16
48
14
4.
Cytoplasm:
It is the translucent fluid portion of the cell lying in between plasma membrane
and nucleus. It consists of an aqueous ground substance called cytosol and
granular portion called cytoplasmic organelles.
Chemically cytoplasm is about 90% water and forms a solution and serves as
store house of vital chemicals. It is a site of metabolic reactions like protein
synthesis, glycolysis etc. Many reactions can occur at the same time in different
regions of the cytoplasm.
Some important cytoplasmic organelles found in eukaryotic cells.
1.
3.
5.
7.
Endoplasmic reticulum
Mitochondria
Centrioles
Vacuoles
2.
4.
6.
Golgi complex
Plastids
Ribosomes
1. Endoplasmic reticulum:
(Endo= inside, plasma = protoplasm, reticulum=net work).
It is a network of membranous channels or tubules extending throughout the
cytoplasm. The channels seem to be in contact with plasma membrane as well as
nuclear membrane. There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum.
i)
Rough endoplasmic reticulum having ribosomes at its outer surface which
are involved in protein synthesis.
ii)
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum without ribosome.
Endoplasmic reticulum plays important role in the synthesis and transport of
material within the cell. It also provides mechanical support to the cell so that its
shape is maintained. It detoxifies the harmful effects of drugs.
2. Golgi complex:
They were discovered by Camillo Golgi and thus called Golgi complex or bodies or
apparatus". They are set of smooth membranes that are stacked into flattened,
fluid filled sacs or vesicles containing carbohydrate, glycoproteins and enzymes.
Golgi bodies are mainly concerned with the cell secretions.
3. Mitochondria (Sing; mitochondrion):
They are generally rod-like or bean shaped organelles consisting of double
membrane. The inner membrane is folded. These infoldings are called cristae
while the fluid present inside is called matrix. Mitochondria contain enzymes
which break the food for the production of energy. As producers of energy they
are called Power house of the cell. The number of mitochondria in cell relates to
its activities.
4. Plastids:
21
Biology
Plastids are found in the cells of all the higher plants. These are the organelles
which contain different types of pigments. Plastids are of three types on the basis
of their pigment or colour (Fig: 2.11)
i)
Chloroplasts have green pigment i.e. chlorophyll found in leaves and
other green parts of a plant. They manufacture carbohydrates by the
process of photosynthesis.
ii)
Chromoplast have coloured pigments other than green found in fruit,
flower, petals and other coloured parts of plants .
iii)
Leucoplast (leucos = white or colourless) are colourless, found in the
cells of underground parts of plants. They store food in the form of starch.
5. Centrosome and Centrioles:
A rounded structure, the centrosome is present near the nucleus in animal cells.
A centrosome contains two centrioles (Fig: 2.12). Each centriole consists of a
cylindrical array of 9 rows of microtubules. They form fibrous protein spindle
which help in movement of chromosomes towards poles during animal cell
division.
6. Ribosome:
They are granules, rich in ribonucleic acid (RNA). They serve as sites where
proteins are synthesized hence called protein factories of cell. They are found free
in cytoplasm as well as attached on the surface of rough endoplasmic reticulum.
7. Vacuole:
They are the fluid (other than cytoplasm) filled sacs surrounded by a membrane
called tonoplast. In animal cell they are numerous, small but temporary
structures while in plant cell they are permanent and very large in size, one or a
few in number. They are concerned with storage of cell sap.
2.4
PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELL
There are two types of cells, Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotes have
prokaryotic cell while eukaryotes have eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotic (pro: before; karyon: nucleus) cell does not possess true nucleus. It
means its nuclear material is not enclosed in a proper nuclear membrane. These
types of cells are found in bacteria and cyanobacteria (blue green algae). Such
organisms are called prokaryotic organisms.
Eukaryotic (eu: true, karyon: nucleus) cell possesses proper nucleus where
nuclear material is enclosed in a proper nuclear membrane. Plants and animals
are composed of this type of cells and are called eukaryotic organisms.
Followings are the differences found between them.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Prokaryotic cell
Nuclear membrane is absent
therefore prokaryotic cells do not
possess distinct nucleus.
They do not have many of the
membrane bound structures e.g.
mitochondria E.R, Golgi
apparatus etc.
Ribosomes are of small size
and freely scattered in
cytoplasm.
Nucleoplasm is absent.
Single chromosome is found.
Respiratory enzymes are located on
the inner surface of the cell
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Eukaryotic cell
A double nuclear membrane is
present. They have well defined
nucleus.
They have membrane bounded
structures (organelles).
Ribosomes are of large size and
present either on endoplasmic
reticulum or free in cytoplasm.
Nucleoplasm is present
Proper chromosomes in diploid
numbers are present.
Respiratory enzymes are
22
Biology
7.
8.
membrane.
These cells are simple and
comparatively smaller in size
i.e. average 0.5 -l0nm in
diameter.
Bacteria and cyanobacteria are
examples of prokaryotes.
7.
8.
present in mitochondria.
These cells are complex and
comparatively larger in size i.e. 10l00nm in diameter average.
Fungi, algae, animal and plants are
examples of eukaryotes.
2.5
CELL DIVISION
Cells reproduce and increase in number by division. After growing to a certain
maximum size, a cell may undergo the process of cell division. During this
process the nucleus divides first. This is followed by division of the cytoplasm.
This nuclear division is called Karyokinesis (karyon=nucleus; kinesis = division)
while the cytoplasmic division is called Cytokinesis. Thus two daughter cells arise
from a single division of a cell. There are two main types of cell division found in
living organisms.
(1) Mitosis
(2) Meiosis
1. Mitosis:
In this type of cell division a parent cell divides into two daughter cells in a way
that the number of chromosomes in the daughter cells remains the same as in
the parent cell.
Although mitosis is a continuous process, its karyokinesis can be divided for
convenience into four phases which are Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and
Telophase. Let us now study mitosis is an animal cell.
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
Prophase:
During early prophase chromatin material condenses and becomes
visible as thick coiled, thread like structures called chromosomes.
Each chromosome at this stage is already double, i.e. consists of two
chromatids. The chromatids are attached to each other at
centromere. The nuclear membrane gradually disappears and at the
same time centrosome divides to form two centrioles, each moves
towards the opposite pole of the cell and forms the spindle fibres. The
centrioles are absent in plant cells.
Metaphase:
During this phase each chromosome arranges itself on the equator of
the spindle. Each chromosome is attached to separate spindle fibre by
its centromere.
Anaphase:
In this phase the centromere of a chromosome divides and the
chromatids of each chromosome separates from each other and begin
to move towards opposite poles. In this way one set of the chromatids
(each chromatid is now an independent chromosome) move towards
one pole while the other set towards the other pole.
Telophase:
This is a stage when the chromatids (now called chromosomes) reach
the poles and their movement ceases. Each pole receives the same
number of chromosomes as were present in the parent cell. The
nuclear membrane is reformed around each set of chromosomes. In
this way two daughter nuclei are formed in each cell.
Soon the cytoplasm of the cell also divides and two daughter cells
arise. The nucleus of each daughter cell contains the same
23
Biology
ii)
iii)
iv)
24
Biology
25
Biology
i.
ii)
Epithelial tissue: The cells of this tissue occur in a single layer and are
closely packed together. This tissue forms surface layer under lines of the
tubular organs of the body. Epithelial tissue occurs in glands where it is
variously folded.
Connective tissues: These tissues provide support to other tissues and
organs and bind them together. They consist of a ground substance, cells
and fibres. They range from soft to very hard tissues. Fatty tissues are
examples of the soft type. Cartilage and bone are special types of these
tissues and are hard. Blood is also a special connective tissue with cells
suspended in a fluid medium. It transports materials in the body.
26
Biology
iii)
iv)
2.6.2 Organs:
Your arm is an organ because it consists of various kinds of tissues such as
epithelial tissue, muscular tissue, connective tissue and nervous tissue. All of
these tissues have come together in the arm to make it an organ. Your heart,
kidney, liver and many others structures are organs made in the same way.
Similarly, in a plant the root, the stem and the leaves arc organs. The stem, for
example, consists of several tissues such as epidermal tissue, ground tissue and
conducting tissue.
2.6.3 Organ systems:
Organs work together as a unit to perform a particular function to make an organ
system. For example, the digestive system is made of organs such as mouth, gut,
liver and pancreas are all working together to digest food. There are other
systems in the animal body such as transport, respiratory, excretory, muscle,
skeletal, nervous and reproductive systems. In plants also, the tissues and
organs (root, stem, and leaves) are organized to form systems. However, the
systems, here are not so clearly organized as in the animals. It is usual to study
these in plants, as conduction, storage, supporting systems, or root and shoot
systems.
In this chapter you are studying life at various levels of organization from the
simplest to the most complex. A simple diagram of this organization is given
below:
Cells Tissues Organs Systems Organism
2.7
UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS
Those animals and plants, which are single-celled, are called unicellular
organisms. Amoeba is one of the example.
Amoeba:
It is a unicellular aquatic organism found in stagnant water pools and ponds. It is
microscopic in size measuring about 0.25 millimeter. It does not possess a
permanent form and' keeps on changing its shape.
The structure of Amoeba is very simple. The nucleus and cytoplasm are
surrounded by a protective cell membrane.
Cytoplasm is differentiated into two parts. Its outer portion, which is clear and
transparent is called ectoplasm. The inner viscous, translucent and granular part
is called endoplasm. The endoplasm contains many food vacuoles of different
size, a contractile vacuole and other cells organelles.
Nucleus is usually present in the centre but as the Amoeba moves, the nucleus
changes its position. The contractile vacuole functions to remove excess water
from the body. The food vacuoles contain food particles. The animal moves by
producing temporary finger-like projections called pseudopodia (Pseudo = false,
podia a feet). The pseudopodia are also used to capture food particles, which
enter the body as food vacuoles. Amoeba respires by exchanging gases with the
surrounding water through its surface.
2.8
MULTICELLULARORGANISMS
27
Biology
The majority of living organisms consist of many cells and are called
multicellular organisms. Brassica and frog have been selected here as
representative examples of multicellular plants and animals, respectively.
2.8.1 Brassica:
Brassica campestris is the botanical name of mustard (sarsoun). You are very
familiar with this plant since its oil (mustard oil) is used for cooking and its leaves
are used as vegetable (saag).
Structure of Brassica:
This plant consists of roots, stem, leaves, flowers, fruit and seeds. These parts
can be divided into two categories on functional basis i.e. vegetative parts and
reproductive parts.
The vegetative parts are those which do not directly take part in sexual
reproduction. These parts are root, stem, branches and leaves.
The reproductive parts consist of sex organs which are directly related to
sexual reproduction. These are flowers.
1.
Vegetative parts:
i)
Root: The root is that part, which grows under the soil and
develops from the radicle of the seed. The first part of the root to arise
from the radicle is known as the primary root. During its growth it gives
off secondary and tertiary roots. The primary roots are thicker than the
secondary and tertiary roots. The tips of all the roots bear a cap, the root
cap. The root bears fine, thin root hairs. The plant absorbs water and
minerals from the soil through the root hairs only, the rest of the root fix
the plant to the soil.
Internal structure:
The outer part of a root is the epidermis (epi=above; derma=skin), which
protects the root. Root hairs are outgrowths of epidermal cells. Next to epidermis
is the cortex. Cortex is composed of parenchyma cells. Parenchyma cells store
food material. Within the cortex is a central cylinder region called the stele. The
stele of the root is surrounded on the outside by a layer of cells called
endodermis. Next to the endodermis is a layer of cells called pericycle. Branch
of the root originate from the pericycle. The central part of the stele is occupied
by a star shaped xylem. In between the arms of the xylem is phloem. Rest of
the stele is made of parenchyma cells.
ii)
Stem: This part of plant develops from the plumule of the seed and
grows away from the soil. It bears branches and flowers. The point, on the
stem or on a branch, which gives rise to leaf, is known as the node. The
part between two adjacent nodes is called the internode. The stem and
the branches transport water and salts from the root to the leaves. It also
transports prepared food from the leaves to all parts of the plant. In
addition, the stem supports the leaves and the branches in the air, thus
enabling the leaves to receive maximum amount of sun light for
photosynthesis. The stem and its branches also bear flowers, which are
the reproductive organs.
Internal structure:
A cross section of Brassica stem shows that it is surrounded on the outside by a
single layered epidermis. Next to the epidermis is cortex. The cortex is made up
of parenchyma and collenchyma cells. Food material is stored in the cortex. Next
to the cortex is a ring of vascular bundles. Each bundle consists of xylem and
phloem. Xylem is located towards the inside and phloem towards the outside. In
between xylem and phloem, there is a region consisting of meristematic cells
28
Biology
ii)
Calyx: This is the outermost whorl and consists of four free sepals. The
sepals are light greenish in young flowers but as the flower matures,
their colour also becomes yellowish like that of the petals. The most
important function of the calyx is to cover the inner parts of the flower and
to protect them from sunlight and rain.
Corolla: This is the second whorl and is composed of four free yellow
petals. Because of the petals, the flower becomes very conspicuous that
honey bees, butterflies and other insects are easily attracted and thus help
in pollination.
29
Biology
iii)
iv)
Androecium: The androecium lies inside the petals. It makes the third
whorl of the floral leaves. Its parts are not leaf-like. The androecium
consists of six free stamens which are the male reproductive organs of
the flower. In Brassica flower, the stamens are arranged in two circles.
The outer circle has two small stamens. The inner circle has four long
stamens. Each stamen has two well defined parts, a lower delicate stalk
called the filament and an upper swollen part called the anther. Each
anther contains numerous pollen grains. When the anther matures a
longitudinal slit in its wall enables the pollen grains to escape. There are
dark green nectaries of small size at the base of the androecium. These
nectaries contain nectar (a honey-like substance). This nectar is the food
of insects. When the insects are attracted towards the flowers to collect
this nectar pollen grains get attached to their bodies and are transferred
from one flower to another. This results in the pollination of flowers.
Gynoecium: This is fourth whorl occupying the central position in the
flower. The parts of the gynoecium are called carpels, who are the female
reproductive organs of the plant. In Brassica, gynoecium is formed by the
union of two carpels. Each carpel is divisible into three main parts.
The lower swollen part is the ovary. Above the ovary carpel extends into a
thin stalk, the style. The style has swollen tip, which is called stigma. In
the ovary many ovules are present, which ripen into seeds. The ovary
ripens and is converted into fruit. The fruit of Brassica is a long dry
capsule with many seeds. The seeds are very small and light. They can be
easily dispersed by air currents. When these seeds fall on a suitable place
they germinate and produce new Brassica plants.
2.8.2 Frog:
The frog lives both in water as well as on land. It swims in water and moves by
jumping when on land. There is a membranous skin between its toes which helps
in swimming. There are five toes in each foot but the hand has only four fingers
because the thumb is rudimentary. In male frog the first finger is thicker than the
others.
Frog has neither a neck nor a tail. As the head is directly attached to the trunk
frog cannot move it as we can. The conical head has two large bulging eyes.
Behind each eye is a circular area called tympanic membrane. These membranes
help in hearing. At the tip of the snout it has two openings called external nostrils
by which frog breathes. The skin of the frog is loose and slippery. It is slippery
due to secretions produced by glands present in it.
Frogs are found in abundance in the rainy season during which they lay eggs.
They hibernate during the winter season by burying themselves in the mud and
stay there throughout the winter. This phenomenon is called hibernation or
winter sleep.
Internal organs:
The internal organs are located in the body cavity, which is also called coelom.
These organs make up various systems, which perform specific functions. These
are as follows:
1. Digestive system: The organs involved in the breakdown of complex food
into simpler form (digestion) constitute the digestive system. This system is
composed of a tube, the alimentary canal and special glands associated with it.
The alimentary canal consists of buccal cavity, pharynx, oesophagus,
stomach and intestine.
i)
Buccal cavity: Food enters into the buccal cavity through mouth.
The upper jaw has a row of weak but pointed teeth. They are not
meant for chewing food but prevent it from slipping out of the mouth.
The tongue of frog is unique in being attached in front to the floor of
30
Biology
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
the buccal cavity and being free behind. This allows the animal to
throw it outward.---------------------------------------------------------Frog feeds mainly on insects. On seeing the prey, it suddenly throws
out its tongue. The prey sticks to its sticky tongue. The tongue is
then immediately withdrawn and the prey is swallowed.
Pharynx: The buccal cavity opens into a short but narrow pharynx,
which leads into a wide tube,, the oesophagus. Immediately behind
the tongue on the floor of the pharynx is a slit like opening, the
glottis, which opens into the lungs. When the food passes into the
oesophagus, the glottis is closed and during respiration it is opened.
Oesophagus and stomach: Pharynx opens into a wide tube called
oesophagus or gullet; It transports food into the stomach. Stomach
is a thick walled, muscular and glandular sac. Anterior end of
stomach is called cardiac end while posterior end is called pyloric
end. Food is grounded in stomach and mixed with enzyme pepsin,
which partially digest proteins. Food in stomach changes into a paste
like substance called chyme.
Intestine: The intestine is a long narrow coiled tube. It is divisible
into small and a large intestine. The partially digested food from the
stomach enters the small intestine through pyloric end, where its
digestion is completed. The digested food is absorbed into blood. The
undigestible parts of the food enter the large intestine, also called
rectum. The short terminal part of rectum is called cloaca. From
cloaca undigested food is expelled out as faeces through its opening
called cloacal aperture. This is a common aperture for urine,
reproductive and undigested food discharge.
Liver and pancreas: The liver is a large reddish-brown gland
located adjacent to the stomach. Its secretion is known as bile.
Between the lobes of the liver is a rounded pouch called gall
bladder, which stores bile. A bile duct arises from it. On its way, this
duct passes through pancreas and joins the pancreatic duct. The
pancreas lies between stomach and duodenum, the first part of small
intestine. Its secretion, pancreatic juice, is carried by the pancreatic
duct. The pancreatic duct and the bile duct join to form a common
hepato-pancreatic duct, which then opens into duodenum. The
bile and the pancreatic juice help in the complete digestion of the
food in the small intestine.-------------------------------------------Digestion is a process by which the complex insoluble food
substances are converted into soluble form by the action of enzymes.
The digested food is then absorbed into the blood through the
intestinal walls.
2.
Respiratory system:
Energy is required by every organism to carry on all the life activities. It is
produced by the oxidation of food specially glucose. This process takes place in
the cells. For oxidation the cells require oxygen and as a result of oxidation of
food they produce CO2 as waste product. This entire process called respiration,
divided into two phases.
a)
b)
We will restrict our discussion upto gaseous exchange as respiration. Frog has
three types of respiration on the basis of organs involved in the gaseous
exchange. These are:
i)
Pulmonary respiration
31
Biology
ii)
ii)
Cutaneous respiration
Buccal respiration
i)
Pulmonary respiration:---------------------------------------------------The gaseous exchange, which takes place in lungs is called pulmonary
respiration.
The frog has two lungs, which are balloon like structures. Their outer
surface is smooth but their inner surface has numerous folds which
increase the area for gaseous exchange. The lungs are richly supplied with
blood vessels. Each lung has a bronchus at its upper end. The two bronchi
open into a larynx. The glottis opens into the larynx.------------------------During respiration air is taken in by the external nostrils. It passes into the
buccal cavity through the internal nostrils. From here it enters the glottis,
passes through the larynx and bronchi finally reach the lungs. In the lungs,
exchange of gases between air and blood takes place i.e. oxygen is taken
up by the blood and CO2 is given out, which leaves the body through same
route.
Aresting
ii)
iii)
human
breathes out
about
500
litres
of
CO2
every 24 hours.
3.
Circulatory system:
Every cell requires a supply of oxygen and nutrient molecules and must get rid of
waste products. For this purpose a transport system usually called circulatory
system is required. Blood transports these materials during its circulation through
out the body.
Frog has a closed type circulatory system in which blood circulates in the closed
circuit of blood vessels being pumped by an organ called heart, This system is
also called cardiovascular system. It consists of:
i)
ii)
Heart:
Heart is a conical, muscular pumping organ, located in the anterior region of body
cavity. It is enclosed in a membrane called pericardium. It contracts and
expands continuously through out the life. This contraction and expansion of
heart is called heart beat, due to which blood circulates continuously in the body.
Frog heart consists of three chambers.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
The longest heart stoppage was 4 hours. A Norwegian fell into the sea in December 1987.
32
Biology
Survival was due to the low temperature of his body in the sea.
The truncus arteriosus originates from ventral side of the ventricle and divide
into two branches each of which divides into three arches (arteries). Another thin
walled triangular sac called sinus venosus formed by major veins opens into
right atrium. Both of these structures are not true chambers of heart but often
called accessory chambers.
In heart, the flow of blood is continuous and moves in two path ways. The
oxygenated blood from the lungs enters the left auricle through pulmonary veins.
The deoxygenated blood from all other parts of the body enters the sinus venosus.
From sinus venosus, it reaches the right auricle. When the two auricles contract,
the blood is pushed into the single ventricle. When ventricle contracts it is
pumped into the truncus arteriosus From here it enter (a) the pulmonary arteries,
which carry the blood to lungs for oxygenation and (b) the systemic arteries,
which supply it to all parts.pf the body and (c) the carotid arteries, which supply
it to the brain.
A human being contains about 70 ml of blood per Kilogram of body weight. For an adult,
this is about 4 or 5 liters.
The opening between various chambers of the heart are guarded by valves, which
prevent the flow of blood in reverse direction.
4.
Arterial system:
A blood vessel, which carries blood away from heart to the various body parts is
called an artery. The arterial system can be simply stated to comprise of the
following three main components.
Pulmocutaneous arteries: They supply deoxygenated blood to lungs and skin
where it gives up carbon dioxide and picks up oxygen.
Carotid arteries: These vessels arise from the truncus arteriosus, and supply
the oxygenated blood to various parts of the head region such as brain, tongue,
head muscles, eyes, ears etc.
Systemic arteries: These vessels carry oxygenated blood to all the parts of the
body except the head and lungs. They fuse together to form a major vessel of
this system called aorta, which gives off branches to various parts of the body
such as fore and hind limbs, digestive system, liver, pancreas, kidneys, genital
organs and muscles.
5.
Venous system:
It is a set of blood vessel, called veins, which bring the blood from all the parts of
the body towards heart. The venous system consists of the following major
components.
(i)
33
Biology
Portal system: Set of veins, which collect the blood from one organ and
discharge it into another organ, is called portal veins. The set of veins draining
their blood into liver are included in hepatic portal whereas the set opening into
the kidneys are called renal portal system.
Hepatic portal system: The veins collecting the blood from the digestive system
do not carry it directly to the heart. They all join to form a hepatic portal vein,
which breaks up into capillaries in the liver to allow transfer of some of the
digested food into the liver for storage. From the liver, blood enters the postcaval, which carries it to the sinus venosus. Some of the blood from hind limbs is
collected in an abdominal vein, which joins the hepatic portal vein in the liver and
drains blood into liver from where it is collected by the post caval vein. These
veins are also included hepatic portal system.
Renal portal system: The alternate route of blood from the hind limbs is by the
way of a renal portal vein. These veins begin in capillaries in the hind limbs and
breaks up into capillaries in the kidneys. From the kidneys, this blood enters the
post caval by renal veins and ultimately returns to the heart. These veins arc
included in renal portal system.
6.
Excretory system:
It is the set of organs involved in the process of excretion i.e. the removal of
metabolic waste matters from the body. This function is performed by kidneys,
which filter out the excretory matter from the blood and pass it out in the form of
urine. There are two kidneys in frog. They are elongated reddish brown organs
attached to the dorsal wall of the body cavity. The urine is carried from the
kidneys by a pair of tubes called ureters, which open into the cloaca. From the
cloaca, it is either passed out directly through cloacal aperture or is stored for
some time in a bag, the urinary bladder.
7.
Reproductive system:
Reproduction is the process of production of new babies by their parents. Organs
involved in this process are included in reproductive system. Sexes are separate
in the frog. The reproductive organs consist of gonads and their ducts. The
gonads produce germ cells and the ducts pass them but of the body. The male
gonad is known as the testis (plural testes) and the female gonad is called the
ovary. The gonads are paired structures and are located near the kidneys. The
sex cell of male is sperm and that of female is ovum (Plural ova) or egg. The ova
are released into water through the cloaca in the mating season.
The male produces sperms during the breeding season. Sperms are also released
from the testes into water near the eggs. Each sperm fuses with a egg and a new
frog starts developing.
8.
Nervous system:
The set of organs, which control and co-ordinate all the activities of the body is
called nervous system. It is composed of two parts, i.e the central nervous
system and the peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system includes
the brain and the spinal cord whereas the peripheral nervous system comprises of
nerves, which connect the central nervous system with various parts of the body,
i.e. muscles, glands and sense organs.
The animal with the heaviest brain is the sperm whale.
Its brain weighs about 9.2 Kg.
The brain is protected in the skull and the spinal cord is enclosed in the vertebral
column. The brain consists of the following regions:
(i)
The most anterior region comprises the olfactory lobes.
34
Biology
(ii)
1.
Ear:
In frog, like the other vertebrates, the organ of hearing is the ear. Its outer most
part is the tympanic membrane. An external ear called pinna is absent in frog.
On the inner side of this membrane is a cavity known as tympanic cavity. The
cavity contains three small rod- like bones called ossicles Its one end is attached
to the tympanic membrane and the other with the internal ear.
35
Biology
High pitched sounds are rapid vibrations of the molecules In air. Human can hear sounds
which vibrate at about 19 KHz. Some bats can hear ultrasonic sounds upto about 160 KHz.
The internal ear (Fig: 2.43) is a very delicate organ. It consists of three semicircular canals. These canals are filled with a fluid and sensory cells are located at
special places in these canals. When sound waves strike the tympanic membrane
it is set into vibration. This vibrates ossicles which in turn, vibrate the internal ear
and thus, sound waves stimulate the hearing receptors in the inner ear. The
internal ear, in addition to hearing, also keeps the balance of the body.
2.
Eye:
The frog has two eyes one on each side of the head (Fig: 2.44). If we make
vertical section of the eye, we find that the innermost layer of the ball is the
sensory retina. The retina contains photoreceptor cells. Outside the retina is the
choroid, which is richly supplied with blood capillaries supplying nutrients to the
retina. The sclerotic is the hard, outer most layer of the eye. It provides shape to
the eye ball. The anterior transparent part of the eye is called cornea. Behind the
cornea is iris. The iris has a window called the pupil. Behind the pupil is the lens
of the eye. The cornea, pupil and lens focus light on the retina. A watery fluid is
present in between the cornea and lens. Similarly a jelly like fluid is present
between the lens and retina, through which light passes before it strikes retina.
Optic nerve takes the sensory messages from the eye to the brain.
36
Biology
SUMMARY
37
Biology
1.
EXERCISE
Fill in the blanks with appropriate terms:
i)
Animals which consist of only one cell are called________
ii)
Finger like projection in amoeba are called________
iii)
Botanical name of mustard plant is__________
iv)
Reproductive part of a higher plant is_______
v)
Part of stem from where leaf arises is called
2.
3.
4.
5.
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
6.
38
Biology
xii)Hibernation
Distinguish between:
i)
Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell.
ii)
Cell-wall and cell-membrane.
iii)
Mitochondria and plastids.
iv)
Light and electron microscope.
v)
Arteries and veins.
39
Biology
SECTION 3
BIODIVERSITY
Around two million types of organisms exist on the earth today; much more have
gone extinct, many more are yet to be discovered. To study such a diversified
group it is customary to classify it into groups. Two hundred years ago biologists
divided all the organisms, into two kingdoms, as either plants or animals. But
closer examination with better techniques necessitated three more kingdoms.
Chapter 3
CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING ORGANISMS
It is a human instinct to organize various objects into sets. Likewise biologists,
rather than dealing with millions of different organisms, classify them into major
groups. The science of classifying living organisms is taxonomy. A classification
system is based on shared characteristics. General characteristics allow for large
grouping of very diverse organisms. More specific characters result in smaller
groups. Classification enables biologists to study and identify various organisms
more easily.
Learning objectives:
The exact meaning of classification.
The advantages of classifying living organisms.
Criteria used in the classification of living organisms.
The units of classification like species, genera, families, orders,
classes, phyla/divisions and kingdoms.
Binomial nomenclature.
Common and scientific names of living organisms.
3.1
The scientific study which deals with the classification of living organisms is called
taxonomy (Taxis = Arrangement and Nomos = Law) So, taxonomy deals with
the laws governing the arrangement or classification of living organisms. In a
broader sense, taxonomy can be defined as a branch of biology, which deals with
the description, identification, classification and naming of living organisms
according to structural similarities and dissimilarities.
Technical description means to describe a living organism by using scientific terms.
3.2
BASIS OF CLASSIFICATION
All the living organisms placed in a particular group have many fundamental
similarities in their structure. It is not always easy to recognize these basic
similarities. Many bases and techniques are used to classify organism. It is
principally the homologous structure that one considers in grouping organisms.
Homologous structures are those that are similar because of their common origin.
Sometimes it is impossible to classify organisms using morphological criteria, so
one may compare the chemical substances which they contain. This is particularly
useful when classifying organisms like bacteria which may all look alike and have
an identical cellular structure. Other characteristics used in classifying organisms
include cytological structures with the help of electron microscope, genetic
constitution and their developmental patterns etc.
40
Biology
3.3
UNITS OF CLASSIFICATION
3.4
BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE
1)
Common name
KINGDOM
DIVISION
CLASS
ORDER
FAMILY
GENUS
SPECIES
SCIENTIFIC NAME
Mustard
Plantae
Tracheophyta
Dicotyledonae
Capparales
Brassicaceae
Brassica
Campestris
Brasica Campestris
2)
Common name
KINGDOM
PHYLUM
CLASS
ORDER
FAMILY
GENUS
SPECIES
SCIENTIFIC NAME
Man
Animalia
Chordata
Mammalia
Primat
Hominidae
Homo
Sapiens
Homo Sapiens
41
Biology
3)
Common name
KINGDOM
PHYLUM
CLASS
ORDER
FAMILY
GENUAL
SPECIES
SCIENTIFIC NAME
Frog
Animalia
Chordata
Amphibia
Salientia (Anura)
Ranidae
Rana
Tigrina
Ranatigrina
42
Biology
SUMMARY
There are uncountable forms of life ranging from VIRUS (border line between
the living and non-living) to the most highly evolved and complex life in the
form of human-beings.
The scientific study which deals with the classification of living organisms is
called Taxonomy (Taxis= Arrangement. Nomos=Law).
All the living organisms placed in a particular group have many fundamental
similarities in their structure.
The basic unit of biological classification is the species.
Closely related species are grouped together into genera.
Each grouping of organisms within the hierarchy is called a taxon (plural taxa)
and each taxon has a rank and a name for example class Mammalia or genus
Homo.
Linnaeus's system of naming give each species a scientific name comprising
two words is known as binomial nomenclature.
Previously living things were classified into two kingdoms namely plant
kingdom and animal kingdom.
Now a days living organisms are classified into five kingdoms.
43
Biology
EXERCISE
1.
i)
ii)
iii)
2.
i)
ii)
iii)
3.
i)
ii)
iii)
4.
i)
ii)
iii)
5.
i)
ii)
iii)
44
Biology
Chapter 4
VIRUS, BACTERIA AND CYANOBACTERIA
The most abundant organisms on earth are so small that they cannot be seen
with the naked eye. They are most successful hence so abundant to be found
every where in large numbers. Though structurally simple viruses and bacteria
play an important role in the biosphere.
Learning objectives:
Micro-organisms, a heterogenous group of living organisms which can only be
seen with the help of microscope.
Discovery of virus, characteristics, structure, types and the diseases caused
by viruses in humans, other animals and plants.
Characters of bacteria.
Shapes, nutrition and importance of bacteria.
Characters of cyanobacteria.
4.1
The minute living organisms which cannot be seen without the help of microscope
are called micro organisms. They form a heterogenous group which includes
viruses, bacteria, cyanobacteria, protozoa, unicellular algae and some
fungi.
Bacteria and cyanobacteria are prokaryotes and studied under kingdom
prokaryota (Monera). Rest of the micro-organisms are eukaryotic and studied
under protoctista (Protista). Bacteria are heterotroph as well as autotroph, but
all members of cyanobacteria and algae are autotroph. Protozoa are heterotroph.
Viruses lie somewhere between living and nonliving organisms.
4.1.1 Viruses:
Viruses (Latin word Viron = Poison) are the smallest, the simplest and perhaps
the most primitive living things.
By 1800's many biologists had demonstrated that many diseases of man and
other organisms were caused by bacteria. Some diseases puzzled them. One such
disease was tobacco mosaic disease occurring in tobacco plant leaves. In 1892,
Russian biologist, Iwanowsky showed that this disease was due to some thing
smaller than bacteria. He named them as viruses. No one had seen them because
they were too small to be seen even with the compound microscope.
The year 1935 was important in solving the story of what viruses really are and
how they behave. A new kind of microscope the electron microscope had been
constructed and any object smaller than m (millimicron 1,000,000,000th part of
a metre) can be observed. Wendell Stanley crystallized the infectious particles,
now known as tobacco mosaic virus (TMV). This TMV and many other viruses
were actually seen with the help of the electron microscope.
4.1.2 Characteristics:
Viruses are non-cellular obligate parasites that always have a protein coat and a
nucleic acid core. They cannot live and reproduce outside of living cells since they
lack the ability to do so by themselves. They range in size from 20 nm to 250 nm
(One nm =10-9 metre). They are sub-microscopic. There is no sexual or asexual
reproduction. They reproduce by replication.
45
Biology
The simple viruses use the enzymes of the host cell for both their protein
synthesis and gene replication; the more complex ones contain upto 200 genes
and are capable of synthesizing, through their host many structural proteins and
enzymes themselves.
Viruses are either virulent, destroying the cell in which they occur or temperate,
becoming integrated into their host genomes (total hereditary materials) and
remaining stable there for long periods of time.
4.1.3 Structure:
They appear like small rods, tadpoles 6r may be polyhedrals or like little spheres.
Viruses may consist of nucleic acid, capsids, envelopes and tail-fibers. Their
nucleic acid may consist of a single or several molecules of DNA or RNA. The
smallest viruses have only four genes while the largest have upto two hundreds.
The protein coat that encloses the nucleic acid is called a capsid. It may be of
different shapes. Capsid is made up of protein subunits called capsomeres. The
number of capsomeres is characteristics of a particular virus.
Some viruses have accessory structures called viral-envelopes that help them
infect their hosts. They are membranes covering their capsids.
The simplest viruses consist of a single molecule of a nucleic acid (DNA or RNA)
surrounded by a capsid, which is male up of different protein molecules.
Some bacterial viruses or bacteriophages, are among the most complex viruses.
Each of them is made up of at least five separate proteins: these make up the
head; the tail core, the molecules of the capsid, the base plate of the tail, and the
tail fibers. A long DNA molecule is coiled within the head.
They may be:
Plant-viruses
Animal-viruses
Bacteriophages
infecting plants,
infecting animals and
which infect bacteria.
Animal diseases:
46
Biology
Plant diseases:
One of the best known plant disease is caused by tobacco mosaic virus. This virus
affects the leaves of tobacco plants and light green and yellow patches appear on
the leaves of diseased plant.
Agriculturists have not yet succeeded to device cure for most of viral diseases of
plants. Therefore, their efforts are focused largely on reducing the incidence and
transmission of such diseases and also on developing varieties of crop that are
relatively resistant to certain viruses.
4.2
BACTERIA
47
Biology
ii)
iii)
iv)
Vibrio or comma: They are slightly curved or comma (,) shaped e.g
Vibrio cholerae. They may be flagellated.
4.2.2 Nutrition:
Most bacteria are heterotrophic with few autotrophic. Heterotrophic bacteria are
those which cannot synthesize their organic compounds from simple inorganic
substances. According to their mode of feeding, heterotrophic bacteria may be
saprophytic, symbiotic or parasitic.
i)
Saprophytic bacteria:
They get their food from dead organic matter. The soil is full of organic
compounds in the form of humus. Bacteria living in the soil have large number of
enzymes that break down the complex substances of humus to simpler
compounds. These bacteria absorb and utilize these simple compounds as a
source of energy. Many other saprophytic bacteria cause decay of dead animal
and plant material as they convert complex organic compounds to simpler ones.
ii)
Symbiotic bacteria:
They are found associated with other living organisms. They obtain food from the
host without harming it, e.g. nitrogen fixing bacteria in the roots of leguminous
plants.
iii)
Parasitic bacteria:
They grow inside the tissues of other living organisms and obtain food at the
expense of host. These bacteria lack certain complex systems of enzymes.
iv)
Autotrophic bacteria:
48
Biology
Useful bacteria:
i)
Agricultural bacteria: Bacteria decompose dead plants and animals
bodies and convert various organic compounds into simple forms such as nitrates,
sulphates, phosphates etc for utilization by green plants again. Nitrifying bacteria
convert the proteins of these dead bodies into nitrates. Then these nitrates are
absorbed and utilized by the green plants. Soil bacteria increase the fertility of
the soil by bringing about physical and chemical changes in the soil.
ii)
Alimentary canal bacteria: They help herbivores in the digestion of
cellulose by producing an enzyme Cellulose. Similarly some are present in human
beings and make vitamins.
iii)
Industrial bacteria: They help in curing and ripening of tobacco leaves,
fermentation of sugar into alcohol, ripening of cheese, retting (softening) of
fibres, curdling of milk, conversion of hides into leather etc.
iv)
Medicinal bacteria: Valuable antibiotic drugs have been obtained from
bacteria, e.g Thyrothycin, Subtilin. Riboflavin is a vitamin produced by
Clostridium.
2.
Harmful bacteria:
i)
Pathogenic bacteria: They are responsible for most varied kind of
diseases in human beings, animals and plants. They may act as invisible enemies
for man. Some of the diseases found in man due to bacteria are typhoid, tetanus,
cholera, diphtheria, and tuberculosis (T. B) etc. Plant diseases caused by bacteria
are black rots of cabbage, citrus canker, fine-blight of pear and apple, ring rot of
potato etc.
49
Biology
ii)
50
Biology
SUMMARY
Living organisms which cannot be seen without the help of microscope are
called micro organisms. They form a heterogenous group which includes
viruses, bacteria, cyanobacteria, protozoa, unicellular algae and some fungi.
Viruses are the smallest, the simplest and perhaps the most primitive living
organisms.
Viruses are non-cellular parasites. They cannot live and reproduce outside the
living cells.
Some bacterial viruses or bacteriophages are among the most complex
viruses.
There are three types of viruses. Plant-viruses infecting plants. Animal-viruses
infecting animals. Bacteriophages are those which infect bacteria.
Bacteria are the most abundant prokayrotes with variety of shapes.
Most bacteria are heterotrophic a few are autotrophic. According to their mode
of feeding, heterotrophic bacteria may be saprophytic, symbiotic or parasitic.
Some bacteria are killed in the presence of oxygen, they are called obligate
anaerobes. Others use oxygen but can respire without it, they are called
facultative anaerobes. Bacteria which need oxygen for survival are obligate
aerobes.
Bacteria are responsible for most varied kind of diseases in human beings,
animals and plants. They may act as invisible enemies of man.
The Nostoc is filamentous. The filaments are intermixed in a gelatinous mass
forming a ball like structure. It floats on water. A single filament look like a
chain of beads.
51
Biology
EXERCISE
1.
2.
3.
52
Biology
Chapter 5
FUNGI AND ALGAE
Algae play an important role in nature. Bearing chlorophyll they produce more
oxygen than all the land plants combined. Without the oxygen produced by algae,
most of the plants and animals could not survive.
Earth around us would have been a mess without the recycling'of the dead and
waste matters. Fungi, together with bacteria, are at work everywhere on the
earth doing this recycling business.
Learning objectives:
Algae and Fungi.
General characters of fungi with reference to Rhizopus, Penicillium,
Agaricus, Ustilago.
Importance of fungi.
General characters of algae with reference to Chlamydomonas and Spirogyra.
Economic importance of Algae.
5.1
FUNGI
Fungi are a group of living organisms having a body called mycelium, made up
of hyphae which are coenocytic (multi nucleated), non-chlorophyllous and have a
cell-wall of fungal cellulose.
5.1.1 General characters:
According to old concept, fungi were considered as plants and placed in
thallophyta but now they have been assigned a separate kingdom the Fungi.
Main characteristics are as under:
i)
They are non-chlorophyllous.
ii)
Cell-wall is made up of fungal cellulose.
iii)
They are coenocytic.
iv)
Fungal body is called mycelium which is made up of thread like cells called
hyphae (Sing = Hypha).
v)
The reserve food is in the form of glycogen-particles and oil-globules.
vi)
They reproduce asexually by means of spores or by budding or
by fragmentation.
vii)
Sexually, they reproduce by means of conjugation (Isogamy).
viii)
The mode of nutrition may be saprophytic, parasitic or symbiotic.
ix)
There are two views about their origin. Either they have evolved
from an Alga or from certain unflagellate protozoa.
x)
The fungi are distinguished amongst themselves primarily by their sexual
reproductive structures. Common examples include Yeast, Agaricus,
Penicillium, Rhizopus etc.
Agaricus (Mushroom):
Some species of Agaricus are commonly cultivated as food, for example the
button mushroom, Agaricus campestris. An effort is being made to increase the
cultivation of additional species of mushrooms, especially in Asia. Some can be
grown on waste products. Many have a high protein content, as well as a delicate
flavour.
Penicillium:
Among the other economically important fungi Penicillium is one of the name.
Some species of penicillium are sources of the well-known antibiotic penicillin.
Other species of the genus give the characteristic flavours and aromas to cheese.
53
Biology
Ustilago:
Another kind of fungi including Ustilago are responsible for the rust and smut
diseases of cereals.
5.1.3 Importance of Fungi:
Food: A number of edible fungi in the form of mushrooms are a source of
nourishing and delicious food-dishes. Today- they are grown as a crop in many
places throughout the world. But one must bear in mind that not all the
mushrooms are edible. Some of them are poisonous and popularly called as toad
stool or death-stool. Yeasts, another kind of fungi, are utilized in baking industry.
Others are used in brewing, and in cheese and organic acid producing industries.
Medicines: Fungi have opened a new field in medicine being the course of
antibiotics like Penicillin, Chloromycetin, Neomycin, Terramycin etc.
Soil fertility: They maintain soil fertility by decomposing the dead organic
matter.
Fermentation: The property of fermentation is utilized for the manufacture of
ethanol, organic acids and alcoholic beverages. Saccharomyces cerevisiae
(brewer's yeast) synthesizes a range of vitamins of B-group.
Food spoilage: Fungi cause tremendous amounts of spoilage of food-stuff by
many of the saprophytic fungi.
Human diseases: Fungi cause a number of diseases in human beings like
aspergillosis (ear and lungs disease), moniliasis (skin, mouth, gums disease), ring
worm disease etc.
Plant diseases: Fungi destroy many agricultural crops, fruits, ornamentals and
other kinds of plants. Some of the diseases are loose-smut of wheat, late-blight
of potato, downy and powdery mildews etc. Rusts and smuts can cause crop
destruction in large area.
Spoilage: Many types of fungi are responsible for the spoilage of leather-goods,
wool, books, timber, cotton etc.
5.2
ALGAE
The term algae is used for a large and very diverse group of mainly aquatic
autotrophic organisms ranging from single celled members (Chlamydomonas)
to large multicellular seaweeds (Sargassum). Previously algae were regarded as
plants and placed in thallophyta. R.H. Whitaker (1969) placed them in two
groups unicellular eukaryotic algae in Protista and multicellular algae were
considered as plant and placed in Kingdom Plantae. Finally all the algae have
been placed in Kingdom Protoctista (Margulis and Schwartz).
Algae are classified on the basis of the type of pigment they contain; therefore,
there are green, golden brown, brown, and red algae. All algae contain green
chlorophyll, but they may also contain other pigments that mask the colour of the
chlorophyll. Algae are also grouped according to biochemical differences, such as
the chemistry of the cell-wall and the chemical compound used to store excess
food. Common examples of Algae are Chlamydomonas, Spirogyra, Ulva etc.
1.
Chlamydomonas:
54
Biology
55
Biology
SUMMARY
Fungi is a group of living organisms having a body called mycelium, made
up of hyphae which are coenocytic, non-chlorophyllous and have a cellwall.
The fungi are distinguished primarily by their sexual reproductive
structures.
Some species of fungi are commonly cultivated as food for example, the
button mushroom.
Rusts and smuts are important fungal plant pathogens.
Among the economically important genera of fungi are Penicillium
and Aspergillus. Some species of Penicillium are sources of the well-known
antibiotic penicillin, and other species of the genus give the characteristic
flavours and aromas to cheese.
The term algae is used for a large and very diverse group of mainly
aquatic autotrophic organisms ranging from single celled members
(Chlamydomonas) to the large multicellular seaweeds (Sargassum).
Spirogyra is unicellular, but grows in colonial form known as filament. The
filaments are unbranched and consist of uniform cylindrical cells which are
joined end to end.
56
Biology
EXERCISE
1. Fill in the blanks with appropriate terms:
i)
The body of a fungus is called ________ .
ii)
Mycelium of fungi is made up of ________.
iii)
Yeast belongs to _________group of living organism.
iv)
Chlamydomonas is a unicellular, ________ alga.
v)
Rust and smuts of cereal crop is due to _______.
2. Write whether the following statements are true or false:
i)
Spirogyra is unicellular and colonial.
ii)
Chlamydomonas is colonial.
iii)
Sargassum belongs to fungi.
iv)
Cell-wall of fungus is made up of cellulose.
v)
Some species of penicillium are source of antibiotic penicillin.
3.
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
57
Biology
Chapter 06
BRYOPHYTES AND TRACHEOPHYTES
Plants are the connecting link between inorganic and organic world. They are all
autotroph and manufacture food for all forms of life hence called producers. The
constitute the most important link in ecosystem.
Learning objects:
6.1
BRYOPHYTES (Bryon = a moss; phyton = plant)
Bryophytes and tracheophytes are included in Kingdom Plantae. Both have well
developed embryos which give rise to their plant bodies.
Bryophytes are defined as multicellular, eukaryotic, chlorophyllous, non-vascular
plants having cell-wall made up of cellulose and their zygotes develop into an
embryo.
Plants are multicellular photosynthesizers that are adapted to living on land. AH
plants protect their embryos from dessication.
6.1.1 General Account of Bryophytes:
Bryophytes are the simplest group of plants. They are relatively poorly adapted to
life on land, so are mainly confined to damp shady places. They are amphibious
needing water for sexual reproduction. They have thalloid bodies which are not
differentiated into true root, stem and leaves. Instead of roots, they have
unicellular hair like structures called rhizoids. Some bryophytes have pseudo
stem and leaves. They do not have vascular bundles.
All plants have a life cycle that shows an alternation of generations; some have a
dominant gametophyte and some have a dominant sporophyte.
Bryophytes show distinct heteromorphic alternation of generation. It means the
two generations called gametophyte and sporophyte are morphologically as
well as cytologically different. In contrast to other plants, bryophytes have main
generation gametophyte (Haploid). The gametophyte reproduces sexually by
producing dissimilar male and female gametes. These two fuse to form zygote,
which develops into well protected embryo. This gives rise to sporophyte, which
may be partly or completely dependent on gametophyte. Spores are produced in
sporophyte after meiosis. Each spore germinates into a gametophyte. Bryophytes
are classified into three groups.
1. Hepaticae (Liverworts)
2. Musci (Mosses)
3. Anthocerotae (Hornwots)
58
Biology
Funaria:
Gametophyte consists of rhizoids, pseudo stem and leaves. The stem may be
branched. Male sex organs called Antheridia (singular-antheridium) are located
at the apex of male branch and female sex-organs called archegonia (singular archegonium) at the tip of female branch.
Fertilization takes place when plant is submerged in water. Zygote is formed
inside archegonium, which develops, into an embryo. Embryo develops into a
sporophyte, which remains attached with gametophyte. Sporophyte consists of
foot, seta and capsule. The foot is anchored to the gametophyte and absorbs
nutrients from it. Seta elevates the capsule in the air. Within capsule spores are
formed after meiosis. Due to dehydration, capsule burst open and spores are
liberated. Each spore germinates into Funaria gametophyte.
6.2
59
Biology
60
Biology
Male cones: They arise in cluster near the ends of long shoots. They are very
small and never longer than 2cm;Each male cone has a central axis called
thalamus or torus. This axis has 60 to 100 very small scales called
microsporophylls. Each microsporophyll has sac like microsporangium which
produce small spores called microspores. These microspores develop into winged
pollen grains and are liberated in air.
Female cones: They develop singly in place of dwarf-shoots. They are larger in
size and measure upto 20cm in length and upto 10cm in width. Each female cone
has an elongated axis (thalamus) on which large number of paired scales are
present called megasporophyll having megasporangium or ovule, each ovule
produce 4 comparatively large megaspores, out of these four, one will survive
and develop into female gametophyte.
Gametophytes of Pinus:
Male gametophyte: Each microspore after pollination, is transferred to female
cone and undergoes a period of rest in pollen-chamber, which is inside
megasporangium. During next season, microspore germinates to form reduced
male-gametophyte. It consists of prothallial cell, elongated pollen-tube having
tube cell, stalk cell and two sperms or male gametes.
Female gametophyte: Each functional megaspore develops into a body called
female gametophyte within megasporangium. Each gametophyte has two
archegonia each having single ovum.
Fertilization and formation of seed: One of the male gamete fuses with the
ovum to form oospore, becomes diploid. It develops into an embryo. In the mean
time, the whole megasporangium develops into seed. Pinus seed has seed coat,
endosperm and an embryo with an axis to which 6 to 10 cotyledons are attached.
The two ends of the axis have plumule and radicle. Pinus seed has epigeal
germination and gives rise to pinus plant.
THUJA:
In Thuja, the female cones are small, spherical or oval in shape and about the
size of a spherical fruit locally called "bair" (berry). They consist of hard brown
colour scales with triangular apices.
6.4 ANGIOSPERM
More than half of the plants present on earth belong to this group. Angiospcrms
are those flowering tracheophvtes which produce seeds within fruits. This is
because the angiospermic flowers have ovules enclosed in the ovary.
Angiospcrms are divided into two major groups monocotyledons and dicotyledons
having one and two cotyledons (seed leaves), respectively.
6.4.1 Parts of Angiosperm:
The body of an angiospermic plant may be divided into two parts, namely
vegetative and reproductive parts. Vegetative parts have root, stem and leaves.
Reproductive parts are flower, fruit and seed. These vegetative parts and
reproductive parts of angiosperm have already been discussed in chapter 2 with
reference to Brassica campestris.
In angiosperms, the reproductive structures are located in the flower, which
consists of highly modified leaves.
61
Biology
Monocot plant
*Plants produce only one cotyledon
(scutellum) containing seed.
*Roots are mostly adventitious.
*Stem is mostly unbranched.
*Leaves are comparatively large with
parallel venation.
62
Biology
SUMMARY
Plants may be defined as multicellular, eukaryotic, chlorophyllous living
organisms having cell-wall made up of cellulose and their zygotes develop into
an embryo.
Bryophytes are the simplest group of plants. They are relatively poorly
adapted to life on land, so are mainly confined to damp shady places. They
are amphibious needing water for sexual reproduction.
Bryophytes
show distinct heteromorphic alternation of generation. It
means the two generations called gamctophyte and sporophyte are
morphologically as well as cytologically different. In contrast to other
plants, bryophytes have dominant gametophyte (Haploid).
Tracheophyte are the plants, which have conducting or vascular tissues.
Nearly, all tracheophytes have well developed root, stem and leaves.
Ferns are the common and important group of pteridophytes. They are found
growing in moist cool, shady places. The common examples of ferns are
Dryopteris, Pteris, Adiantum, Marsilea etc.
Spermatophytes produce seeds. Spermatophytes are divided into two major
groups called gymnosperms and angiosperms. Gyrnnosperms have naked
ovules because cones are without ovaries. Ovules develop into naked seeds as
fruits are absent due to the absence of ovaries.
The body of an angiospermic plant may be divided into two parts, namely
vegetative and reproductive parts. Each part is subdivided into different
organs.
Flower is a highly modified form of a branch, which is responsible for the
reproduction of plants by producing seeds within fruits.
63
Biology
1.
2.
EXERCISE
Fill in the blanks with appropriate terms:
i) Bryophytes are one of the two groups of plants, the other
being________.
ii) The dominant generation in bryophytes is _________ generation.
iii) Sporophytic generation is partly or completely dependent on
gametophyte in ______________ plants.
iv) Adiantum has spore producing bodies found at ___________ .
v) Gymnosperms have ________ ovules.
Write whether the following statements are true or false:
i)
Funaria has true leaves.
ii)
Water is necessary for fertilization in Marchantia.
iii)
The other name of Pteris is Adiantum.
iv)
Dryopteris plant belongs to Musci of Bryophyta.
v)
Tracheophyta have trachea in the xylem.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Differentiate between:
i) Sprophyte and gametophyte.
ii) Bryophyta and tracheophyta.
iii) Antheridia.and archegonia.
iv) Angiosperms and gymnosperms.
v) Male and female cone.
vi) Monocot and dicot plant.
64
Biology
Chapter 7
INVERTEBRATA
back
bone (a
INVERTEBRATES
Animals, which do not have back bone in the bodies, are termed as invertebrates.
They are greater in number, but usually smaller in size than vertebrates.
Invertebrates are divided into many groups or phyla. Some of the important
phyla are described below:
1. Phylum Protozoa:
Phylum protozoa consists of unicellular (single celled), microscopic animals like
organisms, which are now not treated as true animals. They occur either as freeliving (e.g. Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena, etc.) or as parasites, which depend
upon other living organisms for their nourishment and shelter. Common
protozoan parasites are Plasmodium and Entamoeba histolytica which cause,
important human diseases malaria and dysentery, respectively. Free-living
protozoa are chiefly found in water, both in fresh as well as in marine water.
Paramecium lives in fresh water pond. Its surface is covered by thousands of very
fine, hair-like structures called cilia which help in locomotion. Paramecium has
two nuclei, one is larger called macronucleus while the other one is smaller
called micronucleus. Outside the cell membrane, a flexible, non-living covering
or pellicle provides it a definite shape.
According to the recent classification protozoa is not included in kingdom animalia
but has been placed in kingdom Protoctista (Protista).
2.
Phylum Porifera:
Porifera are the simplest group of multi-cellular (many celled) animals. Their
bodies consist of loose aggregates of cells and lack any kind of tissues. The entire
body has numerous minute pores or ostia. Porifera are commonly termed as
sponges. All sponges are aquatic (live in water) and sessile (fixed at one place
throughout their life). The surrounding water enters into the body through ostia,
which leads through channels into a hollow space inside the body, where the
inner cells of sponges filter out the microscopic food particles. The water then
leaves the body of sponge through another opening, the osculum.
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Biology
Sponges have an internal skeleton of hard structures called spicules, which are
formed of calcium carbonate or silica. The spicules provide support and shape to
the multi-cellular body of a sponge. Common examples of sponge are Sycon,
Venus flower basket and bath sponge.
Sycon has a flask-like shape and contains needle-like spicules of calcium
carbonate. It is a colonial form which is found in shallow water in being attached
by a sticky secretion to some submerged solid object like rocks, shells of molluscs
and corals. It is one to three inches in length-and grey or light brown in colour.
The free end of each opening, the osculum.
3.
Phylum Cnidaria (Coelenterata):
Coelenterates are aquatic animals. Most of them are marine but some are found
in fresh water. Cells of coelenterates are organized to form tissues. They are
called diploblastic because their cells are arranged in two layers; an outer
ectoderm and an inner endoderm. In between these two layers are a jelly like,
non-living layer called mesoglea. Many of the coelenterates arc sessile (remain
fixed) (e.g. corals) while others are motile e;g Jelly-fish. They occur as free
living animals, cither living singly e.g. Hydra or in the form of a colony e.g.
Obelia.
Hydra is a fresh water coelenterate which can be better seen with a microscope.
Its body is cylindrical with several thread-like tentacles at its one end encircling
an opening called mouth. Both, the tentacles and the ectoderm bear a number of
poisonous, stinging cells for defence and for paralyzing the prey. The tentacles
are used for capturing the prey. The mouth opens into a hollow space or
coelenteron that lies inside the body. The prey is digested in the coelenteron.
The end of body of hydra opposite to the mouth is normally kept attached to
some object in water.
Jelly fishes live in the sea. They have an umbrella like body with thicker body
walls. They swim freely in water. The mouth is located in the center of the downside of umbrella. It is encircled by four long arms each bearing numerous stinging
cells. The long arms are used for capturing small animals.
4.
Phylum Platyhelminthes:
Platyhclminthes arc commonly called flat-worms because of their flat body. They
occur mostly as parasites of animals as well as man. Howover, some are freeliving such as Planaria which- lives in fresh, water streams. Platyhelminthes are
triploblastic animals because of the development of a middle layer of cells, the
mesoderm, in between ectoderm and endoderm.
Liver fluke is a flat leaf shaped organism about 3 cm in length. It is a parasite in
the liver of sheep, goat and cattle. It attaches itself with its host with the help of
two suckers, one around mouth at the anterior tip while the other slightly behind
the first on the ventral side of the body. It has a bifurcated, highly branched
digestive system. The anus is absent in them. Each liver fluke has both male and
female reproductive organs. It causes considerable damage to the infected cattle.
Tape worms live in the intestine of their vertebrate hosts. Their bodies are long,
ribbon-like and divided into series of segments. The anterior end is some what
rounded and head like. It is provided with four suckers and rings of minute hooks
which help them to attach with their host. Tape worm lacks digestive system,
mouth and anus. It absorbs the digested food of its host through its body surface.
Every segment has a set of male and a female reproductive organs.
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Biology
5.
Phylum Nematoda:
Nematodes or round worms have long, smooth, cylindrical body, which is
pointed at both the ends. The body is unsegmented. Nematodes have a complete
and one way digestive tube with mouth at the anterior tip while anus near the
posterior tip.
They are free-living as well as parasites of animals, man and even plants. The
most common round worm infecting man is Ascaris lumbricoides commonly called
human round worm. It lives in the intestine of man. Sexes are separate in round
worm and male is slightly smaller in length than female.
6.
Phylum Annelida:
Animals in this group have elongated, segmented body. The segmentation in
annelids is both external as well as internal. Internally, many organs are repeated
in every segment of the body. Annelids occur in water as well as on land. Most of
them are free living e.g. earth-worm, etc. while few are ectoparasites e.g. leech,
etc. They have well developed organ-systems in their bodies. However,
respiration occurs through their general body surface. An important feature of
annelids is their advanced closed type circulatory system i.e blood circulates
in blood vessels being pumped by. a number of simple hearts.
The leech lives in ponds. It attaches with the help of its suckers to man and other
animals that come in contact with water. It sucks the blood of its host.
7.
Phylum Arthropoda:
Phylum Arthropoda is the largest phylum of Kingdom Animalia. They have
jointed limbs (legs). Their body is covered externally with a hard covering called
exo-skeleton which is made up of a complex chemical called chitin. Arthropods
occur on land as well as in water. The body of an arthropod is usually divisible
into three distinct regions; an anterior head, a middle thorax and a posterior
abdomen. Scorpions, spiders, crabs, prawns, centipedes and insects are the
common arthropods.
Insects are the most abundant animals on earth. They all have three pairs of
legs, two pairs of wings and one pair of sensory hair-like antenna. Many of them
have wings to fly. Insects have special types of mouth parts (appendages for food
handling) according to their mode of feeding, for example mouth parts of
mosquito, housefly, butter fly and cockroach have different types of mouth parts.
Many insects such as mosquitoes hatch out of their eggs in a premature form and
pass through different stages of development to reach the adult stage. This
phenomenon is called metamorphosis.
Metamorphosis is of two types:
i)
Complete metamorphosis
ii)
Incomplete metamorphosis
i)
Complete metamorphosis:
In complete metamorphosis, the young one, the larva, which hatches out of egg
is morphologically completely different from adult. It feeds actively and then
encloses itself in a cover to become pupa. After going through farther changes,
the pupa comes out of its capsule, it is now termed adult. Thus, (The life cycles
complete after passing through these insect passes through egg, larva, pupa and
adult stages. Insects such as butter flies, mosquitoes, house flies, etc. undergo
complete metamorphosis.
ii)
Incomplete metamorphosis:
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Biology
In this type, the young one, called nympn which emerges out of egg is a
miniature young one which closely resembles the adult except that it lacks wings
and its reproductive organs are immature. After the development of wings and
maturity of reproductive organs, the nymph becomes adult. Incomplete
metamorphosis is observed in insects like grass-hopper, cockroach, termite, etc.
Common insects are house-fly, butter-fly, mosquito, cockroach, honey-bee,
termite, etc.
8.
Phylum Mollusca:
Animals of this group have a soft, fleshy body enclosed in a thin fleshy cover
called mantle. Many molluscs are covered over externally by a hard, non-living
shell made up of calcium carbonate. They mostly occur in water but some are
found on land. A fleshy organ or foot is given out of the shell on the ventral side
of the body. It helps in locomotion. The structure of shell plays an important role
in identification and further grouping of molluscs. Common examples of molluscs
are snail, pearl oyster, squid, octopus, and fresh water mussel. Squids are the
largest invertebrates.
Snails have spirally coiled shells and are commonly seen in lawns and gardens.
Fresh water mussels are aquatic and have a shell composed of two plates joined
together by a hinge joint.
9.
Phylum Echinodermata:
Echinodermates have rough, spiny skin. They are found only in the sea. They are
pentamerous and have a unique water vascular system which pumps the
external water throughout their bodies. This vascular system operates the soft,
tube shaped feet (tube feet) which enable the animal to glide over the rocks in
water. They do not have head, eyes or even brain. Common examples of phylum
echinodermata are star-fish-, sand-dollar, sea-cucumber, sea urchins etc.
Star-fish has a plate-like central disc with five or more arms extended out from it.
Sea Urchin has a ball-like body without arms. Its body is covered over externally
by long spines.
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Biology
SUMMARY
69
Biology
EXERCISE
1.
2.
3.
ii)
iii)
iv)
It is not multicellular.
(a) Porifera (b) Arthropoda
(c) Nematoda
(d) Protozoa.
These are exclusively marine.
(a) Protozoa (b) Annelida
(c) Echinodermata
(d) Mollusca.
Spiders do not have
(a) Jointed legs
(b) Wings
(c) Exoskeleton
(d)Head
Which of the following is free-living?
(a) Plasmodium
(b) Tapeworm
(c) Hydra
(d) Liver fluke.
5.
4.
Sponges are sessile. How do they get food while staying at one
place?
You have studied different groups of animals. Make a list of few
tripoblastic invertebrates beginning from the simplest forms.
What do you know about insects?
What is exoskeleton? Name two phyla of animals having
exoskeleton.
Define parasite. Name five parasites and the phyla to which
they belong.
Write short notes on Hydra and tape worm.
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Biology
Chapter 8
CHORDATA / VERTEBRATA
This unit introduces the most advanced of all the animalsthe vertebrates. All
vertebrates have a spinal column made up of bones called vertebrae. Inside the
spinal column is the nerve cord. This cord is joined to highly developed brain. This
system makes its possible for the vertebrate to respond to stimuli in a very
effective way for its own survival. This superior nervous system is the real key to
the biological supremacy of vertebrates.
Learning objectives:
*
The chordates.
*
Vertebrates relation with chordates.
*
Major groups of vertebrates.
*
Important features of vertebrate groups.
Animals such as cat, dog, bird, frog, fish, etc. which you commonly observe
around you belong to the phylum Chordata. Human beings also belong to this
group. Although, chordates are less numerous in number than invertebrates, yet
they occur in greater diversity. The name chordata given to this group is due to
the presence of a solid, elastic, rod-like supporting structure, the notochord. It
is one of the basic features present in all chordates. In addition to the notochord,
all chordates have a dorsal, hollow, tube-like nerve cord and many pharyngeal
gill slits which appear as paired openings in the walls of pharynx. Notochord,
hollow dorsal nerve cord and pharyngeal gill slits are considered as the basic
features of all chordates. These basic features are essentially present in all the
chordates during their embryonic period. Later in adult life, they may be modified
or even lost. .
8.1
VERTEBRATA
Most of the chordates belong to the group vertebrata. It is the group of chordates
in which notochord is replaced by a series of bones, called vertebrae, arranged
in the form of a column being termed as vertebral column. Their brain is also
protected in a brain box.
Vertebrates are usually categorized into following classes.
1) Pisces (Fishes)
2) Amphibia
3) Reptilia
4) Aves (Birds)
5) Mammalia
1.
Class Pisces (Fishes):
The pisces (Fishes) am entirely aquatic vertebrate animals. The body of fish is
stream-lined (spindle shaped) to offer less resistance to water while swimming.
They breathe by means of gills. Their body can be differentiated into head, trunk
and tail. The skin is usually covered with scales. They bear paired fins rather
than legs which help them in swimming. Mouth has teeth which are used for
cutting, tearing or grasping the food. They are not used for grinding the food.
Fishes are cold blooded animals, i.e. their body temperature is variable
(changeable).Common examples of this group are sharks, Labeo (RohuArout,
Hilsa (Pullah), and Catfish (Khagga).
Labeo (Rohu) is a common edible fish found in fresh water. Its gills are covered
with bony plates or opercula (Sing, operculum) and the skin has external
skeleton of large scales.
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Biology
Fishes, the largest group of vertebrates, are very important source of food for
animals as well as for man. Millions of people around the world are engaged in
fishing industry. Fishing is also a popular sport throughout the world.
2.
Class Amphibia:
They live in water during their early life. Later, in adult life, they live in water as
well as on land. For this reason they are termed as Amphibia (means dual life).
These are the vertebrates with four limbs (legs) whose fingers are clawless.
Breathing in early stages occurs through gills. In adult stage, gills are replaced by
lungs. Adult amphibia have a naked skin which is thin, moist and slimy skin,
which is also used for exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide). Like fish,
they are cold blooded animals. Common examples of amphibia are frogs, toads,
and salamanders.
=
=
=
=
Frog has a smooth, slimy, brightly coloured wet skin. It lives close to water. It
jumps quickly in water in case of any danger on land. Toads usually have dull
coloured skin with less jumping capability.
The eggs of frog are laid in water. The immature young one which hatches out of
egg is called tadpole larva. It undergoes metamorphosis (series of changes) to
become a small frog. During winter, in order to avoid low temperature, frogs
burry themselves in the mud present at the bottom of pond. This phenomenon is
called hibernation.
3.
Class Reptilia:
Reptiles are considered as the first, completely terrestrial (land) vertebrates.
Unlike amphibia, they lay their large shelled eggs on land rather than in water.
Their dry skin is covered with epidermal scales. They breathe by lungs. Majority
of reptiles live on land. However, some are also aquatic. The limbs have digits
with claws. Both the jaws in reptiles bear teeth. Most of them are cold blooded.
Very early reptiles called dinosaurs were huge animals but they do not live now.
Among the living reptiles lizard, tortoise, turtle, snake, crocodile are common
examples.
House (Wall) lizard is familiar to you. It feeds on insects. It crawls on walls or
even on ceilings because of special kind of adhesive pads on their fingers.
Snakes are the limb-less reptiles. Some of them (e.g. Cobra) are well known for
their deadly poison. Poison called venom is produced in the poison glands located
near the upper jaws. Poison is injected into the prey through special, long pointed
teeth called fangs which can regenerate if broken. The rest of the teeth have
nothing to do with injecting poison. In fact, most snakes are non-poisonous.
4.
Class Aves (Birds):
This class includes all the birds. The birds are the vertebrates whose bodies are
covered externally with feathers, fore-limbs are modified to form wings, mouth
is tooth-less and jaws are prolonged into beak and their bones are hollow and
light. Most of the birds can fly with the help of their wings and feathers. They can
walk or even swim with the help of their hind limbs (legs). Although birds live on
land, some birds are also aquatic and can live in water. The melodious voices of
many birds you hear come from a special sound box, syrinx present at the base
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Biology
of their neck. Their eggs are large, covered by a hard shell and contain great
amount of reserve food usually in the form of yolk. Eggs are laid on land. The
birds maintain a constant body temperature so they are termed as warm
blooded animals. Parrot, sparrow, pigeon, ostrich, kiwi are some of the common
examples of birds.
Humming bird, the smallest bird of the world is about 2 inches in length.
it feeds on the nectar of flower.
Ostrich is the largest bird of the world. Its egg is about 1 to 2 lbs in weight
Pigeons were used to serve as a means of dispatching letters in the old times.
Pigeon rearing and flying was once a very common sport. Pigeons are among the
modern birds which can fly for hours in the skies.
Kiwi, found in New Zealand is a good example of birds which have lost the power
of flight. Their wings are short and feathers are hair-like. Therefore, such birds
are termed as flight-less birds.
5.
Class Mammalia:
Mammals are named so because of the presence of mammary glands in their
skin. Mammary glands are functional and secrete milk in females, which is used
to feed their young ones. The skin of mammals is covered over with hair. In
addition to mammary glands, skin also contains sweat glands, sebaceous
glands and scent glands. Both upper and lower jaws in mouth bear various
types of teeth. Like birds, they are also warm blooded animals. Most of the
mammals give birth to live young ones. Mammals can be divided into three subgroups.
a) Egg laying mammals,
a)
Egg laying mammals:
These are relatively simple among mammals. Like reptiles, they lay eggs.
However, like mammals, they have mammary glands so they feed milk to their
young ones. Since they have characters of both reptiles and mammals, they are
considered to be connecting link between reptiles and mammals. Duck billed
platypus and the spiny ant eater are the only living examples of this group. Both
are found only in Australia.
b)
Pouched mammals:
They give birth to premature babies. As the new born babies are weak, the
mother keeps them in a pouch on its belly until they develop fully and become
strong enough for independent life. Inside the pouch, opening of mammary
glands are present for feeding milk to the young one. Kangaroo, koala bear and
opossum are common examples of pouched mammals.
c)
Placental Mammals:
Most of the mammals including man belong to this group. In placental mammals,
the young one completes its development inside the body of its mother where it
is fed through on organ called placenta. After birth, the young one is fed on
mother's milk secreted from the mammary glands.
Common examples of placental mammals are man monkey, elephant, rat, cat,
lion, bat, seal, whale and dolphin.
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Biology
Although mammals are chiefly terrestrial, some (e.g. whale dolphin seal, etc) live
in water. Blue whales are the largest living animals in the world. Bats are unique
as they can fly.
8.2
LOCAL FLORA AND FAUNA OF PAKISTAN
Pakistan has a long stretch of high mountains in its north and north-west,
plateaus in Baluchistan and Potohar, plains of Indus and patches of deserts in
Punjab and Sindh. This environmental and climatic variety supports an immense
diversity of both plants and animals. Thus when we speak of flora, we mean
plant life and when we speak of fauna, we mean animal life. Our interest in flora
and fauna of Pakistan is not only due to our desire to know our plants and
animals but also because our economy and environment depend on them. It is
our duty to take care of these valuable gifts of nature.
1.
Flora:
Our country has representatives of all groups of plants which you have studied.
Although all of them are important in their own way, forests are especially
noteworthy. Forests and forestry are considered to be the backbone of our
economy. They regulate the qualities of water in the rivers by preventing the free
flow of soil in water by holding it with their roots. They prevent formation of
deserts, control water logging and maintain the amount of salts in the soil and
regulate the temperature of atmosphere. They not only supply oxygen to the air
but also provide food and shelter to animals (wild-life). They are an integral part
of our ecosystem. Can you guess what may happen to our wild-life if forests are
cut down? Some of the economically important flowering and non-flowering
plants of Pakistan are discussed below:
The high mountains in the northern and north western part of Pakistan, due to
sufficient snow fall, support thick forests. These forests consist of trees like blue
pine, chir pine, chalghoza pine, deodar, fir, juniper and olives, etc.
Forests of desert plants like Acacia are found in the areas where there is less rain
fall and scarcity of water. Trees of Sheesham, Mulberry, Willow, Poplar, Neem
etc. are found in irrigated lands like Changa Manga. These forests play a key role
in providing us wood for furniture, sports goods and fuel.
In the plains many crops are cultivated which fulfill our nutritional and other
requirements. These crops include wheat, maize, rice, sugar cane, sugar beet,
pea, potato, tomato, onion, garlic, chili, turnip, radish carrot, cauliflower, many
cereals, grains and cotton, etc.
Pakistan is also rich in fruit bearing trees like mangoes, apples, apricots, peaches,
oranges, bananas, walnut and almonds etc. Many plants are cultivated for
ornamental purpose e.g. Chrysanthemum, roses and jasmines etc. The hills and
plains of our country possess various types of grasses, which provide fodder for
our grazing animals. Still a large number of plants like Typha, Hydrilla, and many
types of algae are found in fresh water ponds, lakes, streams and river. A variety
of marine plants are found in oceans and coastal regions of our country.
The above mentioned plants not only provide us food but are also important for
their medicinal values. Some plants form thick forests from which we get timber
while some plants are cultivated for ornamental purposes. Is it not a good idea to
prepare a list of plants found in your locality? It will increase your knowledge of
the flora of Pakistan.
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Biology
2.
Fauna:
Like flora, our fauna is also full of variety of animal groups learned by you. Each
one of these groups holds an important position in its biological relationship with
plants and with human beings. You have learnt a bit about these relationships in
your previous classes. There are, however, a few facts which you should
remember.
The coastal and offshore waters of Sindh and Baluchistan are rich in seafood.
These are considered to be one of the best fishing grounds in the world.. Can you
list the types of animals which make up sea-food? Obviously, fishes would appear
in this list as a major group of economic value. Fishes in large number and
variety are found in our sea. This is in addition to the fishes in our rivers and
lakes. Fishes in general are of great commercial value.
Common fishes of Pakistan include rohu, pullah, khagga, trout, maha8heer, flat
fish, sea horse, malee, skates, rays, scoliodon (dog-fish), etc.
You are undoubtedly familiar with our common amphibians, frogs and toads. Our
reptiles include crocodile, lizard and turtles. Cobra, krait, vipers and pythons are
among our common snakes.
Our country is rich in a variety of flying birds, though we do not have any
representation of the flightless birds group. Every year large number of migratory
water birds like ducks visit our lakes. These together with quails, partridges and
the beautiful pheasants constitute a group called game birds.
Other common birds are Houbara bustard, crane, water fowl, falcon, eagle, kite,
peacock, pigeon, crow, parrots etc.
Mammals make up a major part of our wild and domesticated animals,You
already know much about our cattle. We have a variety of deer.
These together with ibex (a wild goat) and urial (a wild sheep) attract hunters.
Uncontrolled hunting has endangered their survival. Although we have many
mammals of the carnivore group, we have lost the tiger and the lion perhaps due
to hunting. Our monkey is endangered because of its great demand in overseas
markets. Don't we need to do something about it?
The most important group of mammals being associated and helpful to man is
ungulates, the hoofed mammals. They provide us milk and meat. Many have
been domesticated for fun and as beast of burden. Pakistan has large variety of
these animals. Common representative are wild goats, sheep, deer, gazelles,
markhores etc. Cows, buffaloes, donkeys, horses! goats and camels are the
common domesticated forms.
Grey Langur, Rhesus monkey, Markhor, Snow Leopard, Wolf, etc. are much
endangered animals of Pakistan.
This brief account of our fauna gives you some idea about our animal life. Fauna
and flora are biologically inseparable because of their interrelationship and have
an impact on our own welfare or even survival. Fauna, flora and man form a kind
of a triangle in which there is a natural balance. If this balance is disturbed, each
one would be negatively affected. One component of this triangle which can help
make or break this balance is the human being himself.
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Biology
SUMMARY
Chordates have a notochord in their bodies., in vertebrates notochord is
replaced by vertebral column.
The group vertebrata includes most of the chordates
Vertebrates are divided into pisces, amphibia, reptilia, aves and
mammalia.
Pisces, amphibia and reptiliaare cold blooded animals.
Aves and mammalia maintain their body temperature and are called
warm-blooded animals.
Pisces have paired as well as unpaired fins on their bodies.
Amphibia have four limbs with clawless digit.
Snakes are limb-less reptiles.
Birds have wings and feathers.
Most mammals give birth to young ones.
Pakistan enjoys a variety of geographical and climatic conditions which
support a great diversity of fauna and flora.
76
Biology
1.
EXERCISE
Fill in the blanks with appropriate terms:
i)
The name chordata refers to the presence of a solid, elastic rod
like, supporting structure called the___________ .
ii)
Most of the chordates belong to the group____________.
iii)
The skin of fish is usually covered over with ________.
iv)
Amphibia means____________.
v)
Birds and mammals are _________ blooded animals.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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Biology
SECTION 4
MAINTENANCE OF LIFE
Life is the sum-total of a vast number of activities going on inside the body. It is
like a factory, a place of great activity, where fuel and raw materials are taken
and converted into finished products and energy. These finished products form
the new cells. Energy keeps this machine system working and up till these major
systems are working, in co-ordination, organism is alive whenever they stop, life
ceases to survive.
Chapter 9
FOOD AND NUTRITION
To remain alive and to maintain the body processes all organisms take in
nutrients. Nutrients are chemical substances needed by the body. They provide
energy, the fuel of life. They repair the older body cells and form new ones.
Learning objectives:
All living organisms require energy to carry on their life processes. To meet these
demands they intake two main categories of molecules from environment:
already synthesized high-energy compounds (food) or the raw materials from
which new protoplasm can be synthesized. The intake and processing of these
materials is called nutrition. Materials required for the synthesis of new
protoplasm as well as for the production of energy are called nutrients.
9.1 NEED FOR FOOD
All living organisms need food. They need it as a source of raw material to build
new cells and tissues as they grow. They also need food as a source of energy.
Food is a kind of fuel of living organisms like automobiles require petrol or diesel.
In living organisms food drives essential living processes and brings about
chemical changes. It provides essential materials to make proteins and enzymes.
It also provides materials to maintain various processes of life such as
reproduction, respiration etc.
Living organisms can be divided into two groups on the basis of their mode of
nutrition.
(i)
Autotrophic organisms
(ii)
Heterotrophic organisms
(i) Autotrophic organisms: Organisms, which can synthesize their own organic
compounds (food) from inorganic raw material taken from inorganic
surroundings. The molecules of raw material are small enough and soluble to
pass through the cell-membrane. Most of the autotrophs are photo synthetic e.g
plants, algae some bacteria etc.
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Biology
Monomers
Monosaccharides e.g. glucose
Amino acids
Fatty acid and Glycerol
Polymer
Polysaccharide e.g. starch and
glycogen
Proteins
Fats and oils
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Biology
great variety of proteins. The number of amino acids combined in most proteins
molecules ranges between 300 to 3000.
Main role of protein is to provide building material in the body. They help in
growth and repair of body parts (healing). They make structures like muscles,
nails and hairs.
9.2.3 Fatty acids and Glycerol to Fats and Oils:
Fatty acids and glycerol are the monomers that condense to form fat or oil, which
are insoluble in water due to absence of any polar group. A fat or oil is a molecule
which is formed by the condensation of 3 molecules of fatty acid with a glycerol
by removing 3 molecules of water. Oils are liquid at room temperature while fats
are solid. Examples of oils are cotton seed oil corn oil coconut oil, soyabean oil.
Fats generally come from animal source like butter, cream, etc.
Organisms use fat molecules as long term energy storage compounds.
Fig: 9.3 Diagram showing how fats are formed from glycerol and fatty acids
9.3
NUTRITION IN PLANTS
From the view point of nutrition, the most important difference between animals
and plants is that animals take in prepared organic food, digest it and use the
digested products to build their tissues or to produce energy. Plants, on the other
hand, first make the food they need and then use it for energy and growth.
Majority of the plants are autotrophic in their mode of nutrition. Some are
heterotrophic and live as parasites or saprophytes. Parasites obtain their food
from other living organisms while saprophytes depend on dead organic matter.
In dealing with life processes in plants in this chapter, we shall first discuss
photosynthesis and its processes.
9.3.1 Autotrophic nutrition in plants:
Photosynthesis:
The process by which plants make their food is called photosynthesis. In this
process a plant can build sugar by taking carbon dioxide from air and water from
the soil. For the synthesis of sugar like glucose, carbon dioxide provides carbon
and oxygen whereas water molecules provide hydrogen. The plant builds sugar
molecules from these simple compounds. Enzymes needed for this purpose are
present in the cells and energy is trapped by chlorophyll from sunlight. The
process if completed in the mesophyll cells of the leaves as shown in Fig: 9.4.
The reaction is expressed by the following chemical equations:
6CO2
Light Energy
6H2O
Carbon dioxide
Chlorophyll
+
Water
(Raw material)
C6H12O6
Glucose
6O2
+ Oxygen
(Product)
This equation shows only the starting materials and end products of the process
but gives no information about the intermediate reaction steps involved. It is also
obvious that oxygen is produced as a by-product of photosynthesis. During day
light, green plants take in carbon dioxide and give out oxygen. Thus, oxygen
would appear here to be a waste product.
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3.
Carbon dioxide:
Plants get the carbon dioxide to be used during photosynthesis from the air. It
enters the leaf through the stomata. It is used as a source of carbon for glucose.
Photosynthesis will not take place without carbon dioxide. Although it comprises
only 0.03 to 0.04% of the air, its supply does not exhaust as it is continuously
recycled into the air. The process of photosynthesis accelerates if its proportion is
increased up to 1.0%. However, greater amounts of carbon dioxide, adversely
affect the process.
4.
Water:
This constituent is as basic as is carbon dioxide. Water is important in
photosynthesis in two ways; firstly, it provides hydrogen for the building up of
glucose and secondly, opening and closing of stomata is regulated by increase or
decrease in the amount of water. It is important that stomata should remain open
so that carbon dioxide may enter leaves. Water together with salt (e.g. nitrates),
absorbed by the roots ultimately reaches leaves where it is used in
photosynthesis.
5.
Temperature:
Suitable temperature is also necessary for photosynthesis. Normally a
temperature range of 15C to 30C is most suitable for this process. At higher
temperature the rate of photosynthesis starts declining and at 45C it completely
stops. However, depending on regions, the temperature requirements of the
plants may change. For example, this process occurs at a temperature range
from 0C to 10C in plants of cold and mountainous regions.
9.3.4 Conversion of light energy into chemical energy:
Photosynthesis is the metabolic process by which plants trap light energy, convert
it into chemical energy and store it in the bonds of organic nutrient molecules
such as glucose and release O2 as by-product.
Light Energy
6CO2
6H20
Chlorophyll
C6H12O6 +
(Glucose)
6O2
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Biology
NADP, which already exists in the chloroplast reduces into NADPH2 by accepting
hydrogen ion released from splitting of water.
NADPH2
NADP + H++e(In cell) (From water)
(Reduced form)
Another compound already present in the cell is ADP (Adenosine diphosphate)
which combines with phosphate group by using light energy to form ATP
(Adenosine tri-phosphate).
Light energy
ADP + P
ATP
Enzyme
Reduction and oxidation are two important chemical concepts which help us to
understand the terminology of the electron transfer chain.
Reduction is the addition of electrons to a substance. In biological systems this
addition of electrons is usually brought about by the addition of hydrogen or the
removal of O2. Oxidation is the removal of electrons from substance.
ATP and NADPH2, both are energy rich compounds. They provide energy for the
conversion of CO2 into carbohydrates during dark phase of photosynthesis.
Fig: 9.6 Photosynthesis consists of light-dependent and light- independent
reactions
2.
Dark reaction:
Dark reaction is also called light independent reaction because light energy is not
captured during this phase. Only ATP and NADPH2, which are synthesized during
light reaction, provide energy to synthesize glucose by fixing CO2 and H2O.
Fixation of CO2 and its conversion into glucose occurs in the chloroplast by means
of a series of reactions known as Calvin cycle or dark reactions.
Glucose molecules thus formed at this stage are stored as starch in the
chloroplast.
Melvin Calvin a scientist received a Nobel prize in 1961 on determining the dark reaction.
Experiment No. 1
Is chlorophyll necessary for Photosynthesis ?
Since it is not possible to remove chlorophyll from a leaf without killing it, so it
becomes necessary to use a leaf where chlorophyll is present only in patches.
Such a leaf is known as variegated leaf and a plant with such leaves is used in
this experiment.
For destarching the leaves, the potted plant is kept in a dark place for a couple of
days and then exposed to daylight for a few hour. The leaf is then removed from
plant. Its out line is carefully drawn to note the position of presence or absence of
chlorophyll on it. Now iodine is applied to the leaf to test for the presence of
starch. (Startch whenever come in contact with iodine turns blue).
This test shows that only those parts which were previously green turned blue
with iodine while the white parts turned brown. This result indicates that starch is
formed only in those parts of the leaf where chlorophyll exists (i.e. green parts).
In other words, photosynthesis is not possible without chlorophyll. If this were
possible the white parts of the leaf should have also given a blue colour with
iodine.
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Biology
Fig: 9.7
Experiment No. 2
Is light necessary for Photosynthesis?
A potted plant is destarched by keeping it in the dark room for two days. It is
then transferred to light. Two of its leaves are selected for the examination. One
leaf is wrapped completely in black paper. The other leaf is also wrapped in black
paper but an L-shaped part of the paper is cut out so that light can reach this
part of the leaf through it. The plant is placed in the sunlight for 4 to 6 hours. The
two leaves are now detached from the plant and tested for presence of starch. It
would be observed that the leaf which does not receive any light is free of starch
(remains brown with iodine). However, in the second leaf, light could pass
through the L-shaped opening in the black paper. Only this 'L' shaped area turns
dark blue while the other parts of the leaf remains brown. This shows that light
plays a vital role in the manufacture of starch. Since starch is manufactured due
to photosynthesis, light is essential for this process.
Fig: 9.8 To show that light is necessary for photosynthesis
Experiment No. 3
Is carbon dioxide needed for Photosynthesis?
Two potted plants are destarched by keeping them in a dark room. They are
watered properly during this period. Each pot is enclosed in a transparent
polythene bag as shown in figure 9.9.
A petri dish containing soda lime (potassium hydroxide) is placed in one of the
pots to absorb any carbon dioxide present in the polythene bag. In the other pot
a petri dish is placed containing sodium bi-carbonate solution which would
produced carbon dioxide. The plants are then left in light for several hours. A leaf
from each pot is detached and tested for starch. The leaf from the pot containing
soda lime does not turn blue. Soda lime had absorbed any carbon dioxide present
in the bag. The leaf from the other pot where carbon dioxide was being released
by the sodium bicarbonates solution turns blue indicating the presence of starch.
These results show that carbon-di-oxide is essential for photosynthesis.
Fig: 9.9 To show that CO2 is necessary for photosynthesis
Experiment No. 4
Is oxygen produced during Photosynthesis?
A short stemmed funnel is placed over the shoot of an aquatic plant (Hydrilla) in
a beaker of water as shown in fig. 9.10. A water filled test tube is inverted over
the stem of the funnel. The funnel is placed in the beaker on supports, to allow
free circulation of water. The apparatus is kept in sunlight for some time. Bubbles
of gas soon appear from the plant, rise and collect in the test tube. When
sufficient gas has accumulated the test tube is removed. A glowing match stick is
inserted in the tube. The match stick burns with a flame showing that the gas is
rich in oxygen. It is clear from this experiment that oxygen is evolved during
photosynthesis.
Fig: 9.10 To show that Oxygen is set free during photosynthesis
9.3.5 Factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis:
The rate of photosynthesis is affected by a number of factors. Such as light
intensity, CO2 concentration, temperature and inorganic ions.
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Biology
Light intensity:
The rate of light reaction will depend on the light intensity. The brighter the light,
the faster will water molecules split in the chloroplast. Fig.9.11 shows that an
increase in light intensity does indeed speed up photosynthesis, but only up to a
point. Beyond that point, any further increase in light intensity has only a small
effect. This limit on the rate of increase could be because all available chloroplast
are fully occupied in light absorption. So, no matter how much the light intensity
increases, no more light can be absorbed and used.
Fig: 9.11 Light intensity and rate of photosynthesis
Temperature:
The dark reaction will be affected by temperature. A rise in temperature will
increase the rate at which CO2 combines with hydrogen to make carbohydrate.
Thus rate of photosynthesis increases with the increase in temperature within
optimum limits.
Carbon dioxide concentration:
There is only 0.03% of CO2 in the air. Shortage of CO2 is an important limiting
factor and slows down the rate of photosynthesis. Experiments show that an
increase in CO2 concentration enhances the rate of photosynthesis. The stomata
in a leaf may affect the rate of photosynthesis according to whether they are
open or close. At low concentration of CO2 inside the leaf, the stomata will open.
9.3.6 Most of life forms are dependent on photosynthesis:
The process of photosynthesis is of prime importance because all the living
organisms on this earth are dependent on plants for food and O2, they produced.
The photosynthesis is the only process which can fix atmospheric CO2 into organic
compounds to produce bio-molecules. Therefore, plants are also called producers
of ecosystem. Thus, they are the direct or indirect source of food for all the nonphotosynthetic life on earth.
Plants through photosynthesis keep carbon and oxygen cycle going on and thus
maintain them in balance. During photosynthesis they fix CO2 and release oxygen
in environment. Animals use O2 in respiration and release CO2 back into
atmosphere.
One of the property of CO2 is that it absorbs heat of sun. If CO2 accumulates in
the atmosphere, the environmental temperature would rise and our earth will
warm up. Photosynthesis keep on using CO2 has an indirect cooling effect.
9.3.7 Mineral requirement in plants:
CO2 and H2O are not the only nutrient material needed by a green plant. These
two compounds provide only three elements, C, H, and O, but plants require
more elements for the composition of their molecules, e.g. Nitrogen (N) is
always present in amino acids, the building- block units of proteins which are
essential components of protoplasm, some amino acid also contain sulphur (S).
Phosphorous is present in ATP, nucleic acid and many other important
compounds. Chlorophyll, essential pigment of photosynthesis contains
magnesium while cytochrome important compound in electron, transport,
contain iron. Plants absorb these elements in the form of different compounds
from soil through their roots.
Table 9.1: Important minerals required by plants
Element
Function
Nitrogen (N)
Structural components of amino acids,
many hormones and co-enzymes etc.
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Biology
Magnesium (Mg)
Monotropa.A saprophyte
3.
Insectivores:
These plants are found in marshy areas of many countries. These marsh lands
are deficient in nitrogen compounds and nitrates. To make up for this deficiency
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5.
Insectivores:
In this type nutrition, animals feed upon insects. For example wall lizard and frog
feed upon-a-variety of insects. Such animals are called insectivores.
6.
Parasitic:
A parasite lives in close association with the other living organism called host for
obtaining its food. Organisms with this type of nutrition are called parasites. The
relationship is advantageous to the parasite but harmful to the host. Some
parasites live on the external surface of their hosts. They are called
ectoparasites e.g. mosquito, lice, etc. They obtain their food from the surface of
the host. Others live inside the bodies of their hosts. They are called
endoparasites e.g. tape worms and round worms in the intestine of vertebrates.
They obtain nourishment from inside the body.
7.
Saprozoic:
The organisms who obtain food from dead organisms are called saprobes and
this type of nutrition is called saprozoic. Saprobes secrete the enzymes out side
their bodies, on the food to digest it and then absorb it in the fluid form. Fungi
and many bacteria fall in this category.
9.6
NUTRITION IN MAN
9.6.1 Constituent of food:
Food is a set of chemicals that is basically required for growth and for obtaining
energy. Moreover, food is needed to make enzymes for various metabolic
processes.
The food which animals, including humans, take in consists of the following
components or nutrients.
(1) Carbohydrates
(2) Fats
(3) Proteins
(4) Vitamins
(5) Minerals
(6) Water
1.
Carbohydrates:
These are the fuel of the body because they are the most direct source of energy.
Common examples are starch, sugars, etc. The most common simple sugar is
grape sugar called glucose. It is the most readily available source of energy.
2.
Fats:
Fats belong to a group of organic compounds called lipids. Fats are high energy
food. They provide double amount of energy upon oxidation, in contrast to the
same quantity of carbohydrates.
We obtain fats from animal sources e.g. ghee, butter, cream, fish oil etc, as well
as from plant sources e.g. mustard oil, soyabean oil, peanuts etc.
Animals store fats beneath the skin and around some visceral organs. Besides
serving as source of energy they insulate the body and protect internal organs.
They also serve as building material of protoplasm and membrane systems.
3.
Proteins:
Proteins are the building materials of protoplasm. They are obtained from meat,
pulses, milk, cheese, dry fruits, etc. They consist of smaller units called amino
acids. Proteins are required for growth, repair, defence of body, clotting of blood,
etc., the deficiency of proteins in diet especially that of essential amino acids
containing proteins, severely affects such functions. They are structure building
compounds which make many body structures like hair, nails, muscles, etc.
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4.
Minerals:
Minerals are ionic substances which are required in metabolic activities of the
body. They do not provide us energy but ensure proper growth and functioning of
the body. Some important minerals are described below:
Calcium: It is obtained from milk, eggs, fruits, and cereals. It strengthens the
bones and teeth. It also helps in muscular contraction, blood clotting and
conduction of nerve impulse.
Iron: It is found in meat, liver, eggs, apple, spinach and other vegetables. It is
used in synthesis of haemoglobin and myoglobin in blood and muscles,
respectively.
Phosphorus: It is found in milk, eggs, meat, vegetables etc. It is required for
bones, teeth, formation of plasma membrane, nucleic acids, and ATP.
5.
Vitamins:
Vitamins are organic compounds which are needed in minute quantities for proper
growth and development of the body. Plants can synthesize all vitamins from
simple substances but animals have to obtain them through their diet. There are
different vitamins which are denoted by letters of the alphabets such as A, B, C,
D, E, K. They are classified as fat soluble vitamins e.g. A, D, E, K and water
soluble vitamins e.g. B, C. Fat soluble vitamins can be stored along with, fat but
water soluble vitamins cannot be stored so we require continuous intake of them.
Table 9.2 shows different vitamins alongwith their sources, their deficiency
disorders and characterization of disorders.
Solubility
Vitamin D
Vitamin E
Fish-liver oil,
animal liver,
milk, cheese,
fresh green
vegetables.
Fish-liver oil,
butter, egg
yolk, milk.
Also made by
action of
sunlight on
skin.
Plant oils,
green leafy
salad etc.
Essential for
vision, growth
and
functioning of
skin, etc.
Bones remain
soft and
ultimately
become
deformed. In
adults bones
become
painful and
can be
fractured
easily.
Few deficiency
effects are
noticed in
adults. Severe
deficiency in
infants may
cause high
rate of
destruction of
Disorders
caused by
lack /
deficiency
Dry cornea,
dry skin poor
night vision.
Rickets
(decrease
in
absorption of
calcium
and
phosphorus in
intestine).
Anemia
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Vitamin K
Vitamin B
Complex
Vitamin B1
Vitamin B2
Nicotinamide
Vitamin C
Dark green
leafy
vegetables.
Made by
bacteria in
intestine.
Husk of wheat
grains and
brown rice.
Leafy
vegetables,
fish, eggs.
Meat, fish,
milk, eggs.
Citrus fruits
and green
vegetables.
RBC.
Prolong
clotting time
excessive
bleeding
Wasting of
muscles;
circulatory
failure and
paralysis
Sore
mouth,
eyes and skin
Diarrhea,
dermatitis and
mental
disorder
Bleeding from
gums, wounds
fail to heal
Blood does
not clot
Beri Beri
Sore
Pellagra
Scurvy
6.
Water:
Water makes up nearly 70 percent of the total body mass. It is required as
solvent in most of the metabolic activities of the body. It also helps in the
absorption and transportation of the digested food. It helps plants in
photosynthesis for intake of minerals from the soil and in movement of food.
9.7
DIETARY FIBRES (Roughage)
Dietary fibre or roughage is made up of the indigestible cell walls of plant cells
that we take in our food such as fruits, vegetables. It provides bulk to the food in
the intestine by retaining water. It also stimulates the gut for peristaltic
movement which makes the passage of food easier through the gut for
defecation. Absence or shortage of dietary fibre in food may cause constipation or
intestinal disorders.
9.7.1 Nutrition and food technology:
We eat food in order to obtain energy for the maintenance of life and also to
provide raw materials to build and repair the body. Thus there is a continuous
need of food. Unfortunately, the production of food is seasonal and not uniform
throughout the world. In order to ensure a continuous supply of food, some of it
must be preserved and stored for later use.
Food is destroyed either by the growth of micro-organisms such as bacteria, fungi
or due to the enzymes of the cells of food. Man knows since the ancient times,
the methods to preserve the food but these methods were not effective in
preserving food for longer time. The nutritional value and taste were considerably
lost in food preserved through such traditional methods.
With the help of modern science, various methods have been developed to
preserve the food for longer period of time without affecting its nutritional value
and taste. Some of the important methods are as follows:
1.
Pasteurization:
It was discovered by Louis Pasteur to prevent milk from turning sour. You all
know very well that milk is boiled after purchasing it from milk- man. Increase in
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Biology
temperature of milk up to the boiling point, kills most of the germs (bacteria)
present in it thus milk can be kept longer. In the absence of boiling, it turns sour
very quickly. The modern way of milk pasteurization comprises of heating to
71 C and then immediate cooling. As a result most of its bacteria are either
killed or if survive, their growth is retarded so the milk can be preserved for few
days.
2.
Refrigeration:
Refrigeration is another way of preserving food. In this method food is kept at
very low temperature at -30C to -40C. Due to very low temperature the
bacteria are either killed or their growth is retarded. Now-a-days, food quickly
freezes (-18C) in about 30 minutes. It renders taste and texture of the food.
3.
Dehydration:
It is the oldest method of preserving food by dehydration. Although drying of food
does not kill micro-organisms, it preserves the food as it makes water unavailable
to micro-organisms which requires it to grow and multiply. Dried food is easily
stored and transported due to its light weight. However, it often brings about a
change in texture and taste of the preserved food.
4.
Canning:
In this method, food is adequately cooked and then sealed while hot in a sterile,
metallic and air tight container. Heating kills the microorganisms as well as
inactivates the enzymes.
HEALTH PROBLEMS RELATED TO NUTRITION
The problems related to nutrition are as follows.
1. Under-nutrition
2. Mal-nutrition
3. Over-nutrition
1.
Under-nutrition:
It is a problem of poor countries of the world where there is insufficient food for
the people. Famine stricken countries such as Ethiopia are facing this problem.
Under-nutrition especially affects the children. Due to insufficient food, their
physical as well as mental growth are severely affected. Such children or persons
This condition is called marasmus.
Fig: 9.16 A child is suffering reduce to a skeleton only.
2.
Mal-nutrition:
It refers to a diet missing in one or more basic nutrients. It can affect person of
any age or group. It can badly affect the pregnant women and infants. It has
been noticed that mal-nutrition is the major cause of death among the children
upto the age of five in the world especially in developing countries.
Fig : 9.17 Effects of malnutrition (Girls of the same age)
In Africa and Asia, due to poverty and famine, the diet is usually deficient in
proteins and carbohydrates. Deficiency of protein in dite increases susceptibility
to diseases besides retardation in growth.
3.
Over- nutrition:
It is observed in developed countries where people take excess nutrients. Obesity
is the most common disorders due to over-nutrition. Obesity is caused by
excessive consumption of refined carbohydrates and fats.
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Balanced diet:
A balanced diet contains adequate amount of nutrients. It helps in proper growth,
metabolism, and maintenance of good health. Unfortunately despite extensive
research, it is not yet possible to say exactly how much of each type of food a
person must take in order to satisfy all of its requirements. The problem of doing
this is complicated by the fact that the body's food requirements vary
according to age, body size, sex, occupation, and health. For example children
need more food for their proper growth. Youth on the other hand need more
food than elderly people because of their active physical work. It has been
recommended that an average adult healthy person requires the necessary
energy 50 percent from carbohydrate, 40 percent from fats and 10 percent from
proteins. Fats are necessary in diet as they contain fat soluble vitamins as well as
fatty acids. It is also recommended that adults should eat at least 1gm of protein
per kg of body weight per day. How ever infants should be given 2gm per kg from
birth to six months. It is further suggested that 60 percent of daily intake should
consist of animal proteins since this contains more essential amino acids.
Raw food (100g)
Rice
Eggs
Butter
Milk (Mother)
Milk (Cow)
Sugar
Beef
Fish
Mutton
Beans
Orange
Apple
Energy (K.cal)
360
163
716
60
65
387
183
176
153
35
45
58
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Biology
9.9.1 Ingestion:
The process of taking in of food into the mouth or body of animal is called
ingestion. In the mouth cavity also called buccal cavity or oral cavity, this food is
cut down into smaller pieces with our teeth. This crushing of food make its
swallowing easy, helps in mixing the saliva in it and makes the work of digestive
juices (emzymes) easier and quicker. The process of breaking the food
mechanically into smaller pieces is called mechanical digestion while the
chemical break down of food into smaller chemical molecules is called chemical
digestion which is brought about by enzymes.
1.
Teeth:
As stated above, teeth in our oral (mouth) cavity perform mechanical digestion.
In both of our jaws, teeth are embedded in jaw sockets. We have two sets of
teeth during life time. The first set of teeth, milk teeth appears at about 6
months of age. Later, about at the age of 7 years, the milk teeth gradually fell
and are replaced one by one by permanent teeth. The maximum number of
permanent teeth is 32. (i.e, 16 in upper, while 16 in lower jaw).
Structure of tooth:
Each tooth consists of three parts i.e. crown, neck and root.
Crown is the part of tooth projected above the gum level. It is the biting or
chewing surface of tooth. Neck is the part surrounded by gum while root is the
part embedded in bone.
The outer surface of crown is covered by a very hard white substance, the
enamel. It is non-living and protects teeth besides giving lustrous appearance to
teeth. The root as well as the portion inside the enamel is dentine. It is less
harder than enamel. Inside the dentine, there is a cavity, the pulp cavity. It is
filled by soft connective tissue called pulp. It also contains nerves and blood
vessels that supply the growing tooth with food and oxygen. The root of each
tooth is covered with another hard material called cement.
The tough fibers of periodontal membrane attach the cement to the jaw bone so
that each tooth is fixed firmly in socket.
Fig: 9.18 Structure of a tooth
Types of teeth:
According to the shape and function following types of teeth are present in our
oral cavity.
i) Incisors ii) Canines iii) Premolars and iv) Molars.
Molar: The molars are large strong teeth efficient at grinding food.
Premolar: Also known as bicuspids, because of other two distinct edges grind the
food.
Incisors: These teeth have a chisel shaped, sharp cutting edge ideal for biting.
Canines: The canines are sharp pointed teeth, Ideal for tearing food.
Fig: 9.19 Types of teeth
i) Incisors: The flat chisel-shaped teeth resent in front of oral cavity are incisors.
They are eight in number, four in upper while four in the lower jaws. They are
used in cutting.
ii) Canines: Beside incisors lie canines on each side in both jaws. They are four
in number and are pointed. They are used for tearing and pulling flesh. That's
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Biology
why they are very long and prominent in carnivores such as lion. Herbivore
animals usually do not have canines.
iii) Premolars: In both jaws each canine is followed by two premolars. They are
8 in number and each with two distinct edges. They are involved in grinding the
food.
iv) Molars: Premolars of each side of both jaws are followed by three molars.
They are 12 in number. They also grind food. The last molar is called wisdom
tooth.
The arrangement of teeth can be represented by the following formula called
dental formula.
I2/2, C 1/1, Pm 2/2, M 3/3
It represents each type of tooth in half of the upper jaw and half of the lower jaw.
2.
The causes of tooth decay and its prevention:
Tooth decay refers to erosion of enamel and dentine. Its major reason is dental
plaque which is a sticky substance consisting of food remains, mucus and
bacteria. The plaque develops as a hard layer over teeth due to not brushing or
improper brushing of teeth after each meal. It develops due to eating too much
sweets such as candies, chocolates etc. The bacteria feed on left over sweet
which is broken down to produce an acid that gradually destroys enamel forming
a cavity in it.
Particles of sugary food get trapped in cracks in the teeth.
Bacteria feeding on the sugar form acids, which dissolve the enamel and
dentine and hole starts forming.
There are nerves in the pulp cavity, so the tooth becomes very painful
when hole reaches the pulp.
The infection can spread rapidly through the pulp cavity and may form an
abscess at the root of the tooth.
Fig: 9.20 Tooth decay
If this decay is ignored, the erosion penetrates deep to destroy dentine. This
enables bacteria to infect pulp. This results in tooth ache and tooth is gradually
destroyed. Tooth decay can be reduced by cutting down sugary diet and proper
brushing with a fluoride tooth paste.
Visit a dentist regularly for check up for healthier teeth.
9.9.2 Digestion:
1.
Digestion of food in mouth:
The process of mechanical and chemical digestion begins in mouth. The teeth
grind the food while three pairs of salivary glands of oral cavity secrete saliva. It
contains an enzyme called ptyalin which acts upon starch to break them partly
into maltose (sugar).
This masticated and partially digested food takes the form of a ball called bolus
is then pushed into the oesophagus.
Fig: 9.21 The human alimentary canal
2.
Digestion of food in stomach:
Stomach is a large bag-like, thick walled structure which stores food as it passes
down the oesophagus. Here food is digested chemically as well as mechanically.
Internally, its walls contain gastric glands which secrete gastric juice which
contains HCl and enzymes called renin and pepsin. HCl kills the germs present
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Biology
in food. It also softens the food. Renin helps to curdle milk in infants. Pepsin acts
on proteins to break them into peptones. The thick walls of stomach churn up the
food. After staying here for few hours, the food becomes a thick fluid-like chyme
which is released bit by bit into the small intestine.
Peristalsis: The movement of food from oesophagus and onward up to the anus
takes place by means of an automatic movement or peristalsis (Fig: 9.22) of
alimentary canal.
Fig 9.22 Peristalsis
3.
Digestion and absorption of food in small Intestine:
Stomach is followed by a long, narrow tube called small intestine where the
remaining process of digestion is completed as well as the absorption of nutrients
from the digested food takes place. Its first part lying immediately after the
stomach is duodenum which receives a common duct formed by the fusion of a
duct coming from the gall bladder of the liver and another duct coming from the
pancreas. Through these two ducts, the secretion of liver called bile and the
secretion of pancreas known as pancreatic juice are poured simultaneously in
the duodenum upon the acidic chyme which is coming from the stomach. Both of
these secretions contain bicarbonate ions which first neutralizes chyme and then
turns it alkaline.
4.
Enzymes:
Enzymes are chemical substance that work as catalyst in chemical reactions of a
cell. These proteins are useful as they speed up chemical reactions without being
used up by themselves. Enzymes performing the process of digestion are called
hydrolytic enzymes. They are secreted by digestive glands.
a) Liver: The liver is the largest gland in the body. It is reddish brown in colour.
It is located in the abdomen underneath the diaphragm. For the process of
digestion, it secretes an alkaline, greenish yellow juice called bile which is stored
in a sac-like gall-bladder attached with it. There are no enzymes in bile. It
contains some salts. Its most important salt is sodium bicarbonate. It also
contains bile pigments. However, they are not involved in digestion. Bile helps in
breaking down of larger molecules of fats into small droplets. This process is
called emulsification. It makes the digestion of fats easier in the small intestine.
b) Pancreas: It is a long, leaf-like organ situated between the duodenum and
the stomach. Its secretion is called pancreatic juice. It is colourless and poured
through the pancreatic duct into the duodenum. It contains sodium bicarbonate
and many enzymes. Three important pancreatic enzymes are discussed below:
i)
Amylase: It breaks down starch into maltose.
ii)
Trypsin: It acts upon the proteins to convert at into smaller peptides.
iii)
Lipase: It breaks fat droplets into fatty acids and glycerol.
9.9.3 Absorption of food in small intestine:
Duodenum is followed by ileum, the next portion of small intestine where the rest
of the digestion is completed by the enzymes present in intestinal juices secreted
by the glands present in the walls of small intestine itself. Its enzymes
aminopeptidases and disaccharidases convert peptides into amino acids' and
maltose/lactose/ sucrose into glucose, respectively.
After the process of digestion of food is completed here, the digested food in the
form of soluble molecules glucose, fructose, amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol,
etc. is absorbed into the body through very fine, finger like projections called villi
present on the internal walls of ileum.
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Biology
Each villus is about 1mm long. There are about 5 million villi in the ileum. Due to
villi, the internal surface area of ileum has estimated to be 30 square meters for
absorption of food.
The villi greatly increase the internal surface area of the ileum. Inside each villus,
there is a dense network of blood capillaries and a single lymph vessel or lacteal.
Both blood capillaries and lacteal absorb the digested food. Nutrients other than
fatty acids diffuse through the surface cells of villi and are taken into the blood
flowing in capillaries of villi. These capillaries join together to form a larger blood
vessel called the hepatic portal vein which carries the absorbed food to the liver.
Some fatty acids, after they are absorbed by surface cells of rilli, recombine to
form fats which are passed onto the other side into lacteal rather than blood
capillaries. Lacteals of villi join together to form lymph vessels which finally
deliver the fats into blood stream through lymphatic system.
Fig: 9.23 Structure of Villus
Table: 9.4 Digestive juices, their sources. secretion / enzymes and the
action.
Secretion/
Action
Name of
Source
Enzyme
digestive juice
Saliva
Salivary glands in Ptyalin
Breaks down
oral cavity
starch into
maltose.
Gastric juice
Gastric glands in
stomach
Germicidal,
activates pepsin,
breaks down
proteins into
peptones. Curdles
milk.
Bile
Liver
Nil
Turns acidic
chyme alkaline
and emulsifies fat.
Pancreatic juice
Pancreas
Trypsin
Breaks down
proteins into
peptides.
Amylase
Breaks down
starch into
maltose.
Lipase
Amino peptidase
Breaks down
peptides into
amino acids.
Disacch-aridase
Breaks down
maltose and other
disaccharides into
glucose.
Intestinal juice
Intestinal glands
in small intestine
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4.
Appendicitis:
It is the inflammation (burning, painful sensation) of the appendix associated with
vomiting and abdominal pain. It could be due to obstruction of the appendix
either by faeces or worms which cause localized swelling Pain in right side of
lower abdomen. In such a case, physician must be consulted irnmediately for
diagnosis and treatment . If the condition remained ignored for some time, the
appendix may burst cavity that could be extremely fatal for the patient.
5.
Enterobiasis:
Thread worms cause a disease called enterobiasis. These are minute, thread
like worms which live in the large intestine of man. At night time, the female
worms come down and lay eggs at the preanal region. It produces severe itching
around the anus. Upon scratching the anus, the microscopic eggs are transferred
on fingers and nails. Such contaminated hands can cause reinfection of the same
person or others who take food or drink contaminated with the eggs. Proper
treatment and development of hygienic habits can over come the thread worm
infection.
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Biology
SUMMARY
The intake of nutrient by living organisms is called nutrition.
Living organisms can be divided into two groups on the basis of their
modes of nutrition i.e. Autotrophs and heterotrophs.
The heterotrophs eat food which contain bio-molecules like carbohydrates,
proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals and water.
Simple sugar, starch and glycogen belong to a group of compounds called
carbohydrates.
Proteins are the polymers of nitrogenous monomers called amino acid.
Proteins are building as well as biocatalyst molecules of the body.
Most of the plants prepare their food by the process of photosynthesis. In
this process a plant can build sugar by taking CO2, H2O in the presence of
chlorophyll and light.
During
light
reaction
photolysis
of
water
and
photophosphorylation occur as a result of it O2, ATP and NADPH2
molecules are formed.
Solar energy is converted into chemical energy in the form of ATP and
NADPH2 which is utilized during dark reaction for the fixation of CO2.
The Dark reaction is light-independent phase where glucose and finally
starch is synthesized.
Natural and artificial fertilizers are the source of mineral nutrients for
plant.
Although majority of plants are autotrophs, some plants like, parasites,
saprophytes, insectivores and symbionts are partially or totally
heterotrophs.
Animals can not prepare their food from simple inorganic substances and
hence are all heterotrophs.
Fats provide double amount of energy than carbohydrates.
Minerals ensure proper growth and functioning of the body.
Water is biological solvent.
Malnutrition develops due to intake of inappropriate quantities of food.
Vomiting occurs due to antiperistalsis.
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EXERCISE
1. Fill in the blanks with appropriate terms:
i)
Ready source of energy in the cell is________ .
ii)
Chemical name of cane sugar is_______ .
iii)
The process of conversion of light energy into chemical energy
is called___________.
iv)
_________and__________light is absorbed by reaction centre
during photosynthesis.
v)
Another name of dark reaction is____________.
vi)
Deficiency of Vitamin B causes___________.
vii)
Indigestible cell walls of plant cells is called_________.
viii)
Adults should take_______gm protein per kg of their body
weight per day.
ix)
The part of teeth projected above the gum level is called________
x)
Starch breaks into maltose through the action of enzyme_______
2. Write whether the statement are true or false:
i)
Glycogen and starch are the polymers of glucose.
ii)
Fats and oils are the consendation products of amino acid.
iii)
ATP formation is called phosphorylation, This process takes
place during dark reaction,
iv)
ATP and NADPH2 provide energy for the fixation of CO2 during
dark reaction.
v)
Widely used garden inorganic fertilizer is called 6-12-6.
vi)
Vitamin K deficiency is related to abnormality in the proccess of
blood clotting.
vii)
Calcium is required for the formation of blood.
viii) Condition in which a person is reduced to the skeleton due to
insufficient diet is marasmus.
ix)
Carbohydrates are digested in stomach.
x)
Herbivore animals do not have incisors.
3.
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
vii)
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viii)
ix)
x)
iii) Photosynthesis
vi) Saprophyte
ix) Pasteurization
xii) Appendicitis
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Chapter 10
RESPIRATION
One can survive for weeks without food, for days without water but without
oxygen one just cannot survive after a few minutes. To keep the candle of life
burning exchange of O2 and CO2 inside and outside the body is a must.
Learning objectives:
Definition and significance of respiration.
ATP and its importance.
Respiration and breathing.
Aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
Combustion, respiration, photosynthesis.
Gaseous exchange in plants and animals.
Human respiration.
Effects of smoking on respiratory system;
Respiration may be defined as, a process that liberates chemical energy
from organic molecules when oxidized." These organic molecules are the
food substances which the organisms obtain from the environment or synthesize
themselves.
Nutrition is also a process of acquiring food. It contains energy. Food molecules
are bonded chemically, they require some energy for bonding. Whenever energy
is required for any metabolic activity the food is oxidized within the living cells by
the help of enzymes. These bonds are broken and the energy is released. This
process is known as respiration. The energy obtained through respiration is
utilized to perform all the body functions, like cell division, growth, movement
etc.
10.1 ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE (ATP) FORMATION
All the living organisms from bacteria to human beings are always in need of
energy. They cannot survive without it. As the cells can use energy only in the
form of ATPs so they are often called currency of energy and to carry out the
continuously going on metabolic activities a constant supply of ATP molecules is
always needed.
ATPs are synthesized in mitochondria. Each ATP molecule, chemically, consists of
an organic component adenine linked to a ribose (5 carbon sugar) to form
adenosine to which is attached a chain of three inorganic phosphate groups.
An ATP molecule is the instant source of energy within the cell. It supplies energy
to every energy consuming process anywhere in the cell.
Fig: 10.1 Structure of ATP
Chemically ATP is hydrolysed to ADP by enzyme ATPase releasing a phosphate
and liberating 30.6 KJ (7.3 Kcal) of energy. An ADP is like a discharged battery.
When the energy is made available, by oxidation of food, ADP takes this energy
to be converted to ATP that is to say that it becomes charged once again.
A mole of glucose has 2827 KJ (673Kcal) of energy which is released during
oxidation. About 1100 KJ (263 Kcal) are available in the form of ATPs whereas
the rest is lost as heat energy.
Fig: 10.2 ATP- ADP Cycle
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Aerobic
respiration
Aerobic
respiration
In animals:
Glucose
Aerobic
respiration
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Biology
Fermentation:
The anaerobic respiration of fungi and bacteria is commonly known as alcoholic
fermentation because in the absence of oxygen glucose is broken down into
ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide. This fermentation process is commercially
utilized in making alcoholic products (Beer, wine, vinegar etc), ripening of tea
leaves and tobacco leaves, preparation of cheese, yoghurt and bread etc.
Human muscle cells make ATP by lactic acid fermentation when oxygen is
deficient. In the absence of oxygen, in muscle cells glucose is broken down into
lactic acid. This occurs during prolonged heavy exercise, when sugar catabolism
for ATP production surpasses the muscles supply of oxygen from the blood. Under
these conditions the cells switch over from aerobic respiration to fermentation.
The lactic acid that accumulates as a waste product may cause muscle fatigue
and pain, but is gradually carried away by the blood to the liver where it is
converted back to an energy releasing compound pyruvic acid and glycogen by
the liver cells.
10.4 COMBUSTION, RESPIRATION AND PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Combustion is the process of burning. Wood, coal, methane gas etc. are burnt in
the presence of oxygen, producing carbon dioxide and water. It is accompanied
with the release of energy. It is an exothermic chemical reaction.
Cellular respiration can be compared to burning of fuel in which organic food
(carbohydrates, fats and proteins) rich in carbon burns in the presence of oxygen,
producing carbon dioxide, water and energy.
When oxygen was discovered as the agent for combustion, it was known that the
food is burnt within cells in the presence of oxygen.
Respiration like combustion is a catabolic exothermic chemical process.
However, the difference between the combustion and respiration is that the
combustion takes place in one go, releasing the entire energy as the heat, which
may be utilized or is lost into the environment. The respiration completes in
several small steps. Each step is under the control of a specific enzyme, releasing
energy in small amounts which can be stored in the form of ATPs.
Fig: 10.3 Relation between cellular respiration and photosynthesis
Photosynthesis, another metabolic: process, is just opposite to combustion.
Combustion is a catabolic process, the photosynthesis is an anabolic process. In
photosynthesis, organic substance is synthesized from carbon dioxide and water
in the presence of sunlight energy and chlorophyll. The molecular oxygen is
evolved as the by-product. Combustion is exothermic and releases energy,
photosynthesis is endothermic and absorbs energy.
Photosynthesis and respiration are the two metabolic reactions opposite to each
other. Photosynthesis takes place only in the green parts of the plant body having
chlorophyll, whereas respiration takes place in all the living cells of plants and
animals. Mitochondria are the cellular organelles where respiration takes place
while the organelles for photosynthesis are chloroplasts. Photosynthesis takes
place during the day time only, where as respiration takes place day and nignt. In
photosynthesis body weight is increases but in respiration weight decreases.
Respiration is an oxidation reaction whereas photosynthesis is a reduction
reaction. It can be well understood by comparing their chemical equations.
Chemical equation;
In respiration,
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Biology
Glucose + Oxygen
Mitochondria
enzymes
In photosynthesis,
Carbon dioxide + Water
Chloroplast
Solar energy
Glucose + Oxygen
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Biology
There are marked differences in the oxygen content of air and water. A unit
volume of air contains far more oxygen in it, than an equal volume of water. Thus
an aquatic organism such as fish must pass a correspondingly much greater
volume of water over its gaseous exchange surface than a terrestrial vertebrate
passes air in order to absorb sufficient amount of oxygen for its metabolic needs.
Animals show a great variety of form and structure, but the functions of life are
the same. All animals respire as it is the basic need of living organisms by which
they get energy to do work. As the form of organisms becomes more and more
complex, their functions also become complicated to achieve the maximum
efficiency.
Comparison of a sample of fresh water and air
Air
Water
Density
1
77
1
100
Viscocity
210 ml/litre or 21%
10 ml/litre or 1%
O2 Content
Unicellular organisms like amoeba possess a large surface area to volume
ratio, hence diffusion of gases takes place over the whole surface via the plasma
membrane.
In Poriferian and Cnidarians all the cells of both the layers are in contact with
the water so each cell is able to exchange gases. Free living platyhelminthes
acquire oxygen by means of diffusion through their body surface. This is
facilitated by the flatness of the body which increases the surface area to volume
ratio. Annelids possess a blood vascular system which contains the as gas
carrying pigment haemoglobin. The oxygen diffuses through the body surface into
the blood circulating under the skin, where it combines with the haemoglobin and
is carried to all the parts of the body. The carbon dioxide is brought back by the
blood diffuses out.
Molluscs, arthropods, echinoderms and vertebrates have developed
respiratory organs through which gaseous exchange takes place. These
respiratory organs are gills, tracheal tubes, book lungs and the true lungs.
Gills:
Gills are respiratory organs of aquatic animals, which are in direct contact with
the surrounding water. They exhibit a great variety of form but basically they
share the same fundamental structure. Each gill has a number of membranous
folds called lamellae, which are richly supplied with blood capillaries.
Deoxygenated blood circulates through the gill capillaries, where gaseous
exchange takes place:
Fig: 10.5 Gills
The oxygen of the surrounding water which enters through mouth and bathes the
gills diffuses into blood and carbon dioxide of the blood diffuses out. The
respiratory pigments help in diffusion and transport of the gases.
Tracheal tubes:
The Tracheal tubes are found in terrestrial insects, which form a network of
ramifying troubles through out the body forming a tracheal system. It allows
gaseous oxygen to diffuse in from the outside air directly to the tissues without
the need of transportation by blood. This is much faster than diffusion of
dissolved oxygen through the tissues and permits high metabolic rates.
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Biology
A number of paired holes called spiracles are present on the sides of thoracic
and abdominal segments which lead air into branched tubes called tracheae.
Each tracheae has a chitinous cuticle lining which prevents it from collapsing. In
each segment the tracheae branch into numerous smaller tubes called
Tracheoles which ramify among the body tissues ending blindly. Tracheoles lack
a chitinous lining. At rest the tracheoles are filled with watery fluid through which
gaseous exchange takes place in dissolved state.
Since the O2 is transported directly to the body cells,
insects blood is white lacking hemoglobin.
Fig 10.6 Tracheal system of grasshoper
Book lungs:
Book lungs are pulmonary sacs found in terrestrial arthropods like scorpion and
spiders. Each book lung consists of a compressed sac like cavity having numerous
folds or lamellae which are attached to the inner side of the chamber and are
arranged like the leaves of a book. Each lamellae is hollow where the blood flows,
while the inter lamellar spaces are filled with the air, so that gaseous exchange
takes place through the thin walls of the lamellae.
Fig 10.7 Book Lungs
Lungs:
Lungs are the most advanced type of respiratory organs found in terrestrial
animals and in those aquatic animals which breathe through the air. These are
amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. The amphibians (frogs) have a pair of
hollow sac like simple elastic lungs which hang into the abdominal cavity, Their
inner surface is greatly folded, moistened with mucus and richly supplied with
blood capillaries. Leading from each lung is a short tube the bronchus. The two
bronchi join to form the trachea which opens into the pharynx. The ventilation
takes place by the up and down movement of the floor of buccal cavity.
The reptiles have more complex internal foldings of the lungs. Ventilation occurs
by the movement of the ribs. Birds lungs are small compact inelastic structures
composed of numerous branching air tubes called bronchioles. Extending from
bronchioles are large thin-walled air-sacs.
The mammalian lungs though elastic are build on the same plan as of birds. They
are remarkably efficient structures which fulfil the function of gaseous exchange
with minimum water and heat loss.
10.6 HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The human breathing system consists of a pair of lungs and established system of
tubes for intake and removal of air through the nose.
The Lungs are situated in the thorax, in a rib cage, the walls of which are formed
by the ribs attached ventrally to the sternum and dorsally to the vertebral
column, which intercostal muscles in between. The floor is made up by the
diaphragm.
Air is drawn into the lungs from nose, through a pair of nostrils into the nasal
sacs. The nose and mouth are separated by the palate so that one can breathe
through nose even when eating. The inside of the nasal cavity is moist and warm.
It has mucus producing ciliated lining and numerous blood vessels close to the
surface. The air is moistened and its temperature is adjusted as it passes over
these surfaces. At the same time it is also cleaned, as the dust particles and
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Biology
germs get stuck in the mucus and are propelled toward the pharynx by the cilia
where they are swallowed or coughed out.
The air the passes into a long wind pipe, the trachea about 12cm long. Its upper
part is called larynx or vice box which contains vocal cords. The opening of the
larynx is called glottis having a cartilaginous flap like structure epiglottis which
closes the glottis during swallowing of food and water. The walls of trachea are
supported by incomplete rings of cartilages which keep it open all the time.
Fig 10.8 The human gaseous exchange system
The trachea branches into two bronchi which have almost the same structure as
that of the trachea bur are smaller in diameter. Each bronchus enters a lung,
where it splits and respilts into numerous branches. These branches are called
bronchioles
At the end of each bronshiole a bunch of tiny air sacs or alveoli, where the
gaseous exchange takes place between air and the blood. The walls of the alveoli
make the respiratory surface which is surrounded by the blood capillaries. Oxygen
diffuses out into the blood and carbon dioxide from the blood difuse into the
alveoli.
10.6.1 Ventilation:
Ventilation means movement of air in and out. Breathing, one step of respiration,
is often called ventilation. Breathing which takes by the movement of the chest,
can be divided into two steps inspiration and expiration.
Inspiration or inhalation is the taking in of air into the lungs.
Expiration or exhalation is the forcing of air out of the lungs.
Ventilation is brought about by alternate contraction and expansion of the
thoracic cavity. This is brought about by two set of muscles the external and
internal, intercostal muscles and the diaphragm, which is a large sheet of muscle.
When breathing in (inspiration) the muscles of the diaphragm contract, this pulls
the diaphragm downward making it flat. At the same time the external intercostal
muscles contract. This pulls the rib cage upwards and outwards. Together these
movements increase the volume of the thorax. As a result, the pressure insite it
falls and the air rushes in to fill and expand the lungs.
Fig 10.9 Ventilation
When breathing out (expiration) the muscles of the diaphragm relax, so that it
springs back up into its dome shape. At the same time the external intercostal
muscles relax and the rib cage of drop down again into its normal position. This
decreases the volume of the thorax and increases the pressure inside so the air is
squeezed out.
The internal intercostal muscles are used when breathe more forcefully like coughing.
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Oxygen
Inhaled
21%
Exhaled
16%
Carbon dioxide
0.04%
4%
Nitrogen
Water vapours
78%
Variable
78%
High
Temperature
Variable
Warm
Reason of difference
Oxygen is absorbed into the blood across
gaseous exchange surface.
Carbon dioxide brought by the blood is
released across the gaseous exchange
surface.
Nitrogen gas is not used by the cells.
Water evaporates and is lost as air
breathed out.
Usually Air is warmed which it passes
through the respiratory passage.
As the exhaled air contains 16% of oxygen mouth to mouth breathing is possible in case of
emergency.
10.6.3 Effect of exercise on the rate and depth of breathing and its
relation to energy requirements:
Some times, as in case of a continuous exercise, muscle cells may need a lot of
oxygen very quickly, for which we breathe deeper and faster to inhale more
oxygen. Our heart beat and blood circulation become faster. Eventually a limit is
reached. The heart and lungs cannot supply oxygen to the muscles any faster.
But more energy is still needed for the movement of the muscles.
This energy debt is met by anaerobic respiration. Some glucose is broken down,
even in the absence of oxygen, producing lactic acid. This does not release much
energy, but a little extra might make all the difference. When we stop the
exercise we have quite a lot lactic acid in our muscles and blood. The deposition
of lactic acid makes the muscles fatigue and one feels tired. This lactic acid must
be broken down by combining it with oxygen. The amount of oxygen needed to
remove this lactic acid from the muscles is called the oxygen debt. For this
purpose we breathe deeper and deeper to pay the oxygen debt.
10.7
DISORDERS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
ASSOCIATED WITH CIGARETTE SOMOKING
AND
HEALTH
RISH
According to World Health Organization (WHO) smoking could become the worlds
biggest killer by the year 2020, causing more deaths than any other diseases.
10.7.1 Smoking
Smoking affects the lungs. Heavy smoking can also damage the heart and blood
vessels. Non-smokers are also affected if they spend much time in a room with
people who are smoking. Cigarette smoke contains three main ingredients. These
are nicotine, tar and carbon mono-oxide. Each of these has its own effects on
the body.
Nicotine is addictive. Once the body gets used to it, it is very hard to do without
it. It increases the heart beat and blood pressure and causes heart diseases. Tar
increases the chances of getting lung cancer. Where as carbon mono-oxide is
poisonous.
10.7.2 Bronchitis
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SUMMARY
Respiration is a process that liberates chemical energy stored in the organic
molecules.
Some of the energy is stored in the form of ATPs, the rest escapes as heat
energy.
Cellular respiration takes place within the cells.
Aerobic respiration takes place in the presence of free oxygen, releasing
maximum energy.
Anaerobic respiration occurs without oxygen producing less energy.
Respiration is a catabolic exothermic reaction where as photosynthesis is an
anabolic endothermic reaction.
Fermentation is the anaerobic respiration, resulting in the formation of
alcohol or lactic acid.
Most of the gaseous exchange in plants takes place through leaves either
directly or through stomata.
Animals have a variety of ways for gaseous exchange some respire through
body surface, some have respiratory organs like gills, tracheal tubes, book
lings and lungs.
Human breathing system consists of a pair of lungs and the associated
tubes. The gaseous exchange takes place within the alveoli.
Bronchitis may be caused by smoking, tuberculosis is caused by a
bacterium.
Lung cancer is an abnormal growth of the lung tissue.
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Biology
4.
5.
6.
7.
a) It liberates energy
b) It provides oxygen to plants
c) It liberates carbon dioxide d)All of the above
iii)
The end-products of respiration in plants are
b) Starch and O2
a) CO2, H2O and energy
c) Sugar and O2
d) H2O and energy
iv)
Alcohol is produced during the process of
a) Aerobic respiration
b) Anaerobic respiration
c) Photosynthesis
d) None of them
v)
In animals the product of anaerobic respiration is
a) Uric acid
b) Uracil
c) Lactic acid
d) Pyruvic acid.
vi)
Plants gain weight due to
a) Respiration
b) Photosynthesis
c) Transpiration
d) None of the above
vii)
The respiratory organs of insects are
a) Flame cells
b) Malpighian tubules
c) Tracheae
d) Lungs
viii)
The intake of O2 and release of CO2 by blood passing through the
capillaries of the alveoli are brought by
a) Diffusion
b) Osmosis
c) Active transport
d) None of them
ix)
Tuberculosis is causes by
a) Virus
b) Bacteria
c) Worm
d) None of the above
x)
Cigarette smoke contains
a) Nicotine
b) Tar
c) CO
d) All of them
Write detailed answers of the following questions:
i)
Describe the breathing system of man.
ii)
Describe the respiratory organs of insects and molluscs.
iii)
How does gaseous exchange take place in plants?
iv)
What are the disorders of respiratory system? How is health risk
associated with cigarette smoking?
v)
What is cellular respiration? Explain its types with the help of
chemical equation.
vi)
Prove that respiration is a catabolic process and photosynthesis is
an anabolic process.
vii)
Explain inspiration and expiration. Compare the composition of
inhaled and exhaled air.
Write short answers of the following questions:
i)
What are ADP and ATP? What is their importance?
ii)
What is the importance of anaerobic respiration?
iii)
Why do people have to breathe deeply after vigorous exercise?
iv)
Trace the path of exchange from air to alveoli of man.
v)
What are the characteristics of a respiratory surface?
Define the following terms:
i)
Cellular respiration
ii)
ATP and ADP
iii)
Fermentation
iv)
Photosynthesis
v)
Bronchitis
Distinguish between the following:
i)
Aerobic and anaerobic respiration
ii)
Respiration and Photosynthesis
iii)
Breathing and Cellular respiration
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iv)
v)
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