CRITICAL
HISTORY
PHILOSOPHICAL
THEORIES
AARON
SCHUYLER
G.
RICHARD
THE
GORHAM
BOSTON
BADGER
PRESS
OF
H^
"
t
c
r
The
Gorham
c
I
Press,Boston, U,
"0I.A351925
S, A.
PREFACE
result
is the
Philosophy
obtained
by
the
of
employment
principlesthat
reason
schools, in order
of the various
their truth,
confirm
relations
of the
different
the occasions
systems, the conflict of their principles,
of their
to
expose
their
and
to test
and
appearance,
To
understand
of the
the
reasons
systems,
the
for their
the
trace
of their
development.
principlesmaintained
by
the order
various
is to
to
errors,
conflict
schools, the
theories,and the connection
understand
philosophy
itself.
philosophers
principles,
of the various
The
nal
phenome-
world and
product
the human
mind; philosophy deals with both.
Uncritical
the sole reality.
as
thought accepts appearance
Science classifies phenomena
and determines
their laws, while
philosophy attempts to find a rational explanation of phenomena
facts of experience. That
of
treats
is. Science
as
phenomena and their laws, while philosophy seeks for causes
and the rational explanation of phenomena.
Nothing can be
more
interestingor more
stimulating to thought than the
study of the relations of philosophy and science.
It will be found
that no
system of philosophy is without
be only a crude
merit, though it may
some
beginning, or a
of exone-sided attempt to give an
of the mystery
account
istence.
Broad
views
are
requisite,if we wish to avoid the
of all partialor incomplete systems.
errors
As the mission of philosophy is to give a rational explanation
of the phenomenal, it cannot,
therefore, disregard the facts of
stillbe
and
true to its calling. On the other hand,
experience,
to deal exclusivelywith phenomena,
discarding the necessary
don
principleswhich afford their rational explanation, is to abanthe guide of reason,
it into transformed
to resolve
sation.
senor
world
Herein
exists
of two
the
of their
is the
is revealed
between
the
the
factors
chief
empirical
the external
"
conflict
and
in
philosophy,
rational
schools.
as
it
To
PREFACE
discard
that
is to
their
doomed
the
of
which
miss
to
and
combination
of
is
one-sided
is
course
is
sight
principles
necessary
Either
of
lose
is to
facts
neglect
failure.
to
to
explanation.
true
methods
two
explained;
be
osophy
phil-
True
^the
observation
"
their
and
phenomena,
explanation
the
by
aid
rational
of
principles.
is
study
No
the
in
will
the
course
of
temper
distinction
of
of
such
sense
great
master,
philosophy,
will
he
his
Philosophy
rather
the
in
nor
The
reward.
with
accords
love
of
of
benefit
because
will
of
is
philosopher
that
investigations
is
will
spirit,
his
of
view
re-
falsity
or
reader
the
partisan
fail
not
ideas
and
that
but
but
agreement,
of
nor
confer
in
pass
truth
If
and
theories
the
biased
un-
mankind.
attitude
proper
their
in
will
he
the
will
examined.
things
of
and
neither
controversy,
of
theories
treatise,
candidly
between
good
The
this
and
that
These
investigations,
these
study
of
critically
be
than
philosophers.
of
speculations
interesting
more
wisdom.
an
on
of
advocate
an
that
not
independent
thinkers,
other
of
receive
divergence,
a
more
of
disciple
school
certain
thinker,
because
not
and
hearty
and
on
that
welcome.
as
of
count
ac-
CONTENTS
Chapter
PAGE
I.
The
Milesian
II.
The
Eleatic
III.
IV.
School
School
Heraclitus
and
Empedocles,
18
Pythagoras
18
Atomists.
the
Anaxagoras,
^3
...
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
The
32
Sophists
Socrates
Immediate
and
Successors
42
Plato
53
Aristotle
63
The
Skepticism
in
Eclecticism,
Stoic
and
Epicurean
Schools.
71
Philosophy
82
Neo-Platonism,
Gnosticism.
96
.
XII.
Patristic
Philosophy.
107
.
XIII.
Scholastic
Philosophy
XIV.
Scholastic
Philosophy"
XV.
Transition
to
Modem
XVI.
Modern
Philosophy
XVII.
Modern
Modern
XVIII.
XIX.
XX.
XXI.
XXII.
117
Period
Second
127
Philosophy
142
158
Philosophy"
Metaphysical
172
Philosophy"
Enghsh
188
and
"
Hume
208
Kant
227
Fichte,
Jacobi,
Schelling
250
Hegel
267
Herbart,
XXIV.
Reid,
XXVI.
Period
Cartesian
Berkeley
XXIII.
XXV.
First
"
Hartmann
Schopenhauer,
Stewart,
Hamilton,
293
Brown
Ferrier,
Associational
280
and
McCosh.
Empirical
304
Philosophy.
321
.
XXVII.
Associational
and
Empirical
Philosophy,
(continued)
XXVIII.
XXIX.
XXX.
XXXI.
French
Later
339
Enlightenment
Reaction,
Eclecticism,
German
Philosophy
Philosophy
351
Positivism
367
Philosophy
of
Evolution
383
402
CRITICAL
HISTORY
OF
PHILOSOPHICAL
THEORIES
CRITICAL
HISTORY
PHILOSOPHICAL
THEORIES
CHAPTER
Milesian
The
Milesian
OF
School
its name
from
of Philosophy received
Miletus, the city of its chief philosophers Thales, Anaxiand Anaximines.
The
mander
Ionic Philosophy is often
term
is too generic
applied to the Milesian School; but this term
The
School
"
as
it would
include
that
from
species
of
therefore,
of the
head
philosophy
of the
same
Tlie^term
genus.
Milesian
the
two
School
are
is,
is needed.
of the
is distinct
which
School, though
Milesian
specificallywhat
of Heraclitus,
Thales
1.
Greek
the
the
the
the
at
first
first
the
seven
wise
men
of
curred,
ecUpse which ocaccording to the Julian calendar. May 28, 585 B. C.
The
probability,however, is that he only explained the cause
of the eclipse after its occurrence.
As
civil engineer, he
a
of the river Halys,
superintended the changing of the course
in that he
His politicalinfluence is seen
by order of Croesus.
the Milesians
dissuaded
from
with Croesus
allyingthemselves
against Cyrus.
In opposition to the poets who
explained the phenomena
of the world
by the intervention of mythical divinities,Thales
itself. He
sought for the principleof things in nature
was,
the ultimately
therefore, a natural
philosopher. He found
real, the principleof the universe, in water, which he supposed
with
The
life and
motion.
to be endowed
important part
which
of nature,
water
no
evidently plays in the economy
that
Thales
predicted
the
solar
first principle
him
in this opinion. The
doubt, confirmed
which all things are generated.
V ^PXVf is that from
It is not
probable,
as
Thales
was
PHILOSOPHICAL
10
THEORIES
Oceanus
to
based
the observation
of facts; but that water
on
theory was
is the principleof things, that it is the living and life-giving
ening
principle,affordingby its motions, its modifications, its thickand
less
thinning, a satisfactoryexplanation of the countfor a moment,
be enterof nature, cannot,
tained,
phenomena
though it plays no unimportant part.
the theory of Thales
then can
be regarded as philoHow
sophical?
Not
because
it gave
a true
nomena
explanation of the pheof nature,
but because
in discarding
of its right methods,
the mythical, and
in seeking a natural explanation
of things,and because
of its aim in attempting to reduce
tiplicity
multo unity and
complexity to simplicity. The spirit
is truly philosophical;for philosophy
of the theory of Thales
of reason
mental
in the discovery of those fundais the employment
which give unity and harmony to thought.
principles
of phenomena
and
It goes back
to their conditions
cause.
Science classifies phenomena,
and defines the classes,
names
and
discovers
phenomena
2.
verifies the
and
laws
according to
which
the
occur.
lived
^Anaximander
(610-547.)
Anaximander
"
at
letus,
Mi-
with
contemporary
was
He
and
since any
definite
conceiving
that
mander
requires explanation, Anaxiitself
ground of all things must
form
the
be without
ri
to
be
TO
dpxy, the
aTreipav,
indeterminate.
unbounded
even
permittingthe
opposite forms,
origin,first principle,or
the
The
space,
thus
essence
of
aration
sepsumed
as-
things
unbounded,
or
be
however,
pure
infinite, unlimited,
r6
which
aweipov
cannot
cannot,
be the originof any
thing; it
held
apxVy
to
be
or
original
formless
essence,
matter,
as
Anaximander
distinct
from
probably
particular
11
indeterminate, unbounded
be
It must
of matter.
kinds
SCHOOL
MILESIAN
THE
stance,
sub-
and
eternal, not
original,uncreated
hausted
exTo assume
it
in the production of the universe.
would
be to assume
the
produced by something back of itself,
is a contradiction.
not the first,which
first principle
this first principle to be
that if we
It is evident
assume
with intelligence
and endowed
and
instead of matter,
spirit,
a7r"ipov,
TO
have
will,we
God
the
of Theism.
held that
Anaximander
thousand
t6
one
of
Spinoza,
Milesian
Philosophers.
was
He
on,
which
the
of Kant
most
for
sought
condition,
and
over
is the
he
over
alent
equiv-
called Deus
anticipated,by
apxv
hypothesis
thinker, Anaximander
so
Anaximander,
of the
evolution
the nebular
years,
of
airtipov,
substance
The
vel Natura.
As
or
apxVf
its course,
run
nebular
it will
The
has
the
and
two
La
Place.
profound
of the
foundation
of
itself without
foundation, and therefore
was
things, which
and eternal.
It is evident that something, other than
original
be originaland eternal, otherwise
and time, must
there
space
would have been any other reality,
and time
save
never
space
themselves.
3.
(588-524.) Anaximines
Anaximines
rejectedwater, the
"
determinate, also to
principle of Thales, as too
aTrupav,
the principleof Anaximander
too
indeterminate, and asas
sumed
air as the first principle. His system may,
therefore,
be regarded as
the
compromise between
a
philosophy of
Thales
and
that
Anaximines
by
condensation
of Anaximander.
held
that
by
be
such
a
air.
words
as
^vxv^
thesis of Thales
thus
combined
and
rocks, metals.
of mind
irvevfrn.
the
fire, and
The
or
or
He
sidered
con-
indicated
spirit,
as
earth
he
believed
depth, floatingon
antitheses
in the
to
the
of Anaximander
If water
synthesisof Anaximines.
is too definite,air is so too, only perhaps, in a less degree.
4.
lesian,
Diogenes of Apollonia (478-428.) Though not a Mito residence, Diogenes accepted Air, the principle
as
of Anaximines, as the first principle,
and held it to be intelligent;
but this is implicitin the view of Anaximines, that air
were
"
PHILOSOPHICAL
12
is
the
of
substance
air,
to
of
theory
of
continued
Remarks
its
be
can
regarded
as
need
it
was
did.
Mind
The
to
Its
of
point
principle
beginning
which
no
reason
4.
It
it
well
have
would
best
is
to
has
and
great
principle,
material,
explain
truly
suppose
interest
which
it
did,
afterwards
to
the
it
as
the
left
or
later,
phenomena.
philosophical
that
NoOs,
decided
be
to
ground,
assumed
spirit
minate,
deter-
too
are
higher
assume
as
Neither
Anaximines,'
of
The
on
Anaxagoras
one
physical,
2.
they
for.
to
matter
phenomena
was
that
for
rests
philosophy
is
air,
accounted
as
Milesian
of
departure
principle;
might
The
philosophers.
nor
necessary
He
Milesian
principle.
philosophy.
explanation
first
be
between
there
though
first
later
ism
Spiritual-
1.
mythical
Thales,
the
Spirit,
or
alternative
according
of
to
not
Anaximander
8.
the
see
School,
Anaximander,
airupav,
though
the
first
between
day,
natural
were
principle
of
is
the
philosophers
and
that
the
we
present
Milesian
natural.
the
of
the
water,
the
discarded
favor
and
the
to
on
philosophy
in
Here
things.
the
with
is
spirit,
or
gence
intelli-
Materialism.
and
5.
Novs,
other
of
assignment
conflicts
substance,
that
all
of
The
spirit.
or
Anaxagoras,
conflict
mind
material
originator
or
THEORIES
found
in
the
beginning
aim,
real
of
CHAPTER
Eleatic
The
ides, and
Parmen-
Xenophanes,
were
Samos
of
Melissus
Zeno.
School
of this school
philosophers
The
II
was
adherent
an
and
original philosopher.
the founder
1.
(circ.5721-480.) Xenophanes,
Xenophanes
of Colophon,
native
of the Eleatic
city of
a
a
philosophy, was
school, though
of this
supporter
not
an
"
in
Ionia,
Minor.
Asia
In
of
consequence
the
Persian
quest
con-
left Colophon,
and
traveled
Xenophanes
as
a
rhapsodist through the cities of Greece, and finally
Elea
this
Italy. From
Elea, a city in Southern
of Ionia,
poet and
in
settled
derived
philosophy
held
Xenophanes
school
of
and
gods
that
its
is
"there
God
one
mortals
resembling
men,
name.
in
as
in the
faults, and
ridicule
of
would
make
would
make
likeness
this
view:
other
of their
not
eyes
not
was
gods
black
and
red
for
he
said, in
paint, they
likeness
He
and
hair.
resented
rep-
human
by
like oxen."
gods
were
He
could
in their
Atheist,
an
Hesiod,
lions
oxen
their
blue
prevailing
popular
characterized
and
in
nor
in
who
immoralities.
oxen
make
"Ethiopians
Thracians
give them
Xenophanes
was
he
base
like horses,
them
God;
"If
and
and
men,
of
pictures
the
fact:
supreme
of
guilty
were
of Homer
poetry
form
the
mind."
mythology,
among
supreme
neither
^horses
"
said, in
snub-nosed;
"
speaks
of the
one
the
so-called
He
Pantheist, since he
gods, mythical.
was
a
denied
the plurality of gods, and
affirmed
that the universe,
the phenomenal
universe
essential
but the unchangeable,
not
universe,
of
is itself the
exalting the
agility,above
done,
the
when
their
in
boxer, the
above
the
Divine
He
Being.
physical qualities of
intellectual
public assemblies,
and
the
condemned
men,
as
or
public
18
strength
moral
attainments,
victor
in athletic
philosopher
the
benefactor.
seat
tom
cus-
and
as
games,
of honor
is
14
PHILOSOPHICAL
THEORIES
ELEATIC
THE
School.
the Eleatic
which
the
to
became
to
15
mind
the
SCHOOL
mind
of Parmenides,
by reason.
Parmenides, therefore, dwelt
on
truth
necessary
the
distinction
hended
appre-
between
being
The
Truth/'
consists
poem
of two
"
ing
Concern-
the second
''Relatingto Opinion.''
Parmenides
represents himself as going in pursuit of truth
in a chariot drawn
by impetuous horses, symbols of the passions,
escorted by the nymphs of the sun, symbols of the senses.
At length he reaches
the goddess of justice
two
gates where
and truth stood with keys and opened the gates, the one
the
the other to that of darkness.
to the path of light,
entrance
first path is the way
The
of reason
leading to truth, to being,
the constant, the real;the second
path is the way of the senses
leading to falsehood, to not-being,the variable,the unreal, the
non-existent.
It is
fails.
right here that the philosophy of Parmenides
The
real is not necessarilythe unchangeable; it may
be either
of the three angles of a plane
The
variable.
constant
or
sum
of the
two
triangleis the constant
rightangles,while the sum
sides is a variable that may
its
have
the limlength between
any
and infinity;
of the sides,though variable,
but the sum
zero
is no less real than the sum
of the angles though constant.
According to Parmenides, the changeable, the phenomenal
universe
of the
how
it
can
The
the
change?
truth
does
not
exist;but if it has
no
existence,
It is not
is,the
though
its ground and
senses,
finds
senses
not
able.
being, if being is the unchangephenomenal, the appearance
through
permanent,
explanationin
is real
the truth
as
it
appearance;
of
being^the
un-
PHILOSOPHICAL
16
changeable,which
its explanationin
is
THEORIES
apprehended
the
cause,
by
An
reason.
of substantial
energy
event
has
being.
changeable
of the Stoic
the founder
philosophy.
menides
logicianof the Eleatic school, as Parmay
its metaphysician. Parmenides
aflBrmed that
was
fore,
apprehended the unchangeable as the real,and, therebe called the
Zeno
reason
since
two
be
must
contradictories
unreal.
ductio ad absurdum
is
undertook
Zeno
of
method
both
cannot
be true, the
to
prove,
reasoning,that
the
able
changeby the rechangeable
impossible.
To
the
prove
of motion,
impossibility
To
length of
that both
are
Achilles
one
side of
running
he said that
slow-going tortoise.
let us assume
that, on a straight
of Achilles one
furlong,or 40 rods,
and
field containing 10 acres,
square
overtake
the
running
Achilles,
10 times
as
fast
as
there, but
reached
is
that
ahead, and
tortoise is
1/10
second
when
Achilles
has
reached
that
third
the
position,
fore,
infinitum; therethe tortoise;
in finite time, Achilles never
could overtake
but as he does overtake
it,and could actuallypass it,we have
here a contradiction, on the supposition that motion
is real;
hence
1/1000 fur.
motion
is not
ahead
real.
Let
and
us
so
see:
on
ad
CHAPTER
Heraclitus
III
and
Pythagoras
These
be conveniently
treated
philosophers can
chapter.
They are not directly related, though
as
the
founder
1.
Heraclitus
born
was
son,
descendant
embodiment
and
(circ.535-475.)
Ephesus, and
at
system.
Heraclitus,
each
same
stands
"
of noble
was
founder
the
Androclus,
of
hereditary
of
in the
chief
the
son
of
Bly-
He
family.
was
of Ephesus.
His
resigned in favor
magistracy he
of his
himself
brother
devote
the
that
he might
to
younger
study of philosophy, despairing also of accomplishing
thing
anyof the corruptions of the people.
for the state
account
on
Heraclitus
for the opposition to the Eleatic
stands
School,
and
right
therefore
and
The
and
affirmed
the
could
therefore
the
and
the
and
took
we
day
on
reconcile
denied
the
is the
to
attempt
in the
vicissitudes
the
denied
the
the
unceasing
of
as
rocks,
internal
able,
changefor
able.
unchangepermanent
permanent,
change,
and
summer
denied.
non-existent.
the
reconcile
firmed,
af-
took
They
and
permanent
not-heing,
He
changeable.
for his principle Becoming,
in nature,
Eleatics
the
permanent,
changeable
Eleatics
the
changeable.
the
that
Heraclitus
permanent,
never
which
therefore
see
and
did
which
permanent,
changeable,
not
principle Being,
They called the
Neither
as
the
denied
Eleatics
their
to
such
winter,
change is
Things
activities
ing
goparently
ap-
which
cease.
therefore
Becoming, the principle of Heraclitus, seems
more
than
to
perfectly to represent the universe, as it appears
us,
is
however,
Being, the principle of the Eleatics.
Becoming,
known
ness,
and
by consciousempirically, through the senses,
is not
and
of all
Back
therefore
principle of reason.
a
the First
be something
change there must
Cause,
permanent,
the
First
The
Cause,
origin of the changing.
though essentially
to
us
immutable,
in its
is not
essence,
18
therefore
dormant,
but
ceaseless
by
PYTHAGORAS
AND
HERACLITUS
is carrying forward
energy
19
the universe
to its final
and
Let
so
so
If A
not-B
is not- A
is C, then
tillthe water
on
on.
subject this
us
logic:
and
say:
is (7,and
not-B
and
at
the
and
B
of
process
not- A
is C, and
boils.
Then
thought
is jB,then
since A
little
vigorous
is B; if B
is 5, then
is not-B
is C, and
is freezingand
the water
instant, has
same
to
all intermediate
ing,
boil-
tures
tempera-
The
law
object, at
A, but
of
thought
the
time,
same
conflictives
forbids
and
no
of
thought
forbids
the
cannot
exist in the
affirmation
that
same
is
law
that
us
cubical.
Heraclitus
uttered
many
profound truths,
as:
"A
man's
PHILOSOPHICAL
20
"
"Wisdom
is his fate."
character
should
of wisdom
Lovers
THEORIES
is the
foremost
virtue."
"
know
things.
Many
mythical stories
many
Pythagoras (circ.580-500.)
reliable
clingabout the life of Pythagoras, but from the most
accounts, those given by Philolaus, a Pythagorean and a contemporary
of Socrates, and by Aristotle,and later by Sextus
2.
"
that
learn
Empiricus, we
he
the
was
of
son
Mnesarchus,
in Samos, one
of the
was
engraver.
fertile of the islands of the Aegean Sea.
most
He
born
for twelve
he traveled
an
principaland
At
the age
of
Ionia, Phoenicia,
visiting
settled at Crotona, in Magna
and probably Egypt, and finally
Graecia, or Southern
Italy,where he founded a school of philosophy
He taught mathematics, physics,astronomy,
and
twenty
years,
morals.
According
to
Heraclitus, Pythagoras
of his time.
man
but
stillknown
theorem,
hypotenuse of a
squares of the other
he offered
Gods.
In
it to the rank
discoveries
mathematical
many
introduced
Thales
Pythagoras raised
among
the most
was
geometry
of
into Ionia,
science.
which
learned
He
the
The square
Pythagorean:
righttriangleis equivalentto the sum
as
sides.
hecatomb
In honor
of
oxen
as
of this
a
made
is the celebrated
of the
of the
discovery,it is said,
sacrifice to the
immortal
Pythagoras, or more
probably his
which
taught the theory of a central fire around
successors,
the heavenly bodies includingthe sun
revolved
and the earth.
In his school at Crotona, Pythagoras not only taught mathematics
and astronomy
and philosophy, but inculcated the
importance of seeking for physicaland mental perfection,and
of cultivatingthe art of self-control,
and upgood manners,
right
moral
Silence
meetings
all the
terms
astronomy,
character.
for
one
of the
year
societyand
members.
of
was
Women
equality with
men,
admitted
remarkably
to
his school
advanced
on
step for
that
early age.
Pythagoras
therefore,a social,moral
and
reformer,
political
but the aristocratic character of his society,its secret
methods
and
wide-spread influence, excited suspicion,and
aroused the hostility
of the common
people. The societywas
broken up by a mob, and its members
dispersed. Pythagoras
he
where
went
to Metapontum
spent the rest of his life in
was,
comparative quiet.
HERACLITUS
AND
PYTHAGORAS
21
doctrines
The
''
"
that
It is evident, however,
of
essence
is the
number
ought
groups
If the
same.
be
to
take
Thus
things.
for the
peculiarityof
of
ten
does
horses
number
not
and
is the
anything whatever;
the
The
the
essence
is not
the
two
case.
difference,nor
it affords
nation
expla-
no
essence.
as
Pythagoras regarded number
consistingof two
the one
and the many,
elements, unity and plurality,
and
the
trees.
ten
for the
account
constitute
not
essentiallyalike, which
therefore, does
Number,
number
Take
indefinite.
the
number
Now
ten.
parts
or
the limit
ten
is
one
ten, not
two
as
one.
numbers
standing for
surface
that
the
or
1, 2, 3, 4.
point
triad, 4 for
or
the
monad,
solid
or
decad.
The
Pythagoreans regarded
2 for
tetrad.
Unity
line
or
They
in
duad,
8 for
also
noticed
multiplicity is,
therefore, the key to the Pythagorean philosophy.
The
remarkable
Pythagoreans discovered
properties
many
of numbers.
the strikingrelations subsistingbetween
Thus
14-2+3+4
=10
PHILOSOPHICAL
22
the
three
the
second
of
series
the
1, 2,
discovered
4,
6,
5,
7,
1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11,
odd
Any
natural
and
16,
9,
by
square
number,
by
or
also
minds,
As
What
first
If
have
bers
num-
the
of
square
corresponding
from
corresponding
the
the
product;
natural
any
odd
which
souls,
ber,
num-
number
the
to
word
could
found
taken
in
say,
has
thus
remarkable
as
received.
he
of
that
so,
to
far, worthy
and
when
opinion,
his
the
closed
Ipse
versy.
contro-
taken
be
to
and
man,
authority,
support
said
the
fascinating
veneration
the
from
adopted
evidence.
was
was
metempsychosis,
though
valid
by
worthy
his
he
doctrine,
supported
well
of
doctrine
Pythagoras
we
.n^
100..
as
the
principle.^
we
add
First
Cause
be
of
intelligence,
energy,
to
or
cannot
number
81,
is the
this
is, Pythagoras
Anaximander,
the
of
followers
that
dixit,
these
.n
subtracting
accepted
disciples
his
of
numbers,
Write
multiplying
by
the
but
was
his
Among
square
number.
is not
he
morally
64,
that
philosopher,
any
2,
mysteries;
many
numbers,
19...2n-l
17,
49,
and
transmigration
Orphic
natural
the
them.
10..
9,
15,
36,
square
Pythagoras
8,
13,
adding
preceding
the
third
by
is found
number
is found
next
25,
number
any
the
3,
1, 4,
first
the
numbers,
first
follows
as
the
numbers,
odd
probably
were
THEORIES
or
the
Being
principle
found
Pythagoras.
in
the
of
of
all
change
and
will
the
Eleatics,
things;
of
to
but
the
we
the
Heraclitus,
Infinite
find
may
first
nor
of
ple
princiin
the
IV
CHAPTER
the Atomists
Empedocles, Anaxagoras,
native
of
Empedocles,
a
Empedocles (circ.490-430.)
descendant
of a noble
a
family,
Agrigentum, in Sicily, was
attainments
of imposing personality and varied
and
man
a
a
physician, a philosopher, a prophet, a magician.
1.
"
"
He
won
chariot
as
race,
his
had
father, Meton,
done
before
He
His
love
human,
of distinction
be
to
worshipped
worker, and
a
banquet
the
desire
a
god,
to
currency
that
he
be
to
led
accounted
him
age,
with
cle
mira-
story that
he cast
that
as
on
than
more
to pose
mythical
the
in his old
in order
Etna,
believe
of
as
in his honor,
of Mt.
end, might
blaze
gave
given
crater
and
vocacy
ad-
himself
after
into
knowing his
the gods in a
said, betrayed
people, not
transported to
was
it is
however,
glory.
his secret
sandals.
the fact
But
by casting forth his brazen
that such
human
that he was
and
a
reported shows
story was
he
notoriously vain.
possessed great talents
Undoubtedly
and in moral
be ranked
his vanity, he may
with
character, save
Heraclitus
and
Pythagoras.
The
schools
to the
classing of Empedocles, with reference
of philosophy has given rise to considerable
discussion.
His
"On
in an
Nature"
intermediate
to
seems
place him
poem
He
the
Milesians
and
the Eleatics.
held,
position between
opinions resembling certain other schools, though,
moreover,
shall
he had
as
we
original views of his own.
see,
Instead
of a singleprinciple,as water
air of the Milesians,
or
he assumed
four elements
To
account
fire,air, water, earth.
for change, the four elements
be
moved
supposed to
by
were
the two
love
which
and
forces,
hatred,
Empedocles
probably
The
volcano,
"
regarded
as
attributes
elements.
of the
Love
four
is exhibited
in
elements,
and
not
in attraction,
as
ditional
ad-
concord,
discord,
repulsion,
separation,
dissolution.
23
PHILOSOPHICAL
24
With
THEORIES
the Eleatics,
deliverances
knowledge,
of change,
of the
but
he
elements
in the
not
separation, and
and
themselves, but
in the
in their
bination
com-
of bodies.
movement
elements,
things
a
hot
and
act
cold
powerfully
more
fact, however,
The
mixtures.
on
each
other
more
than
is that
than
like
un-
like, as
hot bodies
two
cold.
two
or
their
or
explained perception by
Empedocles
little
images coming
from
other
result of the
of smell
and
the
eye
meeting
result
the
to
object, the
of the two
from
streams.
the
penetration
of the senses.
His exinto the organs
planation
particlesof matter
the beginning of
of perception, though crude, was
the theory of the knowledge of external objects, and
entitles
Empedocles to be called the first psychologist.
His
most
interestingspeculation, however, relates to the
love combining the fit elements,
originof plants and animals
and
hate separating the unfit unions, leaving the rare
binations
comsensations
taste
of
"
of parts suitable
to
of Darwin's
in illustration
other, somewhat
each
of the
of the
survival
fittest.
theory
of
the transheld
the
migration
Pythagoras, Empedocles
theory
of souls, and with Xenophanes,
he objected to the
anthropomorphic conception of the gods, as presented in the
to be a
popular mythology of the poets. He declared God
without
body or members; but he did not develop
spirit,
pure
With
the
theistic view
of the
cause
of all
it is to
be
an
the Noi)?,or
as
universe,
things by
admitted
philosophy
of God
impulse,
did
Anaxagoras,
of his power.
Empedocles, by his
the
that
as
reason,
and
word
hastened
or
as
or
as
the
cient
effi-
the upholder
Nevertheless,
originality,
gave
its evolution.
THEORIES
PHILOSOPHICAL
26
To
for the
account
gent
Anaxagoras postulatedan intelli-
cosmos,
principle,
vovs, mind,
The
the
mixed
and
future, reduced
mass.
or
vov^
the chaos
to cosmos,
arrangingeverything
originalelements were
The
design according to reason.
tillthe solid earth,
thus separatedand rearranged with fitness,
collected together,
the water, the air,and the fieryether were
all in their proper
places;and organic beings of the vegetable
with life
and animal
produced and endowed
kingdoms were
and mind
According to the Atomaccording to their rank.
of unlike elements,
formed by the combination
was
ists,the cosmos
but according to Anaxagoras by the separation of unlike
of the like,brought about
elements, and the combination
by the action of the vov":.
off from the earth by its rapid rotation,
thrown
Stars were
The
is
and
sun
ignitedby passing through the fieryether.
than
the
and
the
much
stars,
larger
a fiery
shining
moon,
mass,
is
habitable
the
from
borrowed
with light
a
world, having,
sun,
bodies
and
and
of water.
mountains
like the earth,
valleys,
the vovs
transcendent
a
being who
Anaxagoras makes
with
formed
the
from
cosmos
plan, but
mechanical
this he
hypothesis of
and
design in
with
acted
as
to have
and
natural
says:
order
laws; and
nevertheless
predecessors.
openly
maintained
of
the
Now
these
man
said that
which
intelligence
an
preserved his
of his
When
is
universe, this
reason,
know
we
man
in the midst
that
tional
ra-
physicaland
for
praises
an
"
in animals,
arrangement
it to
originalintelligent
cause,
the
and
cosmos
forming
giving to
Aristotle
order.
in nature,
seems
abandon
by Aristotle,who
censured
was
to
design,accordingto
acting according to
causes,
for the
him
then
who
with
chaos
which
it law
there
cause
was
of the
alone
peared
ap-
of the follies
Anaxagoras
first
views."
we
are
saved
confusion.
from
Matter
is substance, mechanically
inert and
with
impenetrable; spiritis substance endowed
a
nd
manifested
in thought, feeling
intellect, sensibility
will,
and
No
volition.
system
cause
of
as
philosophy
an
efficient
explain change
principle.
can
without
tulating
pos-
ANAXAGORAS,
EMPEDOCLES,
In the
inherent
Ionic
school
of matter
property
condensation.
vital
In the
THE
ATOMISTS
force, or life,was
to
assumed
as
account
Eleatic
27
far
school, so
an
or
being, or unas
changeableness, was
only reality,no cause,
active
for its actuality;
account
to
was
principle,
or
required
for apparent changbut even
the Eleatics admitted
some
cause
es.
Becoming, or the continued
change of the Heraclitean
for its explanation. Number
of the
system, requires cause
Pythagorean system, though expressing the proportion of
for change, which,
things, did not account
they admitted,
Earth, air,fire and water, the four elements
requirescause.
acted on by love and hatred, causgiven by Empedocles, were
ing
union
and
Atomists
supposed their
separation. The
and
endowed
with the forces of attraction
atoms
repulsion.
of
mony
the harthe efficient cause
Anaxagoras assumed
vovs
as
and the changes in the universe.
Really, according to
all the schools, cause
is the first principle;it is their common
considered
as
the
essential element.
The
system
it does,
of
two
"
transcendent,
from
without.
more
tenable
in
view
of
immanence
The
and
is consistent
sustainingand controlingthe
the
with
cosmos.
of energy
exerted by the vovs, we
have
2.
The
Atomists.
Leucippus and
"
principalphilosophers of
founder, and
the
the
Democritus,
490(1) lucucippus(circ.
and
atoms.
principles space
"
Atomic
parts.
is
indivisable
an
The
atomic
that bodies
that
of
The
are
made
half
into
into eighths,and
atomic
that
on
points
Monism.
Theistic
Democritus
the
were
Leucippus,
"
or
ad
conceives
the
first
from
out
in all directions, withthe
by
that
can
is the
of atoms.
halves
so
Calling atoms
"
of matter
up
continuity, asserts
halves, each
fourth
theory
action
expositor.
two
) Leucippus assumed
Space by itself,apart
solid, one
its continued
school
is, however,
vovs
body
fourths
The
derivation
not
be
theory
which
serts
as-
theory,
be
divided
of the
whole,
can
into
cut
counter
of
into
each
infinitum.
whatever
the atom,
theory
without
magnitude, as a perfect solid, entirelyfilling,
the volume
enclosed
vacant
or
by its surface.
spaces,
be
its
pores,
This
PHILOSOPHICAL
28
THEORIES
without
regards atoms
as
qualitative diflferences
but as possessingquantitativedifferences of magnitude, form,
These
theories correspond to the
two
order, position,motion.
the arithmetical
of regarding quantity
and
the
two
ways
discontinuous, and the passage
are
geometrical. Numbers
is jper saltum, but a geometrical
number
from one
to another
The
is,
magnitude, as a line, is continuous.
question now
of these conceptions will best explain the constitution
which
also
theory
"
of bodies?
consider four:
we
regard to the limits of divisibility,
may
is
reached
when
limit
have
we
^practical
pulverized a body,
fine
into
it
as
by grinding
parts as possible by any mechanical
The physicallimit is the molecule,
within our
means
power.
In
The
which
chemical
The
body.
divided
be
cannot
limit is zero.
To
without
atom, two
of the molecule.
this take
understand
pores,
changing
limit is the
elements
the ultimate
are
without
which,
however
The
it is nothing.
atom,
is divisible in thought however
otherwise
have
the
the
or
metaphysical
atom
solid matter
as
small, has
small
of which
more
The
though
of the
nature
not
magnitude,
sible,
actuallydivi-
it may
be, since it
whose
some
limit is
zero.
The
are
"
positive and
negative,
the
probable constituent
elements
electrons,
elements
of
matter.
of Abdera, the
(2) Democritus
(circ.
470-380) Democritus
extensive traveler, a
discipleand friend of Leucippus was
an
"
voluminous
time.
writer, and
of the
one
most
learned
of his
men
applied it in
theory
explaining both physical and mental phenomena.
According
ultimate
of
all things
the
to this theory, atoms
are
components
and
themselves
eternal.
uncaused, and therefore
are
They
are
in
He
motion;
necessary
on
elaborated
account
and
hence
eternal.
the
atomic
space,
Atoms
of their minuteness
as
and
the
are
condition
infinite
of
motion,
in number,
being infinitesimal
in
is
but
size,do
ANAXAGORAS,
EMPEDOCLES,
THE
ATOMISTS
29
themselves.
In
rather
than
atoms.
The
earth
meeting
of two
action
the
gases,
attractive.
between
The
the
soul is
atoms
composed
is
pellent
re-
of finer
of
streams
from
effluxes,one
the
eye
towards
In the other
the object,the other from the object to the eye.
perception arises through the sensations caused by the
senses,
of the effluxes with
contact
The
the organs.
brain
is the seat
thought,ascribingto thought
true
knowledge
the
The
sensible
for all
gins
knowledge bewith sensation, and there is nothing, according to Democritus,
to be found in thought, that has not been
ever
acquired
through the senses
by the experience of sensation.
held that the soul is conscious
Democritus
long as the
as
within
soul-atoms
properly combine, in sufficient numbers,
the body, and that sleepfollows as a consequence
of the escape
of many
when
of the soul-atoms
Death
from the body.
occurs
all these atoms
have left the body, and though they still exist,
the personality is broken
up by their separation; that is, the
soul does
drawn
at
not
from
survive
hypothesis of
death, which is by no means
that
the
soul-atoms
equallytenable,
can
in which
the
leave
case
error;
This
death.
the
of
imperfectionof
is
conclusion, however,
separation of
the soul-atoms
body
in
organic
union
survive, and
is
the
THEORIES
PHILOSOPHICAL
30
personality be preserved;
soul is not disproved, even
and
if we
hence
the
grant the
immortahty of the
material hypothesis
of Democritus.
did not accept,
popular gods of mythology, Democritus
lar
yet he supposed that there are beings in the atmosphere simiin knowledge and
but superior to them
to men,
power,
hostile, and that they can
some
cause
friendly and some
left in the body
dreams
by sending effluxes to the soul-atoms
of the sleeper. These
beings,though longer lived than man,
still not immortal, as they gradually lose their soul-atoms;
are
did not know
but that these beings may
but Democritus
quire,
acin being and
well as lose,soul-atoms, and so continue
as
The
be immortal.
hence
Democritus
and
that
secured
held
of desire and
The
doctrines
that
well-ordered
of the
their
Atomists
Metrodorus
life.
transmitted
were
of
who
drew
through
from
the
Chios,
disciples: by
Atomic
philosophy, certain skeptical inferences bearing on
the possibilityof knowledge; by Protagoras, the sophist;by
in his victorious
Anaxarchus, who
accompanied Alexander
osophy
by Nausiphanus who instructed Epicurus in the philcareer;
of Democritus; by Lucretius, the Latin poet, who
cepted
acand forciblypromulgated the doctrines of Democritus
and
Epicurus, and who
rejoiced in deliverance from superstitions
induced through belief in the existence of the gods.
In regard to void
Democritus
disagreed with the
space,
Eleatics,who called it not-being,and asserted its impossibility,
while Democritus
and
affirmed
two
originalrealities,atoms
void space,
of atoms
assertingthat the motion
implied void
between
Of course
them
into which
they could move.
space
void
all subhas
substantial
stances,
no
being, but were
space
whether
finite
matter
spirit,swept from existence, inor
space,
Democritus
of
or
pure
extension, would
advanced
the
theory
remain.
of
perception
and
hence
In
to that of touch.
knowledge by reducing all the senses
sight,the distant object perceived is not in touch with the eye,
but lightfrom
the object,by its vibrations, comes
in contact
with the retina.
In hearing,vibrations
of the air,coming from
distant
strike
of the ear.
the drum
a
object,as a ringing bell,
ANAXAGORAS,
EMPEDOCLES,
In
getting
The
of
the
loss
waves,
to
poetry
the
An
explanation.
sound
of
and
was
not
others,
the
of
by
gain
was
the
to
produced
mocking
science.
31
is
same
true
as
the
nature,
by
voice
of
means
of
by
the
of
seized
were
intervention
phenomena
echo
the
Atomists
the
and
of
superstition
of
and
contact,
Lucretius
explanation
the
natural
of
rid
is
doctrines
The
Epicurus,
by
upon
there
course,
smell.
and
taste
as
of
touch,
ATOMISTS
THE
the
gods,
giving
reflection
of
spirit.
CHAPTER
The
Sophists
to
respect
domestic
that
matters,
in respect
be
aright, and
thoroughly qualified to take
in
the
household
business
of
the
state."
the
man
may
his
manage
by the Sophists.
subjects taught by the Sophists, though varying somewhat
different
the
included
with
teachers,
philosophy, the
lectics,
technical
points of legal practice, and oratory, including dia-
made
The
elocution.
rhetoric, and
for
In
giving
considerable
men
young
instruction
in these
period, gained
flocked
to
their
great
lecture
of their instruction.
advantages
class or
As
teachers, the Sophists constituted
profession,
a
what
not
sect
school, as each one
taught, in his own
a
or
way,
he deemed
but as philosophers, they held to a common
proper;
in the details
of their
principle, though
diflFeringsomewhat
speculations.
A person
steps
overcallinghimself a Sophist, that is,a wise man,
the line of modesty,
and
by claiming too much, naturally
the
Thus
himself
criticism.
to
Sophist, was
name
exposes
and came
to signify a conceited
fellow,
brought into contempt,
unsound
that preferred victory to truth.
an
one
reasoner,
The
been
often
Sophists have
charged with a laxity of morals
rooms
and
to
receive
accused
of
the
corrupting
philosopher Lewes,
and
the
Grote,
32
young
the
men
of
Athens;
historian, have
but
the
vindicated
PHILOSOPHICAL
34
THEORIES
real.
sensation
Whatever
he
alone
as
good
seems
or
bad
the bad
to shun
judge
good
is right,but to
to him
fact
for him
is true,
and
of
experience. Each
own
good or evil. What
bad, and to seek the good
of his
man,
or
its truth,
know
can
has, that
man
any
is
or
seek
the bad
or
shun
to
the
The
assumed
water,
air, as
by
all
indeterminate
its
Here,
as
or
thickening or thinning,
for this
thickeningor
they postulated
cause,
in the criticism of
believe,comes
we
to the lonians
matter,
Protagoras
The
the
do
but
has
no
is therefore
invalid.
You
Eleatics, Protagoras would
say:
existence,and deny change; but
being, permanent
this so-called being, which, as
by sensation know
the
To
is
you
and
what
you
cannot
able,
unchange-
of the
To
dead-heady and
postulate
uni
the
the
verse.
f^
cannot
It is vain
and
preposterous.
the number
three, which
of the collection of
men
call one
you
to one
man,
three, expresses
the
ratio
THE
of
men,
ratio of the
the
or
and
men
the trees
the trees
are
but
cases;
which
their
The
men
numerical
are
tree, the
one
is the
The
in
same
Are
the
trees, neither
the number
three
not
does
sameness,
not
express
same
different
number
to
ratio three
It is clear,therefore,that
men.
expresses
the
To
of trees
identical?
The
the two
are
35
collection
of trees.
SOPHISTS
say:
of
principleof
of the
verse.
uni-
I accept your
ciple
princhange in sensations,
know
you
or
is the
taste,
atoms?
do
not
about
atoms?
or
smell
You
do
know
an
at
ever
you
atom?
know
not
them
Did
How
them
all.
Your
do
see,
or
you
by the senses,
philosophy
hear,
touch,
there
know
and
has
or
no
are
therefore
basis
in
knowledge.
To
Anaxagoras, Protagoras
chaos
of matter
with
all the
would
say:
You
assume
but
intimately mixed;
nothing
objectivething; all you
you
as
an
know
is phenomenal, subjectiveexperiencegained through the
You
senses.
assume
as
an
organizer of your
supposed
vov^,
mixed
the
rendered
which
matter, as the principle or cause
chaos of matter
the cosmos,
do
universe
of order; but what
or
know
of the
you
objective to yourself,as the cause
vovs,
of the cosmos?
I grant
for I am
subjective intelligences;
know
elements
of this matter
PHILOSOPHICAL
36
conscious
which
changing sensations
of
known.
THEORIES
all that
are
be
can
Your
vov";
void, as
the
edge
subject to criticism the assumption that all knowlis derived
through sensation, and the skepticalopinion
held by the majority of philosophers that sense
knowledge is
The
Greek
delusive.
philosophers generally have exaggerated
of
the physiologicaldifferences in the sense
ent
differorgans
Let
us
individuals.
abnormal
are,
the
report
of
different
image
by
true
material
the reverse,
will correct
of touch
but the sense
of sight. Salt looks like sugar, but when
the
by
guests
is the
only
only
for the
valid
also the
man,
all
detects
soon
of the
mistake
The
blunder.
the
of
source
housekeeper,
individual, has
rational
object, or
on
berries,
straw-
taste
of the
put
the
that
assertion
of truth.
mony
the false testi-
all
knowledge, making
individual,is void
false
"
of another.
report
for
be mistaken
may
cases.
average
mutually corrective
are
is corrected
one
visual
senses
in
great differences
of course,
Again
mere
There
knowledge
Man, the
nature,
tion
sensa-
ic
generto
common
men.
Do
truth
not
all who
of the
been
does
understand
theorems
made
gravitation?
for deductions.
not
These
in
of
the
demonstrations
Have
Geometry?
science, such
inductions
as
furnish
the
not
law
the
know
the
tions
large inducof
major
universal
premise
SOPHISTS
THE
37
tions;
simply a bundle of sensais a sensibility;
the parbe better to say man
it would
ticular
gencies,
continand go, and depend on
sensations come
many
the susceptibilityof sensation,
but the sensibility,
bility;
a sensiabides; yet it does not tell the whole truth to call man
and rational
is also a rational being,he has reason,
man
truth.
Philosophy should not overlook
knowledge of necessary
truth.
either contingent facts or necessary
of the moral
What
tendency of sensational philosophy? If
Protagoras assumed
individual
each
the sole
that
is
man
man
judge
of his
truth, will he
own
of the
measure
verse,
uni-
be inclined to
not
That
his own
good is paramount?
ure,
pleasthe
welfare
of society,
his individual
happiness, and not
His
individual pleasures
is the proper
object of his pursuit?
restrictions
of society are
real
the
and pains are
to him;
cial,
artifiand
often
he
tyrannical. Why, then,
arbitrary,
inquires,
should
I not obey the superior ethics of nature, rather than
this choice, he seeks
the inferior ethics of society? Making
for sensational
pleasures,regardless,as is likely,of the rights
or
happiness of his fellow beings. His ethics is Hedonic
in Epifound
Egoism. This tendency, with this result,was
cureanis
his
believe
that
2.
Prodicus
own
"
accredited
the
as
prepare
for
men
young
aim
was
first
as
to
came
of his
of
Athens
he
was
eloquent speaker
an
instruction
in life.
success
native
island, when
known
The
teacher.
He
his native
became
soon
successful
of Ceos.
of
agent
He
man.
young
and
Prodicus
(circ. 465-395.)
He
was
was
to
himself
understood
these
story called
Xenophon's
to
and
The
Choice
citizens.
The
a
noble
effort to achieve
strenuous
of the
to
men
is the
of Hercules,
Memorabiha.
incite young
by
He
terms.
wise
This
and
and
good,
clearlyshows
author
which
may
of this
purpose
ambition
results
for
be
beautiful
found
production
in
is
life of virtue
of the
that
of
PHILOSOPHICAL
38
ist may
leads.
be
Prodicus
better
than
THEORIES
that to which
considered
the
philosophy logically
their
mythic gods
be
to
personifications
existence
both
as
writer
and
as
an
He
orator.
was
He
did
or
doubt
their
question the
good rhetorician,
great service by
as
the
to
"
sent
was
of the
embassy,
to
of the
protectionfor their cityagainst the encroachments
Syracusans.
Having accomplished the object of his mission,
ask
he chose
Athens
and
removed
he
rest
in
of his
in
styleand pompous
In philosophy he was
propositions:
(1) Nothing exists.
be known.
of its existence
these
of the citizens,
(3)
If
cannot
manner.
a
skeptic.
He
maintained
(2) If anything
anything exists and
be communicated.
the
lowing
fol-
exist, it cannot
is known, the fact
does
In his support
of
logicalacumen,
and
filled out
from
If
thus :
fragmentary report, runs
anything
being or not-being,or both being
and not-being. It cannot
be both being and not-being, for
be not-being, for not-being
they are contradictory;it cannot
is the negation of existence; if anything exists, it is therefore
being. Now, if being exists, it is either eternal, or it began
from non-entity
to be ; if it began to be, then it either sprang
into being, or
was
entity
nonproduced; it did not spring from
into being,for non-entity being nothing, cannot
spring;
it was
then produced, and if produced, it was
produced either
of proby being or not-being,but not-being has no power
duction;
therefore
it was
is the
produced by being, which
be the explanafor,and cannot
thing to be accounted
very
a
exists,it is either
SOPHISTS
THE
tion of itself.
Being, therefore,did
39
cause,
no
has
in
fact,excludes
and
is not
cause;
not
for whatever
has
cause
eternal.
beginning
regard to the second proposition,If anything exists,it
be known, Gorgias accepts the principleof Empedocles
cannot
that the knowing subject and the known
be of
object must
like nature,
Eleatic signification
of being, as
the
also the
thus:
If being is known
unchangeable. He then argues
be being, and if thought is
by thought, then thought must
is not true,
being, then everything we think exists,which
a
In
for
we
can
think
of the
existent, which
non-existent, which
is
makes
the
existent
non-
PHILOSOPHICAL
40
THEORIES
if
proposition,that
be
communicated,
of
anything exists
Gorgias urged
discrimination
which
that
valid
between
of Socrates
in the
philosophy
in the logicof Aristotle.
culminated
4. Isocrates (436-338.) Isocrates
ordinary acceptation of the term; he
and
appeared
invalid
and
not
was
and
arguments,
Plato, and
sophist in
greater, and
was
the
wiser,
better.
Like
the
of Greece.
the
Greece.
Had
to
the
which
the
States
all should
States
of Greece
be
of the several
be the
formed
admitted
on
their
Grecian
rulingpower
federal
terms
of
in
ment,
Govern-
equality,
local
in
affairs,and
preserving
autonomy
and
moral
to be
cultivatingintelligence
virtue, there seems
Greece
have
no
reason
why
might not
gained supremacy
in the world, and remained
to this day the dominant
power.
It
was
the
desire
of Isocrates
to
see
the
discordant
States
VI
CHAPTER
Socrates
Socrates
1,
are
addition
these
to
Aristophanes,
him
to
sources,
the
made
comic
by
with
for the
sophists,
the
by
The
of
regime
with
whom
Memorabilia
his
the
he
which
reckoned
Xenophon
was
He
Socrates,
he
what
and
we
was
Plato
agree
rely
Socrates
on
was
Phaenarete,
of
concerning
of him
says
is valuable
from
of Socrates
philosopher,
though he intended
a
there
is
no
but
his
in the
historian
to
present
thinker,
and
his
and
advocate
the
those
of
Socrates
distrust
to
reason
Plato
mony.
testiin
his
of
his
who,
teachings of his
the opinion
to
Plato.
Socrates
When
to
to
Xenophon
or
in assigning a certain
to
Socrates,
opinion
their united
testimony as substantially true.
the
of Sophroniscus,
of
and
son
a
statuary,
it is difficult
that
is due
may
ing
recogniz-
not
is
philosopher, a deep
stands, not
dialogues, Socrates
only as
of
opinions, but also the champion
own
in many
advanced
beyond
respects, had
so
Aristophanes
despised
religion, and
Xenophon
not
was
Plato
advanced
employed
to
apologetic, intended
the unjust reproach
they occurred.
by giving his conversations
as
friend
and
admiring
a
warm
an
disciple of
of
master,
found
was,
he
Clouds.
and
morals
Plato, but
character
enemies,
Socrates.
in
Aristotle
in
of the
he
that
of confirmation.
way
vindicate
no
caricature,
comedy
old
found
not
left
he
artist
for
subject
difference.
Socrates
tion
informa-
consummate
tellingeffect, in the
stood
the
the
fine
of
sources
Aristotle.
Aristophanes,
Socrates
principal
The
(469-399).
respecting Socrates,
MemorabiUa
Xenophon's
Successors
Immediate
and
midwife.
father.
Acropolis
He
A
to
determine
for
draped
the
time
42
the
whether
followed
sometime
group
of
of
the
Pausanius,
the
Graces,
the
fession
proserved
pre-
historian,
A.
D.
160,
considered
was
of their
delivering men
to
latent
be
SUCCESSORS
the
work
thoughts,
43
of Socrates.
he
likened
In
his profession
of his mother.
to that
His
IMMEDIATE
AND
SOCRATES
not
was
appearance
prepossessing. His
low
stature,
in
life,it led
to
an
indifference
to
truth
and
laxityof
fore
utterly distasteful to Socrates, who thereturned
his attention to the study of man,
chieflyin his
He
did
intellectual,moral, social and politicalrelations.
for he asserted
call himself a sophist,a wise man,
his
not
ignorance, but a philosopher, a lover of wisdom, a learner
investigator,he sought
seeking after knowledge. As an
it was
truth wherever
to be found, especiallytruth
ing
pertainscribed
to man.
Socrates, therefore, accepted the precept inthe
know
on
temple at Delphi, yvwOi creavrov,
be
thyself,as the injunction most important to
obeyed, and
the
sentiment:
The
the
first to proclaim
was
study
proper
mankind
is
man,
of
The
Pythian oracle had declared him to be the wisest of
morals, which
was
"
"
all
conscious
of his
oracle, and
various
wondered
Socrates
men.
thus
persons
sophists,and
own
how
ignorance.
confirm
this could
To
test
be, when
the
truth
he
was
of the
his
faith, Socrates
questioned
for
wisdom,
as
reputed
statesmen,
poets,
found
to
them
very
things
PHILOSOPHICAL
44
of which
convince
do
the
made
he
so,
He
then
concluded
was
for he
He
his enemies.
them
oracle
men,
THEORIES
was
this
gave
the
to
to
that
wisest
relish
of
his
to
the
to
from
is evident
what
he
said
the
to
judges,at
his
trial,
as
Apology: "I should tell you, with
reported by
all respect and affection,that I will obey the god rather than
in the
Plato
and
you,
I will
that
persist,until my
exposing your want
questioning you,
and
reproaching
Socrates
opinions
own
he
minds
if
as
in the
teacher
you
not
was
till the
a
defect
they
out
what
the
learner.
The
thing
to
be
true,
neither
into
sense
was
the
cross-
virtue,
and
is remedied."
known
were
he
his
of wisdom
in
pupils,but
of
dying day,
that
was
an
was
was
the
educator, in that, by
latent in the mind
latent, however,
was
of
not
knowledge,
that
his
but
the
error,
was
in condition
to
be
led,
The
apprehend the truth for himself.
then
did not
learner
passively receive the truth, but made
the discovery by his own
thought.
with
the sophists, the principle that
Socrates
accepted,
is the measure
man
of the universe, but differed from them in
to the word
man.
regard to the meaning attached
By man
who
knew
ately
immedithe sophists meant
the individual
man,
his
which
sensations,
are
fleeting,and differ
own
only
in different
Socrates
the generic
but by man,
meant
men;
step
by
step,
to
all
or
man,
men
which
reason,
IMMEDIATE
AND
SOCRATES
is
and
man,
with
therefore, to
other
reach
of the
measure
each
normal
individuals
of the
conclusions
that
As
changing sensations.
common
reason,
far better
45
endowment,
common
SUCCESSORS
universe
has
man
genus,
than
the
in
reason,
it is possible,
will command
general
assent.
things, according to
value
The
the
sophists,are
of these benefits
other
the
benefits
of virtue.
Socrates
benefits, and
there are
rational
satisfactions
that come
the
with the dictates of reason.
Though Socrates makes
the ultimate end of right conduct, yet it is not
that
"
happiness
chiefly
properly
is not
pleasure, which
objectionable,if
restricted to what
is morally lawful, but chiefly the pure
satisfaction resulting
from the discovery or apprehension of
hedonic
of
ment
rectitude,from noble achieve-
heroic
it
effort. Virtue is to be pursued, because
alone gives rational satisfaction,which is the highest happiness,
the ultimate good. To be worthy of happiness is happiness
itself.
or
Since
right;hence
knowledge.
virtue
of
very
that assured
be
can
often
high
somewhat
moral
conduct
remote.
It
is, however,
requiresthe
supremacy
reason.
Socrates
drew
around
him
a
throng of enthusiastic
of the better class of the young
of Athens.
men
ciples
dis-
He
PHILOSOPHICAL
46
one
any
crowd
and
the
willingto
hear
gathered
soon
to
drawn
by
on,
in
entangled
market
him
or
jungle
of
places, and
to
listen to
to
versed
con-
in argument.
engage
the
dispute, or
antagonist, who was
of his defeated
skillful
one
THEORIES
till he
was
after
exposing
truth.
Socrates
showed
the
positive
error,
importance of the classification of objects into genera, species
definitions
and individuals, and taught how
to frame
correct
and
to its genus,
by referringthe object defined
giving its
reasoned
from
characteristic
differential quality. He
or
analogy, also by induction; but he differed from Bacon, a
a
led
Socrates
leader in modern
science, in
and
nature
from
service
The
make
said
of inestimable
method
inductions
your
said interrogate
Bacon
from
study thoughts.
external
make
your
said
study
performed
Both
value.
of Socrates
such
was
as
to
make
enemies; and
though
It
not
common
he
and
said interrogate man,
internal phenomena.
Bacon
Socrates
things.
respects
some
Socrates
phenomena.
inductions
to
on
now
only
was
remains
a
to
summarize:
with
sensibility,
rational
nature,
Socrates
held
that
varying sensations,
and
can
apprehend
man
but
has
also
universal,
SOCRATES
AND
IMMEDIATE
SUCCESSORS
this view
47
of the
it
generic man,
is the measure
of the universe;
can
man
that it is important to
classifythings into genera, species,
and
individuals, to form true concepts of things,and to embody
these
concepts in true definitions;that reasoning by
and analogy reveals the truth; that the
induction, deduction
its ignorance, and
false
mind
relieve itself from
must
see
opinions,before it can form true opinions;that self knowledge
is the most
important knowledge; that vice is the consequence
end
of ignorance, and virtue of knowledge; that the ultimate
is rational happiness; that happiness is secured
by knowing
is
the wrong
and avoiding it,and by knowing and doing what
right; that the right is the rational pursuit of the Ultimate
end; that Ethics is the most
important of all the sciences,
necessary
and
that
the
virtues
to
are
be
exhibited
in the
of life.
practicalconduct
Immediate
2,
it inculcates
Successors
of
Socrates,
These
are
Euclid,
works
the
zealous
famous
discipleof
of Parmenides
versed
in Eleatic
of Socrates, that
on
a
woman,
to
pain
came
of
and
of
Alexandria.
Euclid
By diligentstudy of the
well
Zeno, the Eleatic, he became
Socrates.
ardent a disciple
so
philosophy. He was
of
den,
forbidcitizens
the
Megara were
though
death, to visit Athens, Euclid, disguisedas
to Athens
by night and listened with delight
the conversations
his
mathematician
of Socrates.
After
the death
of Socrates,
the Athenians,
disciples,
through fear of violence from
took refuge with Euclid, for a time, at Megara.
The
foundation
the comof the Megaric philosophy was
bination
of Being, the metaphysical principle
of the Eleatics
with the Good, the moral
Being, the
principleof Socrates.
immutable, identical with the Noi;s of Anaxagoras, or with
"f"p6vrj(TL^,
Good,
wisdom,
Oeos, of Socrates, the
or
one
is
Evil
dyadov, is with Euclid, the only existent.
The
not-being, the non-existent.
Good, then, is identical
with
the God
of Theism,
with
the ultimate
reality whose
existence,as Spencer declares,is of all things the most
certain,
with
that
in
the
of
or
ourselves, which
universe, not
power
works
for righteousness,according to Matthew
Arnold.
"v
TO
PHILOSOPHICAL
48
of
combination
THEORIES
identified,but
not
be
Let
the
by
who
the
vous,
reason,
the
Oeos, the
and
this mystic
union
related
be
can
as
effect.
and
cause
objective goodness,
by the affections of
loved
vice and
renounces
Eleatic
be
hended
appreman,
any
cherishes
divine
of the
the
used
when
ultimate
in refutation.
be advantageously employed,
Analogy and induction may
if regarded as giving only probable conclusions, to be tested
reductio
ad
absurdum
by experience or experiment. The
of reasoning, based
the prinmethod
is a powerful form
on
ciple
that
all truths
no
two
truths
conflict with
can
exist in harmony.
This
is
each
other,
necessary
or
that
principleof
reason.
The
chief followers
of several
the
were
instructor
of Demosthenes
and
the
of
Chronus, who
Aristotle; Diodorus
attempted to
the impossibilityof motion; and Stilpo,famous
for his
opponent
prove
paradoxes,
of Euclid
lectures.
The
of the
character
Megaric philosophers
them
the
fastened
name
wranglers, and
cpwrrtKot,
upon
for
their speculationsdegenerated into trivial sophisms, as
thus : Is one
example the Sorites, or heap, which runs
grain of
three
corn
a
heap.^ No; are two grains? No; are
grains? and
till
the
there
is
is, yes,
so
now
answer
a
heap. Then
on,
the difference between
one
a
grain makes
heap and no heap
at
disputatious
all, which
number
of
is
ridiculous, if
not
a
absurd; but
heap,
that
if it is said,
is still more
no
lous.
ridicu-
PHILOSOPHICAL
50
not
THEORIES
pay;
awakens
in the wrongdoer
of
danger; therefore to secure
peace
to obey the laws.
mind, it is advisable
The
philosophy of Aristippus is, therefore, a combination
of the sophistic and
Socratic
teaching; but considered
as
a
of
Socratic
it
is
the
development
philosophy,
partial,or onesided.
apprehension
The
of
the
the
Cyrenaic philosophy advocated
pursuit of pleasure, is found in Aristippus himself, who did
take happiness as embracing both
sensational
not
pleasure
and rational enjoyment.
inclined
Aristippus was
by nature
the habit of luxurious
he had formed
gence;
indulto pleasure,and
he would, therefore, interjjret
sational
senhappiness to mean
pleasure rather than rational enjoyment; hence the
drift of the Cyrenaic philosophy to seek present momentary
pleasure; for the past is gone, and the future is uncertain.
Aristippus taught philosophy to his daughter. Arete, who
in turn
The
taught it to her son, Aristippus, the younger.
of the Epicurean
the fore-runner
Cyrenaic philosophy was
philosophy.
(3) Antisthenes
(444-371). Antisthenes, the founder of
of the same
the Cynic philosophy, was
the son
of an Athenian
and
name,
why
reason
Thracian
of
stern
After
moral
the
death
He
mother.
became
for
his
took
lessons
in Rhetoric
discipleof Socrates,
independence in thought
a
character.
of Socrates, he
opened
school
to
which
in the gymnasium
admitted
foreignersand half-breeds
were
which
of the sect is supcalled Cynosarges, from
the name
posed
it from
derive
be
to
derived, though some
a
Kuwy,
of the snappish dispositionof the Cynics.
dog, on account
Instead
of making pleasure the object of pursuit, as did
regarded virtue as the only thing
Aristippus,Antisthenes
faction.
effort, since it alone gives rational satisworthy of human
Pleasure
he regarded as something to be despised
is the opposite of the
and avoided.
Hence
the Cynic School
Cyrenaic, though both claimed to be based on the teaching
of Socrates.
made
The
ness
happiexplantion is this: Socrates
the ultimate
end
of action; but happiness is a genus
into two
resolvable
species,sensational pleasure and rational
satisfaction.
pleasure.
Aristippus took the first,sensational
as
IMMEDIATE
AND
SOCRATES
representing
conception
second,
the
took
Antisthenes
Socratic
the
SUCCESSORS
the
of
51
happiness,
rational
and
satisfaction
of
virtue.
yet in him
it
was
be
asceticism
extreme
claimed
Socrates
Though
the
to
countenance
some
no
merit
merit, since he
of Antisthenes.
for his
practised
dress,
that
economy
he
to teach
able
gratuitously.
might
for
virtue
its own
sake, and
Admiring
Antisthenes
had
strength of will and energy
his
carry
of
manner
into
purpose
He
execution.
despising vice,
of character
had
to
literary
some
commended
his
ability, as
writings were
by competent
the
When
asked
state
to
advantage of Philosophy,
judges.
he replied:"Philosophy enables
for
to be company
a
man
himself."
carried
rational
as
satisfaction,
pernicious,as
between
in
matter
the
and
of
debasing
fled
to
The
Sinope.
coinage,
the
Athens.
attracted
by
Diogenes
offered
proper
pleasures
sets
tion
discriminathe
whole
light.
Antisthenes
pleasure is inferior to
of regarding pleasure
extreme
unlawful
do.
can
evil to be avoided.
an
lawful
true
to
we
father
the
son,
the son
Diogenes was
convicted
having been
implicated in the same
from
Reduced
to
affluence
and
Antisthenes,
to
his
as
of
of
act,
and
poverty,
praise of poverty,
a
pupil.
Antis-
PHILOSOPHICAL
52
thenes
repelled
strike.
to
hard
to
up
seemed
Cynics
The
the
gained
as
in
which
tub,
never
and
long
for
when
as
won
and
served
happy
so
not
day,
As
him,
with
is
reply
disciple.
remained
living
staff
your
and
Diogenes
himself,
for
but
The
Diogenes
threatened
staff,
perseverance."
Antisthenes,
lived,
Antisthenes
set
my
received
knotted
"Strike,
replied:
of
Antisthenes
his
raising
conquer
admiration
the
and
him,
Diogenes
enough
THEORIES
as
then
house.
they
were
miserable.
Diogenes
serve
daytime,
he
those
a
going
"What
do
for
sun-shine."
my
what
to
can
do,
liberty,
and
made
he
Sometimes
entered
rich
carpets,
*'Yes/'
said
Plato,
the
greater
him,
me
thian,
Corinhim
his
when
he
gave
match,
Plato,
of
with
trample
sell
children.
his
parlors
stamped,
"Thus
bought
than
more
into
''with
to
asked
was
wealthy
of
out
therefore,
Xeniades,
his
inquired:
"Get
he
pirates,
men,
"
der
Alexan-
and
tub,
of
repeated
was
walking.
his
in
faces
for, replied
replied:
by
"Govern
tutor
and
saying,
in
Athens
the
motion
Diogenes
reply,
found
company,
him
master.
him
unbidden
up
of
into
and
will
following
looking
was
against
captive
this
with
struck
he
reputation
streets
peering
what
you?"
replied:
needs
who
man
torch,
found
Taken
could
he
the
getting
by
him,
visit
to
The
phy.
philoso-
to
gained
sarcasm.
argument
it
nothing
he
through
asked
being
answered
he
him,
his
lighted
Zeno's
When
man.
to
and
met,
of
Going
with
contributed
disgusting,
keenness
specimens:
as
the
the
and
wit,
and
filthy
Though
for
and
ignorant,
was
his
on
pride,''
as
who
dirty
the
pride
taining
enter-
was
feet,
of
on
Plato.
the
"
VII
CHAPTER
Plato
(427-347.)
Plato
of
of
Solon, and
Athens.
changed
shoulders,
at
Having
received
the
of twenty,
age
ten
with
Egypt,
impressed
himself
found
he
years,
opened
their
in
he
of
went
with
for his
of
grove
retired
he
not
was
tinued
con-
he
went
ably
favor-
visited
also
of
of
absence
waiting
he
Cyrene
philosophy
an
became,
where
Cyrene,
to
from
He
the
after
the
was
of his
he
Socrates,
priests, but
the
wisdom.
men
young
school
which
breadth
said, of the
Theodorus;
Athens,
to
thirty tyrants
Aristocles,
death
with
acquainted
Returning
ant
descend-
forehead.
thence
with
with
was
of the
one
was
it is
the
conversed
and
made
After
Megara;
to
Ariston,
education, he
good elementary
of
whom
Socrates
with
disciple
a
mathematics
studied
to
years.
Euclid
Critias,
first,
of his
of
son
account,
on
perhaps
or
of
at
name,
Plato,
to
relative
His
the
Plato,
Italy and
Pythagoras.
about
eight
instruction, and
Acadedemus,
he
beautiful
with
and
trees,
containing a temple suitable
park, adorned
presented to him
place for giving instruction, which
as
a
was
his friends.
Here
he lived, and
gift from
taught, and
as
a
for the greater part of forty years,
in this delightand
wrote,
ful
friends
gathered for instruction
retreat, his disciples and
and
conversation.
In
see
fortieth
the
Mt.
Etna,
and
his
age,
Syracuse at
taking offense
who,
Sicily, chiefly
visited
he
to
went
Dionysius,
tyrant
of
year
the
invitation
the
at
of
to
the
plainness
of
Anniceris
him
sold as a slave.
to be
speech, ordered
him
of Cyrene
his liberty.
bought him, and immediately
gave
Plato
visited
Syracuse in the reign of Dionysius II, hoping to
from
obtain
for a colony in which
he
him
territory sufficient
could
to
practical test, but the
a
put his political theories
Plato's
land
he
was
might
become
not
secured.
reconcile
enemies,
He
visited
Dionysius
but
this
and
mission
53
Syracuse
his
also
third
uncle, Dion,
proved
time
that
who
had
fruitless.
PHILOSOPHICAL
54
Plato
THEORIES
of all of them,
Plato
that
so
we
Parmenides
write
may
-f
Pythagoras
Heraclitus
-f
oras
Anaxag-
+ Socrates.
the
In
Plato
them
When
is introduced,
Socrates
in
may,
The
general, be
taken
form
as
of the
one
represent the
to
largelyobviates
interlocutors, he
views
of Plato.
the
objection raised by
himself
Plato
of giving instruction
against the method
through books, that books can not talkynor answer
questions,
silence
but
in
nor
a
satisfydoubts, nor
objections,
dialogue,
be
and
and
answered,
anticipated
objectionscan
phase
every
of
of the subject presented and discussed.
fertile mind
The
could
do this, so that the dialogue, in his hands, is a
Plato
discussion.
vivid representationof an actual, earnest
into
All of value
in preceding systems
introduced
were
these
of their errors,
and
jected
subdialogues, as well as many
and
to a searching criticism,by arguments,
con,
pro
in the
This is well shown
presented by selected champions.
of the Republic, where
first book
the view
of the sophist,
that justiceis the will of the strongest, or that might makes
right,is presented, with great assurance
by Thrasymachus,
and
dialogue
We
shall
Plato
been
make
present
with
doctrines
critic,who
conclusion,
their
to
can
takes
or
classifythe dialogues of
often
has
subject-matter, which
to
to
results, but shall endeavor
far
the leading doctrines, so
as
positive
accordant
no
method
the
by Socrates.
attempt
no
according
tried
refuted
and
be
more
leaves
found
in the
interest
writings of
in the
it without
discussion
consummate
than
explicit statement.
in the
Our
PLATO
doctrines
deal
with
the
Plato's, rather
than
with
criticisms
56
dates
or
generally accepted as
the
genuineness and
authenticityof documents.
To
to the
return
Republic, whatever
his
of civil government,
presented in the Laws,
theories
are
designed
rather
been
Republic presents
teach
Plato's
politicalviews
mature
more
the
have
may
ethics
an
ideal
than
politics.
are
rulingclasses;
a
and
the health
and
prosperity of the state depends on the
harmonious
co-operation of these classes according to the
functions,
principlesof justice,each class performing its own
and
refrainingfrom encroaching on the rights of the other
of the
virtues
The
classes.
working class are
industry,
and
obedience; the virtue of the soldiers is
temperance,
assist the rulers
and prompt
action, so that they may
courage
and
in maintaining order
repelling invasion; the virtue of
that they may
the rulers is wisdom,
laws,
so
pass wholesome
and justly govern
the state.
According to this analogy, Plato treats of the individual,
liken him
who
has sensations, appetites and
desires, which
government,
civil state
In
the
to
individual
The
corresponding
above
these, he
rulers in the
the
soldiers,and
workmen,
there
workmen.
to
has
to
reason,
the
courage
has
combative
of the
represented by
should
state, who
also
pensities,
pro-
soldiers; and
the
be characterized
wisdom
by
of
tical
prac-
sagacity.
be regarded as
a
polemic against the
Republic may
of virtue.
The
sophistic view
sophist regarded man
as
and
his
and
individual, as sensational,
good as pleasure,
hence
their ethical precept: Get as much
pleasure out of life
"possible;but this precept naturally leads to lawless gratias
fication,
and this was
the tendency of their teaching,though
of the wisest of the sophists recommended
obedience
some
of avoiding trouble; but as the law
to the laws, for the sake
is conventional, be unjust if it will bring you wealth
honor,
or
bility
liaconceal
provided you can
injustice,and so escape
your
the punishment consequent
tion.
detecto the law, and
on
The
On
the
of the
state
other
hand,
is secured
the
subordination
the
rights of
the
Plato
taught that,
through the wisdom
of the
other
other
as
the
of the
prosperity
rulers, and
PHILOSOPHICAL
56
welfare
of the
THEORIES
individual
should direct,
requires that reason
the will enforce, the appetitesand desires submit, all working
together in the healthful harmony of the complete virtues of
and wisdom; and
this organic virtue
temperance,
courage
of justice constitutes
the health
and
the happiness, and
greatest welfare
The
of every
sophist held that
man,
and
the
welfare
of the
state.
when
concealed, would be
injustice,
if
individual, preferableto justice, it brought greater
worldly prosperity;but Plato denies this by affirming that
of the soul, introduces discord,
the symmetry
injusticemars
engenders disease, and destroys its peace; hence no external
for the loss of the
advantage can be a sufficient recompense
virtue of justice. Thus, while injusticecorrupts, disorganizes,
of
degrades, condemns,
destroys, justice gives peace
of rectitude, which
alone
is satismind, the consciousness
factory
rational being. Therefore, justice should
to
be
a
practiced and injusticeavoided by every right-minded man.
It should, however,
that justice is not
be remembered
an
abstraction, but is fair dealing;it has for its end the good of
all concerned.
Not
but to seek
to be satisfied with justice,
masks
to do injustice,
A
is just
a corrupt nature.
just man
because
and
conscience,
justice alone satisfies his reason
him
and
the
the
affording
highest
purest enjoyment, and
because it promotes the welfare of society.
The
doctrine
truly distinctive in the philosophy of Plato
The
science of ideas he
is, however, his theory of ideas.
is a particularfeeling;it is what
calls dialectic. A sensation
it is felt to be, and nothing else; but an
idea is general; it
Meeting with any object
represents any object of a class.
of a known
class, we
instantlyrecognize it, as belonging to
that class,because
it corresponds to our
idea or concept of
that class. In thinking,we go beyond a particularobject,and
think
of other objects like it. These
objects,though each
has individual qualitiesdifferingfrom
qualitiesof the
any
other objectsof the class,have also common
like qualities
or
which
entitle them, and all like them, to be taken
together
characterized
class
the
as
common
a
constituting
by
qualities.
The
of
taken
these
common
qualities,
conception
together,
which
in modern
philosophy is called the concept of the class,
Plato called an idea, and Aristotle the form, as we
shall hereafter
tions.
more
fullyexplain. The idea is expressed in the definito
the
PHILOSOPHICAL
58
The
THEORIES
universal
idea,
without
or
He
crocodile?
has, of
course,
the
innate
power,
in
germ,
when
and
induction.
PLATO
doctrine
Plato's
is not
to
59
of ideas
be confounded
however,
realism,
immediate
have
doctrine that we
knowledge of external
have
material objects. In opposition to Plato's realism, we
a
theories of nominalism
the
holds
that
the
existence; but
of the words
in
and
that
the
concept, exist in
Idea
of the
name
holds
the
common
every
idea
concept
or
may,
nominalism
conceptualism
"
class is the
idea
or
qualities,corresponding
object of the class. The very
concept is that of a mental
without error, be regarded
different ways.
In modern
and
have
been
conceived
as
to
the
ing
mean-
existence.
as
identical
formed
in
mental
a
signifies
picture or
while
formed
the
of
act
a
by
image
imagination
concept is a
logicalconstruction, formed by thought, and has an objective
correlate, a corresponding realityindependent of the
mind.
That the sum
of the three angles of a triangleis equal
to two
mind;
rightanglesis a truth independent of any human
but a knowledge of this truth, when
jective
discovered, is a subfact, the mind's
own
possession.
thought, a mental
The
truth of a triangle,a polygon having three sides and
three angles,is objectiveand is the common
universal, or
or
element
of every
constant
ever
actual or possibletriangle,whatbe the particularor accidental values
of the sides and
angles. The conception or thought of this truth is subjective,
and is the idea or concept of the class triangle. These
illustrations make
the meaning of concept clear.
Though the Platonic idea of concept of the class triangle,
be
involvingonly the essential or universal elements, cannot
represented by the imagination as an image or mental picture,
involving elements, both
yet the idea of a particulartriangle,
the essential and individual,can be represented as an image,
mental
or
think, but cannot
picture. I can
represent, as
idea or mental
the
but
I can
both
an
picture,
man;
genus
think and represent the idea or image of a particular man
whom
The
I have
truth
necessary,
the
the class is
of the
usage,
an
idea
seen.
involved
in ideas
or
holding
or
gether
to-
concept of
BO
PHILOSOPHICAL
If the
idea
also held
the
is innate,
idea
to
be
as
THEORIES
Plato held, it is subjective;but
objective.
How
can
it be
both
he
jective
sub-
mind?
As
it is eternal
necessary,
and
therefore
coeval
with
whose
mind.
bestowed
Is
virtue
upon
them.
That
knowledge?
they are not
of little
strictlyidentical is shown
by the fact that men
of great
virtuous, and that men
knowledge are sometimes
often vicious.
are
knowledge
frequently do
Again men
with
their eyes
fully open to the evil consequences;
wrong
and here is ample knowledge but a lack of wisdom.
Rational
of the
morality, however,
highest type, requires rational
The
science of virtue
knowledge of the Science of Ethics.
be taught.
The
can
subjective virtue, which chooses always
himself.
The
covery
disto do right,is freelysettled by the person
of objective virtue, or what
is right in conduct, is an
be taught.
art that can
Plato
gives the Socratic view that all knowledge is latent
in the mind, and requiresonly to be brought out, which
may
be done
is
The
view
skillful
better
that
the
by
questions.
of discovering truth
is innate, though this power,
power
at first weak, may
be developed and strengthened by exercise.
When
the right steps are
taken
in due order, so as to bring
out
the
identical
evidence.
with
PLATO
the
Euthyphro,
In the
61
raised
questionsare
Does
God
love
it is
holiness
he
did
Socrates
for his
sentence.
seek
not
of life.
manner
charge, he had
the
mitigation
milder punishment,
maintained
After
the
unjust
an
for
the
good
there
are
In the Meno
are
beliefs
referred
no
the
to
they
man,
no
sentence,
instead
of
that he
his
entitled
was
public
have
accusers
eternal
of
pre-existence
go
to
to
benefactor.
will pay
the penalty; but
evil can
befall him, and
sleep,or
unjust judges.
an
reasons
capital
pleading for
proposing a
was
of
as
declares that
he
prytaneum,
for which
a
the
give
to
it
conviction, as
penalty;
boldly claimed
the
at
himself, as
After
but
he
sentence,
act
gain acquittal,but
right,before
of
the
be
to
better
done
that
that
world
its immortality
for these
traditional beliefs;but reasons
in the Phaedo
which, with elaborate
art,
as
given
exhibits profound faith in a future life.
its deep
The
Symposium discourses of love, and shows
significationby the consequences,
as
offspring in natural
love, goodness in moral
love, great deeds in love of fame,
perfectionof character in love of excellence.
The
the discourse
Phaedrus
continues
love, explains
on
the psychology of the soul, asserts
the superiorityof oral
discourse over
written and explainsthe relation of universals
to particulars.
In the Gorgias,the antagonism between
the Socratic and
that
Sophistic views of virtue is elucidated; it is shown
the will of the strongest; that
justiceis not the same
as
pleasure is not identical with the good; that only a life of
philosophicvirtue, not the art taught by sophisticrhetoric,
will avail before the righteousjudge.
are
PHILOSOPHICAL
62
The
continues
Republic
and
character
the
state
justice in the
higher education
discourse
on
and
corruption, to that
Plato's
writings
The
the
in the
and
state
THEORIES
fact is Plato
was
investigator,an
in the
he continued
make
to
acquisition of which
progress
of justice,
life. As
lover
a
a
philosopher, he was
goodness, truth and beauty, and recognized the idea of each
as
an
objective reality,the object of rational knowledge;
but whether
ful,
particularthing is just good, true or beautiany
is a matter
of opinion.
In certain dialogues as Euthydemus,
Philebus, Theatetus,
all manner
of questions
and Parmenides,
Sophist, Statesman
concerning virtue and knowledge, being and not-being, are
need
raised and discussed, the details of which
be given,
not
but they mark
lic
a transition
stage of thought from the Repuball his
to
the Laws.
Plato
shows
that he is
only
not
speculative but
In
thus
the
of truth
cause
be
practical
of government
form
Grecian
of the
and
advanced,
human
promoted.
Ethics, Plato
accepted the
the Cynics.
of the
views, neither
extreme
of
Hedonism
is refuted
by the
Cyrenaics nor
of sensational
unsatisfactory nature
pleasure, and Cynicism
virtue and the higher
between
by the inseparable connection
form
of rational enjoyment.
Plato
held
with
Socrates
different
The
rulers
need
classes
is
virtue
science
that
of
wisdom;
the
virtue of temperance;
soldiers
virtue of justice,which
unites and
the
individual
He
refuted
proper
the
nature
highest good
nature.
soul
as
well
as
the
different
classes
sophists,by showing
is
sensational, but
come
the
from
to
people
all the
of
powers
of the
that
rational, and
conformity
but
virtues.
of the
mass
harmonizes
of the
must
different
of valor; and
that
ethics
not
taught;
be
can
the
with
is identical
people require
of the
virtue
the
that
his
state.
man's
that
his
proper
VIII
CHAPTER
Aristotle
Greek
City
of his
the
on
the
Pella,
near
is often
birth, he
works
on
physician
the
care
of
the
sciences
went
death
his
costly books
Stagira, a
gulf, and
the
place
Strymonic
From
the
Stagirite. He was
learning and authorship
honored
History, and
his
Aristotle
parents,
instructed
After
the
and
studied
which
his
Athens,
of
son
of
as
of Macedon.
who
time.
the
Macedonia.
Natural
King
of
Proxenus,
of the
to
the
and
native
of
the
for
Amyntas,
to
After
of
called
eminent
Medicine
was
side
western
capital city
Nicomachus,
of
Aristotle
(384-322).
Aristotle
death
in
of
all the
and
from
science
enabled
means
to
known
Aristotle
Proxenus,
philosophy
abundant
assigned
was
him
him
to
purchase.
On
the
in search
and
of
with
for
student,
and
After
death
with
Philip,
King
Plato
attentive
an
of
Plato
years.
soon
when
years,
his
son,
and
fifteen
mained
re-
by
of
years
had
antiquity
of
of his
court
appointed
was
then
Alexander,
conqueror
the
his
students.
Minor,
Asia
he
of
Mind
fellow
to
went
in
profound
recognized
and
the
East
Academia,
the
at
listener
Atarneus
greatest
Alexander
When
the
to
school
the
to
the
instructor.
greatest
opened
temple
tutor
his
Plato, Aristotle
three
the
Thus
age.
he
ruler
him
long journey
eager
of
Hermias,
his
joined
twenty
such
as
the
friend
from
him,
about
of his
powers
School,
Plato
light, Aristotle
remained
the
of
return
of
school
at
Lycean
Lyceum.
in
started
on
Athens
Apollo,
Aristotle
his
in
from
career
the
not
was
the
shady
which
his
around
walks
school
appointed
account
Academy,
probably
on
of opinion; but
in his
school,
own
philosophy in his own
develop his own
way.
his pupils in the
shady paths, he conversed
63
Aristotle
of conquest,
the
called
was
to
successor
of
he
gencies
diver-
some
free
v/as
Walking
with
them
to
with
on
THEORIES
PHILOSOPHICAL
64
Thence
he was
philosophy and science.
his
school
of
called the peripatetic
and
philosopher,
philosophy
the PeripateticSchool.
thirteen years, ardently engaged
Here, iVristotle remained
in writing those
in teaching and
which, for
great works
the
of
truths
deep
world
stood
of years,
to the
scientific
truth.
and
philosophic
hundreds
the
as
standards
of
works,
bequeathed his library,including his own
and
chief
his
w
ho
to Theophrastus,
ceeded
sucnephew
disciple,
in the Lyceum,
and
him
who, in turn, bequeathed
Neleus
took
them
to
the
Neleus, a peripatetic scholar.
in Scepsis,Asia Minor, and concealed
collection to his home
from
these writings in a vault to prevent them
being seized
books
of
who
the
for his
was
collecting
King
by
Pergamus,
for 187 years.
lost to the world
royal library,and they were
About
B. C., they were
100
bought by Apellicon, a
years
Aristotle
C,
Sulla,
Roman
taken
Apellicon and
Tyrannion, a friend
Athens.
About
86
Athens, seized the
taking
general,on
libraryof
to
it to Rome.
sent
henceforth
the
vault, many
but
with
of Aristotle
genuine works
forgerieswere
we
the
philosophic
and
true
known,
while
even
in the
doctrines
his
concealed
were
concerned.
not
are
forgeries,the
books
Aristotle
were
quite
were
concealed.
well-
Some
know
of
the
are
only by
by early writers.
tics,
followingare regarded genuine: Topics, Prior AnalyPosterior
Art
of
Refutations,
Analytics, Sophistical
works
quotations made
The
of
of Aristotle.
these
Aristotle's
edition
accepted
scientific works
While
of
have
from
been
lost and
them
Rhetoric, Nichomachean
Physical Discourse, The
Ethics, Politics,Art
Heavens,
Meteorologies,Researches
Generation
about
Animals.
of
Poetry, A
and
tion,
DestrucThe
Soul,
and
the Sensible,
genuineness.
Categories and
are
Interpretation
physics.
Meta-
of doubtful
'
PHILOSOPHICAL
66
philosophers
and
skillful and
cogent
his
Under
to
seems
ad
ah-
also
ployed
em-
mathematicians
and
Plato
were
the
was
systematic
science.
thousand
the
and
exact
an
reasoning, was
stood
reductio
Aristotle, however,
the
treatment,
deductive
All
Socrates
reasoners.
logic
reduce
first to
he
afterwards
was
reasoners.
are
the
employ
surdum
has
systematically to
first
the
be
to
is, of logic,as
of dialectic, that
inventor
self,the
THEORIES
of
it
years.
minds
to many
not
question will,no doubt, occur
: Has
the
Mill
that
John
Stuart
syllogism always involves
proved
t
he
called
the fallacy
principii,
petitio
begging ot the question.f^
With
all due respect to the abilityof Mr.
be
Mill, it may
said, unhesitatingly,that he has proved no such thing. He
takes the followingfor criticism: All men
mortal; Socrates
are
The
is
not
man;
therefore
know
that
men
mortal; and
are
premise. All
is
Socrates
Mill
where
this
is
Socrates
men
that
the
major premise
induction,
do
we
must
is
assume
the
the
for
case
to
examine
class, but
Now
we
suppose
angel; nothing
mortal.
No
say:
follows; but
Gabriel
mortal;
All
is
the
probable induction.
not
conclusion
chance
even
is
have
to
say.
think
All
objects of
conclusion
and
example
is said
to
be
Gabriel.
was
Gabriel
are
is
of Gabriel, when
men
are
stronger than
even
men
reach
is
an
probably
probably
the
we
probably mortal.
major premise,
reached
The
for the
of failure is less.
In many
but
Geometry,
cases,
a
the
major premise
demonstrated
that
the
Now
suppose
truth.
square
triangleis equivalent to
sides.
us
All
to
be
objection can
did
let
major
criticism,
but
the
mortal;
are
all
conclusion,
his
therefore, Gabriel
man;
We
men
the
all the
will make
as
only such a number
the
highly probable. Let us slightly vary
mortal.^
raise the question, is Gabriel
There
and
knew
whose
I
name
an
a man
angel Gabriel,
the
do
question.
probable induction;
have
not
not
affirm
beg
must
If you
know
that
says:
to
able
favorable
most
do
you
be
to
selected
the
mortal,
mortal, you
are
Mill
is mortal.
Socrates
the
I wish
of
sum
to
the
is not
tion,
probable inducit is proved by
Thus,
hypotenuse of a right
of the
know
squares
the
of the
length
other
of the
hy-
ARISTOTLE
sides
67
3 and
are
required hypotenuse A, I
is equivalent to
hypotenuse
the
the
the other
sides; but
the other
/?2
therefore
3^ -f 4^
thus:
reason
the
sides
respectively.
4,
sum
3 and
are
The
of the
any
boat
see
violent
storm;
drowned;
are
I learn
Jones
boat
was
aboard
was
drowned.
I did
know
at
that
have
not
that
all
boat
at
know
to
board
on
that John
John
certain
Jones
was
shore
of
alive.
5.
did
is 5, to
without
as
it left
Jones
not
know
any
fact of
Now
time,
day,
next
he
John
saw
neighboring port;
aboard, is confirmed
was
that
boat
The
friend, that
when
before
half -hour
certain
know
boat
another
on
passenger
wrecked
of
the
testimony
that
suppose
by
the
board
on
reached
none
from
on
squares
Thus,
observation.
and
of
begging of the
that this particularhypotenuse
have
to know
demonstrated
the major premise, which
was
reference to this particularcase.
be established
Again, the major premise may
there
Is
square
respectively,
^5; therefore
question here?
16
ing
Call-
the
met
can
say
boat
all
drowned;
that
was
board
on
John
Jones
that
Jones
that
John
were
were
Jones
drowned;
aboard.
drowned,
was
for I did
is no
There
not
begging
to
even
of the
question here.
To
vindicate
of the
Aristotle, it is necessary
syllogism,that
Others
learn
it involves
no
to
prove
the
validity
fallacy.
by the syllogism;but the
falsityof this assertion.
nothing new
the
examples
given prove
In fact, we
discoveries, that is, learn new
repeatedly,make
One principlewill often give an indefinite
facts,by deduction.
of deductions, as
in the case
of finding the
number
sides are
the other
hypotenuse of a right triangle,when
for offering a
be blamed
not
given. Pythagoras should
hecatomb
in view of his great discovery.
of oxen
Induction
and deduction
are
complementary divisions of
logic. It was
glory enough for Aristotle that he perfected
the theory of deduction.
left
The
was
theory of induction
say
we
above
for the
Aristotle
theory.
moderns,
as
employed
and
not
Mill; yet,
perfect its
PHILOSOPHICAL
68
of
Aristotle's distinction
efficient,and
of
course
matter
or
formal
that
THEORIES
final, has
out
of
corresponding
cause,
no
which
to
of attributes
combination
little influence
material
speculation. The
substance
as
causes
exerted
the
cause
is the
thing
is
idea, form,
in the
which
thing
of
kind
formed;
or
the
on
the
concept, is
identifies
is the
belonging to a certain class; the efficient cause
which
is the purproduces an event; the final cause
energy
pose
which
exists
These
for
end
made.
a
or
was
thing
or
the main
points in Aristotle's Metaphysics.
are
of propositions as
conditional
and
distinction
The
gorical,
catetive
affirmaand particular,
and of categoricalas universal
and
tradictory,
negative, and their opposition as contrary or conit
as
of distribution
laws
the
of
Socrates, Plato
with
which
knowledge
can
be
and
and
held
Aristotle.
that
as
man
Socrates
seeks
identified virtue
his
own
happiness,
secured
man
The
always do
instances, persons
objection to this view is that in many
knowing the right,refuse to do it;under the stress of appetite,
to be
passion or desire, they deliberatelydo what they know
action
It is, however,
true
that the highest moral
wrong.
also be
accord
with
must
must
moral
insight; but there
would
ARISTOTLE
conduct
into
out
could
be made
Solomon:
wise.
be
essential
by right will.
Plato's
analysis of
combative
he
with
reason.
This
wisdom;
but
function
of the
not,
however,
his
will, though
Plato's; it is
to
an
which
reason
he
characteristic
"We
alone
virtue, which
of
happiness
form,
be
is best
man,
in the
hands
of virtue
of
with
recognize the
suflSciently
theory is a noble view of
not
to
be
regarded
life,which
is
his
possesses,
must
is
insight
excellence.
sensation, which
vegetable, nor
virtuous,
determined
that
extension; he
is not
man
be
the
being, sensitive,
did
know
clear
felt
not
why
reason
characteristic
or
goes
did
to
perfectionof moral
theory of Ethics is
the
as
view
he
Aristotle's
rule.
and
objection
saying of
To
right conduct
his view
to
health
the
of
three-fold
little
of the
us
secured
virtue
as
rational, lead
and
identified
man
carried
of wisdom.
wisdom,
virtue
of
practicalvirtue
the
to
with
intellectual
The
the elements
are
principalthing."
to do the right is
right,and
will the
right,to
is to
is the
be
must
edge,
requires knowlknowledge, a willingness
this reminds
it;and
to
"Wisdom
right
Virtue
accurate
virtue
identified
had
the
act.
skill in execution
right,and
If Socrates
executive
by
conduct, but
will and
to do
right,and
the
do
willingnessto
69
question
it should
of man?
totle
Aris-
the
distinguishing
possessed by a
is
by
an
animal,
happiness, in its
rational
gonistic
anta-
as
but
highest
totle
Aris-
satisfaction.
one
as
safelythen define a happy man
whose
accords
with
is
quately
adewho
and
virtue,
activity
perfect
furnished with external goods, not for a casual period
of time, but for a complete or perfectlifetime.
Aristotle attaches
importance to the will as well as to the
Virtue requiresthat the will freelychoose
reason.
according
to the light of reason;
and
in this choice, the mean
is to be
says:
may
"
followed
rather
than
either extreme.
the
extremes,
the
other; generosity
Aristotle
virtue.
means
rashness
makes
By
the
on
is neither
moderation
moderation
self-control,that
one
Thus
true
courage
hand, and
prodigal
avoids
cowardice
on
stingy; hence,
nor
of all
the essence
temperance
Aristotle
evidently
temperance,
or
or
rational
will power
by
which
man
PHILOSOPHICAL
10
keeps himself
the practice
of
this
formed
be
is to
be
taught,
and
in
in the
this
by
only
*'
child
but
Train
be
is
child
that
trained
in
again
in
insists
moral
education;
proper
know,
Aristotle
duty.
is without
Aristotle
respect,
Solomon;
to
of
path
true
virtue.
not
THEORIES
should
is, he
do
to
the
right,
with
agreement
the
on
character;
he
should
a
go."
up
way
he
forms
should
and
habits
Training in the way
right
go
habits
into
and
ter
characcrystallize
good
right
good character,
tends
As
to
attained
be
not
good can
isolation, but only in society, under
of
state
Aristotle
of
animal.
In
already
proceeds
The
chief
from
been
to
his
state
work,
Ethics
government,
Politics.
in
him
by
He
emphasizes
describes
friendship and
man
as
a
political
what
has
treating of politics, he first reviews
done
writers
this
and
other
then
on
subject,
by
passes
value
the
permanence.
man's
to
views.
own
unfinished,
though
throws
book
Grecian
light on
displays great
history. The
of
individual
and
human
it
the
knowledge
gives to
nature;
the
resists
the
family their due importance, and
tendency
communism
found
in Plato's
to
Republic.
institution
of slavery,
Aristotle
the
as
upheld
wrongly
based
denounced
the
and
nature,
narrowly
taking of
on
great
interest
for
use
of
money.
favorably
with
that
the
%-^
compares
Aristotle
wrote
branches
Natural
of
science.
For
and
other
History
of Alexander
After
rule, and
scholar,
After
continued
death
the
of
Aristotle,
retired
furnished
to
Chalcis
the
in
closed
most
death
with
ample
of
and
Aristotle,
by Theophrastus,
works
was
of
under
learned
most
accused
Macedonian
and
Strato,
Peripatetic
and
others.
He
Atheism.
accurate
original philosopher
the
on
patronage
Athenians
and
which
life of the
profound
his
means.
the
tendencies
Euboea,
of
various
the
on
of science, the
Alexander,
the
however,
state,
and
illustrations
the
Macedonian
there
the
of
Poetry,
branches
him
ideal
of Plato.
and
Rhetoric
on
His
of
School
tiquity.
An-
was
CHAPTER
The
Epicurus
1.
and
the
When
things
He
of
Democritus
atoms;
At
the
of
age
one
here
asked:
eighteen,
Thence
year.
the
Samos,
and
atoms,
that
but
.^^
the
To
answer.
void
all
Chaos
came
himself,
applied
Democritus
of
of
told
being
Whence
for
he
of
native
on
age,
philosophy
chaos
was
of grammar.
of
he
Chaos,
to
for
Epicurus
years
Schools
Stoic
teacher
referred
philosophy
nothing back
the
of
out
arose
was
Neocles,
thirteen
only
and
Epicurean
(342-270.)
of
son
IX
found
between
spaces
began.
visited
he
he
went
where
Athens,
to
he
mained
re-
Mitylene,
Colophon,
he
when
to
Athens,
Lampsacus,
finally
school
in a
of age,
where
he
thirty-six years
opened
was
a
of his life.
there
the rest
quiet garden, and remained
The
of Plato
of Aristotle
too
deeply
philosophy
was
or
and
and
reasoned,
returned
difficult
too
understand,
to
popular,
become
to
easily to be
Something
more
called
for, which
understood,
something
practical was
more
would
serve
comprehensible
guide to life.
as
a
the
from
The
so-called
School
of philosophy,
Epicurean
of its founder,
be
out-growth,
name
an
regarded
as
may
School
and
of
the
modification,
Cyrenaic
improvement
founded
of the atomistic
It is a combination
by Aristippus.
tippus.
of Democritus
with
the Hedonic
philosophy
theory of Aristhe
end
considered
Happiness
as
was
by Epicurus
of human
restrict
He
did
happiness,
pursuit.
not, however,
and
as
reaction
inevitable.
was
it to
Aristippus, to sensational
pleasure, but extended
He
of friendship.
and
higher pleasures of the intellect
in moderation,
taught that
pleasure is to be enjoyed
did
the
also
since
Epicurus was
with
plain fare,
peaceful
banishing
in disaster.
results
excess
and
from
himself
and
happy
the
temperate
with
his
life.
mind
all
trusted
He
taught
care
71
He
man.
and
passed
importance
he
friends,
the
worry,
satisfied
was
as
the
fear
of
of
PHILOSOPHICAL
72
death
of the
or
absent, and
fear the
affairs
gods?
death
They
trouble
to
He
gods.
when
THEORIES
are
said
too
much
into
taken
the
up
exist.
their
with
affairs
of
is
Why
own
mortals.
superstition.
By happiness Epicurus
anxiety or trouble, and not
of intellectual,social
free will and
longer
no
with
alive, death
are
we
we
comes,
themselves
Religion is resolvable
when
freedom
meant
only
or
so,
but
sensational
prudential wisdom
from
pain, fear,
ment
positiveenjoyHe
sidered
conpleasure.
the
the
essence
of virtue.
virtue
it is not
even
leads
to
one
avoid
crime,
to
utilitarianism;it is hedonism,
or
the
placingof
lived
moral
life.
truth
is, the
lower
THEORIES
PHILOSOPHICAL
n
After
twenty
of
years
schools, he
opened
school
at
oriental
after the
The
time
of the
these
were
of
and
school
of the Stoics
Epicurus
practical.
The
middle
His
porch.
interaction
the
which
took
of
place
directed
carried
the
these
as
or
the
more
were
Lyceum
intelligible
regarded the
into three
periods,
the
of
doctrine
chief
the
of the
that
be divided
may
stoa,
of which
stoa
Musonius
Zeno,
of Seleucia, Boethius
who
Panaetius,
Roman
or
product of
thought,
and
Academy
eclipsedby
and
developed
Chrysippus; the
by Diogenes
and
in the
own
various
these
at
of Alexander.
philosophy
doctrines
study,
of his
school
was,
more
laborious
Sidon, Posidonius,
to
Rome;
ornaments
the
the
Seneca,
were
Marcus
Emperor
later
Aure-
lius.
all
desired, but
is to
be
rather
borne
without
act
or
Certain
murmuring.
he
is
no
longer
on
life itself
it
disabilities,
as
that
providence
unavoidable,
be
to
as
an
tion
indica-
indifference.
In
Stoics
Socrates
said:
that
with
common
Live
the
feeling;hence,
the
characteristic
rational
nature
life,not
of
man
life of
is
reason,
pleasure, is
not
the
life of
true
the
For
man.
STOIC
SCHOOLS
the
Epicureans, pleasure.
said:
Both
Follow
75
is
virtue; for
nature;
but
in
is reason,
Stoics, the true nature
leading to
of the Epicureans, the true nature
life;while in case
of the
case
virtuous
is
AND
EPICUREAN
THE
sensibility,leading to
Both
systems
life of
one-sided.
are
pleasure.
Man
has
both
and
reason
he can
sensibility;
ignore either part
control.
to
pursue
It may,
virtue,
or
therefore, be concluded
that
under
the
he
of
oftered
was
slow
was
attended
man
reason,
to
the
present of ten
learn, but held
a
lectures
and
for
on
the
may
death
high
of Zeno
moral
of Zeno, he
minae, which
fast
what
nineteen
he
years,
qualitieswere
was
chosen
he refused.
acquired.
his
but
amply
to
He
He
severance
per-
rewarded;
be the head
of the
Stoic School.
His
the
to
original contribution
philosophy was
enunciation
of the principlethat the varying tension
of the
substance, a purely physical fact, produced, by its stress,
one
all the changes of the universe.
This
fertile principle was
most
PHILOSOPHICAL
76
with
employed
with
ultimate
realityof Spencer,
believed
Cleanthes
wrote
said
hymn
quoted in
God.
offspring of
and
fortified it, so
Cynic
be
to
the
Logic
of
were
not
satisfyan
idle
life,and
on
from
the
that,
it
make
had
do
not
the
as
for
to
be
system
cultivated
curiosity,but
for
is the
therefore. Ethics
Stoics do
that
assert
is
Epicureans;
not
of
but
the
is acted
upon
Stoic
he
that
posed,
sup-
grammar
that
saw
which
this
aspired
that
sake,
bearing
crowning science.
is
as
or
fact
theism.
pan-
of the
assertingthat
agreement
tension
change in nature
by matter, and
is the
matter
is monism
In
in
are
the
as
question the
it is material.
idea
own
of their
subordinate.
call in
of the ceaseless
Matter
are
of the
the
as
their
because
to be held
The
leader
Chrysippus
as
Physics were
is dynamic
materialism, and
only existence, according to the Stoics, it
cause
usually
poet Aratus:
secure,
declared
Stoicism
substance
sun.
and
soul, but
it is
systematized
to
as
Zeno
would
all branches
sciences
to
nor
view
and
useless; but
were
great school
improve
to
attacks.
mathematics
narrow
which
at
Cleanthes
elaborated
againstall
and
no
was,
in the
Athens, that we
doubt, the sentiment
speech
quoted exactly
He
School.
doctrine
his throne
Zeus, from
his
succeeded
phrysippus
Stoic
it
Spinoza, the
spiritual,with
yivos icrfiiv,
kol
yap
^.
of
by making
or
identified
be
may
substance
one
to
It
Paul
Cleanthes; but
Tou
It
Jupiter had
that
sublime
Paul
that
the
Stoics.
of Theism.
God
He
the
by
of science, the
ether
the
the
effect
THEORIES
of matter
peculiarto
with
all
the
is the
stoicism.
by
only.
matter
of the ten
still in vogue.
are
the Stoics to
growing influence of skepticism awoke
criterion for truth, which
importance of finding some
The
the
would
enable
and
them
to
discern
the
difference
between
ideas of Plato,
edge
knowl-
adopting
with
Aristotle, that
our
by finding their
are
we
The
notions
Stoics endeavored
does
the mind
sense
and
the object?
the
do
How
we
forms, as taught by
things are derived
the objects of a class,
and by this principle
classes.
queriesof
the
skeptics:
What
reality?
of
the
answer
perceive?
How
corresponds to
to
77
of
cause;
objects into
to form
enabled
formal
or
essence
SCHOOLS
of
concepts
or
comparison
and
examination
an
STOIC
some
from
AND
EPICUREAN
THE
know
square
it appears
not
apprehend the object as it is,but
Stoics insisted on
of our
conception of the object. The
clearness and distinctness, qualitieswhich
Descartes, long
round,
appears
after, employed
The
whose
for
if
we
we
known
we
from
as
which
tests
of truth.
hypothesis of Empedocles
that
there
tached
images defrom
the objects, and
representing them, through
is not satisfactory
the objects are
intervention
seen,
might as well perceive the objectsas their images; but
perceive the images and not the objects, how do we
that the images fairly represent the objects? This
could
not
know,
unless
have
we
antecedent
are
and
separate
be done.
this
convenient
of
point, study the process
perception begins as a psychical act,
perception. Of course,
with sensation.
If external objects did not, in some
way,
of
be aware
aflfect us, giving us sensations, we
should
not
their existence; but before sensation, if perception be a fact,
must
we
postulate the physical object to be known, and the
and
subject which knows with its physiologicalsense
organs
of perception. There
mental
then
be
the
must
powers
of
and
synthesis
object, not their identity, but a
subject
relation allowing the mechanical
action of the object and
Let
us,
at
as
when
radiated
light^is
or
reflected
PHILOSOPHICAL
78
the
from
by
THEORIES
the
with
of
excitement
the
organ,
by the sensation
Reason
now
foreign cause,
necessity of
the
of touch, and
organ
intervenes
since
the
when
or
so
ear,
on
caused
of air
waves
or
an
propagated
object in contact
for taste
by
the
and
smell.
object, is
The
panied
accom-
or
the
when
one
sense
re-enforces
another,
as
the
report of
If there is a mistake
supported by that of touch.
in the judgment, the ideated
picture is incorrect.
idea is not
The
something perceived; it has no existence
previous to the perception, but is the result of the act of
perception,and is constructed
by the imagination to embody
discoveries, knowledge, or belief respecting the object
our
rather than
perceived; the idea is conceived
perceived; it is
constructed
mental
as
a
picture representing what we know
believe we
of the
know.
In the judgment, as to the cause
or
sensation, is found, as before said, the element of uncertainty;
for the judgment
in general, gives only the more
less
or
limits
the
probable; but the probability varies between
impossibilityand certainty,and the degree of probability is
be
known
estimated
to
by experience. Some
images are
of well known
mere
phantasms; others, as the appearance
of
held
be
actual
decisive as to the
to
objects,are
presence
the objects,as when
we
speak to a friend and receive a reply.
The
from
idea, but is proof of the
reply 'does not come
our
the
eye
actual
is
existence
of the
person
addressed.
AND
EPICUREAN
THE
STOIC
SCHOOLS
79
not
can
It
it must
been
the
nor
in
Reason
depends
reason
physics
We
whether
but
nature,
knowing
but
in certain
his conduct
has
detection;
We
an
can,
an
the
the
character
in
if he
of this hereafter.
more
displayed
the
the
universal
thinks
law
or
honest;
dis-
predict
can
A
he
of
Ethics.
of
we
man,
in
of
determinism
stranger is honest
of
the
to
Pyr-
indeterminism
entire
has
success
faith of mankind
reason
here
circumstances.
opportunity, and
honest
the
to
and
with
tell whether
not
can
himself
confronted
is
with
conforms
man
upon
the
the
of
theorems; but
harmonizes
man
what
Empiricus
skepticism
the
shaken
has
great
Sextus
Neither
of mathematical
truth
that
Geometry,
of Sextus
that
ascertain
to
admitted
be
in
as
mind
human
notwithstanding.
contrary
rho,
for the
remains
now
probably
can
escape
man
however,
is the
from
upon
sudden
decision.
up
not
bad
ethical
impulse,
free
impulse
choice.
takes
place
It is,however,
habits, and
education
of
Sometimes
the
confirm
self
action
without
reflection
business
those
is, to
or
to
are
act,
good;
when
or
deliberate
of education
that
learn
habit
from
to
break
and
the
stances
circum-
PHILOSOPHICAL
80
such
ments
avarice
as
strengthen the
to
and
to
cultivate
the
of
weak
THEORIES
ambition,
and
to
powers,
correct
opinions,
erroneous
conform
dispositionto
infirmities,
avoid
to
that
nature,
to
reason.
perfectionof man,
according to the Stoics,is the inner
of
sovil.
Make
the soul right and the life will
perfection the
be right. *'Out of the heart are
the issues of life." Pleasures
need not be sought. Virtue is its own
reward.
Future
and
rewards
punishments, according to the Stoics, are moral
of will, or
and
firmness
bugbears. Virtue or right reason,
of wisdom, courage,
the combination
temperance and justice,
is the only good for man,
and
vice, the opposite of these
virtues, is the only evil. Other things are indifferent,though
be classified according to a certain scale of values
they may
health, wealth, social position and
as
politicalpreferment;
the
if
not
essential
attainable,
well-beingof the soul is not
yet
The
disturbed.
The
Stoics
social,among
were
themselves, and
ous
desir-
were
cosmopolitan citizenship,
embracing all the
of minds, actuated
good in one brotherhood
by the principles
of the Stoic philosophy, regardless of nationalityor
race.
In reality,such a society is a church
with
Zeno
fellowship,
the
The
Greek
founder,
as
or
high priest.
mythic divinities,
the Stoics explained allegorically,
of the
as
personifications
of
forming
of
powers
of
means
Divination
nature.
communication
and
between
oracles
God
and
afforded
man.
the
When
our
The
conduct
middle
under
Stoa
was
it
were
one
also foreordained.
of inaction, or
at best
of defensive
action
of the
possessor
of
virtue
is the
possessor
of virtue
in its
virtue is
completeness. A person
morally lacking in one
wanting in all; that is,he is morally unsound, and can not, in
He
that offends
in one
respect, be depended upon.
any
is
point guiltyof all.
CHAPTER
in
Skepticism
Ancient
philosophic
and
Pyrrhonic
"
of the
laus
second
the
was
into
is, into
that
Pyrrho
third
and
divides
skepticism
Academic;
of which
school
that
Philosophy
the
head,
skepticism of
the skepticism
and
heads
whose
Academies,
branches
two
Arcesi-
were
Carneades.
and
chief
The
Timon,
Pyrrho,
of
philosophers
the
School
Pyrrhonian
Agrippa, and
Aenesidemus,
were
Empiri-
Sextus
cus.
Pyrrho.
1.
(circ.360-270).
in the
tus,
native
city;
known
he
home,
only
but
Pyrrho criticized
and
believing that
the
proper
and
his
of Democriand
conquest;
Elis, his
in
own
his
doctrines
are
those
especially
others,
structed
in-
Schools
Empiricus.
teaching of the other
be certainly known,
dogmatic
nothing
can
to
of
works,
of
been
Sextus
the
course
School
of
written
no
writings
the
through
Aenesidemus
Timon,
that
left
had
Megaric
career
school
and
Atomic
in his
opened
he
as
Eleatic
of the
Alexander
accompanied
returning
of
Anaxarchus
he, with
when
of the
doctrines
Elis
of
Pyrrho
is to
take
held
he
and
laws,
the
obey
schools,
to
the rules of
of society and
comply with the accepted customs
lived a long and
He
peaceful life,highly respected
morality.
by his fellow citizens.
Thales
had
had
Pyrrho
ground for his skepticism.
some
Anaxithe
principle of the universe;
taught that water
was
indeterminate
mander,
becoming,
change
or
bolized
symassumed
number;
Empedocles
by fire; Pythagoras,
assumed
Anaxagoras
elements, earth, air, fire, water;
being
for
vovs
for
the
Eleatics,
air; the
Anaximenes,
matter;
or
or
Heraclitus,
permanence;
the
reason;
himself,
judge
is
of his
the
own
Socrates
universe,
but
that
Sophists
of
measure
and
good,
that
taught
reason
is the
82
that
taught
each
man,
the
universe,
that
man
is
man
is
the
characteristic
that
a
man
each
bundle
measure
of man;
was
of
sations;
sen-
of
the
Plato
this
Aristotle, in
and
in
him
from
somewhat
PHILOSOPHY
IN
SKEPTICISM
agreed with
but
Socrates,
differed
other
Stoics followed
pleasure;the
83
duty.
out
fundamental
the
multiplicityof
Timon
2,
or
of
the secret
find
to
"
ing
philosophers did not succeed in finda philosophicaim
nature, yet they all had
these
Though
known?
truth
universe
the
to
(circ 330-240).
Timon
in prose
works
and
except Xenophanes
said
He
ought
related
that
to know
to
to
happily
things the
three
them,
author
"
and
what
we
numerous
philosophers
actual
from
nature
can
of
all the
the
least to
at
philosophy, first
the
Pyrrho. He was
with
reduce
harmony.
of Phlius, a Sillograph,
under
Stilpo,the Megar-
unity, or
Satirist,studied
ian, then
would
which
knowledge,
things,how we
of
gain
from
them;
but
we
are
as
relations to
to us, also our
things is unknown
towards
is that
of indifference
things, our
right attitude
things,maintaining good temper, cultivatingvirtue, and so
and
find happiness in tranquillity. Live according to nature
the
nature
of
custom.
3,
Aenesidemus
collected, about
of Cnossus,
whose
exact
date
is unknown,
PHILOSOPHICAL
84
constitution
the
of the
THEORIES
sense
circumstances; position,
organs;
also gave
founded
on
Aenesidemus
of causation,
The
causes.
and
that
the
same
is that
one
cause
systems,
occurrence;
manifest
not
denying
change, as
Though
of
any
Aetiology, or theory
reveal
phenomena
objection to the reasoning
is hypothetical,
the method
that
be
may
also
phenomenon;
effects, do
fact
of
on
denial
the
causes
than
more
eight tropes
fundamental
effects to their
from
constitution
customs,
their
and
that
manifest
to
to
of
the
to
of
any
he
cause,
and
senses,
for
account
apart
causes,
themselves
knowledge
offered
from
the
their
senses.
accepted
thus
the
favored
of Heraclitus.
the doctrine
Agrippa
Aenesidemus,
later than
In
his work
was
entitled
which
HvppwveioL {'TrorvTrwcreis,
may
be
takes
Sextus
We
up
the ten
the differences
(1)
their preferencesfor
Some
animals
sightis keen
cows
land,
some
are
tropes and
of what
of
different
discusses
them
in order.
he says.
animals,
as
to
food, Sextus
carnivorous,
some
origin,their senses,
substantially:
says
herbivorous; the
sense
of
hound;
of smell in the bloodgreyhound, the sense
animals
Some
live on
eat cabbage, pigs do not.
animals
in water, and birds fly in the air.
Some
in the
SKEPTICISM
IN
PHILOSOPHY
animals,
are
things pleasant to
.f^ Does
another
nature
.f^ It is true
them;
ideas
that
are
judgment.
The reply to
animals,
Objects are
truth.
such
as
from
animals
animals
affect
to
as
us
they
us
in that he seeks
as
for
that
of
causes
is
relative,
relative
have
man,
Man,
pond
corres-
is susf tension of
knowledge
appear;
ways.
ideas
our
of
but
them;
that
Have
ideas
experience
do they
we
as
attitude
well
as
in certain
is, objectsare
however,
differs
phenomena,
while
do not.
probably
question:Have
raises the
Sextus
are
sense
Are
it is?
correct
of
is that
carrion.
as
conscious
only proper
horse,
to
same
prove
the
as
always pleasant to
sensations
not
can
the above
different
the
are
we
the
reality,
to the
and
we
as
our
seeks
it appear
Has
man
does
of nature.^
ideas
correct
our
appear
of them
which
To
animals
nature
the
85
so-called
the
irrational
.^^ In
reason
with
comparison
the
of
of this animal."
name
animals
and
man
with
Sextus
concludes
the statement:
the
*T shall
manner.
(2)
In
regard
differences
in
unanimity
among
external
men,
objects.
in different
and
to
the
Sextus
men
Men
things. The
men
in intellectual and
second
of the
moral
regard
differ in
races
same
to
body
the
and
of mankind
race
differ in
endowments,
in
the
upon
substantially:There
says,
in
founded
trope
is
characteristics
no
of
mind, and
delight
have their peculiarities,
their preferences,
their philosophy
beliefs.
religious
They place different values on the
is the truth
then
concerning these
same
things. What
Platonist
would
with
A
Plato; an
things?
say,
agree
Epicurean, agree with Epicurus; but Sextus says: Suspend
judgment.
in their
PHILOSOPHICAL
m
The
this trope
truth, what
to
answer
relative
to
THEORIES
ing
accord-
generally choose
is, men
good
seems
It is true,
them.
to
Knowledge
things are not all of equal worth.
wisdom
Those
folly;character, money.
outweighs ignorance,
things are to be preferred that tend to the perfectionof man
physical,intellectual, and moral being, and satisfaction
a
as
varies with perfection.
(3) In regard to the third trope that different senses
give
Sextus
different reports concerning the same
object,
says:
*'To the different
smooth,
an
apple may
senses,
appear
with
A
to the eye
sweet,
painting
fragrant,
yellow.
appears
of water,
with
fields and
trees, and
buildings,and streams
tain
bridges,and cattle grazing in the fields, and a distant mounthat
however,
To
range.
lying sense?
is the
than
senses
What
world.
of the
regard
reply
to
appears
should
us
absurd.
dogmatism?
escape
sense
He
reports the
the
has
molecules,
action
the
the
Does
apple.
as
in the
that
the
to
their forms, to
on
the
organs
that
and
of science.
dogmatists
claim
of the
dogmatists
the
even
modified
statement
of
sensation
salt
or
is due
their motions,
the
same,
is, each
can
of the
the
to
enabled
to
predict,and
we
size of the
their chemical
positivelythat
some
the
in
cause
taste
of sugar.
Nature
and
man
are
so
certain uniformities
in results follow
their
are
tion
sensa-
and
that
we
and
conflict, and
sugar,
to
or
say
smell, taste
qualitiesdo not
The objectivecause
being
tized,
dogma-
of the
The
taste
lows
fol-
the claim
of taste, yet we
know
sensation
is due
to
peculiarity of the
object,since, the organ
differs from
part
judgment
himself
Sextus
These
ways
surmise
of
be occult,
only
said
ferred
pre-
know
form
But
can
that
qualitieswhich
apple
sight in certain
may
have
that
be
things, we
suspension
objects.
the
tists
dogma-
they should
of
of
of
.^^ *The
they themselves
for
know
he said, we
is absurd.
judgment
this, it is evident
to
when
of the world
that
idea
*
Hence,
external
less number
or
different
think
to
is absurd,
to
greater
Which
flat surface.
one
have
in their
men
disagreement."
in
In
enough
claim
their
would
is the nature
then
other
to
with
person
have,
conceited
are
that
we
it is all
touch,
the
this is the
of salt
lated
corre-
action,
intermark
fourth
The
(4)
The
useful things:
or
persons,
or
Sextus
trope,
says
many
in different
reports differently
sense
same
87
circumstances
upon
this
to
same
in the
is based
trope
regard
In
conditions.
PHILOSOPHY
IN
SKEPTICISM
in the
person
different
circumstances
sleeping or waking, in
hunger or satiety. Actions of others are reported according
Our
of love or hatred, joy or
state
to our
opinion of them.
fear, affect our
opinions and our conduct.
or
sorrow,
courage
Our
subjectivestates which modify our judgments, whether
conditions, are
continually
produced by physical or mental
the
Disease
such
affects
or
as
jaundice
changing.
mumps
of health
or
sickness, youth
Children
our
the
as
hoop
cross-bow
or
or
age,
and
have
women
love
have
love
them
riches
girls.
moral
Men
in their
too, and
of
them,
character
thing to another,
righteous hfe. He who prefersone
does
criterion,test or proof; but the criterion
so
by some
itself needs
criterion, the test needs to be tested, the proof
a
needs to be proved.
Hence, again, the result,suspension of
opinion.
is entitled to
have
due weight, and Sextus
All this should
beset
for such an
of the dangers which
thanks
ample expose
apply only to sense
our
opinions;but these liabilities to error
A rational intuition,
knowledge or inferences from phenomena.
have
such
must
event
a
or
a logical
cause,
as, Every
in
is
found
effected.
not
demonstration,
as
Geometry,
Moral
truth is not affected, as: It is right to seek the highest
good for all within our influence.
position,distance
(5) As to the fifth trope based upon
The
small and
and
same
place, Sextus says:
ship appears
motionless
in motion
when
at a distance, but large and
near,
and
and
the
when
tower
same
we
are
near
round
appears
to
it.
The
thrust
oar
from
distance
but
square
straightin the
seems
air,
color
obliquely
neck changes its shade as it walks
on
a
be so painted that the eyes will follow
A portraitcan
by us.
walk
the room.
Here
also we
round
should suspend
as
we
us
judgment as to the objectivefacts.
but
bent, when
of the feathers
The
true
the
water.
The
dove's
to
judgments;
still liability
to error
your
not
answer
into
.^
Yes, that
caution, and
reply.
is true; but
rect
cor-
Is there
the
error
reduced, if
be
can
round
at
facts
from
wide
be
may
of
errors
of the
as
experiencesthe
that
from
the
to
of the sensation;
judgment,
the
necessityof
ideate
that
fact of
cause
subject or
be mistaken
may
is
inference
or
to
as
necessityof
sensation; we
is
cause
observe
to
us
to the
as
the
has
hear
particularcause
mistaken
not
are
mistaken
not
are
we
We
sensation, nor
of the
the
We
error.
noise
leads
This
mark.
perception arise
sensation;
the
inference, what
sensation.
the
from
the
but
error;
parently
ap-
Will the
be square.
it is not known
to be
liable to
are
not
tower
to
that
or
square,
The
altogether.
is found
distance
.f^ Inferences
square
avoided
not
it is not
skeptic say
a
THEORIES
PHILOSOPHICAL
88
as
ego
to the
picturethe object
according to our judgment as to the caiise; the idea or picture
will be correct
incorrect, according as the judgment is true
or
Our
false.
or
ordinary perceptions,tested as they have so
in general correct, and can
be
often been by experience,are
in perception,rational
relied on; but whatever
be the errors
be
A wolf at a distance
knowledge is not affected.
may
specialcause
for
mistaken
of
in the
the
to
tions
demonstra-
the
and
is affected
smell
cases,
are
mixtures, Sextus
on
as
in the air,
air may
The
organs.
eye
Hearing
in such
affect
not
These
fog,
or
Geometry.
As
(6)
as
we
by
both
be transparent
jaundice, the taste
affected
by
report falsely;hence
catarrh.
them
trust
or
or
says,
inward
filled with
by
The
mumps.
senses,
not; suspend
judgment.
The
proper
thing
mixtures, allow
do, is
for them,
to
to
ascertain
be
the
presence
of
guard against
entertainingopinions,but in
rational knowledge is not disturbed.
all such cases,
tion;
(7) The seventh trope is based on quantity and composiand
Sextus, our
perceptions are changed with
says
be
the quantity and composition. A few grains of salt may
is
tasted with pleasure,but a spoonful put into the mouth
of a good thing. The
much
too
seasoning put into food
relish for it,and we
affects our
judge of it accordingly. The
of a drug
window
in a show
in a vase
color of the liquidseen
when
looks dark
store
through the large part, but as
seen
down
the vase
to a slender stem, the liquidlooks light,
runs
like water
slightlytinged. Food taken in different quantior
these
deception, and
be
cautious
in
and
on
our
PHILOSOPHICAL
90
tenth
The
(10)
trope
influence
THEORIES
relates
Laws,
to
opinions, belief,
judgments
regard to other
Sextus
nations, or classes of men.
proceeds to invalidate
opinion with regard to these things by opposing law to
any
belief to belief, opinion to opinion,
to custom,
law, custom
which
customs,
to
practice disfiguresthem.
their sisters;we
marry
The
forbid
the
tribes
Some
to
tattoo
the
our
law
or
with
consider
Egyptians
practice.
that
allowed
were
The
standard
of
formed.
once
The
tenth
charity;but
that
or
trope tends
it does
not
custom
one
to
show
may
broaden
views
and
give us
that all laws are
ficial,
equally benebe preferable to another.
not
long run, by their consequences,
have
now
accordingly. We
our
These
order
and
treats
the
then
to
returns
the
eight.
The
ten
five tropes of
of Aenesidemus,
school.
The
Agrippa
and
relation
show
are
a
of the
of
higher
logicaladvance
ten
tropes
to
order
than
in the
the
the
cal
skepti-
five is that
SKEPTICISM
originalityof Agrippa,
The
relates
and
in
in
their
to
in
not
Of
IN
the
formulation
regard
regard
use
91
the
to
for
five tropes,
skepticalpurpose,
their substance.
to
on
first and
only
third
the
contradiction, on
the
relation, on
discussed, then
in
and
infinitum^on
probando; the
PHILOSOPHY
are
the
regressus
the circulus
on
hypothetical,
(5) need
be
already
considered
present discussion.
in the
The
regard to the regressus in infinitum, Sextus says:
proof brought forward for the thing set before us calls for
and
another
to infinity,
so
on
proof, and that for another
that
from
which
not
to begin the reasonso
ing,
having anything
of
follows.
suspension
judgment
The
this is that in tracing the reasoning in a
to
answer
order, we
ultimately reach axioms, or self-evident
regress
of opinion
propositionsthat need no proof. The consensus
In
of
the
best
minds
demonstration
the
world
establishes
establishes
infinite series, and
axiomistic bases for the reasoning,which
the
an
in the
fact
the
that
is not
this overthrows
and
in
of
are
fact
of
ultimate
Ihe
startingpoints
on
the
direct order.
(4)
In
the fourth
regard to
Sextus
asserts
that
we
can
trope, based
escape
the
regressus
hypothetical,
in infiniother hypothese
from
the
found
with
sun,
the true
one,
revolution, before he
admitting of verification,that the squares
of the
periodictimes
mean
distances
refuted
Sextus
the
by
the
are
from
time
of their
proportional
the
The
sun.
to
the
other
cubes
of their
hypotheses
were
the facts.
held
regressus
hug-hear,as
and
that
to
prove
the
hypothesis
is to
go
back
to
PHILOSOPHICAL
92
(5)
in
circulus
The
THEORIES
probanda,
or
reasoning in a circle,
the
thing which
ought
to be sustained
by the
the
in
one
for
regard to
both.
Reasoning
circle is
first know
must
we
the
of the
truth
can
to the conclusion.
drawn
in
wish
Suppose
know
chiliagon,or
formula,
establiish the
the
to
of
number
how
of
polygon
which
diagonals that
diagonals
many
is the
be
can
can
be
sides, I first
thousand
sides.
be drawn
to all the
vertex, a diagonal can
itself and the two
^the vertex
vertices except three
adjacent
vertices,and since there are n vertices, I can draw, from any
From
one
any
"
...
Sextus
held
whether
the five tropes includes all cases,
of the understanding, or of both.
Protagoras
that
of sense,
or
and
are
true; Plato
Epicurus say that only things of sense
says that only things of thought, or ideas; Aristotle and the
Stoics
say
arises,and
regressus
Hence,
that
the
in
these
both
are
proof must
infinitum,or
true,
rest
so
on
that, in any
hypothesis,or
involve
to
the
a
circulus
suspension
case,
discord
run
into the
in
of
probanda.
judgment,
that
is, to
SKEPTICISM
IN
the
whether
uncertainty
PHILOSOPHY
93
anything is proved or
proved
nothing can be proved,
that
he has, at least,proved one
thing
nothing can he proved;
if he has only proved the uncertainty of proof of anything,
then he has proved that uncertainty.
into dogmatism, and in spiteof itself,
eats
Skepticism runs
itself up;
but this dogmatism, Sextus
failed to see.
Give
suicide.
enough, and it will always commit
skepticism rope
if Sextus
Now,
not.
has
that
"
An
attempt
Menodotus.
made
was
reduce
to
that
Everything
either through
itself
themselves, and
Sextus
those
and
states
who
believe
victims
the
are
or
of
in their existence
a
vain
illusion.
these
delude
concludes
sufficient
by saying: Perhaps the five tropes of cttox^; are
to refute aetiology. He
also says, ''that one
who
accepts the
into the regressus
will be thrown
in infinitum
theory of cause
the circulus in probanda.
or
times was
The
who
ablest skeptic of Modern
held
Hume,
for inferringthe relation of cause
that we
have
warrant
no
and effect,in the sense
is efficient in producthat the cause
ing
"
the
into
showed
that
of
do
we
If
have
cause
producing
the
idea
effect is resolvable
consequence.
Locke's
philosophy
of
cause,
as
Locke's
Hume
which
he
efficiency
ive.
Philosophy is defectantecedent, having no influence in
might as well be absent; but when
take place; hence
has
not
a
cause
idea; hence
is
mere
and
cause
and
this
event, it
does
event
the
to
have
not
can
of
antecedence
that, according
accepted, we
but
the relation
effect;hence
absent, the
influence,or is efficient,and
not
mere
antecedent.
PHILOSOPHICAL
94
We
whenever
know
for
that
an
The
11.
Second
Academy,
and
Academy,
Carneades,
under
it
leader
the
of the
its seed
having
Arcesilaus,
under
arose
Middle
or
in
cause
before
of the
skepticism
himself,
Plato
requires a
existence
no
eflSciencyby experience,
raising a weight; we
by rational intuition;
and non-entity
occurs,
or
energy
effort, as
into existence.
jump
not
can
has
as
an
event
every
event
cause
make
we
THEORIES
the
leader
further
was
third
New
or
of
in
the
developed
Academy.
1.
Polemo
with
and
Crates
whom
he
succeeded
leader
as
of the
Academy.
of
Arcesilaus
to
he
doctrine
could
but
claimed,
from
lectures
the
Socratic
to
of conversation.
niethod
His
teaching
know
not
this is
he could
that
is, he knew
not,
medicines
purge;
but
of
refute
that
includes
the
this
whether
uncertainty,
and
he
is uncertain
in like
he
manner
and
or
not
know.
Academic
the
like
are
uncertainty,
this uncertainty, which
gives one
knew
skepticalformulae
the
is uncertain
he
he
ignorance;
own
says
that
ignorance;
that
could
he
off with
themselves
says,
own
and
themselves,
Sextus
his
his
Sextus
moment,
conclusion
even
carry
when
he
the
saying
to
anything, not
thing, he knew
for
a
which
uncertain
this
on
they
as
everything,
certain
one
back
rest
do
know
not
to go
formulae
for it amounts
dogmatic;
that
But
skeptical;he reached
anything, not even
was
so
cathartic
humors
with
that
they
regard to
is either
he
certainty,or
not,
which
is
he is
new
regard
infinitum. Ah!
yourself are thrown
is uncertain
ad
with
uncertainty,
so
on,
all
Sextus,
reject
certainty, you
into the regressus
fond of
in infinitum,into which
were
so
you
it only by the
throwing the dogmatist, and you can
escape
hypothetic,or by the circulus in probanda, both of which you
have
the dogmatists are
fallacies of which
amply shown
are
often guilty.
so
to
new
if you
SKEPTICISM
Carneades
2.
first with
became
(213-129.)
Stoic
the
had
Chrysippus
the
that
School,
he
PHILOSOPHY
Carneades
is
and
been, I had
not
of
95
of
reported
not
Cyrene
have
to
either.
been
studied
"
said:
"If
Finally
and
carried
Academy,
so
negatively and positively, with such
is justly called the founder
of the New
head
principles,both
power,
IN
the
he
his
out
skill and
emy.
Acad-
he was
in his life occurred
when
interesting incident
oration
He
sent
eloquent
on
an
an
embassy to Rome.
gave
the
Roman
which
charmed
youth;
eulogizing virtue,
greatly
his
the next
he
astonished
them
by refuting
day
arguments
of the
wrath
of the
wonder
that
the
No
preceding day.
An
old
stern
Cato
philosophers
Roman
be
was
roused
so
expelled
from
moved
he
that
that
lest
Rome,
the
Greek
the
they corrupt
youth.
is a
negative side of the philosophy of Carneades
He
held
polemic against the Stoic theory of knowledge.
the
that it is impossible to distinguish between
the false and
There
of truth.
The
is no
criterion
true.
positive side of
his doctrine
of Arcesilaus.
resembles
that
being
Knowledge
but
the
will suspend
impossible, a wise man
judgment;
which
is impossible is a
statement:
can
dogma
knowledge
The
not
be
be
considered
traced
it may
be
regressus
back
certain, unless
till it is found
logically derived;
in infinitum, or the
Carneades
criticized
the
Providence,
by showing
the
but
world,
finallyhe
rest
an
on
their
of
Final
inconsistency
criticism
reveals
intellectual
control.
This
in
which
into
run
can
the
probanda.
in
doctrines
from
it will
for otherwise
cir cuius
axiom
or
cause
with
the
and
of
evil
in
ignorances and
of God, by pointing
personality. He has
his
called
this
to
it is itself axiomatic,
and
dogma
moral
powers
will stand
their
fire.
due
supremacy
and
CHAPTER
XI
Gnosticism
Eclecticism, Neo-Pldtonism,
thorough-going
it is contrary
mind;
laws
the
human
and
to
the
of
In
he
skepticism is impossible to
laws
both
to
psychological
language.
saying that
affirmed
he
nothing,
affirmed
Sextus
affirmed
that
in condemning
tism.
dogmadogmatized
included
In
everything is uncertain, Sextus
it is uncertain
that
this statement
itself; then
everything is
this new
is a new
uncertain, which
uncertainty; then
tainty
unceris uncertain,
and
ad
the
infinitum; hence,
so
on,
in
with
such
ive
destructSextus
used
infinitum, which
regressus
becomes
effect
against the
dogmatists,
boomerang
a
himself.
against
Another
nothing;
saying that
view
can
he
be
everything
is uncertain,
everything
is
uncertain;
taken:
Sextus
unless
but
as
had
no
business
held
he
that
to
it is certain
he
say:
that
that
it is uncertain
itself; then
everything is uncertain, includes
is uncertain;
It is
the contradiction:
that
hence
everything
certain
that
that
everything is uncertain; and it is uncertain
is uncertain.
This
contradiction
justifies the
everything
statement
of
Aenesidemus,
skepticism
predicates
led
to
which
Sextus
condemns,
that
the
cubical.
Pyrrhonean
destroying dogmatism,
skepticism, whether
mind
human
The
cannot
itself.
Academic,
destroys
or
in negations; after criticism, comes
The
reconstruction.
rest
by the facts of
progressive order of human
thought, as shown
be: Construction,
to
criticism, reconstruction,
history, seems
In
and
the
same
repeated.
96
PHILOSOPHICAL
98
THEORIES
cient
is the
The
doctrine
of Aristotle.
works
the
his
but
Academic,
and
the
works;
tendency of the
impulse
PeripateticSchool
an
gave
to
the
of the
earnest
genuine
study of
teaching.
Cicero is good
its
historical
Philo
holding
{SO B.
Moses
C.-50
and
A.
the
scripturesin
the
highest veneration,
philosophers,Par-
great Greek
menides, Pythagoras, Empedocles, Plato, Zeno
was
The
its
also
truth
an
admirer
p.).
held
purity,only
of the
by these in
in the
common,
Hebrew
and
he believed
scriptures.
Cleanthes.
is
found, in
ECLECTICISM,
The
NEO-PLATONISM,
idea of God
of Philo.
is the
The
GNOSTICISM
point of departure
find the
in the
relation
99
philosophy
problem was
God, the
the
ineffable
the
the
infinite,
holy,
perfect,
high,
being,
of finite beings, and
to the material
to the world
universe,
inferior.
Philo
assumed
intermediate
so
infinitely
beings,
to
of
the
Svva/x"ts,
powers,
the
ideas
described,
hand,
on
one
as
or
thoughts of God, and on the other, as beings, angels, or
forth to do his will.
of God, sent
To
identify
messengers
with
the ideas of God
difficult,if not
personal beings was
in his doctrine
the attempt
of
impossible; yet Philo made
the Logos, the embodiment
of reason,
the collective wisdom
of God, the power
the viceroy of God,
comprising all powers,
the highest of the angels,the image of the invisible God, by
whom
all things were
all things concreated, and by whom
sist.
How
of
identical
is
Philo
the
with
the
Logos
nearly
of the
Logos of the Apostle John, or with the Son of God
be seen
by referringto the first chapters
Apostle Paul, may
of John's gospel and to the Epistleto the Colossians.
Is the Logos of Philo, a personal being distinct from
God,
and
wisdom
of divine power,
or
an
impersonal manifestation
this may
be answered, Philo held that
goodness .f^ However
of the Logos, God, who
is infinitely
above
by the mediation
the world out of the chaotic mixture.
nature, formed
Philo held to the doctrine of the fall of souls, the incorporeal
life of
of ecstacy, and
God
ourselves, and see
iiito that
receive
in his
into
higher illumination
unity, and in the ineffable perfectionsof his being.
2,
Neo-Platonism.
The
distinguished in this
names
school
of philosophy are
Plotinus, Porphyry,
Ammonius,
Jamblicus
and
Proclus.
Sacsurnamed
was
241). Ammonius
(
in early life he supported himself as a porter, in
cas, because
carrying sacks in the market
place of the city of Alexandria.
According to Porphyry, he was originallya Christian.
1.
Ammonius
PHILOSOPHICAL
100
After
THEORIES
philosophy in
where
he
his pupils
Alexandria
Among
years.
became
who
afterwards
were
some
distinguished, as Longinus, the rhetorician and philosophical critic, and Plotinus,
the most
celebrated
of the Neo-Platonic
philosophers.
Ammonius
wrote
secret,
nothing, keeping his doctrines
after the example of Pythagoras.
As we
learn from
of
notes
eclectic,
Hierocles, preserved by Photius, his method
was
combining the doctrines of Plato and Aristotle.
He claimed
that a system of philosophy, higher than
either
that of Plato or of Aristotle, might be deduced
doctrines
from
to them, thus reconcilingtheir views, and
common
putting an
end to the controversies
and
the Academic
between
tetic
Peripalong study,
he
opened
taught many
school
of
Schools.
As
be
Ammonius
can
writings, his peculiar doctrines
the
of
his
works
chiefly
only through
successors,
and
elements.
and
added
Proclus,
new
they
many
known
Plotinus
The
chief
was
the
no
in Ammonius
of
the
centers
in the
mystical doctrines
fact
of
that
the
he
Neo-
School.
2,
of
interest
originator
Platonic
in
left
"
He
remained
with
Ammonius
eleven
years,
and
then
he
in
its march
Gordianus
Emperor
of age,
about
Plotinus
When
forty years
to Rome,
and
went
opened a school of philosophy, in which
he taught by conversation, rather
than
By his
by lectures.
disciples,and it is said also by the oracle of Apollo, he was
called "good and gentle,and benignant, in a very high degree,
and
pleasant in his intercourse."
Neither
the
Pyrrhonism,
of
the
method
nor
times.
was
of
the
contentions
Eclectic
Another
of
the
schools, the
Syncretism satisfied
system
seemed
called
criticisms
the
of
demands
for, another
inevitable.
of age.
about
fifty years
began to write when
left fifty-fourtreatises,which
He
afterwards
were
arranged
by his disciplePorphyry in six Enneads, each consisting of
Plotinus
nine
books.
Neo-Platonism
is dialectic,
so
far
as
it follows
the
method
GNOSTICISM
NEO-PLATONISM,
ECLECTICISM,
of
of Plato; it is mystic in its methods
It has two
in its results.
is pantheistic
and
fall,or
state
The
it
ical
divisions,the theoret-
begins
with
and
the
emanation,
forth, by
gods,
God
the
Nov?, the
The
universe.
the
transcendent
soul
is
return
may
part
came
inferior
or
emanation
an
whom
from
\6yoL
apprehending God;
practical.
theoretical
The
One
101
to
God,
the
the
eternal
by which
way
of
source
the
soul
all blessedness.
to
steps
are
be lost.
Plotinus
is evil? Whence
comes
questions: What
it.f^ Is it positive,the doing of wrong,
is it negative, the
or
failure to do right.^^ Is it in matter
in the soul?
Is there
or
is the real conflict of life?
What
an
archetypicalevil? What
is victory? What
is final defeat?
Plotinus gives us his thoughts about
these things, and
an
insight into his earnest
matic
struggleswith evil,rather than dogthis is far more
and
satisfactory. The fall
answers,
of the soul is found
in its subjection to the body, yet the
fall
is found, not
in the body, but in the soul
tendency to
in
its
desire
for pleasure.
itself,perhaps
The
is perfect,divine, eternal; and the
order of the world
of nature, which
to the ignorterror
great movements
ant,
are
a
the
to
mind.
Evil
is
discord, good
bring joy
enlightened
is harmony.
Plotinus
besought the Emperor
Gallienus, with whom
he was
of intimacy, to rebuild
terms
on
a
city in Campania,
former
of philosophers,to be
resort
called Platonopolis
a
and to permit its citizens to be governed by the laws of Plato,
but the plan was
frustrated by the envy
of the courtiers.
The
raises the
labors
of Ammonius
and
Plotinus
carried
Neo-Platon-
Porphijry (233-303.)
Porphyry,
native
of
Tyre,
PHILOSOPHICAL
10^
philosophy for
studied
He
two
spent
five years
Plotinus
under
at Rome.
in Sicilywhere
tianity.
he wrote
against Chris-
years
Returning
the
edited
his
THEORIES
works
of
Rome
to
he
in
engaged
Plotinus, and
teaching;he
treatises
several
wrote
also
of
own.
He
fine
was
He
writer, and
had
great talent
for
literary
writings,and
of the Christian
a bitter opponent
was
religion.
of
The
more
Porphyry was
system
popular, practicaland
a
religiousthan that of Plotinus, though his religionwas
refined Polytheism.
The
origin of evil and the guilt of sin are, according to
Porphyry, not found in the body, but in the desires of the
aim
soul for pleasure. The
of philosophy is the salvation
of the soul; and to accomplish this salvation, not only philosophy,
but the strictest morality is required.
He did not share in the gross popular views of Polytheism,
the pure
worship of the many
gods, and
3^et he advocated
made
Neo-Platonism
to
Polytheism,
entirely subservient
which
defended
of the
he
assaults
the
against
vigorous
lost except the
Christian
Theologians. His writings are
research.
studied
critically
quotationsfrom
his works
the
found
Christian
in the
books
of Christian
authors.
-4. Jamblichus
cis in
school
various
He
wrote
treatise
on
commentaries
Chaldean
on
Theology,
of
and
Plato
and
which
Aristotle, and
another
on
lost.
Books
it out
in
Pythagorean
on
Egyptian
are
philosophy, most
ascribed
in
his
to him,
school, were
mysteries, originating
of difference
though there is doubt of its truth, on account
in style. He
often called the
much
esteemed, and was
was
inferior to
divine.
The
him
not
Emperor Julian esteemed
Plato, and said he would
give all the gold in Lydia for one
epistleof Jamblichus.
settled by
The
was
speculativecharacter of Neo-Platonism
carried
more
minute
Oriental
divisions
sub-
elements,
assimilatingmore
Mystic and
of
and
more
even
a
magical character,
Polytheistic
till in his hands
philosophy degenerated into superstitious
theurgy.
giving it
head
the
At
One,
the
first
GNOSTICISM
NEO-PLATONISM,
ECLECTICISM,
begotten
in
soul, which,
from
God;
placed God,
the
the
the
No{?s, or
emanated
Novs
birth
103
cendent
trans-
intellect,
^i^x^*
"^i;o-ts,
or
nature;
Jamblichus
One,
immediately
placed a
of
between
the
second
intellect,
super-existentunity,
producer
made
the many,
and
and
the Absolute
intellect, soul and
nature,
undergo various modifications, as intellectual,supermundane
the
turn,
gave
after the
but
and
mundane
in triads
Jamblichus
the
which
repudiate
which
divided
were
to
Plotinus
the
that
and
minute
hebdomads,
attained
never
Deity
absolute
gods,
and
marvel
we
with
and
to
divided
sub-
divisions,
sub-
superstition.
ecstatic
communion
four
enjoyed
times, and
Proclus
(410-485.)
Proclus
As
it
on
unlike
in
born
in
nople
Constanti-
to the
Chrysippus was
to the Neo-Platonists.
Stoics, Proclus
was
By his industry,
he
logical power,
learning and
brought the Neo-Platonic
From
philosophy to its formal completeness and conclusion.
his knowledge of the history of the school, and
by his great
the system
to a cohering mass,
supplying
ability,he reduced
defects
and
reconciling contradictions.
of his school, he was
others
With
religiousenthusiast,
a
sharing in their faith, in their superstition,in their love for
and
Chaldean
oracles.
Orphic poems
Seeking perfection
led to high ethics; despising facts, to low science.
His system
is constructed
according to the laws of triadic
for since
The
effect is like the
the
development.
cause;
into
is
the
the
like
that
effect,
cause
thing produced
goes
which
and
the
produced it;
thing produced is also unlike the
is different from
thing which
produced it, since the derived
the original,not identical with it.
and
died
was
Athens.
lower
exists in its
cause,
scale, and
itself,and
cause,
so
on,
What
it returns
to
it,that is imitates
produces something
in
departs
an
from
endless
it,and
series.
returns
both
A
to
like
and
thing then
it by imita-
PHILOSOPHICAL
104
THEORIES
the
first and
triad
into
nations.
second
and
demoniac
divine,
soul
yp^x^or
His
virtues
with
the
to
the
morals
be created
to
the
of souls,
again
so
by
divided,
sub-
are
on.
the
soul, Proelus
aireLpov of Anaximander.
Divine, and
his ethics
religion
into
With
law, and
same
each
gods of
classes
these
of Ethics
system
triads, and
the
three
and
human,
it from
three
are
comprises
according to the
Plotinus
supposed matter
derives
into
which
hebdomads,
seven
The
divided
are
Proelus
Neo-Platonism
was
finished, and
no
further
method
possible. The
throughout is
development seemed
deductive, beginning with the highest abstraction, and
so
for imagination, wild
descending, giving at every step, room
of
conjecture and superstition. Can the gods and demons
Such
a system,
Mythology be verified by appealing to facts?
understood
which
can
by superior minds, was
scarcely be
defeat
in
doomed
inevitable
to
contending with Christianity
which brought salvation
to the masses.
The
did well, when
forty-four years
Emperor Justinian
after
the
death
of
at
Athens
to
School
Gnosticism,
3,
truth
ordered
the
Neo-Platonic
The
term
from
Gnosticism,
who
knows,
applies
yvwct?,
to
the
the
philosophic school that claimed to know
phy
by combining Oriental speculationswith Greek philoso-
and
The
he
closed.
be
yvcoo-ri/cds,
one
knowledge,
system
Proelus,
of
Christian
Gnostics
in
doctrine.
were
Rational
gations
originators of systematic investiTheology and Comparative Religion,
the
PHILOSOPHICAL
106
vindicated
by
of
chief
the
signifying
wise
does
who
solve
by
fact
thought;
Greek,
philosophy
doctrine.
the
of
the
with
the
the
though
was
of
of
combination
Oriental
of
of
at
hopeless.
differ
in
of
was
and
more
the
mysticism;
with
in
related
are
mysticism
mysticism
drian
Alexan-
the
consisted
philosophy
with
has
as
up
They
oriental
to
attempt
God.
Gnosticism
Philo
one
one
speculation,
section
mystical.
are
Neo-Platonic
tinged
not
ing
denot-
meaning
the
given
Jewish
and
envelope
an
Agnostic,
by
been
primarily
signifying
that
universe,
knows
philosophy
of
of
centers
philosopher,
Gnostic,
indicating
Philo,
all
they
of
that
that
wisdom
by
that
affinities;
nucleus
thus
first
Sophist,
name
name
to
way
Neo-Platonism
School,
the
the
philosophers,
world
Philosophy
The
to
the
Alexandria,
and
the
the
way
so
of
mystery
the
Truly
gave
know,
these
As
be
to
not
stimulated
thus
became
Schools.
shown
Antioch
Gnosticism,
given
not
the
least
Theology.
wisdom,
has
knows,
who
Christian
man,
of
lover
philosophy
Theologic
Christian
be
must
Gnostic
of
seats
least
at
reason,
unreasonable.
development
THEORIES
their
Jewish
Greek
purely
Gnostic
Christian
XII
CHAPTER
Patristic
Philosophy
Patristic
By
we
Church
of the
Philosophy
Philosophy
understand
to
are
Fathers
of the
the
period
Christian
between
the
times
unreasonable.
not
Gnosticism
As
least
outside
an
hostile
somewhat
was
for which
matter
the
church
could
Christian
Theologians
solution of theological problems, but
Christian
point of view, in harmony
the
the
to
not
must
church,
ble,
responsi-
not
was
at
or
accept
the
Gnostic
solve
them
from
with
the
principles
of
reason.
If any
principle
because
to be valid,
intuition, it is the
No
truth
If
falsity
hypothesis,
of
truth
the
the
and
the
not
does
time,
in
however
and
truth
can
contradic.
if
the
can
Philosophy
be
kept
mysteries,
be
therefore
great,
another
of
have
this
by
has
both
same
we
truth.
involves
each
both
by
true
logical consequence
taken
doctrines
to
the
and
in fact, absurdities,
object
not
as
truth
shall
we
other,
Hence
are,
one
then
false,
absurd
falsity of
is, if the
would
authority,
Theological
the
each
absurdities.
that
other,
and
truth;
then
same
which
another
involve
can
both
self -destructive,
No
with
conflict, thai
of
the
at
truth
no
truths
two
and
held
accepted as fundamental,
at once
true
apprehended
as
by rational
principle that all truths exist in harmony.
conflict
can
that
mean
be
can
of the
and
true
false
which
sense,
is
impossible.
to accept
compel reason
that
right to demand
a
free
from
contradictions,
since
it is absurd
another
truth,
to
suppose
though
it does
if it
supported by evidence, even
that
the contradictory,
simply demands
It
accept them.
the
the
irrational, be
absurd,
eliminated
from
the
in making
this
doctrine; and
demand,
body of received
philosophy does, for theology, a very
moving
great service, by reof
the insuperable objections
rational
minds.
107
THEORIES
PHILOSOPHICAL
108
"With
the
the
as
head
is not
faith in God
that
be
to
with
be
the
is
past, and
philosophy
may
What
system.
philosophy
that
to show
Philosophy
philosophicalprinciple
any
true.
obligation to
Philosophy.
no
of
phase
new
every
task, if
needless
and
tian."
chris-
is able
under
Theology is,however,
doctrines
heart
in conflict with
affirms
reason
the
with
irrational
be
not
irreverent.
be
not
but
heathen,
should
Religion
should
am
endless; for, as
not
likelyto
be
flourish
for
system
can
true
a
in the
it has
future,
time, then
reconcile
This
would
true
in
system
of
been
a
give way
both
be regarded as
its
another
to
true
and
complete?
Epicurus,
No
true
it that
Is
doubt
all these
of
have
systems
more
less truth.
or
mental,
fundaarrange
different systems,
through
symmetrical system, practically
organize
a
Till
is
this
done, so that the principlesof philosophy
complete.
need
make
haste
not
are
generally accepted, theology
endeavor
to
so
long as it
adjust itself to philosophy, nor
them
keeps its doctrines free from absurdities, to harmonize
with the passing novelties of the successive systems of philosophy.
the
various
truths
and
To
require that
that
faith
is to
basis
of
should
demand
it be transformed
requires a
the
into
them
demonstrated,
but
scattered
accept
that
into
knowledge;
only
faith
what
be
knowledge.
but
when
the
no
reason
has
longer faith,
Faith, however,
veracity of
the
PHILOSOPHY
PATRISTIC
claims
authority which
verifiable
cases,
instances
not
many
But
yet verified.
true
all
our
assent,
for
is not
to
be
cepted
ac-
self-contradictory; for
not
self-contradictory,but
not
are
in
proved
doctrine
because
simply
been
to withhold
it is unreasonable
by faith
things not
has
faith
our
109
because
truth.
the
or
Has
The
instincts
does
doctrine
ground
be
may
the
the
on
with
nature,
or
testimony
past shown
in the
influence
any
conflict
not
revelation,
of the soul, or
philosophy
exerted
has
the
that
condition
an
any
or
known
history,
of reliable
nesses.
wit-
believe it has.
We
styled Apologists,
early defenders of Christianity were
aim
of these
writers
and
their works
was
Apologies, The
of
misapprehensions from the minds
conciliatory,to remove
their opponents, and
to
place the doctrines of Christianity
in a favorable
light before the eye of reason.
Justin
1,
(103-167). Justin Martyr, so-called because
for his religion,
instructed in the
he suffered martyrdom
was
Platonic
and
Schools.
Impressed
philosophy of the Stoic
Christians
under
of
the
with
steadfastness
the
persecution,
of
he
the
embraced
human
and distrusting
reliability
reason,
it against heretics, Jews and pagans.
Christianityand defended
The
His
principalworks
are
his
two
Apologies
addressed
to
Marcus
Pius and
Aurelius, and
Emperors Antoninus
his dialogue with Typho
Justin held that Christ
the Jew.
the Logos incarnate, in whom
the entire human
was
race
lived in communion
have
has an
interest,and that all who
and
Socrates.
He
with him
Christians, as Heraclitus
are
that
the early Greek
believed
philosophers, as Plato and
Aristotle, were
acquainted with the writings of Moses, but of
The
later Greek
this there is no
evidence.
philosophers, as
the Neo-Platonists, had access
to the sacred
writings.
the
The
Apologies of
who
Justin
made
were
admitted
them
maintained
Justin
denounced
that
atheists,not
that
they
were
as
the
to
were
written
in defence
atheists,rebels
Christians
were
and
tians
of Chrisevil-doers.
Atheists,
if it
gods; but he
they worship
110
PHILOSOPHICAL
the God
THEORIES
of truth and
existed
form
in Christ, who
abolished
his
In
the
writings Justin
employs philosophy
to
enforce
his
views.
Irenaeus
2.
discipleof
St.
antinomian
that
the
doctrine,
that
outward
Divine
law
law
was
the
also
to
Men
in the
for their
future
doctrines
against the
held
He
immorality.
of
Creator
one
the
world; that
with the Father;
for the
the intentions
as
freely decide
for
decision
against
wrote
preparation
appliesto
conduct.
law, and
punished
Among
with
or
Mosaic
the
He
tending
as
Christian
the
Gnostics.
is identical
God
Logos
John, defends
of the
theories
the
(160-202). Irenaeus,
and
life
well
or
are
Gospel;
as
to
and
works,
against
rewarded
the
or
life.
three
the
writers
the
eddies
in
the
current
of
Christian
thought.
thage,
(160-220). Tertullian, a presbyter of Carwas
tion.
opposed to Gnosticism, and in fact, to all speculaHe considered
the
of
mother
heresies, and
philosophy
far in opposition to it as to say : Credo
went
so
quia ahsurdum.
He stands for the reaction against philosophy; but an absurdity
is no
be accepted by reason.
groimd for faith; it cannot
of Alexandria, a presbyJf. Clement {
-217). Clement
ter,
of great learning,and
well
man
a
especially
acquainted
3.
Tertullian
PATRISTIC
all
draw, from
was
the
on
knowledge;
when
may
do
many
why, only
chief
that God
under
power
in the
is to
movement
in that
which
is to
of Christian
accounted
by
Logos,
Divine
Father.
Faith
is
as
Faith
them.
old
the
Christian
towards
continue,
leads
dispensation,to
new.
advance
evil, and
ineffable
the
commands
motive
attractive
illustrations
to
but
well founded,
obedience, may
the
of
hesitate
not
philosophy was
Christianity. Christ, the
manifestation
based
and
did
Greek
The
preparationfor
111
philosophy,
arguments
sources,
doctrine.
him
and
literature
Greek
with
PHILOSOPHY
not
must
from
fear,
love, the
needs
perfection,and this
only in this world,
nounce
re-
ward
up-
but
come.
have come
end to make
for the
to an
present, which must
way
whatever
present, there would be needed for the same
reason,
that might be, another
world
before
that, and so on, ad
infinitum.
of the
ence
Arius
6,
This
Alexandria, is noted
Father
and
Alexander,
His
one
other
Son, and
and
views
addressed
to
do
with
be
can
to
as
of the
relation
with
of the
his bishop,
understood
Eusebius, the
Bishop Alexander.
from
church
two
of his letters,
historian, and
the
THEORIES
PHILOSOPHICAL
He
writes
"What
Eusebius:
to
do
That
maintain?
we
is not
he
In
not."
was
letter to
alone
God
believe
We
.
this
that
God
birth
gave
the
to
he made
periods,and
these
three
are
doctrines
The
before Christ
have
of Arius
time
they were
church, though never
present day, they are
one
is alone
the
while
that
so
there
of all
things,
originate,begotten by the
son
all things,as singleand the principle
The
therefore
all,and
cause
is
is before
God
Father.
things else
yet God
persons,
unoriginate.
and
of
all
only
also."
various
had
fortunes, and
orthodox
considered
the
by
the
accepted by
the central principlesof
at
eastern
the
At
western.
Unitarian
the
creed.
Eusebius
7.
tine,and
his controversies
with
neither
nor
Arian
an
with
Arius, that
Athanasius.
and
Athanasian, but
an
position in
hold
Alexander
the
Arian
there
occupied
He
controversy.
was
time
He
when
the
an
was
mediate
inter-
did
Son
not
was
not, neither
The
its
perfume.
Athanasius
became
8.
(298-373). Athanasius
Bishop of
Alexandria when
He was
five times sent
thirtyyears of age.
into exile,and altogether,was
separated twenty years from
flower
his
to
diocese.
Bishop
and
labored
He
as
an
author.
with
zeal
and
both
success
formulated
He
as
Trinitarian
the
creed.
In
opposition to Arius,
of the Trinity which
the various
branches
Athanasius
has
be
refuted
assumed
the
between
trine
doc-
practicallyaccepted by
Christianity. The doctrine
Nicene
creed, was
formally
A. D.
doctrine
the
the
been
of orthodox
of the
formulated
325.
that
eternal
God
an
intermediate
and
temporal
PHILOSOPHICAL
114
THEORIES
well
Augustine was
a
philosopher as
so-called
modern
certain
anticipated
took,
He
fact
the
of
as
consciousness
volitions
other
mental
fact, but
be
can
To
of
of all
thoughts, feelings,and
thoughts, feelings,
be conscious
who
one
Cogito,ergo
in the fact
in
known
of sensation
is,since
is conscious.
This
The
of
sum.
fact
of the consciousness
other
no
knowledge,
is real, and
of the
Descartes'
involved
real.
are
theologian,and
in psychology.
foundation
consciousness
the
volitions, then
and
the immovable
as
discoveries
way.
of
or
only
of any
of that
reminds
our
of
us
existence
phenomena,
is
and
know
saved,
God
we
elects
those
who
are
saved
to
eternal
life,and
If it is said
the
PHILOSOPHY
PATRISTIC
it is
Ah,
admitted
be
it may
in Adam.
that
they
one
not
not
are
determining
the
the
by
will, as
back
go
and
might
he
will
the
of
which
condemnation,
he
that
he
under
acted
acted
under
conscience
therefore
in human
the
that
man
truthful
honest
could
not
be
sinner
The
could
he
not
necessity; hence
necessity,but that
him.
condemns
it does not
nature;
he is guilty,when
life.
or
No;
volition,
The
without; it is the
not
volition, is produced, is
thing.
same
God's
reasons.
has
is not
bear
he
does
he
acted
he
false
of
sense
if he
Conscience
in the
Conscience
have,
man
effect, and
an
hath
have
by motives?
and
reasons,
ego
by
cause
lost, it is be-
is
not
testifies to
Pela-
to
is assisted
one
itself,in view
is within
power
if any
God
that
will determined
but
causes,
The
that
Adam
bringeth salvation
this grace, that is,by
with
unto
come
is not
is determined
and
fiction,
from
not
saved; and
be
can
one,
himself.
and
all men,"
to
But, says
motives
scious
con-
which
God
of
grace
would
he
should
which
of God,
appeared
help, any
is
inherited
The
grace
no
to sin.
tendency
the
had
They
hence
in Adam;
existence
though
sinned
replied,they
115
guilt
believed
not
believe
freely,and
is
no
aly
anom-
witness, telling
is not
guilty; it is the
witness, bearing testimony of guilt,which
sinner's
is free.
The
guilt unless the man
him
condemn
as
guilty.
deepest convictions
Augustine rejects the theory of a succession of worlds,
which
been
and
have
created
destroyed; he held that the
present universe is the only one, and that it had a beginning,
time began.
Plato he held
and that with the universe
With
that
time
does
not
measures
motion,
measures
time.
exist
apart from
reversing
Duration
the
is
movement,
relation
true
eternal, and
and
that
movement
that
it
motion
is in
duration.
What
"Eternity and
in
in eternity or
movement
God;" and since there was
no
God
before the act of creation, there was
time.
In reply,
no
ask: Was
God
we
asleep in eternity? Do the changes that
take place constitute
time?
If so, what
changes? The sum
was
before
time?
Augustine
answers
PHILOSOPHICAL
116
total
be
of
take
not
still
would
there
blank
held
Did
creation.
creation?
then
the
creation
of
the
bodies
world.
held
blank
the
bodies
are
No;
that
God
was
in
of
time.
to
of
as
has
but
bodies
motion
God.
But
is
poetic,
space
Word,
and
but
does
is:
the
On
The
the
Reason,
the
Space
they
have
not
time
is
is
the
Wisdom
bodies,
in
that
which
eternal,
and
and
power,
work
change?
Forces
work
mathematicians
of
important
in
from
for
no
of
most
Trinity,
tion
founda-
apart
room
it
learn
may
son,
Rea-
the
the
philosophic.
not
time.
Word,
motion;
place.
take
before
asleep
asleep.
is
and
of
act
existence.
existence
space
of
act
the
before
nor
no
time.
into
the
the
might
the
nor
God
idle
not
Philosophers
x\ugustine
the
with
space
of
dead
is
infinite
with
Logos,
omnipresent;
language
regard
Son
existed
that
or
time
rivals
not
works
the
exist
present
changes
in
God
possibility
may
The
It
before
spring
cannot
for
and
things
is
existence
neither
was
relation;
their
and
he
world.
the
of
Augustine
into
non-entity
eternal;
Wisdom
the
no
No,
time?
time
there
change,
which
Eternity
was
come
for
of
place.
there
God
No;
is
God
that
that
out
still
left,
time?
is
in
these
Strike
other
then
or
but
be.
is
some
What
events,
take
succession
or
Augustine
the
of
still
before
out
change
occur,
constitute
change
cannot
particular
change
one
time.
be
possibility
persist
that
struck
been
have
might
that
would
but
It
change?
might
time
till
Does
if
changes
and
time,
time.
be
would
for
other
change,
after
change
particular
some
change;
place,
require
changes
it
or
particular
some
did
changes,
the
THEORIES
which
of
he
God.
the
regards
CHAPTER
Scholastic
is the
Scholasticism
of the
Seven
rivium
middle
XIII
Philosophy
system
"
First
elaborated
Period
by
the
theologians
ages.
liberal
were
Rhetoric, and
and
Astronomy
arts
sciences
and
"
the
trivium
and
trivium
embraced
The
taught.
Logic; the quadrivium, Arithmetic,
thequadGrammar,
Geometry,
Music.
The
philosophy to theology?
the following:
to this question are
only possible answers
circles.
(1) They are co-extensive,like two equal coincident
exclusive
mutually
(2) They
having
common
no
are
subject-matter.
to theology.
(3) Philosophy is subordinate
to Philosophy.
(4) Theology is subordinate
(5) Philosophy intersects theology.
The
(5) is the true relation; for they have common
matter,
and
itself.
each
and
Both
matter
peculiar to
agreement
difference
relate to their subject-matter.
Have
and
Philosophy
Theology
subjectcommon
any
for
consider
matter?
fundamental
both
the
Yes;
problems
universe
of
the
of
the
the
to
relating
origin
nature,
destiny
ity,
realand
of man,
and
their dependence
God, the ultimate
on
represented by the common
part of the circles.
Theology is the theory of religion,or the philosophy of the
relations
of
doctrines
God.
to
Its
concerning sin,
man
final
pardon, regeneration, justification,and
repentance,
salvation, are peculiar to itself,and are not held in common
with
Scholasticism
made
philosophy.
Philosophia Ancilla
Theologiae,
truth, which, if
Philosophy is the theory of fundamental
be represented by the common
relating to God, may
part of
of
two
truth
intersecting circles; if relating to the necessary
the sciences, by the part of the circle Philosophy without
the
circle Theology.
What
is
relation
the
the
Hence,
others, is the
relation
true
of
of
relation
intersection, which
of
Philosophy
117
to
excludes
Theology.
the
PHILOSOPHICAL
118
THEORIES
in
Though
ecclesiae the
truth,
necessary
not
related.
so
doctrines
aid
the
are
of
of
hand-maid
the
church,
us
now
When
rational,or
philosophy,
at
least not
which
consider
is
different.
theologians:
ably
Erigena, prob-
of the scholastic
the work
Erigena (cir.805-877).
1,
with
not
it deals
since
the
ancilla
Johannes
Scotus
the
Ireland, was
a fine scholar, familiar with
writingsof Aristotle,the Neo-Platonists, and the early church
He was
fathers.
invited to France by Charles, the Bald, and
a
native
of
by
arbiter,and
supreme
or
than
of the
its
own
the
not
With
him
reason
authority of Plato, or
was
the
of Aristotle
Erigena considered
He
the will
scholastic.
the
defended
eucharist
the
symbolical
doctrine
of the
and
freedom
memorative.
com-
of
predestinationismof Gottschalk.
In his treatise on
Divine
predestination,Erigena argues
He
asserts
entirely from the speculative point of view.
that
true
religionand true philosophy are fundamentally
the same.
true
They are, however, not the same,
as
religion
is practical a life of faith in God, reverence
for his character,
and obedience
to his laws; philosophy, on
the other hand, is
for its instrument
ity.
and its authorspeculativeand takes reason
If Scotus had said that theology and philosophy occupy
the same
the truth, yet not
ground, it would have been nearer
above
that they hold
exactly the truth; for we have showed
in part common
ground, and each ground not held by the
against the
extreme
"
other.
At
the
Dionysius,
the Areopagite, and
published it without
submitting it to
the church
for approval, for which
he incurred the displeasure
of Pope Nicholas
I.
PHILOSOPHY"
SCHOLASTIC
of
great work
The
FIRST
De
Erigena, entitled
after
PERIOD
Divisione
the
reasoned
out
which
is
neither
is created
of all
goal
does
non-being,
but
is not
(3) That
(4) That
create.
not
ture,
Na-
which
creates.
nor
first is God
The
the
but
created
Naturae^
of Plato.
dialogue
manner
both
the
being and
universe, containing
which
consists of four divisions: (1) That
creates
created
and
is
That
which
created.
creates.
(2)
is
119
origin of
the
last is God
things; the
third
and
second
The
things.
all
constitute
the
in time.
God
of God
alone, the
universe, the manifestation
uncreated
Creator, has true being, and is a trinity,the Father
the Spirit as Life.
Wisdom
Being, the Son as Wisdom,
as
the first emanation
the Son of the Father, corresponds to the
Platonic
realm
of ideas.
Goodness, the highest idea, participates
in
being.
God
was
influence
This
eternal.
is created
leaves
it
only
God,
to
of the
creation
fore,
is, there-
the
possibleconception; for
(4) that
which
actual, and
as
and
be, and
to
Wisdom
should
we
or
had
time
never
it will
beginning, and
is eternal, and
God,
never
is identical
for creation
ceases;
left
have
would
life;that is, God
God
is eternal, so the universe, the
and
Wisdom,
Life, or of the triune
never
has eternally
rules it out
and
creates,
nor
as
conflict with
to
seems
and
ing
mov-
God
livingSpirit,so
power,
ideas
eternal
or
who,
Wisdom
cease
Wisdom,
his creative
manifested
neither
without
never
the
under
Essence
never
is also
have
an
eternal; it
fore,
end; there-
with
eternity.
began, nor will
ment
Moveit
ever
end.
Sin
results
represents
which
evil
is not
sinner.
from
The
and
salvation
and
saved.
as
the
good
local
result
of the
will
and
of
individual
who
is
simply
in the
punishment
is the
final
sinner; even
the
devils
are
to
falsely
is
it; wickedness
pursues
place, but
of
the
hell,
soul of the
purification
be
purified
PHILOSOPHICAL
120
is
Erigena
held
not
ultimate
did
He
THEORIES
not
com^plete, and
then
of the
endeavor
and
only
defend
church
ultimate
as
elucidate
to
them
and
by
he
logicalexposition
by argument,
and
philosophized to discover the truth by his own
reason,
thorough originalinvestigation,and the result was
a system
of rational
is philosophicallybetter
than
Theology, which
dogmatic Theology.
the
flourished
latter half of the
(^.) Roscellinus, who
the first to give definite
eleventh
expression
century, was
the doctrines
of Nominalism
in opposition to those
to
of
Realism.
devised
Conceptualism, a later theory, was
as
a
older theories.
the two
It is important
compromise between
have
to
Realism
is the
species,has
the
that
it is the
individuals
they
doctrine
must
but
theories.
universal, a genus
or
a
real objective existence, independent both
of
objects of a class,and of the act of conception;
individual
and
of these
clear view
them
that
the
according to which
in comparison with
and
which
imperfect and inferior. This is
perfect pattern
fashioned,
are
the
forever
remain
doctrine
of ideas
The
for
formula
taught by Plato.
realism is: Universalia
be
ante rem.
Universals, however, may
regarded as God's ideas, and not as absolutely independent.
Nominalism
is the
the
real
as
all
existence; that
universals
formula
only
are
in the
mind
those
is the
of the
our
names
for nominalism
Conceptualism
have
a
only individuals
ideas are
particular;and that
The
of resembling individuals.
doctrine
that
is : Universalia
theory
that
post
thinking subject, as
elements
which
rem.
universal has
a
pure
an
existence
concept
to the
bracing
em-
qualities
class;
by
their
arities,
peculicomparing resembling individuals, disregarding
and
their
common
noting, abstracting
combining
individual
individual
from
and
in
to
that,
qualities;
passing
of the same
class, the peculiaritiesof the individuals are
dropped, while the common
qualitiesare retained, the notion
the
qualities constitutes
corresponding to these common
found
in all the
only
individuals
correspond
of the
that
it is found
concept.
The
formula
for
conceptualism
is: Universalia
in
re.
PHILOSOPHICAL
122
THEORIES
the
(1033-1108). Anselm,
Archbishop of
the
tritheistic theory, as
Canterbury, so far from endorsing
his
RoseeUinus
treatise,D^A'd^
Trinitatis^
supposed, composed
the
sacred dogmas, as they were
He accepted
in refutation.
the
church, and
by philosophy
given by the authority of
Anselm
3.
endeavored
He
endeavored
of the
only
the
incarnation.
posterioriand
priori.
The
From
truth
existence
if God
only
of the
conception
has
absolute
no
human
God
of
both
was
in
posterioriproof
knowing and in willing,and
inielli-
ui
is found
in
God, the
to
Credo
was:
the
Monologium.
motto
of God,
of
things, he rises
in
His
to
demonstration
His
this is the
reasonable^ and
appear
existence
not
the
them
of Scholasticism.
keynote
gam.
make
to
The
ultimate
truth, the
prioriproof, found in
God
is the greatest being conceivable.
is
but
existence,
objective
a
he would
mind,
be
not
lutely
abso-
render
greatest, for real objective existence would
God, the greatest being has objective
greater; hence
the
him
existence.
demonstration
Descartes'
of
existence
the
of
the
most
strate
In his great work:
Cur Deus
to demonhomo, he undertakes
the necessityof the atonement.
Sin, the transgression
of God's
infinite
law, wounds
satisfaction,which
the
Assuming
rendered
can
mercy
The
this
wages
claims
be
form
of
the
man,
to
finite
man,
satisfaction,by
extended
of God,
infinite honor
the
man,
of sin is death.
The
while
death
son,
the
the
as
the
render.
God-Man,
penalty,
law
of Christ
in
free will of
William
succession
two
an
ethical
man,
his
way.
duty
of Champeaux
diflferent
With
it should
of repentance
(1070-1121).
opinions in regard to
and
that
the
showed
of
than
so
is vindicated.
rather
requires
being, cannot
sinless
paying
and
be
The
in
test
con-
legal
considered
life of obedience.
William
realism.
held
From
in
PHILOSOPHY"
SCHOLASTIC
his first
FIRST
opinion, he
PERIOD
US
or
class.
of that
was
criticism
The
Socrates, it
be where
cannot
of Abelard
homo
essence
that
is
forced
him
wholly
and
in
Socrates
is not, and
is not
hence
in Plato.
his
In
view
modification
the
that
universal
similar
reasonable
no
in
would
be
nothing
which
William
held
together.
to
that
in Paul,
Father, Son
and
of
that
this
them
humanity
there
classed
be
to
is similar
of Peter
Divinity in
identical.
They
the
qualitiesis
the
the
identical; but
and
one
view
something
class, otherwise
the
is,
its
asserted
is
there
are
their manifestations.
of
of the
common
similar
or
class,and
of this combination
the notion
only a mental
understanding
is
qualities
existence,
that
same,
class, and
entitle
the
Holy Spiritis
combination
characteristic
of
would
not
yet
distinguishedby
This
of the
objection, since
individuals
all the
the
numerically
that
sameness,
is
there
is
individuals
the
retracted
of the
we
Plato
say
of the
is
class
man,
that
mean
we
man,
attributes
other
The
dividual
in-
in every
man;
which
himself
of that
of
to
William's; it may
an
of attributes
combination
the
having
is
Plato
those
in the
alone
attention
to
peculiar
to
becomes
the
other
having
these
the
individuals
a
similar
individual
genus
or
the
be thus
stated:
individual
of the
substantial
of
species.
class, the
existence.
attributes, throwing
out
universal
The
dividual
in-
Restricting
the
the
account,
This
became
elements
individual
a
favorite
PHILOSOPHICAL
124
this
but
which
of Realism,
core
similar
attributes
correct
view
The
Gilbert de la Porree
5.
the
between
This
is a
of attributes is not
the
regarded, but
so
the
is the
counterpart
class
genera
the
is
itself,which
of
numerically, the
is
same
distinguishes
did
not
and
of genera
the class
mean
attributes, essentiallythough
individuals
in all of the
is thus
universal
Gilbert
of individuals
species,he
or
combination
the
(1075-1154^).
of existence
manner
species. By
but
of
view.
better
or
was
speciesis
or
genus
bundle
its mental
class, and
of the
it to
Abelard;
universal,
of the class.
bundle
it
of
of the
reduces
individuals
species,though
characteristic
concept.
and
the
or
in all the
criticism
existence
substantial
the
gives up
is the
genus
after the
Realistic camp,
of the
theory
THEORIES
native
of the
not
class.
form,
essentiallythe same,
The
inherent
a
particular is
every
what
is peculiar to the
and
individual
distinguishes him
from
the other individuals
and
gives him his special value.
The
individual is the universal plus the particular.
exist in God
the perfect
Gilbert held that universals
as
or
archetypes or patterns after which they exist as more
Gilbert
less imperfect copies,in the individuals
of a class.
The
thus
was
at
individual
in
both
once
of
Platonist
class.
and
Aristotelian.
divided
by Gilbert into
categoriesof Aristotle were
classes
two
ity,
formae inhaerentes,as substance, quantity, qualand potential relation, and formae assistantes,as action,
passion, place, time, position,belonging to objects only in
relation to other objects. This
distinction
was
adopted by
all the schools, and held its place about
four hundred
years.
Abelard
Abelard
have
how
6.
seen
(1079-1142). We
The
"
refuted
he
realism, but
extreme
nominalism.
not
go
to
over
extreme
form
these
Laying
which
forms,
The
as
view
only
core
the
of
the
individual, renders
identifies
theory
the
it
makes
and
substance
that
down
did
all
in
beings
which
indifference,
of the
universal
one
exists
substantial
by
to
stance.
sub-
recognizesa generic
individual, is cond
individual
universal,however, is not
it indifferent
its
core
mned
own
of the
by the
right
The
individual;
SCHOLASTIC
combination
it is that
of
PHILOSOPHY"
class to
found
that
notion
The
class.
of
FIRST
PERIOD
qualitiessimilar
in
125
individual
one
in any
other individual
of the same
this combination
of qualities is the
of
concept.
What
then
is
man,
is
Plato
and
is
of the class.
one
a
man
as
is
class
class
is
man
Plato;
than
more
Plato
not
can
we
mean
Plato
say
that
mean
The
subject
is Plato.
man
ing
Say-
without
man
from
other
fully
individuals
of himself, since
predicate Plato
we
we
man.
class
in the
do
man,
certain
classes, not
are
we
man,
discriminatinghim
or
means
of the
puts him
Here
of the
Plato
say
identical;for
man,
is
humanity, though
individual
predicate are
identifyinghim
him
we
certain
is
species? They
Plato
say
Plato
When
Plato
is
we
or
is human.
and
genera
When
universals.
Plato
are
the
but
tain
cer-
proposition Plato
is Plato;
it also
classifies
man.
In the definition,Plato
is the
man
founded
who
ic
the Academ-
School
"A
doctrine
because
he
doctrine
at Soissons
convinced
are
we
Though
own
is believed
combatted
of the
and
at
by
the
Trinity
that
reason
was
has
God
because
not
Tritheism
said
it, but
it is so."
of Roscellinus,
condemned
his
by the councils
Sens.
is
yet he adds
that
dialectic
is like the
sword
of Hercules
in
PHILOSOPHICAL
126
law.
In
his
scholastics
and
Latin,
or
giving,
logical
was
Academician;
the
supremacy
be
as
he
they
of
admirer
but
of
with
Plato,
of
him
the
his
fulfillment
an
the
period.
of
of
account
Cicero,
He
period
first
an
the
wrote
considered
and
end.
of
of
the
of
the
the
what
His
time.
own
do,
to
knowledge
inventory
an
to
the
comes
is
gave
up
discussions
great
added
logic,
not
accomplished
had
the
love,
Polycraticus,
valuable,
are
an
that
and
Sciences;
there
unless
hand,
pigmy's
THEORIES
works
schools,
elegant
himself
Scholasticism
XIV
CHAPTER
Scholastic
Philosophy
Second
"
Period
the second
In order
to understand
Philosophy,
consider
to
philosophy, it is necessary
period of Scholastic
Arabic
and
revival
of
Aristotle.
the
philosophy,
Arabic
is
Greek
and
philosophy
thought, with modifications
additions, expressed in the Arabic
shaped by
language, and
oriental
The
Mahometan
speculation.
theologians inquired
with
his manihow
the
absolute
of
is
consistent
fold
God
unity
the sovereignty of God
consists with
attributes, and how
free
will
in man.
They
pervaded
regarded
by
as
space
Arabic
1,
inextended
owing
Each
conduct.
sole
divided
as
the
of God,
act
is the
God
is, according
atoms
and
the
in the
cause
infinitesimal
into
is true
same
Alkendi,
the
century,
and
which
only
the
was
native
century,
universe, if the
of
Bosra,
part
variously styled,
of his
one
of
author
was
of
the
Christian
his
more
excellent
the
the
philosopher
than
hundred
age,
books
two
exerted
(3) Avicenna
regarded
treatise
Bacon,
and
as
on
by them
often
was
as
greatest
as
De
127
bians,
Ara-
books
of
tention
at-
great
foundation
by
Roger
logic,
other
in
jects,
sub-
Aristotle.
referred
demonstratione;
of
the
Oriental
Oriental
Averroes.
of his
of the
and
great.
Avicenna,
a native
the
the
very
philosophy
was
highly prized by him.
was
somewhat
pantheistic by
on
in
one
on
him
quote
Aristotle
(980-1037).
the
commentaries
were
Aristotelians
commentaries
influence
His
Arabic
flourished
who
He
thirty are
philosophy.
on
gave
the
to logic, and
regarded mathematics
as
His
of all science.
works
highly esteemed
were
Alkendi
Bacon.
also
was
an
astrologer.
Alfarabi
wrote
(2) Alfarabi (
950).
on
which
he
followed
he
wrote
Alkendi;
on
many
to
of human
about
The
them,
to
is true.
theory
(1)
ninth
in
change
direct
the
to
time
and
atoms,
instants.
known
Avicenna
the
more
of Bokhara',
philosophers.
to
Roger
was
sidered
con-
orthodox
PHILOSOPHICAL
128
Only
divine
the
the
Porphyry;
to the
is
name
that
treating of
settle the dispute
"
to
seems
Universalia
multitudinem,
ante
this
is realism.
the
to
common
Universalia
nominalism,
this is
is extant
it
understanding;
in multitudine;
is
his works
of
universals, thus:
about
in
of
portion
five universals
the
THEORIES
individuals;this
post multitudinem,
conceptualism. Thus
dispute are right;they
in
are
certain
concepts;
as
all
sense,
only
wrong
as
Universalia
parties
in their extreme
views.
1111).
(4)
divergenciesfrom
their
towards
tendencies
Moslem
the
Mysticism;
faith.
died
he
He
in
had
strong
seclusion
as
monk.
His
Spain.
Averroes
(1126-1198).
Averroes
(5)
in
was
in
born
at Cordova
study, under
the best
spent
great progress
in mathematics,
He made
teachers of the age.
and jurisprudence^
theology, medicine
astronomy,
in Spain were
The
times were
the
Saracens
what
somestormy;
divided, and
closely pressed by the Christian
were
armies on the north, but with the influx of fresh tribes from
the forces of their enethe desert, they rallied and defeated
mies,
and
m
Schools
established
and
the
of Moslem
sway
collegesabounded
under
the
in greater
splendor.
patronage
of liberal
rulers.
Averroes
but
Cordova,
at
and
suffered
that
of
Kadi
through
insults from
philosophy
however,
was,
made
was
restored
to
held
intrigues,he
court
was
ignorant multitude
the
was
Seville,and
to
the
which
he
dangerous
honor,
true
like oflSce
banished,
who
ined
imag-
faith.
enjoyed
the
He
rest
of his life.
The
the
a
Christian
more
who
fame
historic
schoolmen,
complete
at that
of Averroes
time
who
knowledge
was
of
held in the
chiefly through
from
his writings, acquired
the
philosophy of Aristotle,
highest honor.
has
come
PHILOSOPHICAL
130
Albertus
(1)
Great,
abilityas
and
teacher.
educated
was
called
Magnus
account
on
THEORIES
Padua
at
and
his
in
the
great
Swabia,
Paris.
of the
reproduced, in Systematic order, the whole
philosophy of Aristotle, and adapted it to the requirements
The
Latin translations
of Aristotle
of ecclesiastical dogmas.
from the Arabic, as well as some
translations from the Greek,
He
accessible
were
Albert
To
threefold
form:
according
Avicenna,
to
as
universale
as
and
Plato
to
Neo-Platonism
and
Aristotle
influence, but
without
not
Platonism
him.
to
the
ante
in the
rem,
Plotinus;
were
mind
universale
as
of God,
in
re,
the
collection
after which
Albert
deduce
common
individuals
the
defines
the
logic as
unknown
of Aristotle
whom
with
from
the
which
and
known;
Avicenna
created.
were
teaches
in his
rather
though
virtues
of the
the
equal rank.
In psychology,
with
in the
the
combined
with
to
Averroes
occasionally quotes
rests, very
properly, on the
virtues
he enjoins consist of the
ancients
how
tion
interpreta-
than
ethics of Albert
will,and
only
follows
he
class
science
frequently combats,
approval.
of the
united
the
he
The
of
of the
the
Christian
freedom
cardinal
virtues
he
present life.
SCHOLASTIC
PHILOSOPHY"
doctrines, for
these
that
discovered
read.
of
in
articles
the
light of
the
are
illustrated, but
Albert
reason.
well
as
of his life
the
defence
the
was
perhaps the
most
widely
was
as
not
of the
former
pupil, Thomas
Aquinas.
Thomas
Aquinas
of Aquino (l^'^5-l'^74f)Thomas
of a noble family and allied to several of the monarchs
of Aquino,
of Landulf, Count
He
the Son
was
Europe.
the territoryof Naples.
of
He received
his elementary education
at the monastery
Monte
of his friend
131
of
of faith
last act
PERIOD
structio
beUevers, the inthe refutation
of unbelievers,
time
of his
man
Almost
orthodoxy
(2) St,
was
these
by
learned
most
confirmation
the
ignorant, and
of the
holding
SECOND
and
Naples.
He
the
sity
Univer-
Dominicans,
against the will of his family. He then studied under Albertus Magnus
at Cologne and at Paris.
Receiving his degree,
he engaged in the controversy between
the Begging Friars and
the University,concerning the libertyof teaching, and taking
sides against the University, he won
his case.
He
did
active
service
for
his
for
and
order
the
church,
writing,lecturing,and
appointed to
of Naples, where
giving instruction.
and the Abbacy Monte
was
He
summoned
was
Council
Cassino.
Lyons,
at
the
Greek
by
to
and
aid
Latin
Pope Gregory
in adjusting the
sufferingfrom illness,he at
Council, but his strength failinghim
he
to
died, after
Thomas
Summa
to
the
Cistercian
a
wrote
was
the
attend
controversies
tween
be-
set
once
on
the
of Fossa
monastery
out
way,
Nuova,
for the
he
was
where
lingeringsickness.
many
Theologiae.
this which
to
Churches.
Though
carried
books,
His
intended
the
other
to
is the
greatest of which
books
were
preparatory
give
summary
edge,
of all knowl-
of
Aristotle.
of
distinct sources
there
two
are
According to Thomas,
Revelation
is
and
Reason, of which
knowledge. Revelation
of knowledge.
the superior. Revelation, the divine
source
THEORIES
PHILOSOPHICAL
132
Reason, the
Scripture and the Church.
of natural
fountain
the
knowledge, has for its channels
various systems of philosophy, especiallythose of Plato and
Aristotle
Plato for thought, Aristotle for method.
Modern
has
channels
two
"
"
science
natural
for
foundation
the
the
virtues
intellectual
into
natural
chief
the
if not
the
sole
knowledge.
divided
Thomas
observation
makes
natural
into
and
and
moral; the
theological;
intellectual
or
of reason;
and
the
speculative,dealing with the right use
or
ethical,dealing with others, as justice,
practical,moral
with ourselves, as
or
prudence, temperance, and fortitude.
The
Free
will,
theologicalvirtues are faith,hope and love.
Divine
the condition
of duty, is supplemented by
Grace.
As
with Albert.
in agreement
The
Summa
treatTheologiaeis divided into three parts, ing,
of
of
of
and
the
the
God-Man;
Man,
respectively God,
universals
to
Thomas
first and
second
last
finished
was
he died before
this work
who
by
other
was
sneer
(3)
were
of Thomas
work
himself, the
hands, according
It is not
completed.
details,suflSce it to
say
his
to
plan,
that
it
as
follow
possibleto
ated
elabor-
was
great logicalskill,and
those
With
the
parts
in all its
with
Let
it
was
the
pains-taking thoroughness.
read
ignorance of the schoolmen
of St. Thomas.
Thomas,
Duns
at
Scholasticism
ScotMS
birth of Duns
Scotus
are
ability as
boy,
culminated.
both
place and
The
-1308).
He
uncertain.
date
showed
of the
marked
can
joined the FrancisHe studied at Merton
Order.
College,Oxford, of which
he was
made
and philosophy, he
fellow.
In mathematics
a
Varron
vacated
the
was
especiallyproficient,and when
chair of philosophy, he was
His
appointed his successor.
lectures
on
and
in
early
philosophyattracted
the
of
crowds
to
skill that
Scotus
assist in
he
won
from
sent
he
He
received
Subtilis,
by the general of
founding a University, and
was
which
students.
his
University
doctor's, degree, and was
shortly after appointed regent of
the Theological School.
He
gained great reputation, as a
his
defence
of the doctrine
of the
able
controversialist,by
Immaculate
hundred
Conception, refuting two
objections
the
the
and
doctrine
Dominicans,
against
by
establishing
it by a cloud
of arguments;
and
such
his dialectical
was
went
of Paris
life
his order
to
engage
to
Cologne
in
to
contro-
PHILOSOPHY"
SCHOLASTIC
with
versy
and
the
women
the
to
not
vows
of
he
was
Scotus
Franciscan
and
Thomas
life.
He
Thomas
between
and
elaborate
and
strict
received
was
with
short residence
Franciscans
the
men
Kfe
by
by the
Dominican,
of
reUgious
influenced
his system is an
also of his
hence
hence
133
themselves
binding
were
and
existed
antagonism
Thomas,
to
but after
by the cityofficials,
apoplexy.
opinions of
The
themselves
secular
to
return
PERIOD
Beguines, companies
sick, without
great ceremony
died
devoted
of the
care
and
Beghards
who
SECOND
and
fact
that
and
that
the
inicans;
Dom-
of that
criticism
of
partisans.
Scotus
regarding the
relation of philosophy to theology. With
Thomas
philosophy
in agreement
with
be found
must
ever
theology, when both
both
understood, as
truths,
are
are
expressionsof the same
while
with
truths
which
from
creation
universe.
of
cause
revealed
the
ultimate
philosophy,
to
the
as
universe, but
of the
cause
that
not
attributes
are
almighty and Divine, which
He
of
based
the
doctrines
by theology.
Christianity
It
rules of morality on
the arbitrary will of God.
reasonable
more
infinite
Scotus
always
with
reference
and
essence
correspond
form
are
is, the
genus
species
adds
the
as
has
to
Albert
for the
well
as
of
specific
reason.
in
Thomas
but
regard
to
do
universal
the
so
that
for
the
the
content,
the
or
genus
adds
to
truth
genus;
the
peculiar
the species
ties
quali-
the
genus,
is universal
of
species the content
the species;the individual
the
not
teristics
charac-
The
essence.
universal
of
individual
that
the universal
attributes
the
determinations
individualizing
matter,
genus,
established
were
by human
and
they
of God
laws
the
universe, though
and
the
that
to
form
to
that
be discovered
of
existence
and
of the
agreed with
three-fold
believe
to
wisdom,
highest welfare
design cannot
not
diverged, theology
is
with
for the
but
absolute
were
soul, and
immortality of the human
of the
the Almighty, the Divine
cause
the
that philosophy can
demonstrate
admits
an
is,however,
them
accessible
not
of God,
He
existence
accord
church
the existence
this
of the
dogmas
philosophy sometimes
revealing truth
also
and
the
Scotus
for
common
the
the
teristic
charac-
contents
of
PHILOSOPHICAL
134
the
species its
individual
of the
species-f
the
regard
absolute
Scotus
important
of which
the
the
characteristic
individual.
between
the
of the
content
the
accidents,
tinction,
Dis-
permanent
as
wart
go.
in
more
did Thomas.
the author
was
and
come
will,Scotus
than
sense
made
individual, and
may
the
to
be
the
genus
peculiaritiesof
should
of the
peculiarities
In
of the
content
however,
on
that
so
peculiarities,
own
the
THEORIES
are
of
works, among
numerous
those
commenting
on
the
the
most
writings of
Aristotle.
In
showing
Scotus
them, which
the
took
divergence
the
gy,
philosophy and theolocausing opposition between
between
first step in
led to the decline of Scholasticism.
in
born
was
1347). William
oj Occam
{Ji) William
(
in the county of Surrey, and educated
the villageof Ockham
he was
at the Merton
College, Oxford, and at Paris where
the
Scotus.
He
first the pupil, then
the rival of Duns
was
provincialof England at the assembly of the Franciscan
Order
headed
the revolt of that order against
at Perugia, and
the
XXIL
He
tried for heresy before
was
Pope John
bishops of Ferrara and Bologna, and imprisoned four months
in the dungeon of the papal palace at Avignon. Managing
to
Michael
with
his companions,
of Cesena, general of the
escape
and
their
found
to Munich
to
order,
Bonogratia, they
way
of Louis, who
elected
the Court
had been
legally
Emperor
of Germany, and whose
refused
the
to ratify.
election,
Pope
The
he
with
made
Louis
"Defend
the
to
me
proposal
was:
sword, and I will defend you with the pen." The proposal
accepted, he sent forth
pamphlets in refutation of the
claims of the Pope, showing that the oflBce of
extravagant
King was
independent of that of the Pope, and no less of
divine authority.
his logicalability,William
From
called the Invincible
was
Doctor,
In regard to
universals, he strongly objected to
the
of
abstractions.
He
took
the
extreme
hypostetizing
view of Nominalism,
that the name
is the only universal,
and though he added
to the doctrine, he made
nothing new
it more
in speech were
intelligible
by showing that words
used like figuresin Arithmetic
letters in Algebra, as when
or
let X stand
for the unknown
we
quantity required, or when
PHILOSOPHY"
SCHOLASTIC
trianglefor
word
the
use
we
number
infinite
stand
words
135
of
thought of any one
it
objects to which
may
and
thoughts,
thoughts
the
individual
of
PERIOD
SECOND
for
the
be
for
applied. As
things,each being inadequate, there is a double inadequacy,
is skepticism.
and the outcome
ual,
that everything that reallyexists is individHe contended
of individualityis to seek the
the cause
that to seek
of the individual, and that it is not the individual that
cause
his
the
For
universal.
needs
extreme
explanation, but
the authority of Aristotle, though
he claimed
nominalism,
he held that the universal is not
strictlynot justly. Thus
or
reallyexistingthing, but is merely a term
predicable
any
universal by its application to any
made
individual of the
noun.
class,and hence a common
is no
that
real thing
the universal
It is of course
true
existingby itself apart from the class;apart from the pattern
in the Divine
mind, after which the objects of the class were
formed
which
mind,
the
are
does
of the
class.
The
name
is of
course
of
qualitiesin
in any
other
universal, as
any
dividual
in-
individual
the
name
is
of the class.
William
than
more
completely
which
consisted
severed
this meant
philosophy
the dissolution
in their union.
from
theology
of Scholasticism,
theology is
related
to
practical religion,philosophy to speculative
thought; theology is based on revelation and accepted by
faith, philosophy deals with universal truth apprehended by
The
rules of morality are
trary
reason.
expressions of the arbiwill of God, according to Occam
and are
based on
not
rational
commands
principles. God's
however,
we
may,
believe to be reasonable, though the human
mind
times
somemay
fail to discover their reasons,
God's
or
quiring
design in reobedience.
With
Occam,
THEORIES
PHILOSOPHICAL
136
of thought and
feeUng, of
Mysticism is a compound
philosophy and religion. On its philosophicside, it is an
ultimate
to
reality of things by
apprehend the
attempt
immediate
intuition,and on its religiousside, it is an effort
the Divine
and to enjoy the blessedness of
to grasp
essence,
Its seed miay
with the most
actual communion
high God.
3,
ideas, which
minated
gerin Philo, developed in Gnosticism, expanded in full
and
bore fruit in the period of
in Neo-Platonism,
found
be
bloom
in Plato's
system, and
than
with
various
schools.
Mysticism
intuition
finds
innate
phase of religiousphilosophy,
possibilityof development along
It is rather
Scholasticism.
of
doctrine
and
is based
as
feelingrather than
on
both
movement,
in the
on
intellectual
philosophic and
in the
as
ultimate
an
must
rational
bounds;
while
have
event;
cause,
that
that
possibility,
the
universe
plies
im-
hence
beginning, and
its
be
must
kept within
a
priori that every event
reality, without
But
eternal.
proper
of their
conditions
the
not
intuition
it declares
it does
must
be
not
tell
us
the
determined,
cause
of any
if determined
lar
particuat
all
posteriori,
by investigationguided by experience. While,
rational
intuition
apprehends the necessity of an ultimate
of the universe, the character
of
reality,the eternal cause
that
be
must
known,
determined, if ever
by the
cause,
of
be
the
known
made
nature
universe, or
by revelation.
On
its religiousside, Mysticism is justified
by the fact of
Christian
experience. The Spirit itself,through the feeling
of love, beareth
witness
with
the
our
are
spiritsthat we
children of God; and this is done
shed
by the love of God
abroad
in our
hearts by the Holy Spiritwhich
is given unto
us.
Mysticism rightly held to this religiousexperience.
that
are
Mysticism does not hold with Pantheism
we
with
of
in
naturally at one
God, but that we
state
are
a
be brought back, by the new
alienation, and must
birth, to
a
instead
conditions
conditions
the
that
hold
to
conditioned, and
apart from the condition, leads, on
of
the
be known
can
hand,
one
the
to
wild
in general,which
wild
the
opens
fanaticism.
Ideas,
from
priori,apart
of
combination
the
objects, but
by
objection
no
universal
existed
to
in the
Divine
apprehended
Aristotle's
taught.
Certain
of
qualities,
but
class;,
that
mind
the
posteriori,
There
is,
the
of
pattern
before
the
of the
were
It is easy
conditioned:
to
show
Since
be
there
must
there
is succession
duration
events
in
there
space
which
must
how
body
we
and
in which
of
be
reach
motion
bodies
cause,
the
condition
are
facts
exist and
there
phenomena,
succession
and
view
the
cause
claims
not
object
of
and
examination,
however,
Plato
in every
exist by
notion
or
are
correct.
more
not
pre-existingstate, or
in the human
existence
mental
universals,
found
idea
of the absolute
objects,as
does
of
for extravagant
way
as
is much
form
essentiallysimilar, are
doctrine
this
hypotheses
to the
THEORIES
PHILOSOPHICAL
138
must
of
existence
the
class
from
the
experience,
move;
be
since
time
or
takes
for
be the eternal
being; since the universe is, there must
which
the universe
realitywe call God, as the condition
on
depends.
shall best understand
We
Mysticism by knowing what the
of
which
shall find in a review
we
Mystics actually taught
into
their
doctrines.
what
be called the principle
(1) Erigena laid down
may
of Mysticism: Out
of the eternal incomprehensible essence,
world
of ideas
is eternally created, constituting the
the
Son of God, in whom
all things exist.
All existence
Word
or
God
is the beginning of all things, and all
is a Theophany.
realize
with
God, we
things return to God, and in Oneness
such
The
to have
highest blessedness.
our
Mystic assumed
union
with
intimate
the Divine
an
Being, both in thought
and
in affection,that he can
or
apprehend God by reason,
realize Him
In this is
by the deeper intuitions of love.
be its
found the first principleof Mysticism, whatever
may
form
manifestation.
specialoutward
or
SECOND
PHILOSOPHY"
SCHOLASTIC
(1091-115S) Bernard
experiencesof
inner
the
held that
He
who
dead
are
state
can
to
he
when
had
St. Paul
This
the
an
the world
to
through
Divine
Being.
sometimes
'granted to
God, such
those
as
third heavens.
the
to
up
only by
these
of the
alive unto
and
caught
was
reUgion related
stages, and
contemplation
reached
be
was
soul.
three
Still more
those
the
has
reason
rises to
mind
the
of the
doctrines
139
Abelard's
condemned
He
PERIOD
who
practice extreme
of St.
Victor,
Richard
necessary
of ecstacy in communion
(4)
born
at
books
with
calculated
These
books
in order
observed
to be
Walter, of
the
near
by publishing popular
and
to inspiredevotion.
piety
conditions
and
to
awaken
explained
to
reach
state
God.
of Fidanza
(1221-1274). John
destined
Bagnarea in the Papal states, and was
Bonaventura
his mother
for the
Bonaventura
from
church.
St. Francis
the
He
of
received
the
Assisi,who
cognomen
is said to
was
by
of
have
PHILOSOPHICAL
140
mind
which
the
as
THEORIES
these
but
be
objects were
if universals
formed,
do
accepted as true;
in the objects of a class, as ideas^ they do exist
of similar attributes; and
objects as combinations
may
is
of attributes
of this combination
in
these
nation
in the
concept
exist
not
human
mind.
held
Bonaventura
steps in knowledge
three
to
discover
can
truths,
other
that
attributes
senses
examines
transcendent
mystic
truths
of
basal
as
God,
it
of
rise to an
here which
virtue.
every
with
ecstatic union
these
By
act
principles;
apprehend
can
the
and
certain moral
the
as
which
reason
the
"
the
means,
God.
is
There
soul
great
must
strict
can
truth
of
more
be
may
mystics in
theoretical character
general.
freely from
pure
evolved
He
reason,
than
that
of the
philosophy
basing it
without
tic
Scholas-
of
ism
mystic-
upon
the
can
God.
The
decease, and
his Son
in us,
by
(6)
Heinrich
know
man
God?
renunciation
when
and
To
be dead
self is to be
alive
of
called
selfhood, Eckhart
reveals
that is completely effected, God
with God, which
is recogbecome
one
we
nized
Other
to
distinguished mystics
or
flash of light.
may
be
mentioned:
PHILOSOPHY"
SCHOLASTIC
(1300-61)
burg
emotional
withal
remained
he
(1293-1381)
Ruysbroeck
the
on
Boehme
of
grund
Thomas
Fox,
the
mystic
to
such
course,
Other
truth
God,
to
in
John
the
and
lands.
Nether-
and
error,
union
mystical
pious
a
William
claimed
heart
of
of
feeling,
with
God
Kempis,
Law,
Madam
St.
all
Martin.
things,
the
is
being
mysteries
not
tendencies
Henry
nation,
illumithe
of
became
nature
can
Guyon,
direct
all
things,
things,
mystic
of
root
claims
of
have
to
all
and
extravagant
writers
the
see
origin
the
into
reason,
could
he
events,
looking
Of
sisting
in-
shackles.
mystic
leading
the
(1575-1624)
that
so
to
which
mysticism,
attained.
John
By
to
Strasburg
relationship
between
by
means
type
and
terror-stricken
of
ecclesiastical
the
was
preacher,
his
personal
discriminated
He
be
morals,
less
and
visited
plague
purest
141
Eckhart,
encouraged
the
bondage
from
freedom
to
is
of
purity
on
post,
theology
His
dwelt
his
than
the
When
and
PERIOD
distinguished
was
man.
at
people.
and
He
Suso.
benevolent
practical
more
was
than
SECOND
God
unveiled
became
be
Un-
clear.
justified.
may
More,
be
noted:
George
CHAPTER
Transition
Cardanus
XV
to Modern
Philosophy
Cardanus
(1501-76).
explained nature
by
the
the
world
passive principle, and
two
principles: matter,
and
soul, the active
principle which
by pervading
matter,
and
Attraction
bringing it into order
causes
light and heat.
of motion,
become
in
higher beings,
repulsion, the causes
1,
teaching
pursuit
The
hatred.
and
love
of the
of
church,
truth.
it is true,
masses,
but
the
Cardanus
thinker
was
should
should
in
engage
the
the
mathematician;
good
accept
he
Cardanus'
formula
for the
solution
He
the author
of interesting
of cubic equations.
was
he wrote
works
mathematics,
physics, astrology; and
an
on
His
thinker, is to be
independence,
autobiography.
as
a
of thought.
noted, as indicating the current
Telesius
Telesius
in much
^.
(1508-88).
explained nature
Cardanus
heat
of which
the
passive matter,
as
same
way
cold
is
the
the
from
the
of repulsion, and
cause
sun
source,
of attraction, and
the
all change
these
earth, the cause
on
He
doctrines
Aristotle's
and
that
life depend.
maintained
tion
be replaced by facts derived
from
must
empirical examinaan
of nature
that
all knowledge
itself, and
begins with
He
the
admits, however,
experience.
spirituality
sensuous
of
the
and
he
soul.
The
different
virtues
immortality
garded
rediscovered
known
formula,
as
"
revived
He
senses
of the
manifestation
the
as
doctrine
the
taught
modifications
are
of
contact
of air in contact
the
that
3.
Nola,
While
with
the
Order,
intolerable
young
but
to
man
he
his
of
case
and
in
case
that
all the
It
is true,
an
ear.
(1548-1600).
village in Italy near
yet
self-preservation.
touch.
of
sense
in
"
of
Democritus,
by
the
eye,
Bruno
a
instinct
he
Giordano
Bruno
Naples,
became
where
member
was
he
was
of the
born
at
educated.
can
Domini-
from
the
society, as
shortly withdrew
of imheadstrong
disposition. Accused
142
TO
TRANSITION
MODERN
PHILOSOPHY
143
to different cities,intent on
knowing for
piety, he wandered
himself the mysteries of the universe, free from the shackles
of authority. He
was
greatly influenced by the scientific
of his time, and accepted the heliocentric theory
movement
of the planets of
of Copernicus, regarding the earth as one
and
solar system,
solar systems.
the
life.
and
the
universe
being, without
omnipresent; the world
and
of
form
will have
cosmic
be
an
life,has
is the
of
greater system
immanent
and
distinguished between
eternal
the
to
as
its substance
cause,
He
The
world.
beUeved
he
its infinite
as
and
God
eternal
The
universe
the
in the
verse,
uni-
soul, its
holder
up-
the
universe
of God,
manifestation
universe.
Bruno
well
was
received
in
Paris, where
he
delivered
lighted
England, and though dewith
Queen Elizabeth, he was
disgusted with the
He
brutality of the English masses.
engaged as a disputant
the comparative merits of the Copernican and
at Oxford
on
the Aristotelian theories of the heavens, and gained an
easy
victory.
Bruno
preferring
regarded Aristotle with antipathy, much
the older philosophers, as HeracKtus
and Democritus, and
lectures.
He
two
spent
in this respect he
the
Bruno
was
was
in
years
like Telesius
and
Bacon.
important works: On
the Copernican theory, on
metaphysics, and a dialogue on
morals.
He
attacked
the established religion,
jeered at the
monks
the
records on
as
pedants, and placed the Jewish
level as
the myths
of Greece.
He
same
sought for unity,
and found
it in Sod, the eternal source
of the
and substance
of
author
several
universe.
He
and
He
accepted an invitation to visit Venice.
and thrown
into prison.
brought to Rome
of
at
the
seven
years,
he
was
excommunicated
After
and
finement
con-
burnt
stake.
born
of
arrested
was
knowledge
^perception
the
but what
through
senses;
"
and
Campanella
held to two
was
sources
reasoning. Perception is
is it that we
immediately know?
PHILOSOPHICAL
144
It is the
sensation,
better
or
that
prove
replies,by
existence
is
The
and
my
do
report relative
to affect
us
in
the
truth.
a
knowledge;
We
judge from
picture them.
true.
then
us
look
sensation
may
sense
since I
the
me
existence
both
is
my
there
gained
of external
correctly.^^ They
of such
objects are
nature
as
this
and
manner,
if not
the
can
limited,
am
ceive
per-
Campanella
to
Something
me.
we
then
How
myself?
report them
senses
self,that
reveals
non-ego,
The
certain
of human
of
of
of.
from
limits
that
fact
establishingthe
things; but
apart
inner
limitations; and
objective world
an
by
exist
reason.
conscious
are
we
objects
modification
mere
say,
THEORIES
complete,
sensations
the purpose
answers
it is at least relatively
what
the
objects
are,
ent
differknowledge in a somewhat
light:Strictlywe do not perceive sensation; for to perceive
do not take
sensation
to take through. We
means
through
do
anything, but are immediately conscious of it; but we
of
perceive the external objects through the senses
by means
in us.
the sensations
We
they cause
judge what kind of an
is
which gives us certain sensations, and ideate the
object it
judgment, that is, picture the object by the imagination,in
conformity with the judgment.
The
that there is
questions again arise,how do we know
external
mental
an
object, and that it corresponds to our
picture.f^ If the object is wholly internal, it is incredible
that several persons
should perceive the same
thing. The
be explained otily by a common
perception can
common
external
object,giving the spectators like sensations leading
to the perception of the same
object. But do we perceive
the object as
it is?
It is more
perceive it
likely that we
approximately as it is,than that we perceive it as it is not.
Our perceptions are tested by the several senses
converging on
the same
object, and by long experience, so that, except in
can
rare
rely on them as giving us, if not complete
we
cases,
We call our
friends by
truth, at least reliable relative truth.
and they respond, signifyingthat our
perceptions were
name,
that our
judgments from
correct; but it is well to remember
Let
at the
fact of
sometimes
incorrect, and
be
lead
us
into
error.
Bacon
5.
son
of
(1561-1626). Francis
Sir Nicholas
Bacon,
Bacon
celebrated
was
the
lawyer
youngest
who
for
PHILOSOPHICAL
146
THEORIES
this
Take
from
sentence
his
'*
essays:
Reading
maketh
full man;
conference, a ready man;
how
concise is his
We
at once,
see,
The
Novum
Organum,
the New
method
of discoveringtruth,
attempt to unfold a new
in
the
of
science, by
induction, and thus
especially
process
in the
it stands opposed to the Organon of Aristotle, which
was
an
hands
of
the
schooln^en,had
become
chiefly a
deductive
of
Bacon
In
to his entire
his
system.
induction. Bacon
theory
distinguishedbetween
he meant
anticipationand interpretation. By anticipation,
of a
hasty induction, such as passing from an examination
few individuals
of a species to a general principleapplied to
the genus
embracing that speciestogether with other species;
whereas
should
first,by interpretation of prerogative
we
instances, carefullyestablish the principlefor the species in
question, then for another
speciesof the genus, and so on for
all the species of the genus,
at least for a considerable
or
number
for the
of
of
them, and
thus
establish
legitimately
the
principle
the few
Anticipation, however, jumps,
individuals
of one
the other
species to the
species, over
instead
of ascending legitimatelythrough the other
genus,
down
reasons
species; it then by deduction
illegitimately
To illustrate: Having before
to other species of the genus.
is equal
several rectangles,we
of each
find that the area
us
to the product of two
we
adjacent sides. Now
pass
suppose
of which
the rectangle is a
to the parallelogram, the genus
of every
species,and say the area
parallelogram is the product
of two adjacent sides; but this is a hasty, and in fact,
incorrect induction
an
by anticipation. Suppose then we
descend
to the rhombus,
a
species of parallelogram, by the
from
genus.
deductive
syllogism,and
say:
The
area
of every
parallelo-
TRANSITION
is
product
is the
gram
MODERN
TO
the
sides.
adjacent
of two
area
of the
rhombus
is the
The
major
premise
is
is, in fact,
induction, and
only unwarranted, but false.
unwarranted
is not
Bacon
of
sources
an
false;the conclusion
idola, idols,cherished
error
tribus, idola
idola
opinions:
false
147
of two
therefore,
parallelogram;
product
PHILOSOPHY
idola
specus,
fori, idola
theatri.
Idola
(1)
in human
inherent
corresponds to
circle is the
our
the
as
nature,
ideas of order or
assumed
was
is tendency to
in circles. There
to
assumption that
perfection. Thus,
it
perfect curve,
most
planets moved
tribe, tendencies
error
nature
as
that
the
the
hasty generalization,
signs,and charms, to
of facts with
the agreement
note
proverbs, and overlook
exceptions. Thus, you will have good or bad luck in a month
first over
moon
right
according as you see the new
your
be
which
to
left
seems
shoulder,
always verified,as we
or
month.
We
notice the
both good and bad luck every
have
to
Idola
ourselves,
bent
of
myths,
overlook
fulfillment and
(2)
in
believe
specus,
the
mind,
exceptions.
idols of the
companions,
our
omens,
inherited
or
or
of
The
special
acquired, aflFects its opinions,
passing sound
judgments on
our
disqualify it from
matters
concerning which it has received a bias. Some minds
ences.
readily perceive resemblances; others quickly detect differfirst are
The
hasty generalizations;
likelyto make
and
may
the
others
apt to make
conservative, and
are
needless
distinctions.
the
Some
past; others
are
cling to
little
changes, as they see
in
the
Some
no
delightin abstract speculaor
good
tions,
present.
o
thers
interested
in conare
or
crete
great generalizations;
facts,and take no satisfaction in comprehensive theories.
incident
to
(3) Idola fori,idols of the forum, the errors
of language, or to the meaning attributed
the use
to certain
words, epithets,shiboleths,mottoes, party catch-words, and
the like.
People often wrangle because they attach different
shades
of meaning to the same
word.
Thus, to the word
attaches
the meaning of volition, or decision; anwill, one
other
the meaning of the power
of choice.
One
the
uses
people
are
and
progressive,
word
soul
mind
or
in the
seek
for radical
in the sense
intellect;another
and
will.
spirit,
including intellect,sensibility,
sense
of
of
PHILOSOPHICAL
148
(4)
Idola
theatri,idols of the
THEORIES
theater,
or
errors
springing
current
TO
TRANSITION
MODERN
PHILOSOPHY
149
own."
words
form the key of the Baconian
Macaulay says: "Two
It was
nishing
not
doctrine, Utilityand Progress,
by furphilsophers with rules for performing the inductive
with
motive for perwell, but by furnishing them
a
process
forming
it well, that he conferred
benefit
vast
so
a
on
society.
insisted on four things; the secularization
In Ethics, Bacon
of Ethics, or
the separation of morals
from
religion;the
disuse
of metaphysical presuppositions, and
the search
for
...
"
the
motives
of the welfare
of
conduct; the exaltation
identification
that of the individual; and
the
society,over
of the good with the useful, the moral
with the beneficial.
Bacon
of
attached
in
were
not
powers
of
mind,
inferior to Bacon
and
in
intellectual
achievement,
himself.
of deduction
good work in exposing the barrenness
when
the complementary
method
of
separated from
induction, and by insistingon the importance of interrogating
inductions, step by step,
nature, and rising,by cautious
through intermediate
principles,to the highest and broadest
erable
generalizations,thus supplying principlesfor safe and innumHis
oft repeated advice, "Interrogate
deductions.
fruitful
in good
results.
The
has
been
nature,"
rapid
Bacon
advance
did
in
largely,of
science, since
the
incentive
Bacon's
he gave
to
time, is the
thorough
result
research.
very
PHILOSOPHICAL
150
of Bacon's
value
The
his
of
details
in its aim
but
THEORIES
doctrine
which
method,
does
consist
not
somewhat
were
and
in
the
cumbrous,
of remark
that
explanation
accepted at the
For
after Bacon's
time, heat was
present day.
many
years
called phlogiston; but two
attributed
to a special substance
one-half
centuries
after Bacon's
and
time, Prof. Tyndall,
by a series of brilliant experiments, proved Bacon's
theory
the
be
to
that
correct
did
Bacon
is
mode
of motion.
"
whether
called
justiceto the Greek
sages,
sophists. He says "the sophists were
grant
va-
scant
philosophers or
and
"heat
and
wisdom,
parading
more
philosophers were
fixed residences, and
the
perambulating
mercenary,
their
exacting
staid
opened
price
different
for
it,while
liberal,in that
and
schools
and
states,
the
they had
taught philosophy
nothing."
for
Bacon
from
quotes
Dionysius,
an
obscure
writer:
"The
to inexperienced
dialogues of Plato are words of idle old men
He
that
do justice to Plato?
Does
youth."
quotes from
Greeks
were
Egyptian priest: "The
always children, and
an
knowledge of
possessed neither antiquity of knowledge nor
has not
is, however, the world
duced
prothenes,
orator
an
a poet superior to Homer,
superiorto Demoswriter superior
a sculptor superior to Phidias, a prose
Plato, a thinker
superior to Aristotle, an architect superior
antiquity."
to
builder
the
The
fact
of the
Parthenon.
What
has
Egypt to show
The
in their
ruins of temples, gloomy even
against these?
in magnitude,
but
rude
and
best
days; pyramids massive
of old pharaohs; a succession
of
clumsy in structure; mummies
of
dynasties
despotic sovereigns; but nothing that will redeem
from
the
of
"the
basest
of
Egypt
opprobrium
being
Kingdoms.
Bacon
lost
Aristotle, while he never
pretended to honor
Bacon
Yet
did the
an
opportunity of giving him a thrust.
world
a very
great service; he incited the best minds to study
of ingenthe attention
ious
nature, to investigate facts; he turned
for the alleviation
to the investigation of machines
men
to
"
of human
vast
have
century,
would
more
astonished
than
himself.
results
no
that
one
stands
Bacon
the
as
difference
between
for
example,
the
say.
Nature
the
in the
the
water
rushes
but
modern
the
on
science
mediaeval
and
to
vacuum
which
pump
the
air
is
of the water,
abhors;
nature
of the
the
would
atmosphere
water
up
within
is removed.
the pressure
where
said, first study the
the pump,
Bacon
when
pressure
show
thought, take,
the surface
forces
To
schoolmen
above
fillthe
of the
The
therefore
vacuum,
151
science.
modern
of water:
declares, the
outside
water
modern
pump-stock,
up
PHILOSOPHY
pioneer in
pumping
abhors
exhausted
MODERN
TO
TRANSITION
history of objects,then
their natural
philosophy, or physics, and after that their
metaphysics; he taught that physics deals with their material
and efficient causes,
and
metaphysics with their formal and
natural
of these
final causes;
but the distinction
borrowed
from Aristotle.
four
Bacon
causes,
Bacon's
in the discoveries
than
After
were
more
of Drake,
and
soon
sent
and
Cavendish,
became
abroad
very
became
attached
much
Italy. Wherever
philosophy spoken of with
schools.
of the
tutor
in
tour
to
to
each
the
and
other,
and
through France,
he went, he heard
and found
scorn,
son
tutor
The
of Hardwick.
Baron
together
of the heavens
in the wonders
in the
of William
pupil
are
the
that
many
Ger-
scholastic
the
little
PHILOSOPHICAL
152
THEORIES
of no
avail
learning he had acquired at the University was
of science
to give him
standing in comparison with such men
and Galileo, or with a man
like MonBruno
of the world
taigne.
as
He
fell back
the Latin
which
and Greek, upon
on
he
bestowed
Historian
Greek
He
of labor.
years
and
wrote
which
Thucydides,
in Latin
wrote
He
read
the
he
best
translation
of the
afterwards
Latin
published.
authors, till he
Bacon
His
friend
dying,
Hobbes
and
took
was
wrong.
and
patron, the
became
with
him
tutor
to
Earl
the
of
son
Devonshire,
of
suddenly
Sir Gervase
ton,
Clif-
THEORIES
PHILOSOPHICAL
154
philosophicalnecessity. Hobbes
answered
the objection to punishment, that if free will be
not
fact, then punishment is unjust to the criminal, by
a
by its good consequences
saying that punishment is justified
in
determinism,
of
advocate
criminal
preventing the
inclined
lays
who
those
upon
This
conduct.
lawless
to
and
repeatinghis crime,
from
it
restraint
wholesome
the
or
might
weight
has
answer
in
be
in
All
decide.
not
the
to
have
events
and
event,
the choice
an
makes
volition,is
as
caused
not
itself
ego
to
the
it is free.
person,
is the
but
causes;
source
a train of consequences.
asserted
that
It is sometimes
The
person,
that
energy
cause
is
ego
The
is
ego
original
an
of
ethics
be
cannot
to
determinist
Let
him
one
who
is not
the
to
not
true,
possible
will is lawless, it is imCan
will take.
a
person
because
course
will fail
he
of freedom.
freedom.
free.
The
A
as
often
is not
sarily
neces-
character
the
as
of prevision
power
person
Knowing
will take?
person
of
passions,and
that will probably hold good,
environment, a prediction,
be made
in regard to his course
stances.
of action In given circumA thief will steal if he has opportunity, and if he
person,
can
he
destroyed by
lawless
his
a
predictwhat course
what
predictinfallibly
holds
be
try it,and
believes
the
if determinism
that
he
can
escape
and
reason
detection;
an
honest
man
will
not
always be able to
Again, though we
may
will take yet we
can
a given individual
predict what course
sequences
predict,with approximate certainty,what will be the conof a right or
of conduct.
It
course
a
wrong
not
steal.
therefore,does
not
prevision and
subverts
subverts
ethical
impossible.
ethical
science, since
excludes
science; it is
it renders
the power
of
necessity that
merit
or
demerit
TO
TRANSITION
that
contended
Hobbes
MODERN
PHILOSOPHY
freedom
true
155
consisted
in
the
constraint
external
to do.
to
best
It is not
ambiguous, and
choice; the choice
is
is
act
an
or
decision
of the
but
itself or
product,
freedom
not
to will
freedom
the choice
mean
may
do, and
to
the
out
carry
act, is not
to say the
executive
or
decided
has
one
as
Freedom
decide.
to
doing
will,in
freedom
word
the
power
is caused,
and
will
of
and
will, as a power,
employed by the
is the servant
but
is,therefore, not free,
ego
is the hand; but the ego itself,
and
that
of the ego as much
as
alone is free, since though it may
act, as it usually does, in
it is not forced
it does
view of motives, as reasons,
to act
as
In
from
fact, to act
compelling
by compelling causes.
therefore
not
is
free; the
in choosing, and
is not
causes
a
to
act
at
foot-ball, making
of the
ego
mark.
The
all,but
to
be moved,
to
be
passive as
the
is wide
is in the
itself.
that
freedom
consists
in
liberty to do as one
cated
advopleases,in realizingthe choice in external action, was
afterwards
to show
by Edwards, who also undertook
does
his
that the person
not
cause
volitions;for to cause
own
he
his own
in order
to
volitions, says Edwards,
must
act
in
order
and
and
that
act
to cause
them,
act,
cause
again
that
order
which
and
in
to
act
cause
previous act,
so
on,
series
of
infinite
involves
acts, an
impossibility in finite
an
does not
his volitions.
The
time; therefore, a person
cause
in order to
act
must
reasoning will show that a person
same
external
act to
an
act, and
perform any act whatever, even
involves
an
perform that previous act, and so on, which
infinite series of acts, an
fore,
impossibilityin finite time; therein
in an external
not act at all,even
can
a person
way.
both
Edwards
Hobbes
and
executing his volitions, which
allow, in the libertyhe has of doing as he pleases. Edward's
nothing at all. The
argument, in proving too much, proves
have
first
does not
fact is,a person
to act in order
to decide,
and
he simply decides;
having decided to act, he does not have
order
in
to act
to act, he simply acts.
The
view
Hobbes
attempted
was
to
much
square
interested
the
in mathematical
circle,and
studies.
actuallyboasted
that
He
he
PHILOSOPHICAL
156
had
a
that
performed
the
feat.
extraordinary
with
Ward,
the
mathematician,
in
controversy
celebrated
THEORIES
of it, though
This
and
astronomer,
which
he
drew
him
WaUis,
Hobbes
contest,
into
the
got
displayed
vigor of
thought. This ought to be a warning to all circle squarers,
extinct.
not
likelyto become
a tribe which
seems
of perception, Hobbes
From
the phenomena
inferred that
is the cause
of all things. Though
motion
change of motion
is just as natural
is an
to body as
rest, yet change of motion
that
event
which, though not
visible, is
requires a cause,
apprehended by rational intuition a"s force or energy.
Hobbes
view in philosophy, that all
adopted the narrow
and
our
knowledge is derived from sensation
reasoning; but
rational
intuition, not
or
reasoning, adds
original
reason,
elements
of its own;
it apprehends, for example, that every
have
since non-entity cannot
event
must
a
spring into
cause,
being.
of man,
The
natural state
according to Hobbes, is that of
worst
war,
which
would
catastrophe,
result
which
government,
the
present
moral
In
absence
of
in
government,
of
extermination.
entered
men
selfishness
of the
account
on
and
originality
into
checked
violence
condition
To
compact,
if not
men,
and
prevent
and
strained,
re-
this
formed
preserved
life.
of
mankind,
anarchy, the
result in violence, disorder,
would
hat
not
the
have
them
will
of
to
but
this conflicts
is the
standard
with
individual.
the
the
view
of
right and
might conflict
as
wrong,
with
the
duty
do to you;
the monarch
still it is
upon
the
idea
Every
relates
and
and
if
that
Whatever
the
cause.
and
along
eternal
an
the
Does
the
absurdities,
enough,
far
reach
of
eternal
injBnite
he
eternal
in
he
yet
line
that
is,
declares,
inj5nite;
the
cause
word
limited
of
cause
turn
did
imply
here
an
.f^
absurdity
strong
shall
expect
may
157
Hobbes,
to
knowledge
words
back
go
we
we
have
We
the
according
and
iSnite,
hear
we
effect,
not
the
PHILOSOPHY
is,
form
can
to
whenever
holds
we
excluded.
therefore
MODERN
TO
TRANSITION
writer,
Leviathan,
be
may
and
is
well
said
master
worth
of
his
of
doctrine,
English
the
Hobbes
style.
reading.
was
His
great
clear,
work,
CHAPTER
Modern
Descartes
1.
La
Philosophy
Cartesian
"
Rene
(1596-1650).
in Touraine,
Haye
XVI
died
and
France,
Descartes
born
was
Sweden.
Stockholm,
at
at
having
an
eight
years.
His
health, while
feeble
in
college, excused
morning duties, and he thus acquired the habit
and
this he kept
of thinking while in bed, and
called
Sweden,
to
morning
to
lessons
give
while
Even
when
in
he
College,
was
the
to
summoned
he
possible
The
him
for
his
after
year
to
proved
faithful
acquaintance
of
of
rising,
till he
up
the
in
five
was
the
Queen.
began
distrust
to
the
his
scholastic
investigations,
which
true,
as
it
doubt.
he
graduation,
from
of late
at
led to begin
philosophy, and finallyhe was
by not accepting anything in philosophy,
was
him
the
for
Mersenne,
friend
life.
of the
one
renewed
fellow
former
Paris,
ablest
his
student,
also
He
and
companions,
gay
He
gaming.
through
Mydorge,
with
Capital
a
in
spent
formed
quaintance
ac-
who
the
mathematicians
France.
Descartes
now
it best
thought
himself
to
his
abandon
frivolous
serious
he
Accordingly
study.
for
and
withdrew
two
to
city,
a
part
years
of
which
himself
devoted
to a profound
study
Geometry,
by
method
the
which
led
he
fruitful
to
finally
developed a
of Analytic Geometry.
science
drawn
he was
His retreat
out
again into
being discovered,
frivolities by taking service
these
society. He escaped from
Maurice
of Orange, a general of great
in the army
of Prince
life
and
devote
to
secluded
ability.
Walking
drawn
to
through
a
placard
of
of
street
in the
Dutch
158
the
Breda,
his
language,
attention
which
he
did
was
not
MODERN
PHILOSOPHY"
The
understand.
a
challenge
asked
into
the
his
was
own,
French
Latin.
The
was
translate
to
posted,
able.
as
Descartes
it for him
either
stranger, who
happened to be
College of Dort, oflFered to
if Descartes
would
it into Latin
bring him a solution
next
fulfilled
promised to do so, and
day. Descartes
between
promise. A friendship sprang
them, which
up
afterwards
Beekman
broken, because
published,as his
which
Descartes
had
originalessay on Music
an
trusted
en-
After
a
or
spending
soldier
began
would
be
two
in
years
Bohemian
in the
Holland, Descartes
army,
went
to
enlisted
many.
Ger-
upper
his
of 1619
concluded
that
consistent
more
formed
system
than
that
formed
found
combining
and
he sp.ent in comfortable
quarters,
led
which
his
discourse
to
meditations,
on
winter
He
Method.
of the
him.
The
and
head
the
Beekman,
to
as
standing by
159
difficult problem
solve, if he
to
one
any
stranger
Isaac
turn
to
writing was
CARTESIAN
by
by
thinker
one
stead,
In-
many.
in many
books, and
radical
Hearing
reformer.
of
invisibles, who
order
secret
were
supposed
in science, Descartes
secrets
though
he
was
called Rosicrucians,
afterwards
to
be
possessed
self-styled
of
certain
in
vain,
of their
number.
to
found
that
nothing essential.
returned
to Paris, and with his old friends,Mersenne
omit
He
and
PHILOSOPHICAL
160
THEORIES
discovered
was
twice
on
brief
from
Cardinal
de
royal
visit
The
and
second
He
fiftyyears of age.
again visited France
time, he
BeruUe,
order
was
in consideration
him
summoned
awarded
was
obtained
was
of his services
again
Paris
to
the
by
to
for
kind.
man-
new
additional
at
Paris, he
pension. Arrived
civil
He
war.
by
paid for his
country
additional
royal parchment, but receiving no
pension, he
He changed his
in Holland.
left immediately for his home
abode
twenty-four times, while in Holland, chiefly to avoid
the intrusion of visitors,or for the sake of pleasant surroundings,
to be in the neighborhood of some
or
University.
with
for
Descartes
kept up a correspondence,
years,
many
the
Princess
Elizabeth, daughter of the ejected Elector
Palatine, and to her he dedicated his "Principlesof Philoso-
honors
and
the
England,
to
business.
pension
to
time, till he
of his old
one
forthwith
returned
he
them,
by
an
distracted
the
found
His
favorite
science
age.
Descartes
compared
the
trunk,
and
morals, the
the
science
metaphysics
the
to
baisis of mechanics.
In
but
fact, one
of which
mechanics,
and
root,
chief branches;
tree
he
made
of the
physics
is
medicine
mathematics
greatest services
invention
of
the
mankind
to
was
by Descartes
Analytic Geometry, the application of Algebra, especially
the indeterminate
quantities
equation, in which the unknown
variable, to Geometrical
investigations. This fruitful
are
rendered
PHILOSOPHICAL
162
investigationshould
simple
the
from
begin; that
complex;
to the
investigation should
pass
that all the objects of a
and
in their interconnections.
be known
should
group
THEORIES
it is
possible to doubt
be called knowledge.
Descartes, consequently, began
cannot
it
possiblefor him to doubt; but
by doubting every thing was
for the sake
of doubting.
doubt
He
he did not
not
was
but
His
to
an
investigator.
object was
essentiallya skeptic,
in
order
find
firm
to
tion
foundadoubtful,
a
everything
remove
of truth; but he found
one
thing he could not doubt
It follows,
"
therefore
I think,
explained,that
but
doubted;
I
sum,
to
fact he thus
be, which
is to
think
he
that
fact
the
did
not
is to be understood
am,
think, and
expressed : Cogito^ergo
Descartes
am.
is to
doubt
mean,
as
to
sum,
as
he
deduction
"
his
existence.
own
passing from
of
the
world
The
step
of his
knowledge
He
says:
was
own
to
'*When
the
in it,it discovers
are
chief among
that
of
find
existence
this warrant
without, and
of God.
existence
next
to
edge
knowl-
in the
found
he
for
warrant
reviews
mind
the
is by far the
what
Being omniscient,
all
powerful,
that, in this idea,
absolutely perfect; and it observes
there is contained
not
only possibleand contingent existence,
in the ideas of all other things it clearlyperceives,but
as
So from
existence absolutely necessary
and
external.
them
"
and
its
idea
in the
manifestly
Of
as
and
perceivingnecessary
course
there
it true
Because
that
an
can
that
we
all
to
it has
conclude
that
all
this all
existence
an
we
idea
perfectbeing
to
be
prised
com-
no
whatever
have
an
is necessary
existence
be
of
external
existence; but
is
PHILOSOPHY"
MODERN
Descartes
the
helped
that
hence
and
163
that
the
idea
of
formed
been
have
it must
objection by saying
is too
perfect being
all
an
this
met
CARTESIAN
the
God,
all
exists.
perfect being
This
somewhat.
matter
Can
we
than
form.^
can
we
there
ever
there
from
was
would
never
Descartes'
time
have
been
nothing nothing
himself
when
assented.
absolutely nothing,
anything, since ex nihil nihil fit,
comes,
The
there
and
he did
"'God
within
the
would
God,
authorized
be
to
the
say,
the
idea
question, deserve
directly and of Himself
of this extended
presented to us by some
extension, figurenor motion.
deceive
of
existence
cause
all actual
himself
would, without
to be
us,
for this
"
been
there
of
Perfect, Descartes
deceiver, if He
mind
Descartes
contain
Infinite
which
principleto
eternal
of
was
remarked,
matter, or
object which
But
must
God
since
cannot
is repugnant
we
be
regarded as
presented to our
merely caused it
possessed neither
to
to
his nature,
ready
al-
has
as
that
unhesitatinglyconclude
exist certain
is
vacuum
void, it
must
extension
called
the
itself,extension, and
matter
or
body.
that
which
It is better
to
which
fillsthe
say
is not
body
that
is not
is
extent
body
has.
What
then
seemed
tween
hold, or composed of atoms, with void spaces bethem, as maintained
by Democritus, it is certainlymore
to
is matter?
Whether
it is
continuous,
as
Descartes
PHILOSOPHICAL
164
the extension
than
THEORIES
which
it is,at least,energy
itself;
certain attributes.
manifests
that
Descartes
the
is at
earth
with
rest
to
respect
the
of ether
that sweeps
round the sun, just as a passenger,
sittingon the deck of a ship, is at rest with respect to that
the sea.
This, however, does not prove
ship, as it sails over
vortex
that
the
with
the
earth
is at
as
the
with
moves
passenger
the whirling ether.
Descartes'
vortex
lead
may
to
an
explanation of
the
force
itself.
The
and
of
the
Descartes
existence
sidered
conrealities,
then, whose
certain,are God, the infinite substance, self-dependent
three
which
everything
psychical phenomena
on
external
world.
The
free.
else
of
depends,
which
soul
not
Body
the
soul the
subject
conscious, and
only feels sensations, but
we
is
more
are
than
extension; it
PHILOSOPHY"
MODERN
it is not
extended;
something
is
it is not, in
admitted
in allowing motion.
and
what
In
By
thinking and
our
of
facts
hence
demonstration
Descartes'
our
of
it
guarantee
own
gives us confidence
believe
to
of all
truth
the
Modern
facts
we
of
are
of
Though
God
the
as
is not
ultimate
Admitting
the
faculties,yet
our
think
we
sciousness.
con-
assured
existence.
vacuum,
of
the
existence
the
founder
beyond
if this does
of
possibihty
the
Descartes
as
consciousness,
of
165
vacuum,
In
the
of
denying
the
is Descartes
respect
Philosophy?
CARTESIAN
we
know,
conditions,
especially by
that, under
proper
facts
method
Bacon's
too
was
cumbrous
he
follow, though
to
was
right
he
was
in the
Both
and
Bacon
service
of the
minds
The
philosophy
mind
to
God.f^
the
men,
and
did
style,as
mable
inesti-
of the
rights of reason,
carrying out its views,
asserted
in
parent
trans-
in his meditations.
revealed
difficulties.
in the
matchless
was
authority; but
great
matter,
It seems
Descartes
of Descartes
its
it encountered
great
were
world.
maintained
and
cartes
Dessearching
deduction, and
placed upon
mathematical
investigation.
mankind
to
in his essays;
and
clearness of his
seen
to
Descartes
for facts.
in
What
the
is the
relation
of
soul
to
of the
the
action
of the
soul
upon
the
body; but if the mind is nothing but thought, and the body
there
be
interaction
nothing but extension, how
can
any
between
The
is
more
Mind
them?
be avoided
difficulty
can
by admitting that the mind
than
extension.
than
thought, and matter
more
is a thinking substance; it is that which
and
thinks
THEORIES
PHILOSOPHICAL
166
feels and
wills.
be
Thinking may
self-supporting;
thinking doesn't
The
runs.
mind
thinks, the
be
think
boy
the mind
it is not
inextended; but
running
though thinking
and
runs;
than
more
any
know,
inextended,
or
we
extended; at all events, it has energy, or is dynamic.
is more
than extension, it is an extended
substance.
may
is
absurdity in supposing
thinking substance, and matter
have
But
dynamic powers.
we
no
of Descartes
met
Geulincx
2,
where
Lyons
sian, he
he
interaction
an
shall
There
mind,
the
both
substance;
how
see
Matter
between
extended
be
may
successors
the
afterwards
was
student
at
lightlyregarded, and
Protestant.
went
to
position.
a
Ley den and became
His life was
continued
not
zealously
though he
prosperous,
teach
when
had
to
he
philosophy
opportunity. He was
finallyappointed a professor in the University at Pesth, but
he died shortly after his appointment.
Geulincx
held that self-examination
taught him, that only
his thoughts and
his body,
his will were
but not
his own,
is a part of the material world.
which
The mind, he thought,
the body.
cannot
act on
A person
might just as well believe
that he wrote
the lUiad, or placed the sun
in the heavens,
was
He
that
as
he could
raise his
hand; but
own
hand, God
for
can
him.
act
Neither
present,
and
but
mind;
the
on
God
the
occasion, when
sensation, to attract
the
on
gives him
material
any
nor
and
intervenes
body,
on
attention,
his
is called
doctrine
This
object.
an
object,
object is
Occasionalism.
Malehranche
S.
son
of
of
official at
He
twenty-two.
Descartes
He
high
that
he
was
Geulincx's
b^ the excitement,
accompanies
object follows
so
to
of Occasionalism,
reaction
or
the
was
at
the
age
writings
of
philosophy.
which
he
theory of perception:A
organ
some
the
his life to
devote
theory
Oratory
with
charmed
Malebranche's
on
the
Paris, entered
resolved
accepted
further developed.
The
following is
material
object acts
the
who
(1638-1715). Malebranche,
of
response
the
excitement;
the
sensation.
the
This
sense;
this is followed
of the
organ;
judgment
is the
most
tion
sensa-
concerning
complete
PHILOSOPHY"
MODERN
analysis of perception we
omitted
the
rational
have
CARTESIAN
far
so
of the
intuition
161
necessityof
necessityof
of the
the construction
the
object,
the
ego,
the
as
ideation,
the
on
of the
the
organs;
mental
of the
excitement
the
as
to the
or
the
In
of the
cause
the
of the
judgment
judgment,
of the
the
object on
sensation
intuition
inferential
the
organs;
rational
excitement;
accompanying
of
the
necessity
object and subject;the
the
and
organ,
the
reaction
was
mind, and
so
he held
God
intervened
idea
of the
and
that
when
caused
which
the
object excited
sensation
and
the
mind
what
the organ,
his
esented
object
perceived, so
that our
spiritsperceive all things in God, who is the place
of spirits. The
God's
ideas which
fact is,the ideas are
not
we
perceive,but
our
own
was
ideas
which
Do
construct.
we
our
ideas
indicates
God's
are
yet the
ideas.
4'
at
that
Malebranche's
theory, that
mistake
Glanvill
Oxford; and
may
possibly be
in
ideas
our
would
the
be
ideas
correct,
perception of God's
educated
Joseph Glanvill was
discarding the scholastic philosophy, he was
(1636-1680).
PHILOSOPHICAL
168
greatly influenced
the
by
treatise which
THEORIES
of Bacon
systems
and
Descartes.
he called
scientific
ScepsisScientifica,
doubt, or as he meant
understood, Scientific
inquiry
it
dedicated
the
He
and
maintained
the
to
Royal Society.
unrestricted
in
of
freedom
thought.
right
him
ical
to
Nature
a great automaton,
was
operated by mechanaction.
main
Holding that out knowledge must
always remaintained
he
that
should
be
our
imperfect,
hypotheses
obtain
held subject to modification
new
as
we
light from
experience and research.
tion.
His views in regard to causation
are
worthy of consideraHe says
We
know
not by immediate
intuition,
causes,
infer that one
but by their effects only. If we
thing is the
of another, we
are
cause
only depending on the fact that the
former
is
always accompanies the latter;for causalityitself
unsensible; but the inference from accompaniment to a causal
He
wrote
it to be
relation
is not
"
necessary.
here
and
cause
that
is that
effect.
of
When
and
reason
we
lift a
not
consequent,
is energy,
or
something more
Cause
then
is energy,
active
or
than
power,
of
discover
heavy weight, we
cause
that
dent.
antece-
mere
that
is it is
force.
5.
Etienne
Pascal
(1623-1662).
Pascal, president of
Blaise
the
Pascal
Court
the
was
of Aids
at
son
Clermont.
of
THEORIES
PHILOSOPHICAL
170
especially
philosophy
received
in
studied
languages. He
later, he
Fesaye. Four
years
of Theology at Avignon, and
mathematics
at
and
Aix, under
degree of Doctor
took
orders
as
a
1617, he was
priest. In the same
year,
he lectured on
called to the chair of philosophy at Aix, where
the philosophy of Aristotle.
While
tinued
occupying the chair of philosophy at Aix, he constudies
of physics and
his favorite
by
astronomy,
which
the
he became
and
dissatisfied,
more
more,
with
Aristotle's
or
with
he
Vives, Ramus,
nothing new.
logic,does not
The
and
second
materiallydiffer
from
the
work
of
Ramus.
He
visited
Holland
where
he
wrote
an
examination
of the
in the
senses."
more
in
PHILOSOPHY"
MODERN
second
The
of
is
merit,
In
which
the
may
third
the
physics,
that
holds
the
though
He
self-consistent.
he
aim
be
of
in
life,
the
soul
is
work
the
approves
immaterial,
free
of
talent
he
is
to
be
of
is
it
that
the
happiness,
soul
and
in
attainable
not
body,
this
life,
come.
possessing
though
constructive
philosopher,
to
maintains
harmony
if
that
and
life
the
be
to
he
ethics,
the
part,
considers
Gassendi,
the
yet
the
syntagma,
171
immortal.
and
it
the
altogether
not
physics,
Epicurean
is
of
part
CARTESIAN
classed
great
system
with
critical
maker.
Hobbes.
ability,
As
an
had
not
empirical
XVII
CHAPTER
Philosophy
Modern
Metaphysical
"
he
Baruch
(1632-1677).
Spinoza, as
Spinoza
was
he
named
his
Benedictus
called
Spinoza,
or
as
by
parents,
of
Jewish
who
born
at
Amsterdam,
himself, was
parents,
fled from
had
Portugal to escape
persecution.
entrusted
the
to
Being a bright boy, his education
was
who
Levi
chief
Saul
to
Morteira,
Rabbi,
was
requested
He
made
for the Synagogue
service.
train him
great progress
troubled
in his studies, and
began to ask questions which
soon
He
ity,
his teacher
to answer.
expected to accept, on authorwas
the doctrines
to
do, and
taught him; but this he refused
1.
demanded
the
his talents
Knowing
of the
if he
conform
but
this
pension
florins,
pension
their
refused
He
bribe.
attempt
an
was
thousand
assist
and
order
indignantly
as
and
rulers
of
him
to
he
required of him.
dreading his influence, the
faith
the
and
offered
Synagogue
would
offered
for
reasons
to
their
in
do, regarding
accordingly
was
made
even
monies;
cere-
the
municated,
excom-
against
his
life
him
with
aimed
at
assassin, who
by an
deadly blow
a
a
home
from
he
the
theater.
gleaming dagger, as
returning
was
for Natural
Latin
and
Spinoza learned
acquired a taste
den
Ende.
Science
from
free-thinking physician. Dr. Van
a
His
but
he
Descartes,
chiefly from
philosophy he learned
also
and
influencd
Hobbes
Bruno,
was
by Maimonides,
and was
affected, to some
philosophy,
extent, by the scholastic
all predecesthough as an original thinker, he cut loose from
sors.
According
to
trade, in his
and
assistance
After
he
was
Ludwig,
case,
this
Jewish
prudent
the
polishing
him
gave
the
of friends, while
his
reputation,
offered
the
the
as
chair
Elector
of
he
a
of
glasses
of
means
his
pursued
thinker,
had
philosophy
Palatine;
172
he
custom,
but
for
had
learned
ments,
optical instru-
support,
with
the
investigations.
become
established,
Heidelberg by Karl
he
this flattering offer
at
PHILOSOPHY"
MODERN
METAPHYSICAL
would
interfere with
not
and
1660
years
his
piorum
1677,
that
the
at
Hague,
more
philosophiaeyPars I et II
and
Tractatus theologico-politicus;
y
stratae;
demonstrata.
Ethica
The
would
promised,
entitled: Renati
were
he
for
he
not
be
one;
and
that it
studies.
own
principalworks, written
His
lucrative
the
a
position was
feared
loved to be independent, and
free in his teaching,though this he was
declined, though
173
between
the
Descartes
princigeometrico demo-
Ethica
more
and
rico
geometon
it his
the
as
world
Descartes
and
interaction, which
for
of
could
of the
or
act
the other.
on
Descartes
to
by Geulincx
occasionalism^
occasion
1852.
the
and
was
or
so
Their
sion,
exten-
radically
apparent
counted
acinexplicable,was
the
hypothesis
by
of God, who
the
on
Malebranche
intervention
things.
presence
of ideas is the
of
an
same
as
the
order
and
connection
PHILOSOPHICAL
174
this
THEORIES
point, an
dissension.
some
Spinoza
that
from
apart
to
be taken
extended
the
Nature,
other
that
as
the
in which
way
itself is
substance
nor
under
the
forms
of
and
attributes
these
the
or
possesses,
Hegel
hand,
that
God;
properties
real
or
Spinoza to mean
the subjectivesense,
conceives
mind
human
the
in
On
the
held
others,
some
God
substance,
one
observer.
the
understood
Erdmann
were
the
attributes
by
meant
which
essences
Fischer, and
Kuno
so
to
the
conceived
and
extension
tion
thought, though not as wholly subjective. He says, definiintellect
understand
that
which
the
IV: "By attribute I
perceives concerning substance, as constitutingits essence."
order and
He
also says. Book
II, proposition 7: "The
nection
conof ideas
are
the
same
the
as
order
and
connection
of
relation of true
things." Hence
subjective thought
every
in
relation
to
a
corresponds
objective existence, and this
correspondence constitutes its truth.
Finite
of the attributes, extension
things are the modes
able
variand thought of the infinite substance; that is,they are
selves,
of God.
manifestations
nothing of themThey are
should
if God
since nothing exists out
of God,
and
from
fall into nonthem
his support,
withdraw
existence.
they would
modes
The
and
The
and
natiirans;
natura
volitions, with
the
or
but
naturata,
manifesting
natura
God
his
naturata
in nature
finite bodies
and
of consciousness
are
all their
their
and
rest,
the
with
tude
magni-
their
interactions.
ings,
specialcognitions, feel-
modes,
These
relations.
of extension
God,
are
motion
form,
modes
whether
of extension
the
or
sum
of
of
Natura
infinite
naturans
in the
all the
world
modes,
manifested
is God
perfections and
includes
and
the
variable
of
acting,
he
called
God
or
omnipotentjenergy;
manifestations
m?inkin4?
Tb^
of
modes.
MODERN
infinite
into
and
cause
METAPHYSICAL
of extension
modifications
whether
out
PHILOSOPHY"
series
of
of
or
things
175
consciousness,
by the law
run
connected
of
effect.
of Atheism,
but this accusation
Spinoza has been accused
He was
is evidently false.
atheist, but he was
no
a pantheist.
of God,
the
Everything phenomenal is the manifestation
causans,
Spinoza defined substance, attribute,mode,
causa
and
thus:
God,
is that
Substance
which
is in
itself,and
is
conceived
of which
one
examine
us
things
extension
are
and
than
eternal
expresses
of
pantheism
the
only modes
thought, thus
of the
God
modes.
is the
God,
their
and
essence
Spinoza's expression,Deus
all his
finite
is the
of God
"
higher
of
in the
all
sum
is the
of
sum
ejus attributa;or
sum
all
that
essence
is manifested
omnia
held
attributes
general
sive Natura.
attributes,that is Deus
explicit,God
more
to
hence
source;
He
attributes
two
dignity
finite things; he exists in them, or
of these things; and conversely, all
to
Spinoza:
giving
infinite essence.
and
to
with
be
all
their modes.
Substance,
Is
is to
however,
body
extension?
it
remains.
cease
Is
to
the
ego
think, and
be
not
the
identical
begin
to
its attributes.
body is
body. But is the body the
body, the space it occupied
its thought?
with
It may
has
It
Move
occupies?
distinguishedfrom
be
feel.
extension;
Is the
ego
identical with
its
to feel and
cease
feeling? It may
begin to will. Is the
its willing? To these questions, we
must
ego identical with
But
with
the
the
be
identical
not
answer
no.
sum
ego
mxay
of these
be
phenomena?
sometimes
It may,
for all
we
know
the
trary,
con-
sleep. But
intellect
the ego
not
again, may
sensibility+ will?
+
No.
The
and sensibility
and will,and as a
ego has intellect,
be distinguishedfrom
these attributes ; or
substance, it must
quiescent,
=
as
in dreamless
to
THEORIES
PHILOSOPHICAL
176
ness,
employ Spinoza's terms, as an attribute, called consciousits modes,
its special
it is to be distinguished from
or
The
has the power
volitions.
to
or
thoughts, feelings,
ego
to
think, feel
The
will.
or
with
is evident.
God
applicationto
he
though
extension,
is not
their
"
identified
bodies
and
According
the
to
definitions
existing."
it did
would
his
time
the
ments
move-
countless
finite mode;
of
but
all
relations, constitute
Malebranche,
God
"
extension
work,
essence
of matter
fact
or
and
or
he
is
sum
tion
manifesta-
spiritis
mode
consciousness.
geometrico,Spinoza begins
more
and
that
to
obviating objections.
or
is that
nature
either
exist.
need
not
whose
Self -cause
not
it caused
such
and
theorems, giving
axioms; he enunciates
corollaries,and apdemonstrations; he then deduces
pends
of affording additional light,or of
scholiums, by way
existence; or
which
and
is the
God
avoiding misapprehension,
Spinoza says: ''Self -cause
meant
butes
attri-
things; according
Spinoza
itself
manifested
the
as
necessarily
of his attributes
their
or
these
to
facts
Constructing
with
to
with
of all
which
essence
one
is
Geulincx
Descartes,
of nature, or
of Nature, and every
of
thought, much
forms
infinitude
their
with
free Creator
of the
be
to
infinite mode.
an
is the
is not
variety
thoughts, feelingsand
A finite body,
possible relations.
of consciousness,
minds,
and
or
at
energy
of
all their
single state
If God
various
infinitely
be identified
identified with
is inferior
what
their interactions,
with
volitions, with
or
with
innumerable
and
number
the
modes,
of bodies
thinker.
to
his
be
to
attributes, extension
the
less is he to be
is not
manifest
can
any
identified
He
cause
itself,it could
not
can
existed
If it existed
whose
be
before
before
itself;if it had
not
itself.
cause
nature
conceived
as
it caused
it caused
no
involves
not
itself
itself,it
existence
before
Spinoza probably
of
existencey
sui, or cause
itself,necessary
by causa
eternal
existence
is
caused
which
at all,
not
implies
the
and
forms
in
also
itself
as
geometric
space;
space
itself
.
Spinoza
an
effect
cause."
calls the
depends
This
upon
is true
axiom:
knowledge of
the knowledge
of its
and
involves
if knowledge signifies
complete under-
followingan
''The
PHILOSOPHICAL
178
THEORIES
is its
logicalconsequent; but
is known
neither substance
essence
nor
as
by reason
absolutely
and so far as we
been.
know, neither might have
necessary,
universe
The
being given, God is conditionallynecessary
as
be absolutely necessary,
its explanation; he may
for all we
of
a;bsolute
the
but
the
know
to
necessityof God,
contrary;
does
reason
essence
inform
not
XL
"Proposition
attributes, each
us.
God,
of
one
exists.
necessarily
essence,
possible,that
If this be
If God
did not
there would
be
which
is not
the
essence
and
it follows that
Then
would
which
from
essence
have
no
hence
infer the
as
First
the
to
to
production
of
this
of
the
first
admitting
know
even
universe, and
must
cause
universe; that
the
with
that
is,
infer his existence,
know
and
Cause;
be endowed
must
We
first fact.
his
fore
There-
essence;
essence
adequate
infinite
"
exist, he
no
God's
first cause
and
denied, conceive, if it be
exist.
not
necessarilyexists.
God
eternal
expresses
does not
essence
does
God
or
which
wisdom
and
power
be
is, the
sufficient
for its
production.
II, Propositions I
"Thought is an attribute of God,
In
Part
Existence
is
of
attribute
an
or
God,
declares
II, Spinoza
and
is
God
or
thinking being.
is
God
extended
an
being."
Then
when
in
as
infinite attributes
and
his extension
of God,
attributes
he may
making
but
know,
an
and
extension
are
the
attributes,and
infinite number
of attributes,
an
attribute
of the
modes
are
of God,
itself,abstractly considered
infinite extension
the
bodies
Thought
is infinite
thought
of
extension
extension
mean
his
means
all infinite.
are
In
he
is infinite.
known
they
of the
of the
of
to
as
pure
be
modes
space,
substance.
God, he considered
of the
not
Finite
of God.
substance
infinitelyextended
Spinoza did
In
individual
thought
of
God.
By
the
power
of the active
manifestations
of God,
essence
Spinoza understands
of God,
of God
are
natura
natura
naturans.
naturata.
the
The
energizing
modes
or
PHILOSOPHY"
MODERN
found
in
extended;
infinitely
but
of space
idea
only
The
of substance
itself,the
infinite extension
as
and
motion,
were
there
whether
the
final
or
itself,but
is that
apprehends space
limit, for body
which
would
exist
acts
of
conscious
and
time
save
there
space.
thus
Part
to
holds
He
acting.
the
that
in
infinite
and
extent
eternal
of
thoughts
Then
are
constraint
the
would
never
be,
all purpose,
I, Spinoza denies
with
believe
respect to God, holding that men
because
view
of
themselves
in
ends,
they
are
cause,
God
that
without
eternal, otherwise
be
must
anything,
appendix
been
In
reason
room,
universe
for the
Spinoza's system
no
he
cause,
have
and
179
The
first
METAPHYSICAL
attach
stance,
sub-
in
restraint, by
anything
the modes
nothing external, as the things called external are
of his own
being, and acting, without
according to
purpose,
Such
the necessity of his own
nature.
a
being might excite
infinite machine
could
it inspire love.f^ An
but
admiration,
running, as a perpetual motion, by the necessity of its own
infinite wonder,
but is as impossible
would
be an
mechanism,
contrived
the perpetual motion
crank.
Not
as
a
by a human
machine, but the living God, is running the universe.
of reasoning,
We
give, as a specimen of Spinoza's method
Proposifion XL.
If we imagine that we are hated by another,
without
in
having given him a cause
for it, we shall hate him
or
''
return.
If
Demonstration,
affected
with
with
it; that
accompanied
hypothesis,
the
hatred,
person
is to
with
say,
the
imagine
we
himself
who
imagine
ourselves
sorrow,
accompanied
that is to say,
that
on
we
hated
that
imagine
we
account
idea
of
no
cause
hates
be
external
an
us,
shall hate
the
him.
sorrow,
But,
by
excepting
cause.
this
and
therefore, because
idea
"
with
affected
for
by another,
with
affected
sorrow
shall be
we
of
him
is
person
shall also be
we
shall
we
another
affected
who
hates
we
with
us;
THEORIES
PHILOSOPHICAL
180
Suppose
reached
had
one
his enemies,
would
he
high
that
hate
of grace
state
who
another,
he
of
loving
imagined hated
him?
of
critical examination
A
hne
for
intellect
thinkers
true
one.
born
at
was
(1646-1716). Leibniz
Leipsic
father
was
professor of Ethics at the university.
the daughter of a distinguished jurist,
and
was
Leibniz
favored
was
by heredity. His
young
Leibniz
2,
his
where
His
mother
thus
the
died
father
education
his
when
the
was
enjoyed
all the
advantages
availed
himself
He
Altdorf
to
with
and
was
His
and
the
became
of that
scholars
mind
exceeding,
utmost.
studied
his
father, and
of
which
for the
he
doctor's
him
misunderstanding, was
him
conferred
on
was
by the University at
an
adept in languages, and in the scholastic
matics
visitingParis, he studied the higher mathecelebrated
He
also visited EngHuygens.
land,
of the distinguished
acquainted with many
philosophy;
the
for
degree which,
at Leipsic, but
of
his
of
care
aid of the
the
six years
of age,
and
his
so
excellent
mother.
Leibniz
was
son
refused
some
country.
in the
wonderful
was
in
this
He
was,
respect, that
universality of
of
its grasp,
mind
since
other
any
philologist,a historian, a
a
jurist,a physicist, a mathematician,
philosopher; and in
made
all these
an
adept and
important
respects he was
adorned
whatever
he
and
touched.
investigations,
Equally
Aristotle.
once,
he was
Newton,
devised
Calculus, and
with
the
Sir Isaac
of
that
He
career
Newton's,
and
well
be
the
one
he
envy
discoverer
notation
used
counsellor
Financially
great.
may
the
even
the friend
was
the
by
at
was
of
at
of
well
to
a
ential
Differ-
flexible than
more
the
Kings,
many
of the
present day.
and
do,
was
so
honored
that
his
poverty-stricken
of letters.
man
numerous
were
the
PHILOSOPHY"
MODERN
his heart
nearest
of God
ways
to
also
of divided
philosophy
of
the
Theodicy, or
his heart
man;
churches
discordant
The
his
was
METAPHYSICAL
vindication
set
was
181
of the
uniting the
on
Christendom.
Leibniz, though
influenced,
more
or
less,by
systems of the past, especiallyby those of Plato
and Spinoza, was
and Aristotle, Descartes
strikinglyoriginal
the
and
of
creation
an
infinitude
created
The
ultimate
The
profound.
realityis God,
monad,
the
of monads.
monads
of
Leibniz
be
distinguished
of Democritus,
which
from
the atoms
were
regarded as
infinitesimal solids,inert and without
qualitativedifferences,
conceived
while the essential monads
to be metaphysical
were
in
littleworlds
of
infinite
number
gence,
activityand intellipoints,
from
each
all
the
thoroughly individual, differing
without
the
whole
the
others,
break, according to
varying
law of continuity,from
the lowest to the highest, each picturing
the universe, according to its degree of intelligence,
not
by passive impressions, but by active reflection and
these is God, the creator
of all,the
representation. Above
to
are
"
monad
of
monads,
actus, the
purus
absolute
the
energy,
infinite intelligence.
There
is
activityof
created
of the
the monads,
and
alike
of
The
absolute
difference
between
each
energy,
forever
break
in the
monad
and
the infinite
activity.
of Leibniz
as
those
one
of monads,
the monad
pure
extension
constitute
differ from
the
one
substance
of
minations
being, excludes all positive deterand thought, while the monads,
as
of substance, making
the essence
realitydynamic.
of individual
continuity, each
and
Each
law
intelligenceand
the highest of the
Leibniz's principle
monad,
pure
monads
save
of
to
indiscernible, yet
be
its identical
Spinoza which,
of
the lowest
though, according to
may
the
intelligence,
all
from
the
continuity is between
the
active
continuity of
the
identityof indiscernibles,
maintains
God,
in the
gap
monads,
nearest
law
no
the
sum
one
monads,
forever
total of these
substance, there is
graded according
maintaining its own
monads
constitutes
an
to
infinite
the
law
identity;
the universe.
environed
by a multitude
livingbeing is a rulingmonad
subordinate
monads
acting together according to the
of pre-established
harmony.
PHILOSOPHICAL
182
The
world
individual
of
minds
THEORIES
is the
matter
have
imperfect conception
of the
universe
clear and
of monads,
which
the
ceptions
con-
becoming more
as
of
degree
intelligence.
The
lowed
hypothesis of pre-established
harmony naturally folfrom
that of monads.
In the hierarchy of monads,
the higher, or more
active, give law to the lower or more
passive or imperfectly active, as in the soul and body in
their corresponding states.
The
lower
monads
representing
in a confused
the universe
be regarded as material,
way,
may
far as passive; but the higher monads, actively representso
ing
in a clear way,
the universe
to be regarded as spirits.
are
of pre-established harmony
doctrine
The
is, therefore,
in
of
Descartes
and mind
opposed to that
regard to matter
ideal
the minds
advance
in
substances
two
as
unlike
so
that
neither
act
can
the
on
miraculous
of
the
occasionalism, or
leading to
theory
and Malebranche.
Geulincx
proposed by
Leibniz
distinct
did
from
the
arranged, by
but
tha.t the
hold
not
there
that
universe
of
was
monads,
pre-establishedlaw,
monads,
as
world
the
to
of
run
vention,
inter-
matter
worlds
two
their
other,
in
of
so
harmony,
perfection,
according
degree
of the other monfacts
the
ads,
intelligence,
represented by
the law
governing the lower corresponding with the
action,
representationsof the higher. God, by his continued
to
their
moved
the
lower
corresponding
monads,
activities
or
in the
world
of matter,
higher monads,
and
or
incited
world
of
mind.
each
The
monads
degrees
monad
ent
all represent the same
universe, but with differof perfection,according to their activity,the
monads
for
he
gives law
to
alone,
the
as
whole
the
absolute
monad,
as
purus
actus,
PHILOSOPHY"
MODERN
of
the
material
analagous
with
of the
combination
The
to
passive and
spiritualin the
and
the
METAPHYSICAL
active
monads
principles
is somewhat
sive natura
substance, Deus
one
the
183
of
and
properties of extension
Spinoza,
but
the
absolute
with
thought;
passive or material principleis wanting in God,
is wholly spirit,or pure
who
monad,
activity,
the
creator
of
its two
Leibniz, the
Al
nature.
the
whose
monads,
lower
sum
ments,
passive and active elethe passive or m^aterial predominating in the lower,
of God,
in the higher, are the creatures
the active or spiritual
subject to order, and
mutually adjusted according to the
law of pre-establishedharmony.
The
principles
logicof Leibniz is based on two fundamental
that of sufficient
the principleof contradiction
and
reason.
The
stated:
of
contradiction
be
thus
That
principle
may
which
is self-contradictoryor which
contradicts
established
an
truth
is false, and
if false its contradictory is true.
The
exist in
otherwise
thus: All truths
be stated
principlemay
The
harmony.
principle is employed in Geometry in the
constitutes
combining
nature,
both
"
indirect
The
To
a
demonstrations,
called
also the
sufficient
The
Theodicy
government
of
of
God,
his heart.
that
ad absurdum.
thus
be
expressed:
is,the truth of facts,
be found.
must
reason
may
reductio
Leibniz,
was
an
perhaps
attempt
of
vindicate
to
all his
works
God,
the
the
the
one
infinitely
of the world, permit
and
good and holy Creator
governor
evil in the universe
What
which
he has created and governs?
is the. origin of sin, and
what
is its signification? These
The
thoughtful minds.
questions have
perplexed manj^
solution
of Leibniz
is essentiallyto this
is optimistic,and
effect.
That the existing universe is the best possible;
for God,
infinite in power,
would
wisdom
and
the
create
goodness,
best possible world.
But
what
then can
be said of the evil
Leibniz
declares
that the evil
so
abounding in the world?
is rather apparent
than
real; but all partial evil is universal
is,is right. All things are of necessity.
good, and whatever
takes
Every event
place according to pre-established law.
Even
result
events
apparently contingent are the necessary
of remote
and intervening causes,
and could not be different
from
what
This view is virtuallythe
they are found to be.
nearest
The
question how
can
PHILOSOPHICAL
184
denial
of sin, or
guilty of
be
cannot
moral
evil.
moral
of conscience, is
remorse
exist.
not
This
or
not
to
do
to
wrong,
and
of
sense
necessity
guilt,or
cause
wrong,
is
is
is, man
which, as caused,
fact
THEORIES
not
are
in which
conscience
case,
rightly asserts
his
he was
when
free to do
guilt;he is guilty for doing wrong,
is in harmony
with the fact of
right. The fact of remorse
implies freedom, but is inconsistent with the
guilt which
is not a machine
doctrine of necessity. Man
run
by forces
he has no
which
over
control, according to pre-established
of moral
laws, but he is a free moral
being. A universe
beings is more
worthy of God than a universe of machines,
work
however
perfectly the machines
by necessity under
the control of forces running them
according to invariable
law; yet in a moral universe sin is possible,and is actual in the
present world as found by sad experience. Leibniz, however,
held that the necessityof a person's conduct
was
subjective,
due
to
his nature
and
not
to
an
external
cause.
was
a polemic directed
Theodicy
especially
maintained
the
who
of
that
reason
against
skepticism
Bayle,
he
and theology were
in irreconcilable
cally
ironiconflict,yet as
to be
declared, both
are
accepted. Bayle held that
The
the
of Leibniz
of evil in the
presence
of
existence
is
argument
world
is inconsistent
infinitelypowerful and
essentiallythe following: God
God
as
holy.
with
the
Bayle's
is neither
able
nor
In
any
God
reason
is
no
as
case,
the
fact
omnipotent
are
God.
contrary
of evil conflicts
and
to
with
the
existence
of
PHILOSOPHICAL
186
suffice for
to
mechanical
that
suppose
divine
the
of free
and
law
it is
unreasonable
not
better
beings would
guidance of the
plish
accom-
kind
moral
continual
the
by
purpose
The
Governor.
with
universe; but
world
THEORIES
of God
government
true
Moral
accords
ideas.
innate
all
knowledge comes
sation
through senhave
and
reflection, and
no
consequently that we
Nihil
He
ideas.
innate
accepted the statement:
est, in
This
Leibniz
intellectu quod non
statment
fuerit in sensu.
nisi ipse intelledus,
also accepted, with this addition:
Leibniz held that there are ideas innate, or originated by
Locke
the
taught
itself.
mind
ideas, it
is
hence
children
As
are
savages
do
they
that
of
that
matter
of
innate
has
deny consciousness
to
they
mind
not
are
in the
mind,
neither
fact, however,
of certain principlescalled
conscious
know
if the
them; for
affirm that
innate.
not
What
innate.
held
Locke
virtuallyto
nor
our
be conscious
must
of them
and
that
about
axioms,
of contradiction.^
or
the
principle
that
causality,or
the mind
is capable of knowing
first principles when
sented,
preof
truth
when
demonstrable
or
understanding
proved,
of
but
or
not
before.
He
born
with
powers
is
What
reallyborn
admits
that
Locke
the mind
has
admits
innate
powers,
us.
with
us
is innate
powers;
and
in
regard
philosophers were
perhaps in agreement.
nisi ipse intellectus,
addition
The
made
by Leibniz, is not an
idea, innate or produced by the intellect,but the capability
of the intellect to produce the idea; yet Leibniz was
correct
in his contention
that fundamental
are
supplied by
principles
and
not
acquired through the senses,
though they
reason,
be called out to give the conditions
of knowledge thus
may
acquired, since rational truth is the possibilityof contingent
this, the
to
two
facts.
Leibniz
from
of
an
time
from
extension, and
distinguished space,
is the largeness
duration, maintaining that extension
object, and is measured
by the space it occupies, and
PHILOSOPHY"
MODERN
the
by
extension
possibiUty of the
duration
giving
and
their
and
time
the
absolute
are
earth
calls space
and revolved
human
between
The
existed
race
time
and
space
of
writings
Letters,of which
the
themselves
Leibniz
is
may
giving
the
time
the
is to
or
cession
suc-
say,
of
bodies
succession,
space
realities.
innate
time
the
around
upon
room
continuance
their
succeeded
and
is measured
objects, and
that
and
however,
existed
the
and
eternal
and
periods continued
the
of events
and
motion,
of
of
conditions,
As
is the
motion
or
187
and
event,
an
space
possibihty
the
events.
Leibniz,
But
it continues.
time
of
persistence of
is the
duration
that
METAPHYSICAL
and
sun,
another
one
earth,
and
be
ideas; but
ideas
our
gic
geolo-
long before
distinguish
must
we
the
as
of them.
briefly mentioned,
as
almost
multiphcity on
ceivable
conevery
Essais
de
Theodicee; Meditationes;
subjects;
variety
Nouveaux
et de
Essais; La monadologie; Principes de la nature
Mathematical
la grace;
and
correspondence,
without
Leibniz was,
versatile genius that
doubt, the most
since Aristotle.
has appeared in the world
born
3.
at BresWolff (1679-1754). Christian Wolff was
lau and died at Halle, where
he was
professor of mathematics,
though he lectured chiefly on philosophy.
In his philosophic opinions, he
influenced
was
by both
He
culled
Descartes
and
Spinoza but especiallyby Leibniz.
the
from
his numerous
writings, and
thoughts of Leibniz
in a systematic form
that
they could be
published them
so
used
in fact they became
of philosophy, and
the
by students
in the German
universities, till after the
prevailing standards
there
of
time
of Kant.
Leibniz
principle of
Wolff
identity,and that of sufficientreason,
attempted to
deduce
the principleof sufficient reason
from
that of identity,
of contradiction, as
it may
be called, and
thus
or
place all
He
held
philosophy and even
theology, on a rational basis.
that God
could, by a miraculous
intervention, change any
cumferenc
fact, but not a necessary
principle, as the ratio of the cirhad
of
Leibniz
and
established
Wolff
circle
two
to
taught
perfectionism.
its
the
principles
"
diameter.
wholesome
the
In
both
Ethics,
doctrine
of
gressive
pro-
CHAPTER
Modern
Cudworth
1.
Philosophy
(1617-1688).
of Hobbes
sensationalism
reaction
of this
XVIII
reaction
against
inevitable, and
was
Cudworth,
were
Cudworth
English
"
the
and
More
the
extreme
tives
representa-
Cumberland.
in his preparatory
carefully instructed
studies
as
a
by his step-father, Dr. Stoughton, and entered
his
of which
College, Cambridge,
pensioner in Emmanuel
fellow.
been
had
father
After
receiving his M. A. degree
a
he was
elected a fellow, and became
capacity
tutor, in which
a
Ralph
was
distinguished himself,
he
learned
men
of the
He
received
the
of
ate
after
He
He
was
works:
the
and
a
Church;
of
in three
published
fourth
A
in
Lord's
and
other
and
"
Free
on
before
the
of
most
author
of
Mss.
Universe,
the
left in
was
left
Eternal
on
and
Liberty
on
were
shortly
College.
following
of Christ
the
Atheism,
Will,
of
and
Union
of
rector-
House
Christ's
Discourse
part,
1838,
parts
to
of Hebrew,
On
the
chosen
Supper;
System
Intellectual
Morality,
Necessity,
which
but
Ms.,
have
not
published.
The
part
deals
heavy
is, with
some
founded
on
that
this
with
reason.
the
writer, the
the
True
work
Immutable
professor
mastership
the
to
Nature
ponderous
been
elected
was
voluminous
True
of the
one
University.
appointed
was
accounted
was
several
Commons.
and
idea
fact
In
of
an
the
the
three
suppresses
blows.
His
first
idea
of
Instead,
and
existence
part
on
kinds
not
only
infers
in
absolute
of the
Anselm
of
God
Descartes,
and
idea
and
is in
accord
from
inferring existence
his second
ence
proof, the existthe
perfect being from
or
universe.
fatalism
the
existence
of
however,
Necessity,'' Cudworth
''Liberty and
of
the
contradiction
no
perfection,he
eternal
of
of
against Atheism,
an
involves
proof
that
modification,
idea
System,"
"Intellectual
the
the
of
of
of
the
"
of
188
first
tions
men-
materialistic,
liberty, but
also
the
which
idea
of
PHILOSOPHY"
MODERN
ENGLISH
189
God
of
forms
fatalism, Cudworth
opposes
and a spiritual
the existence of God
world; to the second, the
distinctions between
to the third,
immutable
right and wrong;
first of these
the
To
responsibilityof man.
great length in support of
and
freedom
the
at
arguments,
elaborates
He
his
his views.
Knowledge,
is collected from
He
to
mind.
existed eternallyin the Divine
''Eternal
and
treatise
The
on
second
the
opposes
is such
by
own
reason,
that
case
we
not
can
the
revelation
act
is
act is
it is
certain
know
this
of the
act
by
God
is
our
moral
We
often
right or
own
God,
wills
will
Morality,''
that
but
reason,
we
good
evil
or
know, by
yet even
wrong;
it, but
that
that
in
an
wills it
He
know
our
from
only
still believe
right;and
right. God's
Immutable
of God.
will of
because
right,not
because
of fatalism
form
arbitrarywill
the
of individuals.
multitude
that
is founded
the
upon
his wisdom.
son
act
of
Neo-Platonism,
He
mystic.
productions the
a
was
charms
and
doctrine."
especiallyenchanted
consequently somewhat
was
into his
PHILOSOPHICAL
190
THEORIES
answers
principlewhen
his
to
ethical
an
that
and
reason,
to
More
so
own
conform
one
in
believes that
he
apprehended by
is
should
question,why
Ethicurn'
''Enchiridion
called
Ethics
on
the
sweetness
flavor
and
Ethics
Hence
to
do
right
He
interests.
is to
also
differ in
quality as
good
evil,if
well
livinghappily, since
satisfaction
the
in
of
art
from
well
as
happiness
with
of
our
sists
con-
virtue.
highest
practical principles:things
Future
quantity and duration.
probable, is to be regarded as
The
of good varies as
amount
some
in
as
certain, or even
present good or evil.
or
the
in accordance
act
adds
true
consciousness
Hobbes
and
More
benefit.
receiving the same
in making happiness the aim of virtue; but right conduct,
agree
is known
ing
accordbut
law,
according to Hobbes
through
did not make
Cudworth
to More,
by reason.
happiness
the aim of right conduct, but the fulfillment of the obligation
but evidently
to the immutable
to conform
principlesof reason;
of reason
to satisfythe claims
gives the very highest and
science,
disquiet our conpurest enjoyment, and not to do so would
number
the
render
and
3,
Cumberland
educated
Paul's
he
Cambridge, where
fellowship.
He
studied
practice.
and
He
turned
some
his
did
to
not
Science
his
preferment
appointed
was
one
industry, he
the
owed
rectory
of the twelve
was
at
his attention
extent
Cumberland
College,
Magdalene
obtained
a
degrees and
and
to
and
actively engage
Theology and
Philology.
had
with
received
medicine, but
He
to
school
ourselves.
with
Richard
(1632-1718).
St.
at
dissatisfied
us
his
success
to
them,
in
in life.
in its
phy,
Philoso-
tion
connec-
His
first
also
Brampton, and he was
preachers to the University.
of
MODERN
PHILOSOPHY"
delight.
his
of
the
time
was
preaching
work,
in the
One
as
was
"The
when
laws
regulative of
the
other
of
outward
to
laws, and
from
are
papers,
the
see
item
to the
duties
the
of
this
on
the
new
laws
Jeicish
on
of the
study
work,
of
however,
his
are
actions
evil,and
acts
the
that
besides
one
found
of nature
any
the
prolix
Weights and
Coptic language
of age.
voluntary
avoidance
is
Bishopric of
appointment, with some
works,
was
greatest
Naturae, in which
greatest
of this work
read
to
Cumberland
Dr.
he undertook
Cumberland's
and
greatly surprised to
which
among
''The
his
pursue
zeal.
eighty-threeyears
says:
to
style,which
perspicuity.
accepted this
applied himself to
several
prepared
Measures, and
week,
time
with
besides
in its
He
his usual
nature,
were
entered
merit
coffee-house
he was
his custom,
King has nominated
hesitation, and
He
he
each
The
than
strength and
Peterborough."
of
rather
matter
office with
still found
Legihus Naturae,
of
destitute
and
of his
which
entitled De
is found
lecture
one
and
duties
of
of
age
the
important position,
more
191
studies
gave
sermons,
favorite studies
the
He
abstruse
to
Allhollows, and
two
performing
for the
advanced
rectory
his usual energy.
At
in
zealously engaged
While
ENGLISH
Legihus
philosophical theories.
immutably
the
to
as
which
De
was
choice
of
them
good and
tion
obliga-
an
civil
apart
of compact
constituting
obedience,
considerations
propositions,
true
with
carry
He
from
even
governments."
The
above
defects, both
in
nature
some
be
in style and
thought.
form
of language.
proposition.^ Again,
A
How
his
shows
range,
proposition is
then
can
definition
his
ment
state-
law
of
apply
can
laws.
law
All
of
the
laws
benevolence,
PHILOSOPHICAL
192
which
thus
he
law," and
rational
state
good is the
greatest possiblebenevolence
''The
towards
agent
and
of each
''The
states:
again:
THEORIES
common
all the
all
far
so
constitutes
rest
depends
as
of every
the
their
on
supreme
happiest
own
power,
their
for
necessarily required
happiness." Again:
be
called
which
does not, in its
can
morally good
the happiness of men."
to
These
own
nature, contribute
statements
are
propositionsexpressingmoral law, and do not
include physical laws.
Cumberland,
however, did well to
its high rank
the virtues.
An act
give benevolence
among
and
is
"No
action
contributes
which
it has
though
act,
of
no
reference
to
to
except
comfort
the
to
Cumberland
shows
his defects in
that
style and
brute
the
is
benevolent
happiness of men,
last quotation from
The
not
was
of his work.
Locke
4.
of
(1623-1704).
Locke
John
enjoyed
the
tages
advan-
father, a
of his
education, afforded
by the wisdom
liberal Puritan, and a lawyer of Pensf ord, Somerset
county,
England.
good
tillhe
continued
he
years
when
School, which
and
was
he
placed in the
and
sent,
Puritan
was
under
From
politicalagitation.
College.
pleasedwith the
manifested
religiouslibertyand
he maintained
thorough,
was
of age,
ster
Westmin-
charge
of John
Church
not
was
of
Oxford,
to
of Christ
saw
training
fourteen
was
center
he went
Locke
home
to the Westminster
control, was
Owen
His
at
Oxford, and
freedom
in 1656, and
the master's
made
tutor, and lectured
of
He
intolerance
became
and
thought,
received
degree
the
in 1658.
and
firm
these
fanaticism
believer
sentiments
bachelor's
In
in
degree
1660, he
was
natural
and
though
in the
he did not
take
practice, he
the
degree,nor
acquired some
engage
ally
systematic-
reputation for
his
PHILOSOPHICAL
194
objects our
understandings
It
with.
When
.
to
on
say
that
I put pen
this matter
have
I should
or
were,
agreed
was
...
inquiry.
THEORIES
to
paper,
would
have
writing
The
periodof twenty
title: An
the
*
of
language
is
gained
and
final make
Locke
of the
whatever
observes
and
with
Locke
criticizes
first,
second, he attempts to
from
the
treats
fourth
the
order
shall
and
second
books
changed
was
in the
else you
is conscious
to himself
whereby
ways
bly
insensi-
treatise.
"First,I
says:
ideas,or
the
that
first,and
up
it grew
experience,through
of the bearing
considers
the nature
of generic
the different
distinguishesbetween
discusses the limits of knowledge.
were
larger prospect
the
In
ideas; in the
thought,
on
one
interruptions,for
many
and
sensation
books:
of four
all knowledge
that
show
in
of innate
doctrine
been
all
when
years,
Essay
'Essay" consists
the
with
continued,
thought
the
he has
understanding
in his
to
comes
those
man
mind, and
furnished
be
them.
Secondly,I
understanding
and
shall
hath
shall
faith or opinion,
those
by
to
show
what
the
ideas, and
knowledge the
dence,
certainty, evi-
of it.
extent
Thirdly,I
endeavor
make
some
and
.
inquiry
shall have
into
the
occasion
nature
to
of
examine
degrees of assent'''
is the object of
Locke
means
by the word idea, ''whatsoever
is
the understanding when
whatever
thinks;
man
a
meant
by phantasm, notion, species.'"Two things need to be
their origin. It would
of ideas, and
nature
considered: The
of ideas,
first to inquire into the nature
to be necessary
seem
should
raise
and
ascertain
their origin, otherwise
then
we
clear
have
we
no
inquiriesas to the origin of that of which
conception.
ideas come
into the
Locke, however, first inquires how
the
and
reason
mind.
His
contention
is that
there
are
no
innate
ideas, no
PHILOSOPHY"
MODERN
ENGLISH
195
innate
of
minds.
our
''First,Our
particular sensible
distinct perceptions
about
conversant
senses,
great
of most
source
of the
ideas
have, depending
we
I call Sensation,''
have
fountain
the
ideas
with
experience
perception
which
from
is the
understanding
mind.
such are
and
own
of the operations of our
ception,
perthinking, doubting, believing,reasoning, knowing,
self,
This source
has in himof ideas every
willing.
man
and might properly enough be called internal
But as I call the other Sensation, so I call this Reflection,"
sense.
.
Locke
As
or
lays down
which
he
reflection,
rather
that
of
an
investigator.He
void of
other
same
thing to
to
know
He
that
that
knew
by
it by
method
of
to
to be.
needs
no
sensation?
reason,
or
knowledge.
Did
on
it is
other
an
thought
on
the
for the
impossible
own
light and
proof: he
that
stands
under-
sake,
else
nothing
own
him
to
he
know
rational
of
reason,
or
be
side, or
one
It carries its
to it for its
prevail with
would
the
why
reason,
not
assents
able
ever
says:
that
intuition,
''He
is
his method
prove,
rational
sensation
from
come
than
controversialist,
who, asked,
it, and
the terms
or
ignores
give
to
attempts
Locke
be and
with
will be
advocate
sense,
side, went
evidence
then
But
common
thus
reasoning.
not
do
or
it."
it
by
Did
Locke
reflection?
intuition,yet he ignored
PHILOSOPHICAL
1"6
be and
not
occurs
be,''is
soon
as
not
mind
the
as
understands
proposition. Experience
has
event
but
cause,
that
not
that
us
event
every
hends
appre-
apprehension
significanceof
the
tell
may
thing to
same
which
to
this
the
the
Though
THEORIES
this
that
or
have
must
cause.
views
Locke's
He
We
is contained
the
space
and
that
from
Can
Can
not
itself.
in space;
yet the body
it, and in which it moves.
*'I
says:
appeal
to
it?
touch
we
space
from
both
space
space?
body
is not
This
man's
every
of space
be not
distinct
as
it is from
the idea of scarlet color.
is not
idea
nor
space
exist without
of
moves
the
altogether consistent.
not
are
idea
the
see
He
solidity,as
of
space
them, but
admits.
Motion
.
we
touch
whether
thought
own
to
get
in space
and
contains
which
himself
Locke
"We
says:
bodies
see
regard
touch."
and
sight
in
motion;
space
be without
not
can
can
space
space."
of body and
of
condition
fact, space is the necessary
motion; it is that in which bodies are situated and motion
for the entire universe;
takes
place; it is the infinite room
In
in which
it is that
their course;
worlds,
so
ether
would
their ceaseless
pursue
would
not
planets speed on
accompanying
their
The
journeys.
be the annihilation
annihilation
of space.
Ether,
implies no
and
its attendant
and
sun
in which
that
of the universe
far
the
of God's
limitation
eternal, it
was
not
to
power
created, neither
that, as
say
can
idea of space
our
might be destroyed.
It implies no
contradiction
to
suppose
it be
necessary
destroyed;
but
any
body
or
all
were
non-existent; body
no
space,
body through
there
the
could
senses,
is
be
but
no
we
body.
do
not
We
of
MODERN
PHILOSOPHY"
reason,
condition
necessary
ideas
without
that
from
come
of space
it
is innate, and
of
is, however,
Let
point
light,for
apprehends
though
met,
are
Locke's
in
million
therefore
innate, but
not
when
space
the
we
by
the
all
our
true.
not
itself
reason
tions
condi-
proper
before.
not
move
that
thesis
reflectionis
or
197
body.
sensation
idea
The
which
ENGLISH
and
years,
the
velocity of
its
about
circle
origin, in the same
plane, it will generate an immense
and let the generated circle revolve about
diameter, the
any
immense
sphere generated by the revolving circle is to the
to infinity. Experience is no
witness,
outlying space as one
the
the
fail, even
senses
picture the
imagination cannot
immensity, yet
infinityof space.
In
regard
time
to
duration
from
observe
succeed
Locke
their
reflection
another
one
The
constant
and
and
standard
of all other
get their
men
But
and
Locke
is
to
say:
*'Time
consideration
from
requires time,
but
is
enough;
experience of
their
by other
series.
is duration
set
of duration,
as
by
out
set
out
of epochs
by certain measures
most
we
properly call time."
of duration, as set out by certain periods,
is not
time
is not
time
itself.
The
time
measure
is well
marked
but
This
is the
periods, and
is not
own
disappearing,followed
in continued
on
on
goes
.
certain
The
may
so
This
measures.
by
of succession
they
understandings.
of ideas
succession."
appearing then
phenomena
phenomena,
their
succession
regular
notion
in
of
ideas
of ideas
trains
their
on
their
derive
"Men
says:
the
reality of
sublime
the
apprehends
reason
apprehended
by
to
reason
itself.
ever,
of time, how-
idea
account
as
Succession
the
for
sion,
succes-
necessary
things persistand
succession
takes place. In the chronological order succession
is experience before time
this
is apprehended, and
without
be no
call for the apprehension of
experience, there would
but
succession
time;
requires time for its possibility;but
time being apprehended, it is known
eternal reality.
to be an
condition
of
succession; it is that
in which
PHILOSOPHICAL
198
The
function of reason,
fundamental conditions
Locke
ignored.
the condition
could
rational
identifies time
Locke
THEORIES
with
succession.
Time,
of
place; it
is not
is
however,
which
succession
dynamical condition
of succession; but it is the blank continuance, the non-dynamical
condition
of succession, the room,
draw
to
a
figure of
from
in
which
succession
takes
speech
sciousness
place. A conspace,
of succession is the condition
of our
apprehension
of the realityof time, though time itself does not cease
to be
when
we
are
asleep and are no longer conscious of succession.
Time, not in its Theological acceptance, but in its Metaphysical,
is infinite,
and is identical with eternity.
take
not
Without
that
the
of time.
idea
In
is before
the
that
succession, we
of
and
without
the
have
had
of
but
antecedent
would
time, succession
system, however, these obvious
ideas
would
never
order
of
order
Locke's
of
cause,
be
of
succession,
impossible.
distinctions
are
In
fused.
con-
great
of
it may
be.
The
succession
of numbers,
be carried, gives the indefinite,a much
it may
than that
of the infinite.
however
far
vaguer
idea
PHILOSOPHY"
MODERN
As
personal identity,Locke
to
consider
must
what
itself
consider
times
and
which
Is
the
itself,
as
since
For
and
reason
think
is
reflection,and
inseparable from
.
same
it does
places, which
essential to it.
for, which
has
that
199
stands
person
being
thinking intelligent
can
ENGLISH
to be what
one
thinking, and it is that which makes
every
all other
he calls self,
and thereby distinguisheshimself from
thinking things;in this alone consists personal identity,that
is,the
be
can
far
so
of
sameness
extended
reaches
selfnow
present
it
the
identity
that
of that
it is
and
then;
was
one
reflects
now
the
by
same
selfwith
same
it that
on
it is the
person,
that
action
this
was
done."
saying:
identity and
In
'*In this
backwards
to
identity of
that
with
be
this
as
essential
the
or
person',Locke
and
backwards;
sameness
backwards
of the
ego
or
but
memory,
does
not
impossible;for
another
extended
consciousness
can
sleep, while
is
consciousness
consciousness, which is a
but
the ego
not
itself,be
Locke
probably meant
memory;
ty,
though affordingthe evidence of personal identiessential
constitute
it. If personal identity,the
of the
sameness
all.
at
personal
is,personal identity is
while
self,and continues
fact
be
can
that
assumes
the
in
consists
but
is unconscious
ego
consciousness
past action
any
his consciousness,
extended
the
far
as
(consciousness)alone
person,
ego,
a
were
fact, memory
itself would
losinghis identity,and
person
would,
not
as
this second
person,
have
turning
no
be
into
edge
knowl-
of the
his
experience of the first;but since he remembers
former
be the same
that had that
experience,he must
person
it. Memory,
experience, otherwise he could not remember
though the proof of personal identity,is not personal identity
itself. Consciousness, though not the ego, is the recognition
of the activityof the ego.
there
is
"I confess
regard to substance, Locke
says:
another
be of general use
for mankind
to
idea, which would
have, as it is of general talk, as if they had it,and that is the
In
PHILOSOPHICAL
200
idea
of
substance, which
sensation
neither
we
If
reflection.''
or
of substance
the idea
THEORIES
have
neither
we
nor
have
can
nor
have
by
have
can
by reflection,then it is
plain,that, according to Locke's theory, we can not have the
idea of substance
at all,since he derives all our
ideas through
sensation
by
or
reflection.
or
that
fact, however,
The
sensation
is evidence
substance
word
such
common
we
some
as
bodies, known
attach
is in
that
the
external
phenomenon by perceptionthrough
the source
of cognitions,feeling,volitions,
the senses,
or
known
But
internal phenomena
as
through consciousness.
activities,are not self-supporting;
attributes,qualities,
they
of
attributes
but
of something capable of
not
nothing,
are
their ground or
supporting them; they require substance
as
Thus, hardness is the attribute of a solid body; so
source.
also thinking implies a thinker,
is not
A
vacuum
hard;
neither can
will.
vacuum
think, nor
feel,nor
a
Thinking,
is
the
of
of
but
act
not
actor
an
an
as
act,
nothing,
capable
of thinking.
Again we have, says Locke, "no clear ideas of substance in
general."
as
Of
through sensation
us
this idea.
as
the
essence
or
Locke
condition
of
the fact
attributes
and
of his intellect
are
as
Again
says
which
the
eye
of
are
reason,
as
be
can
not
of little use
its
in
of acquiringa knowledge
is,the modes
of substance, reveals to man
the
both empirical and rational; facts,
reason
this idea
by
obtain
give
is rationally
apprehended
of
phenomena,
or
or
is clear to
that
philosophy;"but
nature
idea of substance
substance
to
attempt
we
reflection,neither
or
The
necessary
fact of
if
not
course
their
source
condition, as
sensation
impossible.
Locke:
"All
our
ideas
of the
several
sorts
of
substances,
are
PHILOSOPHICAL
202
THEORIES
"Good
and
evil are
regard to morals, Locke
says:
occasions
nothing but pleasure and pain, or that which
or
pleasure or pain to us." Again: 'Things are good
procures
to pleasure or
evil only in reference
pain." In Ethics,
or
Locke
utilitarian;but "good''should signifynot only
a
was
sensational pleasure,but happiness,the rational satisfaction
In
of
clear conscience.
three
considers
Locke
measure
kinds
of
law:
law, the
'*Divine
of sin and
of crime
and
and
of virtue
and
innocence;
Vice.
divine
'*God
has
law, Locke
says:
should govern
themselves;
given a rule whereby men
the law by rewards
and punishand he has power
to enforce
ments
With
of infinite
This is the
only
the
to
respect
weight
and
duration
touchstone
true
rectitude."
of moral
is another
civil law
the
to
life.
in another
judge whether
they
ent,
protects the obedi-
and
In
reputation,
Locke
"Virtue
says:
and
the
vice
opinion
of
law
tended
pre-
names
are
or
for actions in
stand
to
supposed everywhere
and as far as they really
their own
nature,
right and wrong;
with the divine
are
so
applied, they are so far coincident
law.
These
virtue and vice, in the particular
names,
instances of their application,through the several notions
in the world, are
and societies of men
constantly attributed
only to such actions, as in each country and society are in
reputation or discredit; but everywhere virtue and praise,
vice and blame
accepted standards may
go together." The
and
Locke
the foundation
it is
It is rewarded
according
wrong
by
what
an
makes
law
authority able
disobedience
.f^
No,
is not
it is punished.
act
law
reward
is
punished
right or
righteous law.
is indeed
obeys or disobeys a
righteous.^ Is it because
to
right
or
cause
be-
right,and
it
as
a
wrong.
An
of virtue
because
it is considered
because
it is considered
because
But
obedience
righteous because
it is enacted
and
to
punish
obedience
to
MODERN
PHILOSOPHY"
ENGLISH
203
it results
"
"
satisfaction
the
conduct
from
of
noble
or
of language, and
Locke
proof
the
for
Samuel
several
years,
Having
Clarke
study.
and candid, and
as
can
be
stood
under-
intelligence.
Clarke
was
(1765-1729). Samuel
of
alderman
Norwich,
who,
Clarke, an
of
the
member
that
city as
represented
be
may
against the
dominant
extreme
the
at
the
of which
explanatory
course
University, was
Clarke
notes.
Descartes'
of his works.
doctrines
new
preparatory
at
Norwich,
consideration
his
Caius
felt
himself
Clarke
hault
of careful
average
completed
entered
made
were
worthy
of great
are
of Commons.
House
from
well
of God,
Clarke
of Edward
son
existence
of the
of great ability,honest
thoughts in such language
expressed
by people of
Dr,
of
man
his
5.
of conscience
remorse
of the association
certainlyare
was
the
or
distinterested
on
degrading vice.
or
treatment
value, and
bestowed
achievement,
unjust conduct
Locke's
he
conscience
mastered
of Newton,
gave
an
and
accurate
system,
by Clarke,
as
then
also
the
PHILOSOPHICAL
204
Whiston,
mathematician
celebrated
THEORIES
and
divine, meeting
with
Clarke, at a coffee house, and enteringinto conversation
well informed
man
so
surprised to find a young
him, was
in regard to the researches of Descartes, Rohault and Newton,
which
were
generally unknown
mathematicians.
his attention
turned
Clarke
to
except
few
leading
Theology, and
taking
holy orders, he became chaplainto Bishop Moore, of Norwich.
In 1699, he published two
one
on
practicalreligion,
essays
of Milton's writings;and
of some
the other a defence
and
in 1701, he published a paraphrase of Matthew's
gospel,
followed by like paraphrasesof the other gospels.
which was
him
the rectory of
About
this time. Bishop Moore
gave
Draton, and secured for him a parish in the city.
In 1704, having been appointed to the Boyle lectureship,
he took for his subject, The Being and Attributes of God, the
Obligationsof Natural Religion,and the Truth and Certainty
of Christianity'' He wrote, in 1706, a refutation of some
to
"
"
opinionsof
Dr.
with
translation
him
He
and
About
this
time,
he
Optics,for which
was
1709
made
was
Divinity, defending,
of
rector
this elevation, he
With
led to
immortality,which
on
wrote
Newton
troversy
con-
Latin
presented
"500.
with
in
of
Dodwell
Collins.
Newton's
as
of her
one
chaplains,
received
his
as
Degree
the
thesis, the
two
of Doctor
of
propositions:
^^No article
action,there
year,
can
be
true
no
he revised Whiston's
Constitutions.
In
171^, Clarke
edition
of
Caesar's
published an
the death
of the
which
of Newton
mint, worth
and
also
illustrated
the
treatise on
livelydiscussion. In 1715-16,
Commentaries,
annotated
with
in 1727, he
"1500
Leibniz, and
was
year;
in 1724,
this offer he
clined,
de-
of
regarded as one
self-denyingact, Whiston
the most
gloriousactions of his life.
he published, in 1729, an
edition,
By royal command,
in quarto form, of the first twelve books
of Homer's
Ihad,
PHILOSOPHY"
MODERN
performed in
he
which
task
of the
perusal of the
ENGLISH
such
manner
be
to
as
for whose
prince
young
205
worthy
it
use
was
tended.
in-
St.
published
Dr.
church
James'
after
soon
lived
Clarke
and
volumes
ten
his
death.
his
it
Truly
were
sermons
said
be
can
that
life.
strenuous
of
cheerful
of fine
disposition and was
man
a
and if he is not to be regarded as of the first
social qualities,
in philosophy, he had
rank
great ability as a philologist,
in his controversy
and
mathematician
logician,as shown
had
Clarke
Collins
with
Leibniz.
and
standing, as
Clarke's
of
demonstration
the
his
chieflyupon
his theory of
and
philosopher,rests
existence
of
God
morals.
In his Theistic
maintained
Clarke
argument,
the
following
isted
propositions:That
something is eternal; that there has exand
immutable
from
one
eternity some
independent
stance
being; that the eternal being is self-existent; that the subof the self-existing
being is incomprehensible;
or
essence
demonstrable
that many
of the attributes of that being are
well as his existence; that the self-existent being is infinite
as
and
that
omnipresent; that he is one; that he is intelligent;
has
he
has
is
he
that he
infinite power;
liberty;that
infinitely
wise and good.
present,
is eternal and omniTo establish the proposition that God
Clarke
but
they
not
are
contended
the
of God,
in the
sense
It is true
deny
his
universe.
that
not
exist, time
that
reason
exist
they
and
affirms
space
God,
as
and
that
realities,
attributes of God, than
and
Of
course,
they
power;
attributes
space
only
in him,
would
not
stances,
sub-
and
that
if
realities .^^
be
the
omnipresence; but
no
more
imply that
of
time
Are
not
are
space
attributes of God.
they are
substances; they have no dynamic
create
did
and
that
did not
God
time
that
and
are
space
they
can
have
no
that
the
time
of
pendent
inde-
not
existence,
a
man's
save
life,or
PHILOSOPHICAL
206
the
his
space
existence
no
of
man's
body occupied,
save
existed;
in
and
as
regard
the
did
have
in
if tlie
regard
to
to
Should
time,
any
never
or
man,
whatever.
would
space
time
had
other
being
any
and
at
man
any
have
can
actual
body occupied,
beings, or
annihilated.
The
man.
been
exist, time
not
be
not
can
his
is true
same
particular time,
of that
space
would
all human
to
If God
they
the
at
attributes
life and
realities that
are
THEORIES
it be said
still
that
remain;
God
is
existence, and
to
that, therefore, it is absurd
necessary
his non-existence, the reply is,it is true
that God
is
suppose
the necessary
condition of the universe, and since the universe
is conditionally necessary.
must
is, God
be; that is, God
Reason
affirms, not the absolute
necessity of God, but his
conditional
if
cause,
absolute
the
to
event
no
from
space
far
of
existence
be
the
fact
might
as
Clarke
have
eternal
declares
his
based
but
existence
been
that
affirms
the
reason
does
is, of
for; neither
God,
of the
reason
cause,
accounted
necessity of
absolute
so
an
necessity,just as reason
takes
event
place; but
the
theory
only
of
universe.
no
eternal
truths
The
forms
fitness;and
of space,
existingsave
of
would
time
and
is
the
affirm
reason
his conditional
the
affirm
not
if there
cause,
does
necessity,
Time
and
contrary.
of morals
on
necessity of
herein
morals
the eternal
exist
eternal
fitness
of
only between
they would
differ from
matics.
mathe-
Geometry,
still be
space.
another,
things, in their relations to one
for the moral
within the moral
laws, as
sphere, affords reasons
divine
and
renders
commandments,
conformity thereto
reasonable
and obligatory. The
moral
laws, therefore, have
ever
relation to the will, and should
regulate its decisions whenmoral
being
principle is involved; and though a human
render
he
violate
is
under
moral
to
these laws,
obligation
can
obedience.
Virtue
is
the
cheerful
them
voluntary conformity
realm.
As
moral
of conduct
to the fitness of things in the
follows obedience
for right conduct, reward
secondary reasons
These
to moral
law, and punishment follows disobedience.
for obeying the law.
are
prudentialreasons
The
fitness
of
MODERN
insisted
Clarke
great
who
in
value
does
yet
in
seen
not
reason
on
philosophy,
ignores
theoretically
knowledge,
as
PHILOSOPHY"
he
uses
his
demonstration
differ
materially
ENGLISH
rational
or
herein
and
differs
the
that
in
existence
of
Clarke's.
as
from
primitive
intuition
of
from
intuition,
he
as
reason,
rational
207
his
of
having
Locke,
of
source
reasonings,
God,
which
XIX
CHAPTER
Berkeley
Hume
and
George
Berkeley, son
Bishop Berkeley (1685-1753).
in a cottage
of William
born
attached
to the
Berkeley, was
of Kilkenny,
castle
of Dysert
Ireland.
in the
He
county
received
his primary
education
at the
Kilkenny School, from
which
he passed to Trinity College, Dublin.
The
of his life at
incidents
revealed
Trinity are
chiefly
The
of the
head
Book.
through his Commonplace
college
and
the
controversialist,
Browne,
antagonist of the
was
a
William
free
Tolland.
that
thinker
At
time,
King, the
of
treatise
of
the
author
the Origin
Dublin,
Archbishop
a
on
of Evil, and well worthy of his reputation as a speculative
thinker, was
important factor in promoting the philosophian
cal
influence
then
the
at
Trinity College.
activity,
prevailing
i:
The
of
works
Hobbes
and
gether
Locke, towith
the Physics of Boyle, the Principia of Newton,
of Leibniz, and
his method
of Fluxions, the Calculus
his
and
controversies
Bacon,
Descartes,
all well
philosophic speculations, were
known
at the
subjected to careful, critical
college and were
formed
A philosophical society was
study.
by Berkeley and
few of his friends for the purpose
of discussing the doctrines
a
of these
of Boyle and
Newton
great thinkers, chiefly those
This
in Physics, and
Locke
in Metaphysics.
was
good
a
atmosphere to develop the philosophic genius of such a mind
Berkeley's.
as
The
conferred
Master's
Lerkeley in 1707,
on
degree was
in the
he was
and
in the same
made
tutor
College and
year
this time, he pubAbout
admitted
to a Junior
Fellowship.
lished
mathematical
some
with
he
the
and
works
received
tracts,
of Descartes,
Deacon's
Newton
which
show
and
his
Leibniz.
familiarity
In
1709,
orders.
such
Book
found
records
Berkeley's Commonplace
are
faith on
the following: "I do not
the sleeve of any
as
pin my
of prejudice or prepossession.
I act not
out
great man.
The
chief thing I do, or pretend to do, is only to remove
the
In
208
PHILOSOPHICAL
210
THEORIES
bodies.
as
in Ireland.
In
the
first
He maintained
Theory of Vision.
things are
merely phenomenal;
objective,existing in the mind
that
ideas
the
causes
we
that
the
that
of
so-called material
they
God,
New
or
ideas
are
truly
it is God
that
see.
The
is revealed
genesis of Berkeley's Idealism
by
theories of perception made
by Descartes, Malebranche,
Locke.
it has
that
of matter
that
could
of
an
and
he
act
of
by
sense
sensation
says:
''The
mind
ideas
real
and
only
the
organs,
is the
knows
not
object, God
to
so
far
that
it
the
intervenes,
idea
which
relation
denied
of the excitation
the occasion
incite attention
which
the intervention
is therefore
sense
external
an
to
presents and
only by
the
on
on
organ
then
act
is extension,
of matter
essence
miracle.
might
causes
the
that
dynamic
no
is
matter
Locke
our
held
Descartes
the
and
is
as
there
of
things."
Our
knowledge
conformity between
But
what
shall
be
the
it perceives nothing
criterion,how shall the mind, when
but
its own
that
ideas, know
they agree with the things
themselves
.f^ It is evident
that
it knows
the
unless
agreement,
the
ideas
would
the material
thing as
and
its existence,
denied
thing and
of Human
do
an
the
mind
can
not
know
things independently
this
of the
edge
be necessary
to a knowlideas or the things are superfluous;
not
the
incumbrance
and
maintaining
that
the
idea
is the
We
thing the idea.
quote from his Principles
selves
Knowledge: "But, say you, though the ideas thembe
the mind, yet there may
exist without
not
things
the
BERKELEY
whereof
like them,
things
I
idea
an
answer,
they
without
exist
AND
mind
be
can
copies
are
the
HUME
in
211
resemblances,
or
like
nothing
but
but
another
color
be like
substance.
unthinking
an
idea,
an
which
color
or
nothing
figure.
easier
for
is
than
to imagine
me
nothing
you,
in a park, or books
existingin a closet,and
trees, for instance
do so,
I answer,
nobody by to perceive them.
you
may
in it;but what
is all this, I beseech
there is no difficulty
you,
certain ideas which
call books
mind
than framing in your
you
the idea of any one
that may
and trees, and omitting to frame
But
do you
not
yourself perceive or think
perceive them.
figurecan
while?
all the
of them
that
anything,
that
it is
strictlyspeaking, to
or
incorporeal active
ideas
in
oft
as
therefore
substance
mind
my
as
over
my
by
in broad
choose
lar
the
fit.
But
sense
thoughts,
have
not
daylight
whether
see
whatever
I find
my
eyes,
or
no,
on
my
it is not
to determine
is
can
an
cite
ex-
shift the
I may
power
ideas
the
dependence
or
and
vary
like
I open
I shall
own
of ideas
cause
I find I
spirit
pleasure and
or
at
I think
will discover
that
have
idea
an
scene
of
being
very
It remains
.
it,insomuch
in
inertness
do
the
little attention
A
.
us
there
But, say
to
or
actually perceived
will.
When
in my
to
power
what
particu
wise
to my
view; and so likeobjects shall present themselves
the other
the ideas imprinted
to the hearing and
as
senses,
them
on
therefore,
Now
the
Mind
we
called
the
some
not
are
other
of
creatures
Will
Spirit
or
of rules, or established
depend on excites in us
laws of Nature.
will.
my
that
produces
methods
set
the
There
them.
wherein
ideas
of
is,
sense,
the
are
ideas
The
imprinted on
the senses
of nature
called real things;and
by the Author
are
those excited in the imagination, being less regular,vivid and
ideas, or images of things.
constant,
are
more
properly termed
I do not argue
against the existence of any thing that we
the
can
apprehend either by sense
or
by reflection. That
things I see with my eyes and touch with my hands, really
the lea"t question. The
not
exist,I make
only thing whose
existence
we
deny is that which philosophers call Matter
after
But
all, you say, it
or
Corporeal substance,
.
sounds
very
harsh
clothed
wdth
ideas.
to
say
we
eat
acknowledge
and
drink
it does
so
"
ideas, and
are
the word
idea
PHILOSOPHICAL
212
used
being
not
in
THEORIES
discourse
common
combinations
of
visible, nor
manifest
signify the
to
several
sensible
of the
any
but
senses,
as
the
cause
present
an
mind; for
any
which
appearance,
True, but
the
to
does
not
is to call that
which
is
thing does
not
appear,
of the
energy
otherwise
suppose
tion.
contradicto be
cease
mind.
thing vanishes from a human
than
There
is,however, in perception,something more
an
that which
idea imprinted on the senses
imprints the idea,
when
"
an
energy,
and
cause;
this
energy,
this
cause,
is not
the
Berkeley
when
be
the
in any
not
reach
every
cause
is not
active
he
calls
Berkeley
by the Author
object
their
dead
the
thing
no
of the
relation
declares
exists
as
we
within
this energy
to
of nature, whose
presence
vades
perwill
and
is
the
whose
universe,
manifestations.
material
longer
remains,
mind,
of its influence.
manifested
of
idea
this cause
this energy,
placing ourselves in the proper
verify by
may
the
that
This
substratum,
but
cause
is
Berkeley holds
living,intelligent,
would
remain,
spirit. Objects
them, or
though no human
being were
present to behold
as
though no one, any where
pictures in
represented them
his imagination. Their
is not
esse
percipi;but their esse is
the energy
which
would
mind
make
them
a
percipi,were
this
It may
be said that, on
present to perceive them.
thus
constituted
BERKELEY
AND
HUME
is present to
their esse
is
supposition,their being
the
mind
of
and
God,
of
percipi by the mind
God; true, still they do not vanish into non-entity, when
no
mind.
It is well to keep in mind
longer ideas of any human
has given to human
that God
beings such a degree of liberty
will.
and independence that they often act contrary to God's
it is still true
that
would
human
being
being thought
or
a plant, or
of
the
is not
energy
annihilated, when
if I should
would
you
doubt,
of my
drop
made
fact, whether
you
except myself
and
idealist
had
he
the
realities:
of
human
animal,
an
"I
from
would
as
well
must
to
cease
be
would
since
From
of
no
we
objective
affected
are
be without
in
the
see
to
powers
sistent,
ought to, if conrealities.
ley
Berke-
only
that
be
In fact
game.
the existence
you,
ourselves.
.
of
nothing exists
yourself that would
think of you."
he
as
the
are
as
allow
idea
an
but
drawn
admit
to
not;
or
contend,
to
of the
of you,
at that moment,
idealist would, no
The
It is then
I to
were
sense
assert
but
the
right, in principle,but
conscious
application. I am
me
his ideas
and
we
of
ideas.
my
from
egoisticidealist
thought
good
without,
distinct
true
nothing
are
in its
colloquialcontest
has the temerity
that
from
mistake
into non-entity
This
no
is all
doctrine
existence, which
vanish
other
separated
an
of existence."
out
to
think
to
cease
"Your
retort:
have
you
if
hold
would
same
God's.
act, not
own
annihilated,
be
not
him;
man's
inanimate
of any
a crystal,or
object; each has
it is,and
it to be what
of its nature, which
causes
energy
this
is the
volition
sinful
This
the
that
213
effects
being
duced,
pro-
nor
their
archetypes, can
There
exist otherwise
is therefore
an
than
in
Understanding.
an
standing.
under-
But
Will
and
Mind
or
Understanding constitute in its strictest sense,
does
all
it
that
the
not
follow,
this,
Spirit." Granting
spirit
affectingus is always God, the inJBnite Spirit;human
spirits
affect
us,
objects of
so
do
the
animals, with
their
vegetable kingdom,
lower
and
minds; and
so
may,
so
since
do
the
PHILOSOPHICAL
214
contrary
can
world.
as
Leibniz
and
energy,
THEORIES
held, each
who
of
which
tell whether
can
is
an
inextended
it may
will?
not
be
point of
a
spirit,
having intellect,sensibilityand
To
things, the objects of
explain perception: External
and
to excite the
to act upon
knowledge, have the power
of the ego or subject,of knowledge, this mechanical
sense-organs
of the
with the physiologicalexcitement
action, attended
is followed
by a sensation, which is a psychical phenomenon.
organ,
then apprehends the conditional necessity
Reason
of the sensation, and
of an
of the ego
objective cause
or
The
subject of the sensation.
judgment, by the light of
is, as a real thing. The
experience, infers what the cause
the
imagination then pictures this inference, or constructs
subjective idea, which is,therefore, not the objective reality
are
scious,
conperceived, but the mental construction of which we
inferences in regard
discoveries and
embodying our
to the object,and
representing it,so far as it is possiblefor a
mental
picture to represent an objective reality. The idea
is not
the image of
the objective reality,any
than
more
stands
before
behind a mirror, is yourself who
yourself,seen
and
the glass. We
them
do not perceive ideas, but construct
conscious
ideas
of them.
Our
are
embody our
judgments
sensations.
causes
concerning the objective
of our
In his Theory of Vision, Berkeley maintains
that, at first,
the sense
of sight gives only colors, which
to
appear
may
have
another
in a mental
07itness to one
picture,but not with
from
respect to the eye itself;and that originallyoutness
of sight,
the spectator is not
revealed
through the sense
and
muscular
which
instructed
by the tutorship of touch
and
with
magnitude
finally infers distance
movement,
approximate correctness, by the interpretation of signs
whose
ence.
significanceis gradually correctly learned by experiLikewise, by experience,the sensations gained through
all the other
bined
comare
interpreted, and the whole
senses,
into the
nature,
constitute
be
to
appearances
knowledge
Natural
referred
referred
connected
Science.
to
finite
God
the
of whose
Partial
of what
is called
ternal
ex-
and
laws
phenomena
indeed
phenomena may
order
must
be
BERKELEY
HUME
AND
^15
New
Theory of Vision,
are,
Berkeley's principal works
Discourse
Human
Passive
Understanding
on
Principles of
Obedience, Essay towards preventingthe Ruin
of Great Britain,
The
Philosopher, and
Dialogues, Alciphron, or the Minute
place
speculation,and his CommonAnalyst, a series of mathematical
other
Booh, containing with many
things, an attack
imal
the fundamental
conceptions of the fluxional and infiniteson
^
calculus.
He
{\1\\-\11Q),
of good family, both
passed, with credit, his
the
eldest
Hume
2,
rendered
His
he
son,
He
found
soon
"I
says:
but
the
found
his
himself
found
He
went
and
the
him
to
resolved
he
unsuited
to
France,
and
being
found.
for
his tastes.
to
thing
every-
general learning."
active
become
for
measures
merchant,
but
business.
that
spent three
in
be
aversion
more
to
not
side.
profession
proper
with
and
philosophy
drove
his
composing
published in 1737,
study
which
to
of
but
of support
to accord
burgh
Edin-
inheritance, which
unsurmountable
an
support, and
own
to
it not
pursuit
Necessity, however,
in
Law
family supposed
be
at
mother's
career,
means
some
and
slender
born
was
educational
but
that
Hume
his father's
on
received
it necessary
him, but he
David
years
Treatise
on
in London,
pleasantly
very
Human
when
Nature,
he
only
Of
this
old.
publication, Hume
twenty-six years
says:
unfortunate
than
Never
was
literary attempt
more
my
from
Treatise of Human
the press,
It fell dead-born
Nature.
was
was
*'
without
distinction
such
as
excite
to
even
murmur
among
and
sanguine, he soon
Naturally cheerful
in 1742, published
recovered
from
the disappointment, and
the first part of his Essays, which
was
favorably received.
On
the invitation
of the Marquis
of Annandale,
Hume
him
and
with
in
the
tutor
to
as
a
England,
spent a year
such
remuneration
family of the Marquis, he received
as
increased
fortune.
his
materially
Accepting an invitation from Gen. St Clair to attend him,
as
secretary, in his expedition against Canada, but which
the
zealots."
ended
as
an
incursion
the
on
coast
into
in the
to
with
next
year,
and
Turin.
he
attended
the
of France,
uniform
of
officers of
general
to
the
he
an
thrown
was
aide-de-camp
high rank.
courts
The
of Vienna
PHILOSOPHICAL
216
At
Turin, he
and
Nature,
recast
named
which
met
he
went
THEORIES
with
but
the
Httle
of Human
standing,
Under-
success.
home
of
his
family, where he
composed the second part of his essay, calHng it Political
his Inquiry concerning the
Discussions, and he also wrote
Principlesof Morals, another part of his Treatise of Human
In
1749,
Nature, cast
In
the
to
anew.
time,
mean
and
answers
criticisms of his
works
of a
in, of which he says : "These
began to come
symptoms
I was
me
as
ever
rising reputation gave
encouragement,
the
favorable
the
to
than
unfavorable
see
more
disposed
of mind
which
it is more
side of things, a turn
happy to
than
possess
In
be born
to
to
successful
he
then
were
resided, and
"
thousand
published
in
these
Discourses
year.
burgh
Edinwere
their
of ten
estate
an
chosen
of the house
howl
of
first
librarian
of Stuart.
The
indignation,and
work
then
was
seemed
received with
to
be
general
gotten.
altogether for-
his
PHILOSOPHICAL
218
that
It is true
perception is
we
are
the
not
THEORIES
conscious
only
only phenomenon
of
phenomena;
of
which
but
we
are
sensations,emotions, affections,desires,
conceptions,judgments, reasonings,volitions,all of which are
We
conscious.
have
But
are
phenomena, and of all of which we are conscious.
Does
think?
these
thinking
self-supporting?
phenomena
who
thinker
thinks.
Thinking implies a
said: "I always stumble
Hume
some
on
When
perception
Did
he
he
did
I?
what
mean
by
mean
other,"
or
tion?
percep-
itself?
on
perception stumble
the perception is different from
Does
stumbles
on
on
Does
it stumbles.
which
the
evidence
The
the
perception
with
change
which
the
tion?
percep-
of
Memory,
"
affections,desires, volitions;
instincts, appetites,emotions,
and
he loves
remorse
or
mental
has
and
wrong,
Perception is
the
tion
approba-
not
the
only
act.
admits
Hume
in
neither
an
is based
on
trace
Hume's
of power,
sensible
that
The
reasoning could
destroy
of matter
world
belief is natural
in
nor
an
the
belief
internal
unayoidable, and
and
experience.
the
Locke,
connection
in
of Locke's
callinga sensation
presupposes
quality; but
his
external
of mind.
world
To
substance
he
he
in
is considered
views
of causation
or
an
and
truly as in callingit a
regarded quality as inhering in the
as
conceived
us,
by
not
us
to
found
to
be
cause
in the
operate
to
producing
substance;
the
for
producing
BERKELEY
the absence
caused
not
of the
creation
by
a
a
fainter
idea
The
attending the
than
the
of the
sensation
of
into the
hand
pure
219
thing is a
is much
object.
HUME
of the
action, produce
cases,
AND
actual
thrust, and
imagination,
caused
imaginary
with
the
the
by
thrust
real
pain
the
on
hand.
relation of
The
in the
contained
from
the
that
which
is
the
idea
an
cause
that
signifies
let
to
call
we
Science
effect.
is,according
for
accounts
which
of
change.
theory
objects are
pass
things,
assumes
which
Hume's
cause,
not
arises
that
and
of causation.
us
Locke,
to
is extraneous,
and
of the vicissitudes of
take
senses
our
effect
itself,but
thing
produces
produced
nature,
Now
'T
notice
and
cause
He
says:
considered
as
causes
which
or
effects
are
continuous
are
objects, and
still presume
when
we
it to
relation
second
not
can
exist.
relation of contiguityas
The
themselves
among
We
and
discover
between
that
to
the
distant
connection,
therefore, consider
may,
essential
the
to
cause
we
the
of cause."
and
effect, Hume
clares
de-
before
priority,in time, in the cause
the effect;" that is,the cause
is the antecedent, and the effect
This may,
in general, be allowed, as when
the consequent.
heat
melts ice. Suppose, however, that we
have
the equation:
is
that
of
if
function
is,
=f(x)
that,
a
or
x
changes,
;
x,
y
^
be
to
to
to
changes,
so
as
always
f{x). It is proper
equal
y
followed by a change in y;
say the change in x is logically
with a
but, chronologically,the change in y is simultaneous
not
change in x, otherwise
always be equal to f{x)
y would
Here
there is no priorityin time in the cause.
The
third relation between
effect is, according
and
cause
that of necessary
to Hume,
he considers of
connection, which
the others
before
mentioned; but
greater importance than
to
be
that
of
says
he:
*'When
I cast
my
eyes
on
that
the
the
known
of
qualities
relation
of
cause
PHILOSOPHICAL
220
THEORIES
.
effect
and
depends
not
in the
least
on
them.
When
their
and
find none
but those
relations,I can
I have
succession, which
already recorded
and
unsatisfactory."
Hume
then
''First,for what
asks:
reason
of
sider
con-
contiguity
imperfect
as
we
it
pronounce
existence
has a beginning
everything whose
have
cause?
should
that
conclude
Secondly, why we
a
such particularcauses
must
necessarilyhave such particular
of that inferencewe
is
the
what
nature
draw
from
effects;and
that
necessary
the
to
one
Hume
then
a
whose
He
in
a
from
and
cause
to
be
has
The
in it?"
repose
the
first
beginning?
truth
question. Why
to
necessary
philosophy, that
cause."
says:
we
examines
existence
maxim
have
the belief
"
whatever
of
for
account
He
this
do
nounce
pro-
everything
a
general
says:
'Tis
begins
to
maxim,
we
exist
Hume
must
denies.
These
relations are
long as the ideas continue the same.
resemblance, proportion in quantity and number, degrees of
of which
quality, and contrariety,none
are
implied in
any
this proposition,whatever
has a beginning has also a cause
of
is
therefore
That
existence.
not
proposition
intuitively
this conclusion
Hume
reaches
certain."
by consistently
Locke's
All
our
principle;
applying
knowledge is derived from
ty,
saved the principleof causaliand reflection.Locke
sensation
by lugging in, contrary to his principle,the necessity of
for the occurrence
given by rational intuition, to account
cause,
of an
Locke
event.
IV, Chap. 10, Sec. 2:
says. Book
'Tn the next
intuitive certainty,
knows, by an
place, man
that bare nothing can
more
no
produce any real being, than
be equal to two
that it can
If,therefore,
right angles.
know
is
real
and
that
there
we
some
non-entity cannot
being,
it
evident
real
is
demonstration, that
an
being,
produce any
from
not
eternity there has been something, since what was
from
had
beginning
a
eternity,had a beginning, and what
Locke
here reached
be produced by Something else."
must
the truth by his inconsistency
and by Hume's
to his principle;
consistencywith this principle,which he accepts, he mifeises
so
the
truth.
But
let Hume
demonstrate
the
explain himself.
necessity of a cause
He
says:
to
every
''We
new
can
never
existence,
AND
BERKELEY
221
existence, without
of
modification
HUME
showing, at the
time, the impo^sibihty there is that anything can
ever
same
without
exist
and
where
to
some
productive
principle;
begin
be proved, we
the latter propositioncannot
must
despair of
As these ideas
being able to prove the former.
ever
and
effect are
of cause
evidently distinct, 'twill be easy for
this moment,
to conceive
object to be non-existent
us
any
existent the next, without
and
conjoining to it the distinct
idea
of a cause
or
productive principle. The separation,
from
that of a beginning of
therefore, of the idea of a cause
is
existence, is plainly possible for the imagination; and
therefore incapable of being refuted
by any reasoning from
which
it is impossible to demonstrate
ideas, without
mere
the necessityof a cause."
indeed
without
The
a
picture an event
imagination can
to say.^^ To
but what has the reason
event
an
cause,
suppose
be
without
is
to supto happen, or
cause
a
a
being begin to
pose
into
but
is
non-entity to jump
being;
non-entity nothing,
into
to
therefore, jump
being;
jump is to act, and to
cannot,
that it is, therefore, not
act implies that it already is, and
Even
non-entity. We have here no event without a cause.
caused
Hume's
nation.
imaginary object was
by an act of his imaginew
or
...
If
Hume
But
He
cause.
for if
is,
on
goes
before
to
necessary
with
wanted
it
an
found, which
his
has
an
never
been
cause,
denial of
we
cause,
Here
The
be
argument
cause,
but
criticized does
asserts
assumes,
feat of
cause;
have
it supposes,
we
doubt, is
not
an
subtle
cause;
that
evident
that
Hume's
to
in
expresslydeny,
power
assume
that, according
but
necessity of
displayshis
which
not
Hume
case.
produce itself;that
impossible. But this
is
stillgrant what
be a cause,
viz.ythat there must
be the object itself,
and that, no
the
it would
existed, which
the
out
with-
event
event,
objections to
"Everything,
says:
anything
exist
be
should
cause
is not
cause
to
diction."
contra-
of
ing.
reason-
there
view,
must
entity
non-
for its
jumping,
this impossibility,it infers,
the idea of this extraordinary
into being, was
caused
by the
any
cause
non-entity jumping
himself.
imagination of Hume
'"Tis exactly the
Again, Hume
says:
brilliant
same
case
with
the
THEORIES
PHILOSOPHICAL
222
third
which
argument,
has
been
demonstrate
employed to
is produced
without
necessity of a cause, whatever
any
is
other
words
has
in
cause
produced by nothing, or
nothing
for its cause.
'Tis sufficient only to observe, that when
exclude ail causes
we
reallydo exclude them, and neither
we
of the
nothing nor the object itself to be the causes
suppose
is a just criticism on
the use
Hume's
existence."
answer
be
of the word
caused.
to
produced; for produced means
is produced without
Instead, therefore, of saying,whatever
is
cause
produced by nothing, or has nothing for its
any
the
let
cause,
the
us
affirmation
itself from
of
that the
say
non-entity
absolute
an
will.
denial of the
from
If
is
event
of
produced, but came
is the assumption
being, which
not
was
Let
commencement.
existingthing could
non-entity into being, it must
who
of any
cause
not
an
have
have
this
accept
one
any
of itself
come
been
produced
or
caused.
Hume
raises the
next
rise to such
following: **Why
concliide
we
necessarilyhave
must
form
an
In
inference
to
answer
concerning
of the
which
produces
the
by
why
'*A11
our
both
of
an
idea
of that
says:
of the
of the
impression,or
arguments
impression
existence
is
produced
explain,viz.,
Here, therefore, we
things
First, the originalimpression. Secondly,the transition
have
idea of the
and
connected
of
qualities
that
and
cause
we
the other?"
and
it.
particularcauses
such
effects consist
object
into the
question he sinks
that
question,Hume
senses,
experience gives
particulareffects,and
to
one
and
or
memory
such
from
this
causes
this
But
principle?"
"How
question,
three
to
effect.
Thirdly,the
to the
nature
question,he says:
'twill always be impossible to decide with certainty whether
they arise immediately from the object, or are produced by
idea."
As
of
mind,
to
the first
**
the
creative
author
Hume
of
power
the
or
are
derived
from
the
being."
our
holds
that
"the
vividness
impressions on the
the imagialone
from
senses
nation.
memory
'Tis therefore
that
can
we
by experience only
from
that
of
another.
infer the existence of one
object
Thus
in advancing, we
have
new
insensibly discovered
a
and
where
least
relation betwixt
effect,
cause
we
expected
it, and were
entirely employed on another
subject. This
and
of the
distinguishesthem
BERKELEY
is their
relation
be
relations
two
belief
our
make
to
us
effect unless
and
pronounce
preserved
conjunction,Hume
the
cession
suc-
two
any
perceive
that
these
explain
to
attempts
connection
necessary
and
instances."
constant
in
223
we
in several
are
the
From
sufficient
cause
HUME
conjunction. Contiguity
constant
not
are
objects to
AND
between
and
cause
inquires: ''Whether
experience produces the
of the understanding or imagination; whether
idea by means
determined
the transition, or by a
to make
by reason
are
we
association
and
certain
relation of perceptions. If reason
it would
determined
proceed on the principle,that the
us,
continues
of nature
always uniformly the same.
course
He
effect.
There
can
be
those
instances
those
of which
be
demonstrative
no
of which
we
allowed
have
for
had
this powder
already proved
qualitiesof the cause,
qualitiespresent
that
and
with
the
fore
It shall there.
the
of
production
this effect.
lies not
power
that
prove
instance, impliesa
one
is connected
been
that
to
experience resemble
no
experience.
moment
had
have
we
arguments
and
power,
it
But
in the
one
having
sensible
there
ble
being nothing but the sensiI ask why, in other instances,
to
us,
that the same
still exists merely upon
power
you
presume
of these qualities.^.
Thus
the appearance
not only our
fails us in the discovery of the ultimate
connection
of
reason
after experience has informed
and effects,but even
causes
us
of their constant
conjunction, 'tis impossible for us to satisfy
ourselves by our
reason
why we should extend that experience
fallen under
have
beyond those particular instances which
.
observation."
our
Again: *'When
impression of
the
from
the
idea
or
so
But
customs.
one
is it not
great importance
to
of the effort
we
objects that
This
surround
experience
Hume,
experience, should
in producing
make
ns?
reveals
strange that
to
To
us
lift a chair,
that
the
who
attached
overlook
effects
we
relation
on
exert
of
the
perience
ex-
material
an
cause
effort.
and
PHILOSOPHICAL
224
is
effect
than
more
or
consequence,
THEORIES
that
of
antecedence
contiguity, or
association
necessary
of
ideas,
and
or
stant
con-
force, the
the
cause,
of power.
The
real essential element of
Hume
leaves out; but in this he was
sistent
con-
theory of
with
that
"
is, doubtless,
Cause
but
why?
influence
no
invariable
and
cedent;
ante-
it is efficient in
Because
If it exerts
effect.
immediate
an
on
the
would
absence
or
producing the
effect,it might as
make
no
ence;
differ-
when
fore,
absent, the effect does not appear;
it,therebe
exerts
influence, or is efficient;and this would
an
effect were
and
subjective ideas; but in
true, though cause
but
this
the
case
and
cause,
Hume's
so
cause
of that
in his
Essays,
on.
argument
with
connected
loosely
realityis found only in
necessity of causation
is
the
requiresexplanationand
cause
his
ideas
system
and
their
philosophy.
of
relations,and
If
if the
miracle
Hume's
of
and
laws of
on
one
side
one
the
contrary,
the
remainder.
explained,this
it is the
nature.
from
or
suspensionof
experiences are
arises from
here
is
or
laws, that
these
force.
has any
*Tt
of the
subt"^act the
either
violation
testimony,
us
kinds
to
says:
human
assures
argument
Hume
to
is
is
same
When,
we
have
gives authority
experience which
therefore, these
nothing
to
do
two
but
opinion,
the
principle
popular
the
But, according
with
to
all
which
subtraction,
regard to
therefore
entire annihilation; and
to an
religions,amounts
human
establish it as a maxim, that no
testimony
we
may
have
make
it
such
force
and
to
to
miracle,
can
as
a
a
prove
a
PHILOSOPHICAL
226
back
eternal
the
to
universe.
The
accounted
for
Something
be
eternal
The
of
human
the
Hume
was
he
yet
accurate
and
should
assent
Hume
has
philosophy;
his
he
of
truth
the
dogmatic
it
is
to
had
was
slumbers.
my
would
have
for.
been
have
tion
affirma-
necessary
being
not
eternal,
as
never
entire
accounted
be
is
the
you
cause,
to
and
not
of
dogmatist,
event,
an
can
his
had
"After
give
no
clusions
con-
ophy,
philos-
prevailing
the
says:
Hamilton
as
that
and
He
reasoning,
true,
holding
outcome
be
may
while
conclusions.
of
exact
it
and
and
not
was
first
go
we
cause.
skeptic
those
he
Cause
eternal
legitimate
the
that
First
critic;
was
were
there
no
sharp
that
says,
or
reason;
requires
therefore
and
eternal,
if
of
say,
need
not
mind;
But
cause
will
The
human
the
the
The
does
far
unexplained.
have
we
cause.
and
however
unsatisfactory.
however,
first
the
must
anything.
cause,
satisfactory?
events,
satisfy
never
as
skeptic,
caused,
not
can
first
and
causes
something
rejected
be
must
explanation
the
always
therefore,
series,
hence
is
there
go,
infinite
was
of
an
we
back
Is
series
infinite
in
So
and
explanation.
without
left
is
THEORIES
in
faith
no
the
most
why
reason
it."
immense
an
an
epoch
influence
maker,
on
and
awoke
all
subsequent
Kant
from
XX
CHAPTER
Kant
Kant
(1724-1804).
Immanuel
he
educated,
where
berg,
taught
and
He
the
to
father
His
descent,
of
relation
was
where
and
fact
his
he
in
Konigsthought, and
without
not
philosophy
industrious
an
born
was
died.
and
Scotch
of
was
regard
was
wrote,
Kant
saddler,
that
to
his
and
in
interest
of
Hume.
mother
an
of nature,
who
to be a lover
taught her son
intelligent woman,
fields, calling his attention
by walking with him in the open
their
animals
with
the
to
plants and
minding
rethey met
on
way,
He
him
the works
of God.
always spoke
they were
with
of his parents,
valued
the moral
and
training
reverence
they had
There
three
of
Henry,
turned
a
useful
The
people
Kant's
business
and
sons
out
family
Two
His
early.
from
well, graduated
the
and
John
Immanuel.
than
the
sons
"
four
brother,
remaining
younger
years
Immanuel
besides
of
university
He
became
and
minister.
social, intellectual,
of
Konigsberg
development,
men,
or
to
as
repaid
by
the
be
called
of
the
fame
the
in
the
the
he
favorable
citizens
of the
some
of
religious character
and
exerted
officers
Kant
citizens
Konigsberg
The
died
eleven
was
in the
daughters.
seven
daughters
university.
fellow
children
ten
were
the
him.
given
or
army,
good
gave
city of
to
pure
he
influence
on
enterprising
were
professors
received
his native
the
in
from
the
his
city, entitling
reason.
the
Schulz, noticed
early
family, Dr.
indications
of ability displayed by Immanuel,
he had
which
favorable
of the
head
at the
opportunities of doing, as he was
where
his preparation
the
received
Kant
gymnasium
young
for the
his parents
to
University, and
accordingly advised
give him
good education.
a
At home,
in the gymnasium,
the university, or the church,
he was
of the pietistic party,
the influence
in this
under
and
pastor
227
PHILOSOPHICAL
228
THEORIES
with uncontaminated
atmosphere he grew up to manhood
the
he
did
not
morals, though
theology.
fullyaccept
pietistic
his
in
of
the
teacher
Latin
Heydenreich,
gymnasium,
him
he with
love
in
that
such
that
for
inspired
a
language,
pure
his
theology.
Kant
the
remained
eight years
university at
Kant's
tastes
philosophy; but
Kant
the
age
the
gymnasium,
While
entered
sium,
gymna-
for
Ruhnken's
this
lives reversed
after
and
at the
classics,and
for the
were
their
the
at
of sixteen.
preference,
philosopher, Ruhnken
renowned
becoming
linguist. Cunde
became
tinguishe
dis-
superior teacher
very
of Latin.
Knutzen,
university, the lectures of Professor
extending over
a
variety of subjects ^physics,metaphysics,
In
the
"
ethics
these
and
mathematics,
Kant's
were
for
specialties
his course,
though he
of
study
metaphysics.
he
directed
Kant
his efforts
had
encouraged
to
his studies.
Professor
free
access
converse
He
was
and
Tecker,
conversation.
Kant's career
Though
The
as
Kant
attended
the
For
after
years
finished
prominent the
his graduation
first make
several
influence of these
advantages
in
is shown
philosopher.
not
choose
the
cal
University,as a theologiministry as his calling,yet
in the
the
lectures of Dr.
greatlyprofitedby
after he had
time
at
not
matriculated
student, he did
he
did
him
gave
Schulz
on
theology, and
thorough discussions
and
was
views
broad
which
failed to present.
Schulz never
Kant's
of Kinetics.
first book
treated
now
time
is
Its
of Kant's
chief
mind
at
value
that
towards
KANT
229
reached.
Later he was
in
tutor
city he ever
residence
the family of Count
was
near
Kayserhng, whose
of great advantage to him,
Konigsberg. This positionwas
of distinction,
since here he met, on
friendlyterms, persons
of good society,and
learned
the usages
these refining
and
of manner
in Kant's
life by his ease
influences were
and
seen
The traininghe gained in
the versatilityit gave to his mind.
valuable
in cultivatingthe abilityto make
his tutorshipwas
his points clear in his universitylectures.
of the subjects:
In 1754-5, Kant
published discussions
Has
the earth been subjectto any change in its revolution on its
General
axis?
Natural
History, or Theory of the Heavens.
In the last of these, Kant
Hypothesis
anticipatedthe Nebular
while
he
of La Place.
These
books
tutor.
was
were
prepared
To entitle one
to a nomination
to a professorshipin the
and defend
in
for him to prepare
University,it was necessary
his native
from
Latin
three
dissertations.
Kant's
first dissertation
Explanation of the
of Metaphysical Knowledge; his third. The
Natural
Philosophy of a Metaphysic connected
All
New
were
specialties.The
was
On
Principles
Advantages to
with Geometry.
First
difficultiesin the
of
University is a
obtaining a professorshipin a German
spur to efforts and to a thorough preparation.
In 1755, Kant
was
graduated as doctor, and was appointed
subordinate
Privatdocent, which
position he held for fifteen
with
a
gradually increasing popularity, as well as
years,
increasing knowledge, and a development of his ability.
For his first course
chose for his subjects,
of lectures, Kant
of
Mathematics
he was
and Physics subjectson which
sure
way
"
success.
As
basis
it
was
Eberhard's
for
theories.
In
1770,
Kant
appointment
to
gained
the
the
chair
of
object of
logic and
his ambition
by his
metaphysics.
The
PHILOSOPHICAL
230
THEORIES
Sensibilis et
subject of his inaugural address was : De Mundi
Forma
Eleven
et Principiis.
later, apIntelligihilis
years
peared
his great work, Kritih of Pure
which
shall
Reason.,
we
for
the
to
examine, dropping
now
proceed
present further
details respecting his life,and taking, as the acceptable and
reliable text, the English translation by F. Max
Miiller.
forerunners
of Kant,
of the
The
Bacon,
English, were
Of the continental, Descartes,
Locke, Berkeley and Hume,
a
Spinoza, Leibniz and Wolff. All Kant's previous study was
twelve
in planpreparation for his great work; he was
ning
years
it 'and thinking it out, but only five months
in writing
it.
On
first page
tells us what
of the
the
is,and
otherwise.
not
general
is,but
truths, and
for that
class of
General
that
not
it must
which
is
is roused
by
reason
knowledge,
truths,
which
at
the
Experience
necessarilyas it
gives us any really
particularlyanxious
says:
be
*'
Introduction, Kant
it rather
time
same
fied.
satis-
than
bear
the
be independent of
necessity, must
Calling that
experience, clear and certain by themselves.
which
be in order that something else may
must
be,
a condition
truths are
of the facts of experience,
the conditions
necessary
son
but they are
not
apprehended apart from experience. Reacharacter
of
inward
an
"
"
would
if
affirm
never
that
every
event
must
have
cause,
had
been
perience.
knowledge of an event
ever
acquired by exedge
knowlof
Kant
calls
truth,
Knowledge
necessary
while
the
a
priori,
knowledge of contingent facts, he
calls knowledge a posteriori. But
knowledge a priori,is not
knowledge already existing in the mind, though latent, as
innate ideas, as Kant
when
to teach, but ready for use
seems
called for; yet reason
has the power
to apprehend the necessity
of the conditions
of facts known
it
by experience; is not
the a prioripower
of reason
to know
a prioriknowledge, but
though the power
ence
gives the knowledge only after the experino
of the facts.
Again,
Kant
says:
''If
we
remove
from
experience
thing
every-
certain
KANT
^31
than can
be learnt from mere
objectsof our senses
experience,and that our propositionscontain real generality
strict necessity, such
and
mere
as
empirical knowledge
Are there originalconcepts and certain
never
can
supply.
judgments independent of all experience? No; we have the
facts
experiencefirst of certain facts,facts not self-supporting,
these facts are given
that requirecertain conditions; and when
wakes
by experience,reason
up and apprehends the necessity
of the conditions
of these
facts, by seeing that without
would
be impossible.
these conditions, the facts themselves
the knowledge of the
The
not
as
a faculty,is a "priori,
reason,
conditions
of the facts, but the power
the necessity
to know
of the conditions
render
which
the facts possible. Chronologically
the knowledge of the facts is antecedent
the
to
tions
knowledge of the conditions of the facts,but both the condiof the
more
"
and
the
to
power
know
the
conditions
antecedent
are
to the
asserts;
it not
were
should
never
know
conditions.
the
what
truth, what
extent, what
brilliant example of mathematics
value, it could
possess.
The
not
without
"Reason
of
not
the facts.
finds
legitimateemployment, even
its work, in the analysisof our
concepts, and
give us knowledge strictly
new,
yet it renders
confused
clear, and
the
adding,
it sometimes
concepts
new
as
distinct; yet
large part
if this does
the obscure
should
reason
avoid
other
does, without
being aware,
in
and
thus
character,
deducing
totally different
judgments
assert
the
void
of all
validity."
necessityof the
Reason
conditions
may
of the
legitimately
enal.
phenom-
PHILOSOPHICAL
232
THEORIES
then
Kant
the
distinction between
proceeds to make
in
their
aflBrmative form.
synthetic judgments,
is
An
in
which
the
analytic judgment
one
conception of the
is
in
that
of
involved
the
predicate
subject; as A body is extended,
A synthetic judgment is one
in which
the predicate
in the conception of the subject;
adds something not involved
A body is heavy. Analytic judgments render the knowledge
as
of the
subject clear; synthetic judgments add something
foreign to the subject.
Synthetic judgments a posterioripresent no
difficulty,
since the relation of the subject and
predicate is known
by
experience; but how are synthetic judgments a prioripossible?
do I know, for example, that every event must
How
have
shall see, as
cause? This is Kant's
a
great question, and we
it. In the meantime,
to state
we
proceed, how he answers
position,we do not hesitate to declare that valid
own
our
synthetic judgments, strictlya priori,that is,apart from all
experience, are altogether impossible. To be able to affirm
I must
have
that every
first have, by
event
must
a
cause,
of
and
motion
events; body
being
experience, knowledge
their
apprehends space as
sary
necesgiven by experience,reason
and
succession
condition; persistence
require time; the
mate
its ultiuniverse, or any existingconcrete
thing demands
as
analytic and
of
of all realities
require
an
eternal
an
save
and
space
their
as
ego
existence
involves
time.
necessary
critiqueof
pure
The
cause.
ence
non-exist-
the
Psychical phenomena
condition.
not
reason,
Kant
doctrine;
the
doctrine
of method
of pure
in the
sensibilityby
followed
sensation
by an empirical intuition
is called
whose
a
phenomenon.
appearance
corresponding to the sensation,
phenomenon
The
effect
produced
causes
matter; but that which
certain
order, he calls its
a
but
posteriori;
as
in certain
it cannot
forms,
Kant
the
form.
be
matter
The
sensation
holds
to
their
with
reason,
matter
which
that their
object is a
the object
an
of
That
Kant
be
divisions.
sub-
in
the
calls the
perceived in
is known
arranges
form
must
a
sation
sen-
be
PHILOSOPHICAL
^34
THEORIES
But who
can
knowledge relates a thing to a mind.
prove
that
exists
that
is
existence
unknown,
or
nothing
wholly
existence?
idea of that
Kant
had
an
impossible without
of a thing in itself.
the good sense
not
to deny the existence
has not
been
refuted, that since we
Berkeley's statement
affected from
without capable
without, there are powers
are
of affectingus.
Berkeley was
right in affirming external
in what
Two
but mistaken
are
they are.
persons
powers,
another.
If one
should
and lose
talking with one
go away
annihilate
the other,
all thought of the other, that would
not
existence.
Neither
he would
would
testifystill to his own
as
the separation of one's thought from
anything, a dog, a tree
that thing; and if the separation of
what
not, annihilate
or
particularthought from any thing would not annihilate
any
that thing, the separation of all thought from
it would
not
notice the planet Jupiterrising
strike it out of existence.
We
its movement
about
sunset, and watch
night after night,with
For a month
respect to the stars in nearly the same
range.
to retrograde,or
or
Jupiter appears
so,
go westward, with
stationary,and finally
respect to the stars, then it becomes
its motion
All this is explained by
is direct, or eastward.
the supposition that both
the Earth
and
Jupiter, are real
bodies and revolve
eastward
the sun,
the earth being
round
revolves
more
rapidly,throwing the range of Jupiter
nearer,
westward, as the earth sweeps
by, but otherwise the phenomena
If
is
real
are
a
objective body,
inexplicable.
Jupiter
is
round
the
then
and
an
moving
objectivereality,
sun,
space
not
a
mere
representation. Space is not dynamic, it is not
of body
it is the condition
substance, either matter
or
spirit;
for
and
motion, but
in
extent,
existence, space
indifferent
and
is
eternal
to
either, and
in
duration.
is
finite
whole, in-
one
As
an
absolute
be, whether
reality,and must
any thing
else exists or not.
the possiIt is apprehended by reason
as
bility
of body or motion, which
call for its representation.
Phenomena
are
pictures representing the real, as a photograph
the original.
Reason
it is needed, as
a
as
apprehends space as soon
for
the
logicalantecedent, to account, not simply
tion
representaof body and motion, but for the facts of body and motion,
but not before; it was
before the experience
known
more
no
of these facts, than
before the experience of an
was
cause
have
Here we
event, though it is true that it existed before.
a
KANT
realityexistingbefore
before
move
in its annual
sweeps
planet Neptune
before
Neptune
space
annihilation
form
of its motion?
earth
Would
the progress
of the earth
around
the sun?
Did
not
perturbationsin
the motion
of
as
it
the
Uranus,
discovered,
was
even
or
annihilate
space?
"Objects by
our
knew
the
not
arrest
of the universe
appearances
we
being
Did
and
"Taste
one
known.
was
course
cause
suspected?
extending
was
no
human
any
of this motion
the denial
it
235
themselves
call external
the
senses,
of
require
which,
not
are
known
nothing
objects are
of which
form
for
space
their
to
us
but
is space,
at
explanation.
all,and
what
representationsof
and
the
true
lative
corre-
be known
but
is, the
these
it is the best
we
can
do, and
we
must
be content.
idealists
deny the existence of external objects,as some
falls the burden
of proof, which
do, is illogical.On them
they artfullyattempt to shift upon their opponents.
"Time
is not an
2, Of timey Kant
empirical concept
says:
neither
deduced
for
co-existence nor
from
experience,
any
succession would
enter into our
perception,if the representation
of time
not
we
were
given a priori. Only then can
time or at
imagine that certain things happen at the same
different times."
The
representation of time is not given
that is,the idea of time is not innate; but the instant
a priori,
we
experience succession, time is rationallyapprehended as
the condition
of succession.
Reason
apprehends time as
To
that
without
which
there could be
no
succession.
THEORIES
PHILOSOPHICAL
236
"We
take
can
time
take
cannot
phenomena
phenomena
never
are
facts.
of the
impossible.
rationally apprehending
was
exist
earth
the
and
therefore, of which
long
the
condition
experience
the
of
succession
the
sion,
succes-
before
before
undergo
the
its representation by
true, as Kant
says: "Time
the
is
human
mind.
nothing but
the
Time
existed before the interof the internal sense."
nal
it is not substance, either matter
or
spirit. It is
sense;
that
in which
neither
would
is to
exist
Kant
Again,
reference
we
things persistor
to
say,
there
were
"Time
says:
the
that
sensuous
mode
no
has
only, but
phenomena
remove
succession
succession, but
persistencenor
and
if
as
before
ages
Hence, it is not
form
We
before
hence
existed, and
dimension
one
reason
man
we
is the
has
alone
not
are
though
time
In
possible. Time
times
different spaces
while
phenomena,
time.
from
away
of
reaUty
only. Different
from
away
of
takes
place.
their necessary
It is
tion,
condi-
succession.
persistencenor
objective validity, with
time is no longer objective,
character
of
our
representation which
intuition, that
is
peculiarto
is therefore
ourselves, and speaks of thingsin general. Time
simply a subjectivecondition of our intuition, but by itself,
apart from the subject, nothing." Events, independent of
sive
succesknowledge or representation,took place and were
existed, and time was,
therefore, a
long before man
realitythen as it is now.
Kant
would
that intelligentmen
was
aware
object to his
theory of time, and rejectit; he said, therefore, "what
they
object to is this: Changes, they say, are real; this is proved
if all external
by the change of our own
representations,even
ever,
and
their changes be denied.
phenomena
Changes, howin
be
time only, and therefore time must
are
possible
our
something
The
real.
is easy
KANT
of
representations
There
as
the
remains,
condition
time
and
of my
237
determinations
of
therefore, the
of
in it.
.
time, only
empirical reaUty
experience,while absolute realitycannot,
to it. Time
according to what has been shown, be conceded
internal intuition.
The
of our
is nothing but the form
own
before man
real and successive
not
isted,
exgeologic periodswere
"
and
not
were
therefore
the forms
of
our
internal intuition.
Time
is not
If succession
time
is not
motion
an
innate
event
follows
another,
succession,
body, nor
be proved to be simply subjective,though our
can
nor
Reason
ideas of them are subjectivewith an objectivefactor.
and
does, that both space
reason
apprehends, at least my
time are
absolute
realities,infinite,eternal.
They are not
not
substance, either matter
spirit;they are
dynamic,
or
and therefore not rivals of God, but they afford him
infinite
for the display of his matchless
perfections,in
possibilities
and
his power
wisdom
the magnificent universe which
have
called into being.
Kant
sums
perception by sayup his doctrine of sensuous
ing:
"All intuition is nothing but the representation of phenomena.
Mental
phenomena are facts of mind known
by
of
external
the
consciousness; representations
objects are
of
whether
internal
nal,
exterphenomena
or
perception. Facts,
known
the
and
and
are
contingent,
are
by experience,
intuitions relatingto these facts are empirical; but the intuitions
of these facts are
conditions
relating to the necessary
rational
the apprehension of fundamental
Rational
truth.
intuitions are
but
not
are
representations of phenomena,
apprehensions of the necessity of the conditions of phenomena.
"
"
PHILOSOPHICAL
238
THEORIES
"The
Again, says Kant:
things which we
see."
Of course
themselves, what
we
not;
of things, that is phenomena,
or
of things. The
things represented are
but
them;
but
which
cause
in relation
seeing
to
is
ourselves, otherwise
kind
see
are
we
see
tions
representa-
our
not
we
not, by
the pearances
ap-
by
could
selves,
themnot
see
judging
objects
are
sensations, and embody our judgments
in mental
less
pictures,which represent, more
or
rectly,
corfar as it is possiblefor a picture to represent objects,
so
discoveries or opinions regarding those objects.
our
"If we
drop our
subject, or the subjective form of our
all qualities,
all relations of objects in space
and
senses,
If we
would vanish.
time, nay space and time themselves
and
time
selves,
themdrop the subject, all qualities,even
space
vanish
with
would
respect to that subject, for the
subject then is nothing, or no longer subject,and could know
nothing. Dropping the actual subjectiveform of our senses,
another
form, the appearances
having
though giving them
stilla subjective,as well as an objectivefactor,would of course,
to change, as we
change, just as the color of objects appears
view
them
through different colored glasses;but space and
of sight, but are
time are
not
seen
rationally
by the sense
al
rationall
and
be
the
be
would
held to
same
apprehended,
by
beings who have perceptions of body and motion, of persistence
did
asked
It
be
succession.
not
then, why
or
may
He
and
time?
Kant
did say:
so
"Space, as
regard space
of external
is
essential
the very
condition
to their
objects,
intuition," and "changes are possiblein time
or
appearance
But
be something real."
time
must
only, and therefore
and
carried away
Kant
was
by his theory which makes
space
of thought.
Not
time merely subjective forms
only is the
the representation of
to
representation of space
necessary
to the objects themselves.
objects,but space is necessary
and time is to render
To deny the objectiverealityof space
all clearness of thought impossible,and to introduce the utter
of reducing the universe to a point, and all events
confusion
That
is not clear thinking;
of time.
of history to a moment
it is utter confusion.
calls a non-sensuous
The
faculty of
understanding Kant
of concepts,
knowledge, not intuitive, but discursive, by means
and holds that all knowledge is either intuitive or disin
us
what
of
those
certain
"
KANT
this is well, if we
cursive; and
and
rational
and
"
empirical,when
239
or
known
empirical
by experience,
rational, when
of
exist without
which
can
space,
be
or
for succession
represented by
the
without
time, neither
imagination.
Reason
THEORIES
PHILOSOPHICAL
240
have
event
must
a
judgment that every
of
the
impossibihty
non-entity
by apprehending
cause,
is
based
into
The
causal
not
on
springing
judgment
being.
the impotence of the imagination to picture an
absolute
but on the potency of the reason
to apprehend
commencement,
the impossibilityof nothing turning itself into something.
effect is that of reciprocity.
The
and
relation between
cause
Whatever
the cause
gives to the effect is taken from itself.
An event is always an effect.
How
does Kant
is
for the judgment that a cause
account
gives
the
the
causal
condition
necessary
of the
of
an
event.^^
He
says:
to its
relation of all
"Our
ception
con-
object contains
knowledge
something
object being looked upon as that
which
at
being determined
knowledge from
prevents our
It is clear also that, as we
can
haphazard.
only deal
with the manifold
and as the Xy (the
in our
representations,
object), corresponding to them, if it is something different
from
all our
representations,is really nothing to us, it is
clear,I say, that the unity, necessitated by an object,cannot
be anything but the formal
unity of our consciousness in the
in our
synthesis of the manifold
representations." That is
the very
that
It is truly wonderful
thing that is not clear.
the object corresponding to our
representationscan have no
interest to a philosopher. Ten
thousand
people witness the
the unity of
of a balloon.
Can
same
thing, say the ascent
each spectator'srepresentations,or the common
agreement,
the
for
the
to
as
object seen, be accounted
unity of a single
by
of
necessity,the
consciousness
or
of
their
collective
consciousness
.^^ It
is
PHILOSOPHICAL
242
callingit
THEORIES
the
in distinction
thing in itselfor the noumenon,
from
the phenomenal appearance,
designatingit by x, as the
unknown,
saying, "if it is something different from all our
is not this
But
representations,it is reallynothing to us."
the thing of interest in philosophy, the real object of our
quest,
is a representation,
the object of which
the phenomenon
though doubtless a partialand imperfect picture. The phenomena
of sightare, therefore,the pictured knowledge of the
in general are
related
objects,and phenomena of the senses
their representatives,adequate only to a
to the objects as
certain degree. Likewise
the a:,
the ego is the noumenon,
or
the essential condition
of subjective phenomena.
It will not
be necessary
to follow, in all its details, the
Critique,the great work of Kant, which is eminently worthy of
careful consideration
the most
of every thinker in philosophy;
but we
shall content
ourselves, by calling attention to his
y
so-called antinomies
of the
pure
his criticisms
and
reason,
the theoretical
of
of
Furthermore
clash, that
is the
Kant
demonstrations
it may
be said that no
two
can
is,be mutually destructive, for a demonstration
logical proof
claims to prove
ispace.
2,
The
world
has
The
world
has
true
premises.
proposition from
both of the followingpropositions:
a
beginning in time and is limited in
of
no
beginning
in
time
and
no
limit in
space.
there
must
be
some
reasoning from
premises
is, if the
conclusion
must
be
true
are
true.
flaw in Kant's
premises
true
and
Thus
both
proved
trtie,
demonstration.
cal
Logi-
involve
that
cannot
the
we
be
may
error,
reasoning logical,the
know
the unsound-
KANT
reasoning
of Kant's
ness
What
not
true
intended
Kant
that
two
in any
experience,
US
without
examining
teach
to
by these
antinomies
propositions could
legitimate application of reason
conflictive
that
but
contradictories
these
his argument.
both
was,
be
proved
in the
field of
would
result
with
speculative reason
beyond the
that
and
limits of experience; and
though God, freedom
immortality could not be theoreticallyproved, neither can
these
they be theoretically disproved, yet he vindicated
of
within
the
sphere
practicalreason,
great objects of belief
whenever
which
we
shows,
but
moral
life.
shown
the
ventured
what
not
what
It
we
we
must
ought
is, however,
impossibilityof
We
accept
to believe
as
as
matter
of demonstration,
helpful guides
whether
Kant
questionable
proving these great doctrines
shall
to
has
by
see.
speculativereasoning.
be classified
The
usual proofs of the existence of God
may
the Cosmological,the Physico-TheologicaL
the Ontological,
as
criticism of the Ontological proof as formulated
Kant's
by
The
be regarded as conclusive.
fact
Descartes, may
mere
that we
have
a
conception of a perfect being, together with
is necessary
the fact that existence
to perfection,is no
proof
himself
Descartes
seemed
that such a being exists.
to have
infer from
the fact that he
of its validity,as we
doubt
a
attempted to strengthen the argument, by saying that the
idea of a perfectbeing is too great for us to form, and hence
have
formed
within
been
that it must
us
by this perfect
and
this
that, therefore,
perfect being actually
being himself,
idea
form
of a more
exists.
We
the
certainly can
perfect
limit
and
is
the
than
what
the
to
ourselves,
degree of
being
form?
can
perfection of the idea which we
Granting the
existence of an unconditioned
being, still the necessity of our
The
fact of the
unconditioned.
idea of that being is not
necessity of the existence of the three angles of a triangle,
is equal to two
and that their sum
lute,
right angles, is not absobut conditioned
the existence
of the triangle. To
on
dictory,
accept the triangleand to reject the three angles is contrabut to rejectthe triangleas well as the angles is not
contradictory,but is simply error*
The
same
thing applies to the concept of an absolutely
his existence, or
rather, if his
being. Remove
necessary
existence
be not
assumed, his perfection is not implied as
PHILOSOPHICAL
244
The
necessary.
only
way
THEORIES
to
absolute
evade
be removed;
being cannot
calls in question, saying it is the very
thing to be proved,
so-called
that
the
Ontologicalproof is no
rightlydeclaring
of the
demonstration
existence
of God.
world
"In
now
takes
up
the
of sense."
order
to
have
secure
on
"
KANT
The
245
claims
cosmological proof
than
more
is warranted
of the universe
it says that the existence
absolute
The
necessity of an eternal cause.
when
that
necessary;
universe; it is
the
we
conceive
can
be
known
not
universe
cause
or
go
in
direct
the
traced
an
order
would
have
been
cause
would
the
reach
be
must
cause
is either
would
end
The
an
or
eternal, otherwise
first
cannot
end;
present.
cause
the
causes
never
of
for,
universe
These
reach
ever
therefore
must
this first
Now
it
the
ditionally
con-
condition
exists;therefore, the
this
series,which
could
is
absolutely necessary;
preceding causes.
infinite
back,
universe
the
is actual, and
the effect of
back
be
to
of the
proof
cause
the
as
non-existent; but
of the
is, necessary
is
in
nor
series,
first
cause.
there
never
for
not
non-entity can
jump into
is,therefore, conditionallynecessary
being. The first cause
and actual, and is adequate to the production of the universe,
and is called God, the actuality of whose
existence
know,
we
its mystery
is beyond our
reach.
But
the actuality of the
first cause
and its adequacy to the production of the universe
sufficeth
for
anything,
it is open
reason;
faith
to
believe
to
the
first
absolute.
cause
We
in
therefore, warranted
are,
of the
universe
is
inferringthat
series
of
the
present
of
infinite,in extent,
a
proof
past events
law
of causality, indefinite, though not
who
terminating in a head or first cause,
is
and
state
connected
the
by
unconditioned
infinite in extent.^
event
every
there
we
is
hence
"
Secondly, the
eternity itself
the
left
series
end
"
the
whole
of
the
not
why:
reasons
of the
cause
series
without
is
infinite series
an
would
two
are
is
series
First,though
one
the
Why
be
to
the
trace
may
There
seems
always
eternal.
can
suffice;for it has
not
last
plained
ex-
explanation.
be
never
not
event;
end.
reached,
Then
as
would
order
backward,
order, or
never
cease,
reach
the
order
f
orward,could never
order, or
present.
direct
has
in
the
end,
order, a
series,therefore,
an
or
reverse
the direct
The
beginning.
this
Now
in the
direct
empirically known,
As not dependent on
it is
eternal, else
end
in the
reverse
order,
or
the
order, is rationallyapprehended,
for
then
it would
ginning
benot
require explanation.
it is unconditioned;
antecedent,
thing
any
from
it jumped
non-entity into being,
PHILOSOPHICAL
246
which
universe
is,which
when
warrant
for
of its
we
we
to
that
the
say
do
we
know
know
not
non-existence;but
would
first
THEORIES
be
then
is actual.
As
the
fact.
first
cause
and
that,
if that
non-existent, which
cause
be
is therefore
is not
we
can
universe
therefore, the
case;
the
first cause,
universe, that is,
the
conceive
even
true, the
were
the
ally
condition-
it is
adequate
to
production of the
contains, within
wisdom
and
itself,everything of power,
goodness requisite
for the execution
of the mighty work
of creation.
How
God
he is absolutely necessary
be, whether
can
or
not, reason
does
inform
not
but
us;
that
ent
transcend-
cause,
wisdom
in power,
and goodness, jactuklly
exists,we may
with the full Assurance
know
of certainty;and
suffithat is cient.
The
Space will
has
to
by
such
not
*'The
creator
who
have
no
be
of
observers
the cobwebs
the
whose
adopt
be
so
argument,
an
architect
material
oj the worlds
with
which
he
very
physico-theologicalargument
coy
with
the
be
the
and
could
therefore, that
utmost,
to
to
reason
mode
as
icisms
follow, in the details of his crit-
to
proof, would
hampered by
Those
.
us
much
very
work,
any
sentences:
established
always
allow
not
the
three
den\
not
God.
perfectionto
of
does
the
towards
such
upon
The
.
of
conceit
the
and
lightened
en-
ments
argu-
physico-
cosmological
cendental
trans-
the
logical
cosmotheologicalproof
the ontologicalproof of the existence of one
original
on
denies the
Being as the Supreme Being.'' Though Kant
validity of the theoretical argument,
yet he grants that
The
the conclusions
act
true.
as
practicallywe may
upon
cosmological argument, however, and the physico-theological
based
it,hold good for all that is required, but render
upon
themselves
to criticism,by claiming, according to the
open
than
presupposed necessities of preconceived opinions, more
the premises logicallysupport.
rests
As
to
the
freedom
though denying
the
on
of
the
will, Kant
accepts
the
proof.
fact,
It may
KANT
be said, however,
of
not
passive
are
conscious
of
The
motives
determination.
activityin volition,
are
that
without
we
act, and
soHcitation.
The
voUtions,
without
not
we
which
of
account
that
247
caused; but
the
mind
which
on
constraint, yet
events,
as
is not
them
causes
reasons
are
event,
an
of vohtion, not
then
being existing at the moment
If it is inquired what
made
the mind
requiring a cause.
the vohtion, the reply is, it was
made
make
not
to make
it,
made
it freely,in view
of motives
but
as
reasons,
yet not
believe
ourselves
We
causes.
free,
as
compelled by them
irresistible
and
and
hence
the
not
influences,
compelled by
of
of
the
conscience, approving the
explanation
phenomena
The
the
of
consciousness
condemning
right and
wrong.
effort in volition
that we
not
are
passive but active
proves
in willing.
Likewise
admits
fact of immortality, though
Kant
the
be
denying the validityof its proof. As our thoughts cannot
refer
them
mind.
to
explained by material
agencies we
and mind, as species of the common
Matter
substance,
genus,
the ground of union
of body and
soul, are united in life and
As
be explained by
not
separated at death.
thought can
it is referred
to mind
matter,
or
or
spirit,as its noumenon
but
condition.
necessary
soul
and
have
we
no
death,
at
But
of
body
we
must
not
to
reason
but
the Pure
does
imply
that
leave
the
it survives
of Kant's
of the
annihilation
the
that
suppose
rather
take
dissolution
the
Death
soul
in
extinct
eternal
work,
erf
either, and
becomes
an
immortal
of
union
the
state.
Critique
Reason.
shows
that
Critique of the Practical Reason, Kant
various
as
principles,empirically determined, serve
guides
if
the
condition
These
to the will.
principlesare subjective,
will
holds
for
the
of the subject, but objective if they
only
hold for all rational beings.
of intelligence
Kant
"It is a matter
for surprise that men
says:
be drawn
should
imagine that a real distinction
may
the ground
between
the lower
and higher faculty of desire on
with
that
ideas
associated
the feelings of
which
some
are
in undertheir source
in sense
and
others
standing.
pleasure have
In
his
"
and
The
distinction
higher faculty of
desire
is not
but
drawn
between
between
the
lower
the
and
lower
higher
PHILOSOPHICAL
248
objectsof
desire.
Sense
THEORIES
and
furnish
of desire, but
understanding
faculties
not
are
objects of
of which
desire, some
they
desired
others.
be
than
to
more
are
worthy
desire for happiness Kant
holds to be the usual subThe
jective
of individual
condition
for
action, but will not serve
universal
a practical,
guide. Kant, however, does not recognize
distinction
and
lower
between
of
forms
higher
any
feelingof pleasure, which is the
pleai^ure;for he says: "The
real motive
to act, is always
by which the will is determined
in kind, not
it can
be known
the same
only because
only
in
desire
the
vital energy
same
empirically,but because
every
difference
The
between
is always expressed.
only
pleasures
of
The
will, as a faculty,is not
is, therefore, one
degree."
of
determined
by motive, but the ego itself exerts its power
choice
and
which
is
is not
the
not
reason
only
for action.
motive
''So
declares:
heard
Again,
cause.
in view
the
of the
desire
Conscience
for
has
motive
pleasure
voice,
a
is often
volitions
its own
determines
act
perfect harmony
is the
is the
ratio
Virtue
and
the
that
with
ratio essendi
universal
of the
cognoscendiof
is the
maxims
supreme
excellence.
of your
system
moral
will may
of laws."
law, but
the
be
in
dom
Free-
moral
law
freedom.
good.
will to
be
virtuous
is
Not
The
XXI
CHAPTER
in
Rammenau,
school, he
listened
eagerly
in
was
Before
going
to
His
and
intellectual
neighbors,
always knew
"we
who
he
cocious
pre-
of
turn
said, after
that
Gottleib
remarkable
He
of
friends
distinction,
reached
had
born
was
things
development.
his
impressed
mind
he
mental
his
Lusatia.
Upper
many
and
to
Fichte
taught
was
in
village
Gottlieb
Johann
(1762-1814).
Fichte
1,
was
the
boy."
intelligent, and
so
reading
the
that
would
he
His
his
that
sense,
father
become
imagination
appreciation
the
duty of
an
him
to
the
cherished
and
desire
minister.
powerfully impressed by
so
was
such
assigned
family,
the
for
prayers
with
read
able
remark-
book
affection,
as
he
saw
deed,
asked
him
and
was
boy.
of how
Soon
Rammenau,
the
favorite
with
how
much
of the
astonished
at
the
on
for
visit
the
to
report
Miltiz,
Count
250
motive
he
he
was
from
was
one
the
late
no
the
the
day
one
too
preach
understood.
mis-
remembered,
said, "It is
can
be
who
heard
who
his
wicked
may
Hoffmansegg,
he
of
supposed
motives
sermon
tears,
father, coming
the
village pastor,
last
von
his
to
way
His
the
purest
accurate
this, Baron
after
gave
beyond
misunderstanding
unmercifully
illustration
was
and
stream,
his reach.
and
him
Gottlieb
day
at
an
the
forever
moment,
chastised
son,
it into
it float
the
at
up
cast
lord
for the
matter,
sermon
Accordingly
memory."
from
of the
the astonishment
eloquent
SCHELLING
JACOBI,
FICHTE,
Gottlieb
for, and
sent
was
delivered
Baron,
251
the
discourse
in
to
an
manner.
Baron
was
so
self-reliance.
Meeting with
inflamed
reach
troublesome
resolution
with
to
his
put
he
opportunity presentingitself,
trudged on, he called to mind
"It is best
pastor say:
ask
to
off in the
companions.
churlish
guardian,
felt free
he
away,
some
his
to
island, afar
his abode
of
of Robinson
copy
when
for the
Having
he
as
resolve
set
off for
what
he
about
to
blessingof
God
in
engage
rest
An
As
Noumberg.
often
heard
he
his
taking
under-
new
on
his
sneak
to
execution.
had
to
reported
scorned
into
of the
out
ocean,
the
prise."
enter-
was
taken
before
placed in
so
the
the
matter,
charge
great kindness
Rector, and
that
of another
that
Fichte
he
not
was
student
ever
to
who
after
him
he
frankly
so
only forgiven,but
treated
felt for
with
him
him
great
affection.
Knowing
for
the wishes
orders, but
date
candi-
all
hope
PHILOSOPHICAL
252
THEORIES
of their parents,
those
it
read
to
them
every
week.
was
Fichte
private lessons
that
of
he
overstrained
This
and
which
Fichte
Kant.
The
to
whole
this
any
existence."
my
He
of
A
visited Kant
introduction,a
Critiqueof every
the
Fichte
value
of
treatise
was
not
rich,
anonymously.
gained great applause, partly by its merits, and partly,
no
doubt, because it was
generallytaken to be the work of
Kant
Fichte
himself; but its authorship becoming known,
acquired great celebrity,which secured for him the chair of
of the leading
philosophy in the University at Jena, one
universities of Germany.
he labored
Here
earnestly,not
only for the intellectual development, but for the moral
elevation
of the students.
The
favorable
for
position was
the calm maturing of his philosophy, and
considered
was
so
at first,
raised
by Fichte himself; but the cry of Atheism
was
against him, and the charge made
that he was
endeavoring
It
to
undermine
resigned
position. He
was
called
Fichte
to
the
ly
promptchair
of
FICHTE,
Erlangen,
afterwards
and
philosophy
at
both
institutions,labored
these
great popularity.
At Berlin, Fichte
The
at
one
of
lectured
to
with
253
at
Berlin, and
success,
and
acquired
of enthusiastic
crowds
in
ents.
stud-
in the street
country
was
the sound
"
voice, and
his
SCHELLING
JACOBI,
drum
fife.
and
''Gentlemen, this
said:
suspended tillthe
of the
course
Fichte
raised
of lectures
is
of the
from
of Modern
Descartes, the founder
Philosophy, to
Fichte, the EgoisticIdealist.
Descartes began with doubt; but doubt was
a fact, since he
is to think, and to think is
conscious of it;but to doubt
was
to exist; or as Descartes
expressed himself, Cogito ergo sum.
His
next
step
was
to
prove
the
existence
of God.
He
said:
have
excited
an
the
idea of
organs
of
sense,
God
sensations to awaken
attention, and
the idea of the object;hence what
we
of
things,or
we
see
intervened
and
gave
us
presented us with
perceive is God's ideas
then
PHILOSOPHICAL
254
Spinoza held
nature, with an
and
extension
that
THEORIES
is but
there
infinite number
substance
one
of attributes, two
thought, having
God
"
of
or
which,
"
the
to
up
on,
world
The
the world
without
semi-conscious
others
dormant,
some
highest degree
of
conscious, and
or
of matter, constituted
of the
of mind
of the higher monads,
himself.
God
to
rationality,
lower
so
and
monads,
co-operated,though
interaction, according to a pre-established
causal
harmony.
held that all
Locke
that
ideas
our
from
come
sensation
and
flection;
re-
know
that
had
"
occult.
Berkeley maintained
but
as
there
we
was
Hume
but
some
affected from
without
power
was
power
are
that
we
without,
capable
of
did
he
not
ideas,
doubt
that
affectingus,
and
that
Spirit.
denied
not
only
the
existence
substantial
but
perceivenothing
and
cause
effect into
perceptionof
was
as
of matter
resolving
efficiency,
that
of antecedence
consequence.
restricted
wholly unknown;
that
if
we
attempt
to
transcend
the
limits
JACOBI,
FICHTE,
Let
return
now
us
it
of Kant,
thing
or
noumenon,
Fichte,
to
itself,as
in
in itself is unknowable,
that
held
retain
why
255
Starting with
inevitable
almost
was
SCHELLING
he
would
Kant.
by
philosophy
the
it,rather
reject the
If the thing
why
not
reject
this,accordingly,Fichte did.
altogether?
Rejecting
he began with
without
the noumenon,
something he knew
that.^
Fichte
the
answered, I know
question; and what was
rational principleto be true, that if anything exists, it is
And
it
since
exist,and
law
The
Since
identity.
of
is ^, which
identity is
of
knows
the truth of this
the ego, which
reality,the only fact absolutely known
by the aid of
philosophy. That
the
ego,
calls the
which
Ding
law
of the
limitation
The
foundation
the
to
the
law
of
and
other .^
the
an
If
point of departure
of
object. Which
we
abstract
the
products
the
our
thus:
these
ego,
we
sensations
of this
object; if
have
latter
with
choose
need
the
as
ego
object as
representations must
abstract the object,we
representations. The
the
Fichtean
of the
with
ego,
left the
have
and
reduced
be
must
the
conjointly the
have
we
the self-
or
philosophy
identity,
ego, which,
its
self-limitations,
thing
acts, including
every
ego.
fortified
Fichte
and
mind,
itself.
from
We
principle;
of the
act
is,therefore, the
evolves, by its
rational
an
/
true, then
law of identity.
of
external
Kant
be
to
/, by the
am
fundamental
the
ego,
highest principle,or
this law
/ know
exist,then
is the
between
the two.
abstract
not
Fichte
says
real, while
we
to
the
either the
ego
the
have
account
There
appears
is,however,
ego
or
the
third
way,
we
object.
in consciousness
and
is therefore
PHILOSOPHICAL
256
with
but
conscious
THEORIES
of
hence
is
intelligence;
intelligence
there belongs to it no
being, but
acts
active, not
passive, and
simply acting.
does not acting require something which
But
acts?
Can
this is impossible. Acting is
acting act? To my
reason,
^
is
of
^
but
act than
acting can no more
acting, course, as
;
who
Acting requiresa being
running can run.
acts; knowing
who
the
is
but
the ego,
not
knows;
knowing
impliesan ego
than running is the boy who
but knowing is
more
runs;
any
the act of the ego, a being having personalidentity,as proved
of past acts.
by his memory
that acting is possiblewithout
Fichte has not shown
an
thinker.
He
a
actor, or that thinking is possible without
possible.
has not shown
that the noumenon,
or
thing in itself is imOf course,
is no
an
object known
longer a thing
that knows
but is a thing in relation to a mind
in itself,
the
the
thing; the phenomenon which we represent, as
ance
appearof the thing, is our
the
of
knowledge
thing expressed in
less a truthful representation
or
pictorialform, and is more
of that thing. The
idealism of Fichte is simply hypothesis,
the most
reasonable
and by no means,
edge.
explanationof knowlLet
take
us
the
out-come
of Fichte's
philosophy as stated
is absolutely
There
total is this:
sum
by himself: "The
either without
within me,
but
me
or
nothing permanent,
absolutely nothing of
only an unceasing change. I know
I myself know
of my
existence, not even
own.
nothing,
any
there
and am
nothing. Images
are; they constitute all that
of them
is after the
apparently exist, and what we know
of images; images that pass and vanish without there
manner
being aught to witness their transition;that consist in fact of
the images of images, without
aim.
and without
significance
of the images; nay,
I am
thus
not
one
I, myself, am
even
much, but only a confused
image of images. All realityis
into
converted
of, and
only of
the
source
without
a
marvelous
a
mind
to
dream,
dream;
dream
power,
of my
"
tion
destina-
"
Fichte
other
Kantian, and
supposed that his view was
of Kant
mistaken
when they
were
interpreters
that
the
affirmed
PHILOSOPHICAL
258
THEORIES
of
of
category
reality. The
consciousness
ego,
is,however,
the
unique individual
of
subject
special
original
any
ego, the
realityknown.
non-ego
it that
by
same;
other
The
third
How
the
the
to
non-ego.
ego
the
itself;but
not
do
it is not
to
indeed, if we
if the
say
that
safe to
use
two
mean
non-egos
non-ego
any
the
formula
explainthe reciprocalrelation
of the
Each
other.
the
know
non-ego
impression
non-ego
Kant's
can
that
so
step is
the
knows
In
we
non-ego,
the
can
ego
this
non-A.
to
ego
is
non-ego
any
is any
non-A
and
non-ego,
the
not
are
fundamental
second
The
of
active.
seems
to
suppress
Fichte
non-ego?
hindrance
or
limitation, the
ego
as
But
the
limitation
seems
the
answers:
of itself.
passive
and
identical with
this non-ego
in itself.^ In one
is not
it is,that
sense
thing
of being something, the opposite of the ego;
is, in the sense
but
the non-ego
is regarded differentlyby the two
phers.
philosoject,
Kant
regarded it as something independent of the subthing in itself,while Fichte supposed it to be the
a
creation by the subject,made
act of self-limitation.
by its own
thus
We
or
noumenon,
have
the
category
of limitation.
The
ego
and
the
gories
reciprocallylimit each other; hence also the cateof quantity and
the
original
divisibility.The
ego,
limitations
activity,posits,in itself,a divisible non-ego,
as
non-ego
of
divisible Ego.
Can
PICHTE,
JACOBl,
SCHELLING
259
Fichte's.
better than
The
chair seemed
explanation seems
of
the
and
drance.
to exist independently
proved to be a hinego,
also
fault.
But Kant's
The
chair
at
theory appears
when
the
stumbled
was
no
on
longer a thing by itself,
person
conflict
with
in
obstruction
but
his
to
it,
him, as an
was
sharp
Kant
progress.
would
say,
however,
the
shock, the
phenomenon,
image of what the appearance
knows
be suddenly lighted. He
cause
noise
would
all he
knows
is the
the
made,
imaginary
should
be, if the room
also that
there
is
tive
objecsurprise,and the appearance,
but in decided
tion
relaitself,
an
longer a thing in
who
to himself
ran
against the chair.
We
of the reciprocalrelation
regard the phenomena
may
of the ego and non-ego
in two
lights: With the conception
of cause
we
posit, through the passivity of the Ego, the
the ground of that passivity. The
as
activityof the non-ego,
passivityand the activitydiffer in quality,the passivitybeing
This is the view
not simply a diminished
activityof the ego.
Realism,
of Dogmatic
With
the
conception of substance,
we
posit the passivity of the ego through its activity,by a
diminished
activity, as the real ground of the apparent
the
passivity,
quality
passivity of the ego being of the same
its
in
but
less
as
activity,
quantity. The apparent passivity
and the activitydiffer in quantity. This is the view of Dogmatic
all
Idealism,
that
aflBrms
Thus, D""gmatic Idealism,
is only the realitygiven to it by the
realityof the non-ego
be given
that nothing can
asserts
ego; and Dogmatic Realism
pendent
unless it be something to receive, as an indeto the non-ego
reality,or thing in itself.
The
contradiction
between
these views, Fichte
attempted
in a new
ideal synthesis,making the real ground
to reconcile
identical with the ideal ground, by showing that the simple
activity of the ego is not the ground for the realityof the
is not
and
that the simple activity of the non-ego
non-ego,
the ground for the passivity of the ego.
In Fichte's
new
ideal synthesis,he conceives
hindrance
that the ego meets
a
when
its activity can
be no
farther extended, and is drawn
back 'into itself,producing self-limitation.
The
or
non-ego,
what
call an
external
we
object, is the activity of the ego
inconceivable
hindrance, which
we
impinging on some
sent
repreas
an
a portion of space.
object filling
a
cause
no
PHILOSOPHICAL
260
what
But
back
us
is this hindrance?
what
is
which
which
Fichte's
called
Kant
in relation to
hindrance,
Fichte
with
as
as
well
the
we
as
in the
can,
own
minds, and in this
truth
of idealism.
The
It is not
us.
calls it,but
real
phenomenal
appearance,
construction
is
of
lies the
appearance
appearance
ceivable
incon-
an
object which
phenomenal
object, is
of the
help
synthesisbrings
thing in itself,but
new
the
only to
truly a thing
represent,
we
THEORIES
ideal; the
our
real
objective
is real.
cause
Fichte's
Moral
action
advance
as
the
conscience
the
to
is
goal advances
vision
our
of his theoretical.
out
philosophy grew
strivingafter ideal perfection;but as we
ethical
before
requires, will
moral
by
order
God
The
clearer.
becomes
lead
to
us
or
conform
which
that
rule. Do
conduct
our
order
is the
dained
or-
it, is itself
conceived
Fichte
as
remote
more
seems
universe, which
of the
himself,
and
us,
God.
Jacobi
2.
(1743-1819). Friedrich
Heinrich
Jacobi, born
the second
of a wealthy merchant.
Diisseldorf, was
son
He
was
educated, according to the direction of his father,
at
for
commercial
fort-on-the-Main.
Geneva,
to
in
of
age
sixteen, where
thoughtfulstudy, associatinghimself
by extensive
In
1763, he
large
great
He
and
took
four years
with
the
literaryand
of thought
range
in the
his father's
place
which
the
as
he
following
head
of the
with
managed
success.
gave
up
of the
gained
his commercial
council
to
career
for the
distinction
philosophy,and
as
keep
his home
financier
was
the
center
Philosophy,were
contributions
journal projected by
other
friends.
Among
be
mentioned,
the
to
himself
his
the
and
reformer.
and
of
on
and
circle of friends
and
Economics
Mercury,
Wieland,
contributions
He
in literature
his interest
up
distinguishedfor literaryability.
Some
of his earliest writings, both
may
spent
Diisseldorf, and
to
establishment,
continued, however,
of
he
city,and enlarginghis
returned
commercial
member
and
sent
was
reading.
married
year
Frank-
at
he
To
the
at
and
Diisseldorf
partly at
career,
to
ary
liter-
new
with
this
the
aid
journal
Correspondence of Allwell, a
com-
JACOBI,
FICHTE,
bination
of fiction
and
novel, which
by
SCHELLING
philosophy,
exhibits
Jacobi's
and
Waldemar,
philosophic
osophizi
philpleasing pictorial
a
of
peculiarmethod
genial speculation, in
^61
manner.
Lessing, in
he
knew
conversation
in the
philosophy
no
with
Jacobi, had
true
Moses
who
of the
sense
led Jacobi
Spinoza's, and this remark
study of Spinoza's works.
Making the
drew
Jacobi
concerning Spinoza public,
avowed
make
to
that
term,
a
statement
save
thorough
of Lessing
into controversy
but
showed
with
slight
Spinoza's philosophy.
acquaintance
published
Jacobi
letters on
Spinoza's philosophy,
expressed decided
objections to a demonstrated
philosophy, but this brought
him
sohn
Mendelsthe ridicule of the Berlin clique of which
upon
the head.
He
was
was
charged with being an enemy
advocate
of blind faith,a fanatic, and probably
to reason,
an
in disguise. To vindicate himself, he wrote
in 1787,
a Jesuit
David
Faith, Idealism, and
a
Hume, or
dialogue entitled
mediate
he develops his principleof faith, or imRealism, in which
truth, however, is faith is not
knowledge. The
knowledge, though based on knowledge.
In 1804, Jacobi
called to the new
was
Academy of Sciences
in Munich,
in 1807, he was
and
chosen
president of the
Institution,which positionhe held till his death in 1819.
his polemic against the doctrine
Jacobi
directed
that all
knowledge is mediate, or that philosophy is demonstrable
and
that Spinozism is fatalism
throughout. He maintained
Mendelssohn,
however,
with
In
his
the human
that
it asserts
atheism; it is fatalism, because
will falselyholds itself free, since freedom
is a delusion, as all
from
events
occur
necessity according to invariable law; it
is atheism, because
it holds that the cause
of the world is not
and
with reason
and will,not a free creator
a being endowed
of the world, not
God
a
having great plans to
governor
ends to realize by the employment
accomplish and benevolent
of
wise
but
means,
blindly according to
Fatalism
the
and
necessary
explain
from
the
it
of strict
by
its
conditioned
endeavored
Jacobi
of the
consequences
philosophy.
We
cause.
to
the
working
only God,
necessity.
is the
nature
the law
atheism,
strictlydemonstrated
to
that
go
attempt
To
to
to
understand
back,
in
condition, which
show,
are
construct
a
thing
is
regress
order,
is also
condi-
PHILOSOPHICAL
26^
tioned, and
to
If the
on.
so
THEORIES
series has
no
end, though
for
account
we
seem
thing
left
that was
unexplained,
explained,and therefore nothing is absolutelyexplained; but
each link follows
endless chain in which
we
an
simply assume
from
there
the preceding by inexorable
necessity,in which
is neither
free personal God.
If we
free will, nor
a
pause
is not
explained; if we accept
anywhere, the last condition
this last condition
as
truly ultimate, it is unconditioned,
absolute
infinite,we
or
explanation, and
accept it without
demonstrated
the so-called
strative.
philosophy fails to be demonJacobi, therefore held that Spinoza's philosophy is
the only demonstrated
philosophy, but demonstrated
only
which
endless
with
its
the
tated
necessichain,
on
assumption of an
atheism.
fatalism
and
involves
both
links,
Spinoza,
atheism
however, attempted to escape
by identifying God
with nature, as in his oft repeated expression,Deus vel Natura,
which
is the expression for pantheism.
Jacobi's
philosophy goes back, not in an infinite series,
but
which
to
faith is not
faith
which
reason,
Unconditioned
blind
faith,restingon
external
This
rational
intuition.
rational
intuition
in
authority,but
sensation
so-called,
in pure
feeling,through
Jacobi's faith is rational intuition.
is not
logical consequent
deduced
from
fashion, but is
premises, after the syllogistic
the logicalantecedent, presupposition or necessary
condition
of all rational knowledge, and is apprehended, at once,
by the
direct insightof the reason,
whose
according to
essence,
very
is
instinctive
but
is
Jacobi,
faith, or
feeling,
truly rational
insight. Jacobi, however, resolved all cognition ultimately
into feeling.
Jacobi
complained of the increasing tendency, in the
nate
philosophic schools, since the time of Aristotle, to subordithe
to
reason
understanding, to subject immediate
intuitive
knowledge to mediate, to absorb
knowledge by
He
demonstrative.
opposed Kant's
theory that space and
time
are
given a priori as form of external perception, in
which
determinations
of our
minds, seem
phenomena, mere
to be located, though they have
external existence, holding
no
a
JACOBl,
PICHTE,
that
Kant
in postulating the
illogical
was
by his
which,
SCHELLING
confession, he
own
knew
mind,
they
they
are
revelations
are
picturescan,
things.
as
our
admitted
Jacobi
no
^6S
thing in itself,of
nothing, giving, in
existence
apart from
held by Jacobi,
mental
pictures,yet as
objective facts, representing as truly
discoveries
beliefs concerning external
or
of
foundation
believe, the
though
in
was
of
Fichte
substance,
makes
to
in
these
to
realities,
so,
he
with
out
livingworking order itself,withinverted
Spinozism, which makes
the
be God,
sole substance
one
faith
Kant's
failed clearly to
practical,though
Jacobi.
the
Kant
did
that
an
be
God,
who
inherent
thus
lives and
works,
though blindly,according
In Jacobi's philosophy, the understanding and the feelings
is light in my
are
strictlyseparated. Jacobi said: "There
I attempt
heart, but it goes out whenever
to bring it into the
this contradiction,
understanding." Jacobi, in order to escape
brought in immediate
knowledge, but this will not
for conditioned
answer
things,but only for the condition, and
then
is a rational
the condition
only when
principle. But
will this hold good?
Some
philosophers say not, since it is
not
divorced from
all other knowledge; yet it will hold; for
it is not
from
other
deduced
quent,
knowledge as a logicalconsebut the other knowledge being given, it is apprehend
the necessary
condition, or logical
immediately by reason
as
antecedent.
Thus
know
that
event
we
requires a
every
and knowing a particularevent, without
knowing the
cause,
to
cause,
we
know
that
it has
cause.
immutable
law.
PHILOSOPHICAL
264
THEORIES
intellect.
at
In
Nurtingen,
in two
years,
home,
the
his tenth
and
all he
was
such
he
year,
was
could
his
was
to
to
precocity,that
receive
permitted
sent
from
that
study with
Latin
he
school
acquired,
school, and
the
students
turning
re-
of
Seminary.
under
In 1790, though three years
by special
age, he was,
admitted
the
school
to
at Tubingen,
Theological
permission,
for
student.
He
where
he had
fellow
a
Hegel
graduated in
1792, presenting a Latin thesis.
Continuing his Theological
his
and
literary activity,he
Philosophical studies, and
in 1795, his Theological degree, presenting a thesis
received
Paulinarum
Marcione
De
elititled,
Epistolarum Emendatore,
before receiving
From
1792
to 1795, after graduating and
of both Kant
his degree,he had studied the works
and Fichte,
and
and
with his usual
perhaps with undue
promptness,
haste, published the results of his studies in an essay as early
This essay was
orate
elab1794.
followed, in 1795, by a more
as
Fichte's
to combine
attempt
system with Spinoza's,
thus giving it a more
objectiveform.
and companion of two
For two
he was
tutor
youths
years
of noble
family, at Leipsic, contributing articles,in the
to Fichte's
meantime,
PhilosophicalJournal, besides engaging
and
ardently in the study of medicine
physical science.
In 1798, Schelling was
called, as professor extraordinary
of philosophy, to
the University at
became
Jena, and
a
co-laborer
with Fichte; and after Fichte
his
resigned
position
fill
the
at
to
vacant
Jena, Schelling was
chair,
appointed
and
this position he held till 1803.
His lectures were
very
he assumed
attractive, and
a
more
independent position.
While
this
he
professorship,
holding
published several works,
and
made
contributions
to various
numerous
Literary and
Scientific Journals.
In connection
with Hegel, whom
he had
in 1801, he edited
invited
to Jena
a
Philosophical Journal,
thus raisingthe universityof Jena to the height of its reputation,
as
a philosophiccenter.
PHILOSOPHICAL
266
show
Ego
that
of
ground
knowledge,
the
second
of
stage
his
in
Idealism
the
In
his
in
published
third
stand
the
and
His
object.
my
of Nature;
dialogue,
the
the
In
fourth
of
Religion,
Nature
Medical
fifth
after
Cosmogony
the
In
Divinities
of
ideal
of
the
and
of
real
this
Ideas
for
Divine,
and
Academical
of
takes
the
of
or
period
a
are:
Philosophy
Natural
the
articles
Study;
Physics,
inclines
his
period,
Improved
writings
Philosophy
are:
the
of
Philosophy
articles
and
of Fichte,
Theory
and
Mysticism
to
Relation
True
sixth
Schelling
period,
the
Preface
writings
said
vacillating
at
the
of
or
in
the
in
the
Preface
which
not
he
though
popularity.
to
Becker
styles
and
self-consistent.
he
was
had
tion
Transla-
philosophy
his
of Mythology
He
the
On
lectures
published
muddled.
was
his
are
and
Theogony
Boehme,
Philosophy
Schelling
of
Jacob
Critical
inconsistent,
height
attempted
Schelling
of Cousin,
Schelling
and
of
manner
period,
Philosophy,
Fichte
when
this
of Samothrace;
Positive
The
the
or
and
Journal.
the
In
the
Speculative
Spinoza,
writings
Schelling
Exposition
and
chief
Method
period,
In
phy
Philoso-
Transcendental
of
to
the
of Speculative
Neo-Platonism.
and
of
Bruno
the
Journal
This
Natural
of
System
of Philosophy;
System
of Things;
New
of
the
mind.
Journal
returns
indifference
of
in
clusion
con-
1800.
Exposition
Principle
of
System
the
in
period, Schelling
on
subject
the
between
distinguishes
in
also
1801,
1800,
believes,
philosophy
in
ultimate
the
philosophy.
true
the
and
foiind
Schelling
as
Schelling
1799,
be
can
only
is found
thinking
for
Ego
and
nature
published
Physics
is the
period,
of
philosophy
the
reaching
Idealism
that
In
in
only
THEORIES
In
lation,
Reve-
fact,
imaginative,
great
influence
XXII
CHAPTER
Hegel
(1770-1831).
Hegel
born
Stuttgart;
at
received
he
While
in
his
in
which
translated
recorded
the
from
and
heads.
Greek
other
time,
some
interested
which
studied,
he
for
kept,
plays,
from
and
was
place
same
diary
He
him.
made
and
current
tracts
ex-
publications
alphabetic
under
arranging them
he wrote
others, but
only did he acquire from
his
and
showing
displaying original powers,
essays
admiration
for
works,
the
two
characteristics
and
of
He
he
and
books
standard
Not
many
of the
Gymnasium
for the University.
matters
Antigone
the
Hegel
in the
preparation
gymnasium,
the
he
and
Friedrich
Wilhelm
George
classics.
ancient
of
mind
great
He
the
"
the
combined
thus
of
power
acquisition
origination.
entered
the
of
University
Tiibingen,
at
the
of
age
little
he manifested
but
Theology;
in
either
the
interest
the
taught
philosophy
theology
or
the
his
time
at
reading the
university, preferring to spend
his
classics.
received
due
In
time
his degree, and
he took
edge
knowlcertificate
with
crediting him
good abilities, average
and
industry, but deficiency in philosophy.
Hegel was,
of the
all the
of knowledge
however,
stores
time, laying up
eighteen,
ancient
as
world,
which
student
and
of
gathering
later served
him
not
only
good purpose,
application to philosophy.
also
for
utility, but
much
from
conversation
with
gained
and
especially with Holderlin
Schelling.
After
tutor
was
few
his
in
the
university
family of
and
Tschugg
acquaintances
wrote
in the
he
life of
winter
in
also
residence
Berne,
in
he
earnest
whom
of his
267
oneness
he
his
for
general
He
associates,
for
summer
three
also
but
years,
residence
but
Hegel made
systematically studied
study to Christianity
found
noble
spirit,
a
of spirit with
God.
Berne.
yet
devoted
Jesus,
consciousness
Hegel was,
Steiger, whose
course,
M.
tion
informa-
of miscellaneous
mass
PHILOSOPHICAL
268
THEORIES
He
attached
questions,and
great importance to religious
enforced by
emphasized the distinction between a religion
and the natural religious
authority,
development of a people.
while at Frankfort
It was
that the philosophicideas of
He
first reduced to systematicform.
sponded
correHegel were
in reference to his making. Bamberg,
with Schelling
the result of the correspondence
a place of residence;but
invitation to come
to Jena as an assistant of Schelling
was
an
in philosophy. The two philosophers
publishedconjointly
Critical Philosophical
for
which
a
Journal,
Hegel wrote the
majorityof the articles.
The subjectof his dissertation,which qualified
him for the
of
Orbitis
in
Privatdocent
De
was
Planetarum,
position
which
he expresseddoubts in regard to the existence of a
planet between the orbits of Mars and that of Jupiter,and
this was
afterwards made the ground of attack on his a priori
philosophy,as a method for the deduction of facts.
At Jena, Hegel delivered lectures on philosophy,
logicand
left Jena in 1803, Hegel had
mathematics.
After Schelling
the field of philosophyto himself. His lectures though expressing
too obscure to be popular. His
deep thought were
view
of art was,
generation.
ii\
HEGEL
disturbed
Jena
Napoleon's victory at
269
in his
him
of
cal
philosophibut
he was
employment;
of the
offered the position of editor
Bamberger
Zeitung,
he accepted, and filled the place for eighteen months,
which
he was
when
appointed to the rectorshipof the Gymnasium
at Nuremberg.
Von
Marie
Tucher, who
In 1811, Hegel married
proved
to
be
wife.
excellent
an
him
threw
labors, and
out
In
he
reached
he
character
the
and
church
system
was
of his fame.
the
as
The
conciliatory
did
both
they
great popularity, and
philosophy.
them
state, gave
hailed
years' service at
philosophy at Berlin,
two
of
doctrines, supporting
of his
to
came
After
chair
the
zenith
the
Heidelberg, as
published the Encyclopedia
he
1816,
national
as
the
his
chain
form
of three
links.
a
Berkeley, Hume,
the first and
original, Berkeley, the intermediate
Locke,
Locke,
natural
Hume
development.
In like
slumbers.
constitute
links, Fichte
and
terminal
the
link, Hume
and
manner,
of
chain
four
logicaloutcome,
awoke
constitute
from
Kant
his
ic
dogmat-
The
two
Hegel
Schelling,connect
intermediate
with
Kant,
and
that he
Hegel is truly indebted; but it is from Kant
derives his inspiration.
was
especiallydue to three facts : he had
Hegel's success
made
industrious
preparation; he had
long and
a
great
of origination.
capacity for acquisition;he had strong powers
to
them
The
following is the
volumes:
Vol.
list of his
1, Minor
principalworks,
in seventeen
Articles; 2, Phenomenology;
3-5,
ophy
9, Philosof Religion;
of
abstraction, attempts
to
the
One,
to
reach
The
the
Absolute
in which
the
THEORIES
PHILOSOPHICAL
270
Absolute,
develops
the
reverses
the
existence
into
One
perception of a tree,
the perception cannot
since
of
through
the
but
ego
the
tree
is not
example,
for
exist except
immediate,
through
the
vention
inter-
or
manifestations
of
the
individual.
is, however,
tree
festations
mani-
likewise
save
object perceived, nor
intervention
of the ego
subject perceiving,
or
the tree
and
according to Hegel, merely
are,
the
phenomenal
this
of concrete
phenomenal
subjective, or
as
synthesis,
forms
Absolute.
of the
The
continued
by
Individual
All.
the
regarded
are
and
process,
Absolute.
Ideas
idea
The
of other
trees
of
can,
be formed.
in like manner,
We
have
now
the
of the
concept
class
Other
tree.
concepts,
retaining only
concept,
all the
concepts;
highest
genus,
and
so
we
on,
embracing
what
is
rise, till
can
actual
to
common
the
reach
we
and
possible concept,
class or
individual
object. What
applicable to any
we.^
then
have
Being embracins
Evidently Being; not
both
and
is itg
but
What
extent
only content.
content,
The
content.'^
Hegel answers
Nothing.
Nothing; Being
every
and
"
universal
content
however,
of Being, and that only.
the
not
extent
Hegel, however, deals
especially with
of a
with
the
class, but
content,
concept, the idea in
true
answer,
the
Platonic
philosophy
sense,
of the
these
to
concept,
are
diagram
by
is Idealism,
individual
individuals
and
the
him, as
the class, the
concept
is
is of little account,
his
dialectical
To
object, or
which
the
to
method;
Plato, the
crete
con-
collection
whole
of
away.
drawn
on
paper
individual
or
on
be erased, and
others
black-board, may
another, or many
drawn
be erased; but
instead, which, in like manner,
may
the idea, the concept triangle,abides; and it is with concepts
HEGEL
that
in
deals.
philosophy
individual
Nature
for
carefulness
her
271
the
herself
follows
species and
this
method
carelessness
for
the
careful
"So
So
of
account
is,however, due that philosophy give some
this it does by seeing in it the concept,
the individual, and
idea
the
whatever
individual
embodied,
peculiarities,or
contain.
accidents, it may
In risingfrom the individual, a tree for example, to Being,
according to the Hegelian method, we neglected the extent,
and
that
classes, and considered
is, individuals
only the
which
the
become
the concept,
attributes,
content,
common
It
less, as
less and
genus,
when
ascend, till we
we
the
is
content
reach
minimum^
Being,
the
highest
simply Existence,
but
Nothing.
neglect extent, or to consider only content, is however,
an
arbitrary proceeding. We should consider both kinds of
and content.
Then, in ascending from an
quantity extent
individual to its species or class, reducing the idea of the
not
To
"
individual
the
to
concept,
or
content
common
of the
class,
then
is
minimum
in content,
since
only
its
is
attribute
common
existence.
Does
extent
existence, their
be
to
all
understood
objects,and
all
to
common
content
common
that
in it content,
Being, but as
or
Being
attribute.
in
its extent,
actual
every
found
It
ever,
is, howcontains
attribute, not
somewhere
in the
as
divisions
sub-
of its extent.
We
can
descend
by
content
to
reach
the
the
is:
The
division
The
division between
are
of the
content
an
of
its extent,
divisions
several
law
with
individuals, which
in content.
extent
begin
now
varies
individual
and
in extent, but
relation of the content
minima
inverselyas
and Being
the
maxima
to
extent.
is neither
the
Any
maxi-
PHILOSOPHICAL
272
mum
nor
either
minimum,
THEORIES
to
as
extent
content.
or
We
be
analyze
Any
can
defined
by referringit to its class and designating it by its
characteristic
attribute.
be defined, its extent
Being cannot
be
be
cannot
divided, but its content
can
analyzed; an
divide
extent,
individual
can
its content
can
the
Individual
and
its content
its extent
What
and
be
defined, its
be
analyzed; any
and
can
extent
be
divided, but
class,between
cannot
intermediate
be
The
defined, its
division
of any
name
divided
extent
denotes
its content.
connotes
is the
of
nature
is not
necessarily
agree
can
from
tree, that
abstract
as
this
It
Being?
horse, John
Brown; but
in existing,in being, which, as common
to all,
particular thing,
all these
Being,
analyzed.
and
subdivision
content.
each
of these
when
we
say
this tree
is,John
Brown
Is
evidently has meaning.
the meaning
of is nothing?
concrete
It is truly no
thing
taken
it
is
the
whole; but we call it Being, or existence;
as
a
their
of
non-existence.
actuality these objects,as opposed to
existence, as
Being, then, is existence, not a determinate
has
but
has
it
real meaning, or
objective
tree, horse, man,
a
in
their
and
attribute,
reality everything, as
common
though,
all
in thought, it can
from
be abstracted
determinate
or
any
has
existence
and
things,
no
objective
apart from determinate
things, yet it has subjective existence as the idea of the common
of all existing things
Its objective reality is
content
of the
but by the energy
maintained, not by its own
energy,
determinate
it is the common
attribute; as
things of which
be kept indefinitely
subjective idea, it is formed, and may
in mind, by thought.
has
Hence, Being, the highest genus,
of things, or
attribute
existence, objective as the common
subjective as the idea of this common
attribute, and is kept
of the objects,
in existence, in the one
by the energy
case,
and in the other, by the energy
of thought.
The First Cause,
has eternal
is the
Ultimate
eternal energy,
as
Being, and
Reality.
The
Logic of Hegel, descending by division, from Being,
the highest genus,
existingthing.
attempts to develop every
common
to
all these
is,that horse
statements,
PHILOSOPHICAL
274
the
to
not
antithesis,
but subjective
objectivemovement,
Nothing is what thought finds Being
Nothing; in thought,therefore.Nothing swings
in thought. As
to
be.Being
back
THEORIES
into
this
Being;that is,the
antithesis returns
to the thesis.
determinate
pure
Being and
pure
Nothing, not
and
determinate
Being
Nothing; for the
is
with
the not-Beingof 100 miles,
not identical
Being of $100
for this might be the Being of 100 acres, since the Being of
The idea of Being,
100 acres, is the not-Beingof 100 miles.
can
be added
to
them; it does
not
constitute the
idea
subjective
of
things,
there
is
that there
"
indeterminate:
blank; each of the two is in the same
way
the difference,
therefore, lies not in them, but in a tertium
is a mere
quid, in a mere
supposition. But supposition
of
subjectivestate which does not belong to this course
exposition.The tertium quid,however, in which Being and
HEGEL
they
are
includes
Nothing
is
the
one
the
other
and
that
itself: it is
so
so
itself
present
far
here,
In it
Becoming.
differas
they are ent.
The
also
must
support,
presented
different; Becoming is only
already
it has
and
their
have
Nothing
275
as
"
"
definition
also, to
.f^ Let
those
well
the
difference
what
say,
who
other
strive
of
is
correct."
This
is
fair
challenge.
of definition: Considered
way
Being
is whatever
attribute; it is
would
have
no
us
as
see
what
to both
be
can
extent
and
done
by
content,
is; it is all
realityitself.
Let
Considered
itself.
It is true
that, in Hegel's
sense,
pure
Being,
that
has
is.Being
existing thing,
no
The
idea of pure
Nothing.
pure
pure
Being becomes the idea of pure Nothing, and the idea of pure
Nothing becomes the idea of pure Being; that is,the idea of
either pure Being or pure Nothing makes
to that
a transition
of Becoming.
of the other, by the process
Nothing is thought
of, spoken of; it is therefore, in idea, and has its being in
transition
of Nothing
to
Being is called
thought. The
arising,that of Being to Nothing departing.
dwelt
have
the fundamental
We
principle of Hegel,
on
is
understand
it
would
because
this, if we
important to
all.
understand
Hegel at
Being
Nothing, Being is the
thesis.Nothing the antithesis,and Becoming the synthesisof
the two, the reciprocaltransition of each into the other.
of all things as God's
ideas
We
regard the sum-total
may
objectified;and as all things are related to God, as their
verse.
another, and constitute a uniorigin,they are related to one
abstracted
from
every
Being
existence, or
determinate
The
human
mind,
the
likeness
of
God,
thinks
his
PHILOSOPHICAL
276
of
Plato,
of
or
Hegel, only
so
of
says
when
necessary
system
he
Notions
says.
his part,
where,
*'He
Hegel:
universe,
it
from
Sensations
is
the
the
notion
and
Again, Stirlingsays:
abstractions
says.
demonstrated
of notions."
bottom,
at
individual
believes
has
are
Hegel
the
as
elaborates
result, and
entire
THEORIES
are
the
'Xocke
concretions
difference?
from
Notions:
but
Yes,
observe.
it possesses
such determination
from
received
such
determination
from
self; it has
been
in
it has
thought by God,
so
according
These
us;
to
these
thoughts
here
within
created
been
by
are
"
without
^in the
us
"
and
^in the
in its
God,
God
own
it has
on
and
Becoming.
universe, and
universe;
objective
they are
is disposed. They
the whole
to which
thoughts in obedience
moulding the all of
or
are
necessary
pressures
compressures
things. They are three of God's thoughts in the making of
"
us
"
the universe."
The
universe
is understood
to
some
but
more
though imperfectly by the average
man,
perfectlyby the philosopher who, from the history of speculation
and
earnest
thought, forms
opinions,
by his own
With
assured
beliefs,ideas, and often reaches
knowledge.
Hegel, as with Plato, the idea, or concept, is the chief thing,
extent
the individual
certainlynot
is of httle
nothing.
or
no
account;
but
the
individual
is
HEGEL
says
them
arrive
we
is to
notions
To
notion.
denial
the
synthesis the
the
affirm
and
thought.
The
human
mind. Godlike
with
in conformity
system
with
mind,
approach
an
but
by
evolution.
and
comes
be-
affirmation, and
like
and
other
manner,
so
different
The
by
minate
deterall
throughout
on
completeness,
of minds,
advanced.
knowledge
its ideal
constructs
actual
the
often
The
ha
by
not
the
through
systems were
another, errors
one
upon
by nature,
towards
succession
their reactions
by
all other
deny
it
universe, which
interpret. This, however, has been
and
construe
to
all
deny
affirmation
The
the
In
one.
any
is to
to
nega-
other
of
processes
seems
notions,
notion.
constructed,
are
notion
thesis,
est
is not
we
excludes
determinatio
definite
denial
of
being
notion
of
given
become
two
notions
realm
the
character
Omnis
mistake
by conception;
says
determinate
Berkeley
ideas, and
three-fold
affirm
in the
notions; and
God's
determinate
Spinoza.
determinate
other
their
synthesis. A
being from itself.
other
iio, says
and
antithesis,
every
at
in
notions
construct
done
of the universe?
knowledge
perceive
by perception; we
for material
objects. Hegel
do
How
the
277
one
of
process
in conflict;but
ed
eliminate been
has
process
been
struction,
con-
criticism, reconstruction,
it overlooked
neither
Hegel's mind had an immense
sweep;
relation, essence,
actuality,
quality, quantity, measure,
considered
it
science
causality,or reciprocity;
physics,
every
in
two-fold
its
form
geology, biology
chemistry, astronomy,
of botany and
zoology, history, language, literature,ethics,
tecture,
art
^landscape and archipolitics,religion;it studied every
tion
sculpture and painting, music and poetry, conversa"
"
and
oratory.
to
the
an
facts
of
sciences, and
the
facts
idea
is
of the
the
universe, and
institutions
universe
of
are
finite copy
of the
like
constructed
by a mind
a
correspond
to
the
creations
to
the
mankind
God's
various
.^^ We
the
Divine
as
system
Hegel's, would,
of the
may
ideas, and
Divine,
arts,
in
mind.
the
of
some
and
answer,
human
notions,
degree,
PHILOSOPHICAL
278
The
correspondence,
An
proved.
ideahst
all with
and
which
THEORIES
however
is
would
say
concerned.
am
own
my
solipsism. The
assumed
of the
rather
ideas
are
This
is
all I
idealist,in
than
know,
dangerously
spite of his
modesty
from
the
probably restrain him
outrageous
of
his
and
himself
considering
thoughts the sumegotism
total of reality. Hegel had all the senses
sight,hearing,
smell
and
he
reached
of his
most
touch, taste,
likely
many
ideas empiricallythrough the senses.
for philosophy,as for science, is to beg^n
better way
The
with the facts of experience,and by examination, generalization,
near
logic, would
"
rise, while
Being,
with
summit
the
to
of
decreasing
Being,
the
extent, as we
having reached
Now,
content.
we
one
somewhere
attribute
verication,
increasing the
existing thing,
actual
every
subdivisions.
in the
descend
now
can
had
concave
within, but
within.
at the
not
body
will
be
are
not
exhaust
exhaust
or
conflictive
not
contradictories
their genus,
their genus.
Thus
convex
nor
both
congruent
contraries
without
concave
do
may
time, both
same
Attributes
it is not
"
they
butes
blend; conflictive attri"
contraries when
contradictories
red and
if
congruent
it is
when
sphericalare
they
they do
congruents;
conflictives
and
contraries,
spherical and
cylindrical are
regular and irregularare conflictives and contradictories.
The
fundamental
laws of thought, if not
respected, will
violates them, they
themselves
the thinker
who
on
revenge
the following:Law
of identity;A thing is itself;a thing
are
is not anything else than itself.
HEGEL
Law
of
either
involve
not
absent,
either
the
either
or
the
hence,
absent;
presence
be
be
may
or
presence
the
hence
present;
conflictive
Two
confliciives:
of
Law
of
does
both
or
both
may
absence
absence
or
of
other.
the
be
other
attributes
congruent
object,
same
the
and
present,
of
the
in
present
Two
congruents:
279
of
presence
attributes
either
both
cannot
involves
the
absence
not
both
other.
the
Law
contraries:
of
but
present,
either
involves
either
does
Law
of
both
Two
both
may
not
involve
present
either
involves
the
either
the
of
sufficient
effect,
of
and
when
an
effect
the
the
we
but
the
of
presence
absence
the
of
other.
attributes
hence
other,
be
the
and
not
can-
presence
absence
the
of
of
other.
An
consequent:
When
reason.
of
absent;
of
the
other,
the
the
contradictory
both
absence
can
hence,
presence
Two
nor
presence
reason
absent;
of
the
contradictories:
be
Law
be
absence
the
attributes
contrary
infer
reason
some
inference
is
cause.
cause,
requires
we
infer
the
CHAPTER
XXIII
Herbaria Schopenhauer,
Hartmann
Johann
Friedrich
Herbart
(1776-1841).
was
His
cultured
born
at
and
Oldenburg.
were
people,
parents
their
intelligent boy, who
an
early showed
was
taste
son
a
He
Fichte
studied
under
at Jena, and
for philosophy.
was
in 1805,
elected
and
professor of philosophy at Gottingen
Kant's
in 1808,
at
and
successor
appointed
Konigsberg
recalled to Gottingen in 1833, where, in 1841, he died.
of beginning his philosophy with
Instead
idea of reason,
an
he
followed
the
done,
Fichte, Schelling and
Hegel had
as
of Kant,
and
method
the
subjected to a critical examination
facts of experience.
His
results, however,
peculiar and
were
different
He
those
of
Kant.
from
regarded antecedent
widely
rather
than
mainly as failures, giving phantoms
systems
1.
Herbart
truth.
the
beginning of his
point of departure, the common
The
facts
by experience.
As
the
becomes
His
is to
first step
and
the
experience.
the
business
of
Difficulties
first result
view
sense
experience
of
philosophy
discriminate
thought
Herbart
system,
to
thus
are
is
This
seen,
and
his
things, as given
being accepted, it
for
immediate
to
for
of
account
between
endeavors
which
takes,
account
doubt
in
them.
ence
experifor
that
arises, and
early philosophy
in the case
of Sextus
Empiricus, and later
of Hume.
in that
In
doubts
its lower
form. Skepticism
in
whether
its
but
higher form,
as
they appear,
things are
existence
whether
have
doubts
at all.
things
Skepticism
any
arise from
Doubts
the
discovery that the conceptions of
for philosophy,
constitute
the
materials
experience, which
involve
incongruous elements; hence, the second
step is so to
them
remodel
the
conceptions of experience, as to render
and
thus
to transform
skepticism into philosophy.
congruous,
Herbart
with
Hegel in regard to the conflictive
agrees
these
in thought;
while
that
but
elements
Hegel teaches
of becoming,
Herblend
into one
conflictives
by the process
skepticism.
of Pyrrho
and
280
was
seen
PHILOSOPHICAL
28^
hence
contradictions.
It
holds
Herbart
other
that
than
noumenon.
faculties of the
so-called
the
soul
its self-preservation,
changing and
of
causes
reals with
other
opposition to
The
soul's
the
which
it
in
comes
the
are
fold,
maniflict.
con-
changing phenomena
be
to
seems
It is Kant's
immortal.
in
object,or subject-object,and
of
unity, it is
nothing
subject and
apparent
commonwealth
a
THEORIES
are,
soul-monad,
these
pass
marked
same
the
by
ego
into
another, and
one
words
feels,and
ridicule the
these
distinctions
intellect and
sensibility,
thinks, and
wills.
are
will; but
It is
the
thoughtless
ridicule
those
who
faculty or
employ the term, by calling them
"faculty-philosophers."
faculties than
It is better for a philosopher to possess
to be
Herbart
discards the term facultybecause
destitute of them.
inconsistent
with
his own
have
not
peculiar views, which
established
venient
beyond question. Faculty is a conyet been
and
denotes
term
susceptibilityof the
a
or
power
to
act
to
term
ego.
To
return
to
reals: A
real
in itself
the
be
can
object
of
the ego
real,it remains
one
can
caused
a
different
The
ego,
by
exhibit
and
various
other
manifestation, because
as
manifestations, while,
various
is
intelligent,
reals, each
the other
conscious
against the
reaction
reals
of the
are
as
turbances
dis-
giving
different.
changing
mani-
SCHOPENHAUER,
HERBART,
testations
caused
its conflict
by
realization
is the
with
of
other
these
283
reals; for
disturbances
sciousness
con-
which
appear
of
clearness
the
is the constant
man
did
Herbart
be
making
educational
good
stimulus
with
deals
appeal
no
that
would,
of
be
which
which
has
self-interest,but
to
has
proved to
taught that
He
absolute
an
value,
calling out
Ethics, according
with
tions.
representa-
to
those
terested
disin-
Herbart,
relations
is
among
course,
add
displease,we
would
dominant
teachers.
Aesthetics, dealing
of
volitions
the
work,
to
beauty
admiration.
branch
of certain
presence
wholesome
Aesthetics
or
HARTMANN
better
to
Aesthetic
Ethics
say:
sentiment
deals
with
of taste.
those
It
volitions
with
the
meet
the
retribution.
was
beginning with the facts of consciousness, Herbart
also right in maintaining that every
was
right; and he
implies a real, and in general, two reals the
phenomenon
The
two
objective real, and the subjective real, or ego.
is
also
when
become
the
the
reals
one
object; but
subject
of difficulty.How
the
here is a case
can
subject be its own
of
The
is conscious
object.f^Empirically, it cannot.
ego
phenomena; but the necessityof the ego itselfis apprehended
Psychology deals with the facts of
by rational intuition.
ditions
mind, metaphysics with the ego, or in general,with the conof phenomena.
There
is,of late,a tendency to use the word consciousness
In
"
instead
of
mind,
or
ego;
but
consciousness, as
an
act
or
state
ego,
be
of
or
as
Herbart
impossible.
but
realization
Herbart
would
Consciousness
it is not
the ego;
takes
ego'sactivityor
found
contradictions
he
of mental
tions;
opera-
it is the
of the
contradictions
note
attempted
in all
*
to
phenomena,
eliminate.
To
and
do
the
these
this he
PHILOSOPHICAL
^84
THEORIES
mathematics,
ness
expressing the states of consciousof
which
he
endeavored
formulae,
to get
by means
by
resorted
to
of
2,
born
to-do
his mother
and
merchant,
incorporate
became
with
Arthur's
Hamburg.
novelist.
Prussia, the
early education
After
was
well-
Dantzic
family withdrew
under
was
the
care
to
of
his mother.
time in France
and
family spent some
England, and
the
with
of
these
his
languages
acquaintance
countries,
by
than
he acquired a more
usual
for a
sprightly style
was
At first,he was
but
not
German.
a diligentstudent,
finally,
from
the Greek
with
scholar, Passow, he acquired familiarity
and Latin languages.
the Greek
He entered the University of Gottingen, and by the advice
of Prof. Schulze, his philosophic studies were
directed especially
and Kant, both of which he held in high admiration.
to Plato
in the universityhe was
While
unsocial,gloomy and
confirmed
became
him
pessimist. With
happiness was
a
not
positiveenjoyment, but negative, the absence of misery.
the UniAfter spending two
versity
at Gottingen, he entered
years
The
Berlin, and
at
attended
the
lectures
of Fichte
and
Schleiermacher.
Awakened
and
could
by
against
make
not
Weimar,
and
for
general enthusiasm
he
dominion,
bought a
the
French
his
up
from
thence
to
to
enlist.
Rudolstadt,
very
essay
for the
set
He
where
of
liberty,
arms,
withdrew
in
but
to
quiet, he
ophy,
degree of Doctor of PhilosThe four roots of the principleof sufficient
on
reason.
four
Causa
These
to
roots, according
Schopenhauer, are:
essendi, causa
cognoscendi,causa
agendi, relating
fiendi,causa
for events, the reason
of knowing,
respectively,to the reason
received his
of being, the reason
for acting. He
the reason
diploma from Jena.
the press of Rudolstadt, he issued his first philosophic
From
Die
Welt
als Wille
work.
und
Vorstellung,which, though
prepared
able
mind
German
HARTMANN
SCHOPENHAUER,
HERBART,
285
written
existence,
be, the will for continued
The
the desire to rise to consciousness, as in man.
world, as
idea, exhibits these strugglesof the will, as revealed through
chemical
affinities,magnetic and
gravitation,crystalization,
is the
principle,
desire
electrical attractions
to
and
where
every
no
in
repulsions and
and
organization,
deliberate
can
of
hope
spirit.
we
will;
unsatisfied
for
anything
external
with
has
of
time
a
and
mode
in the
ideas
reason;
in connection
cause
it
priori,not a posteriori;
root, not
an
empirical origin. The necessity
is known
the cause
is, a posteriori.
a priori,what
of
the
law
of
inertia,and of the
principle causality,
the
conservation
The
is known
space,
rational
cause
From
This
excitingsensation.
cause
of matter
appearance
of
our
but
of the
knowledge,
constitution
held
and
of
our
follow
energy
world
and
to
would
senses.
us
as
necessary
is determined
change with
The
world
is
the
a
quences.
conse-
by the
change
series of
as
PHILOSOPHICAL
286
THEORIES
to
of my
of creation.
of ego is will,
of nature,
and this will is identical with the will,the essence
How
the will of ego is the will of nature.
will,if only
or
can
act
own
But
an
event, and
has
the
the
essence
of nature?
essence
will
But
cause.
as
volition,is
the
tion
Voliof
source
all
oppositionto
reason.
but
is the
movement
manifests
itself in
its different
to
visible volition.
bodily movements,
As
so
visible in the
forces, become
the
will in
man
will in nature,
in the
movements
the
world.
reasonable
visible.
According
action, and
The
to
its
becomes
thus
the
universe
made
ness;
optimist, in his hopefulness,looks for happithe pessimist,in his despondency, anticipatesevil;for
he sees
in his opinion
through the illusion,and is confirmed
by his own
experience;but the evil he encounters, is brought
himself, for the most part, by his own
folly.
upon
SCHOPENHAUER,
HERBART,
did
Schopenhauer
obedience
moral
the
to
dehverance
find
not
law, but
in intellectual
satisfaction, and
HARTMANN
he
from
sought
the
to
evil
through
in aesthetic
peace
activity;but
of
287
the achievements
envy
and
detraction
of rivals.
Hartmann
Von
(1842-1906). Edward
was
born
at Berlin, an
only child of the family. His father was
at
Berlin, at the
a
military officer permanently stationed
for testingproposed improvements
of a commission
in
head
Hartmann
3.
heavy firearms.
Edward
his attention
turned
He
was
published
even
Tristan
and
Isolde;
his attention
turned
He
but
this did
as
volume
one
and
has
use,
for this
of 800
age
The
pp.
passed through
the
on
prove
taste,
story of
a
the
successful, he
at
Schelling,Hegel and
of twenty-two,
began The
This work
first published
was
book
at once
was
popular,
of
least nine
published by
had
to
not
philosophy.
carefully the works
studied
he
to
Macmillan
different
translation
editions.
of
We
Coupland's,
Company.
Hartmann's
topics
Hartmann
suitable
better
Hartmann
with
'*
popular conversation,
consequently the book at once
known
opens
unconscious
there
are
which
have
introduced
for
discussion, and
great deal of attention;
it the
also
and
his
not
even
yet risen
criticisms
of the
review
his
and
attracted
work
made
sought after.
work. Philosophy of the Unconscious,
the
idea,
subconscious
the
into
"
more
which
he finds in Kant.
No
doubt
PHILOSOPHICAL
288
subliminal
states,
as
rank
of
rises to the
THEORIES
an
for if I do
know,
know
not
if I
know, I know
I know, I do not
that
appears,
that there
which
or
appear,
of
is not
not
are
conscious
not
phenomenon;
but
of
know;
phenomenon
it,then it does
it does
not
follow
that is,processes
latent processes,
of
conscious.
Thus we may
gation
begin the investibe
not
may
are
we
if we
and
for
that
"
we
may
at least
'being unconscious
and
functions
exercising
of
an
When
abstraction from
we,
all unconscious
PHILOSOPHICAL
290
holds
Hartmann
animals
be
to
in
one
his
from
arises
the
THEORIES
difference between
applicationof concepts,
Man's
generalize in
ability to
in his
and
and
man
in kind.
degree, not
the lower
superiority
formation
the
and
perfect language.
apparently new
are
only secondary powers
been
in
certain
which
have
directions by the
developed
higher cultivation of primary capacities.
mental
The
these.
he
but
have
volition,we
In
action.
with
intention
an
Hartmann
powers,
when
into those
one
the
or
of willing
other
of
will in man;
volition
reflex
and
same
emotion, and
as
the
carrying out
purpose,
passionateless.Emotion
and
divided
thinking, resolvingfeelinginto
is essentially
Will in animals
the
rightly distinguished between
and
of
more
faculties
The
is often
in
present
animals,
another,
makes
war
community
upon
wise
the conquering tribe reducing the conquered to slavery,likeis exhibited by bees.
A decapitated frog seems
anger
to act with a purpose,
indicatingthat thought is not confined
as
in ants
to
the
one
head; and
spinal chord
meaning of
in the
and
the
aim, he
will.
to
disposition
Hartmann
there
word
will,Hartmann
calls
Desire
is will without
ganglia exhibit
the
of unconscious
cause
simply
hence
separate
extends
so
Will
movements.
unconscious
and
free-will,
is inchoate
brains.
volition,and
The
will.
as
to
take
scious
con-
with
will he
impulse
The
calls
is latent
action.
maintains
that
when
wills,for example,
person
lift
muscle.
Instinct
is first defined
consciousness
without
by
Hartmann
of the
purpose;
as
purposive action
it directs action
to
an
these
not
alternatives, and
for
affirmingthe
third.
The
work
SCHOPENHAUER,
HERBART,
instinct
varies
instinct
is
HARTMANN
291
according to circumstances,
that
plastic, approaching,
conscious
tion
in certain cases,
action, or is in combinaintelligent
bees build hexagonal cells in the middle
with it. Thus
but pentagonal at the edges; they kill off the
of the comb,
Some
birds brood
the
no
longer needed.
drones, when
on
by
prompted
showing
eggs
the
that
when
Even
virtue.
where
pain, and
with
sometimes
night, and
is sometimes
Instinct
day.
somewhat
leave
the nest
attended
in the
latter
with
attended
in the heat
with
pleasure,and
it appears
case
of
pleasure,we
like
cannot
sider
con-
Hartmann,
source.
that:
Instinct
to an
unconsciouslywilled end.
willingof the means
peremptorily rejects the hypothesis
Though
ism,
that instinct is merely the action of a pre-arranged mechan-
is conscious
Hartmann
he
does
the
exclude
not
constitutional
tendencies
of the
either
instinctive tendency is augmented
organism. The
by individual habit, or by inheritance, through the customs
be called forth by an
of many
generations,or it may
scious
unconline
of
Instinct
action.
to
particular
a
plains
eximpuli^e
the
actions
of
individual
of
not
one
a
why
especially,
of another
those
class differ from
individual, but why the
actions
of
one
those
Deviations, from
custontary instinctive
for by mechanism;
inheritance
modifies
which
does
the
the
necessitate
not
action
found
in
without
instinctive
consciousness
acts
not
are
counted
ac-
is
possible only
ment
embryonic develop-
mechanism;
mere
be engendered by habit; mechanism
cannot
but
influence
unconscious
through
class.
of another
instinctive
may
acts.
actions
predispose,
Hence,
of purpose
is
posive
pur-
always
in instinct.
Hartmann
raises
now
instinctive
actions
Narrowing
the
question, whether
the
so-called
are
perfection
conscious
the
acts
of
those
reflection
instinctive
of animals
acts
are
which
PHILOSOPHICAL
29^
wards,
not
is blind
as
those
so
to
the
acts
learned
why,
reason
THEORIES
clear
by experience.
as
to
the
manner
Instinct
how, but
The
and
the
consciouslychosen.
Clairvoyance and instinct,though not identical,are often
found together,then clairvoyance serves
to throw
light on
of
is
inmost
but
the
not conversely. Instinct
core
instinct,
in the effort to preserve
the individual, or
being, as shown
at
in the more
important effort to preserve the species,even
the sacrifice of the individual.
Instincts are
unerring, and
within the same
species,uniform.
Hartmann
closes his chapter on instinct by quoting from
of a genuine philosophy
Schelling:"There is no better touchstone
be
which
must
than
the phenomena of animal
instinct,
the very greatest by every
ranked among
thoughtful human
Harthave
being." Though we
greatly condensed
very
means
mann's
are
discussion
of
instinct,we
have
endeavored
to
make
it clear.
evils commonly
attending the
of ordinary life. These
evils arise chieflyfrom
rance
ignothe selfish desire to enjoy the unlawful pleasures
or from
discusses
Hartmann
course
of
an
and
immoral
by the
givesmany
these
or
life.
purpose
the
These
always
valuable
evils can
to
obey
be obviated
the moral
by knowledge
law.
Hartmann
avoiding
avoiding
be applied in
directions, may
greatly modifying these evils, and thus rendering life
evils,and
these
successful.
satisfactorily
XXIV
CHAPTER
Reid, Stewart,
Brown
Thomas
of the
Reid, the founder
(1710-1796).
of philosophy,
born
Scottish
school
at
Strachan,
was
near
Aberdeen.
His
descended
from
father, a clergyman
a
long
line of clergymen, held
his position as pastor
for
at Strachan
of the family of the
His
mother
Gregories,
fifty yeax's.
was
which
ments.
literary attaindistinguished for scientific and
was
Reid
1.
After
receiving
Thomas
entered
his
instruction
primary
Marischal
the
at
parish school,
College, Aberdeen,
and
was
structed
in-
of
writer
philosophy by Dr. George Turnbull,
a
bias
considerable
Reid
received
whom
his
ability, and from
in philosophy.
of sixteen, but
the
Reid
remained
at
ten
graduated
age
in
the
of
the
librarian,
University
longer at
capacity
years
time
scientific
and
and
matical
mathehis
to reading
to
devoting
spare
study.
In 1737, Reid
at Newappointed pastor of the Church
was
with
machar.
At
received
first, he
hostility by his
was
them
parishioners, but finally, he won
by his affability and
in
his
study,
treatise
study
on
of
attention
Human
understood,
1752,
being
Nature.
was
In
He
elected
turned
perception.
of philosophical
by reading the works
Reid
1763,
he
filled
he
pastor,
external
treated
In
While
of heart.
goodness
to
which
the
devoted
time
much
to
philosophy by Hume's
in the
chiefly interested
was
His
ever,
first publication, howmethod,
suggested, as
was
to
of Hutchison.
the
chair
position
chair
of
of
he
moral
philosophy
held
for
in
twelve
philosophy
at
Then
293
PHILOSOPHICAL
204
in his
Reid,
opposition to Hume,
philosophic doctrine
Reid
did
THEORIES
not
of Common
the
mean
crude
Sense.
notions
admitted
could
be
made, was
by Hume,
assumed
to
show
the
of Hume
sense,
were
therefore concluded
of Hume's
doctrines
falsityof
the
as
common
conclusions
refutation
only satisfactory
that the
his
to
of the
philosophy, and
Locke's
from
deductions
By
sound
Hume's
that
naturally led
was
that
principles
reasoning.
'*allthe
objects of my
Reid opposed his
mind,"
own
knowledge are ideas in my
Sense."
This
doctrine of ''Common
fortunate,
undesignation was
because
the
misleading, many
taking it to mean
Reid
crass
opinions of the ignorant; but by common
sense,
the
To
assumption
rational
meant
intuition,
though
the
or
that
imuiediate
the
affirmations
of
of
reasoning. Evidently,
rational intuition is authority sufficient to establish
reason
or
such as, for example.
axioms, or rational first principles,
of two
either
have a cause,
or
equals is a
Every event must
reason,
not
process
substitute
to the
sense
applied his doctrine of common
explanation of the fact of perception,maintaining that the
has an immediate
mind
knowledge of external objects. Surely
Reid, however,
in this
was
at
applicationof
fault.
be
aware
not
of
perception
mediate
but
immediate,
objects did
Our
his doctrine
affect
their
us
of Common
of
external
sensations,
giving us
We
sensations, inferringtheir
causes,
objects
and
we
should
judgment
pass
then
is not
If external
sensations.
through
existence.
Sense, Reid
ideate
or
on
not
our
picture
inferences
not
the
causes
of
our
sensations.
The
appearances
are
the
hold to be true
of
pictures of our discoveries of what we
takes the appearances
for
external objects. Common
sense
takes the pictures as ideas,
the objects;subjective idealism
of the
which
they truly are, but denies the objectivecauses
of
sensations, though Berkeley admitted
objective causes
sensation, but
called them
God's
ideas.
REID,
BUOWN
STEWART,
^95
wrong.
is
right;but
it is wrong.
and not by the
produced by external causes,
which
is passive in sensation.
Even
Berkeley admitted
that since we
in saying: 'T assert, as well as you,
are
Sensations
ego,
this
are
from
affected
without,
allow powers
must
we
be
to
without,
affected
That
we
are
being distinct from ourselves."
is clearlyevident
whenever
from without
are
we
spoken to
himself
will
testify.
by another person, as that person
external
of
have
In holding that we
things,
knowledge
this
that
is
Reid
in holding
knowledge
right;but he iiswTong
in
should need
is immediate; for if immediate, we
sensation; but sensation is the condition
nor
and
the
point
senses
interpretationof
picture
or
embodies
idea of the
our
in his treatment
color: "The
that
common
to
which
is conceived
body,
and
may
the
be varied
of the
medium,
of the
body
kinds
or
cause
is that
the
imagination,
Reid
is not
always self-consistent
perception. Take
his
theory of
ways,
of the
or
of that
thousand
is the
the
by
and
cause,
shows
evidently
language of mankind
the
of
between
color
body
distinguish
a
in
to be a fixed and permanent
quality the
appearance
a
its
to
of sensation.
of the facts of
ought
we
constructed
appearance,
senses,
of
perception,
objects. Perception is the
sensation, in reference
fact,however,
The
to
external
neither
eye
itself.
The
cause
degrees of light,and
of various
color
permanent
of various
transparent
bodies
external
The
cause.
known;
That
somewhat
Reid's
phenomenal
the external
doctrine
vacillatingcan
in
as
sensation
is immediatel
is inferred.
cause
regard
be
color
to
external
readily shown.
perception
Does
he
is
hold
PHILOSOPHICAL
296
that
have
THEORIES
immediate
an
perception
of external
objects?
It appears
''after acknowledging
so;
says that Hume,
is
it
universal
and
that
that we
a
primary opinion of all men
external
objectsimmediately, subjoins what follows;
perceive
is soon
'But this universal and
primary opinion of all men
destroyed by the slightestphilosophy which teaches us that
be present to the mind
but an
ever
nothing can
image or
and
that
the
the
inlets
senses
only
are
through
perception;
these images are
able to
which
without
received,
being ever
intercourse
the mind
and
between
produce any immediate
table which
the object. The
to diminish
we
seems
see
we
as
we
for he
farther from
remove
of
nothing
its
dictates
that
doubted
ever
the
house, and
alteration.
no
image which
obvious
the
are
suffers
us,
but
present
of reason;
and
existences
which
It
exists independent
therefore,
was,
the mind.
to
no
who
man
we
These
reflects
consider, when
say
we
have
"We
here
remarkable
conflict
between
two
dictory
contra-
engaged. On the
are
opinions,wherein all mankind
all the vulgar, who
side stand
are
unpracticed in philosophical
one
and
researches
guided by the uncorrupted primary
On the other side stand
all the philosoinstincts of nature.
phers,
without
modern
ancient and
exception
man
every
"
In
reflects.
who
myself
find
Reid
this
classed
here
division, to
with
admits
that
the
he
great humiliation, I
my
vulgar."
believes
we
have
an
immediate
perception of external
is worthy of attention.
and
appearance
the
of the
fact is,the appearance
The
independent of us.
table is the picture constructed
ing
by the imagination embodyexternal
the
real
in
to
object, the
regard
our
judgment
to
be
table
itself.
Does
hold
that
we
objects? It appears
external object but by means
external
no
Reid
have
so;
perception of
"We
for he says:
perceive
of certain bodily organs."
a
mediate
PHILOSOPHICAL
298
this
THEORIES
cultivated
school, he
his
for
language and
literature,and acquired that elegance and finish of stylewhich
distinguishedhis subsequent writings. At the University his
chief studies were
philosophy and mathematics, in which he
became
proficient.
very
His
in philosophy at Edinburgh
Adam
instructor
was
he attended, at Glasgow, the
Furgerson, though afterwards
he acknowledged his master
in philosolectures of Reid whom
phy.
At Glasgow he formed
with
Alison,
a lasting
friendship
the author
of an
Taste
who, later in life,was
Essay on
At
celebrated
Stewart
taste
criticisms,
for three
in
years
mathematics,
years
with
distinguishedability.
to
year's work
In
1783,
work,
In
to
supply
his
place
he
did
one
year,
but
for
called
it the
lecturer
as
in addition
most
laborious
of his life.
Stewart
1787, leaving
an
married
only
son,
Helen
who
Baunatyne,
afterwards
died
who
became
in
colonel
in the army.
On
the resignation of
Stewart
was
Furgerson in 1785.
of
the
and
transferred to
chair
for twentyMoral
Philosophy,
five years adorned
his positionby the eloquence of his lectures,
which
who
afterwards
attended
were
men
by many
young
became
Sir Walter
celebrated.
these
Scott,
were
Among
Lord
James
Francis
Horner,
Mill,
Brougham, Sydney Smith,
Dr.
Thomas
Archibald
Alison, and Sir James
Jeffrey,
Brown,
Mackintosh.
In
and
1790, Stewart
married
Miss
accomplishments, who, as
of the Elements
writings. Stewart published the first volume
Mind, in 1792 and in 1793, his
of the Philosophy of the Human
Outlines
of Moral
Philosophy. His PhilosophicalEssays
in 1814,
of the Elements
appeared in 1810; the second volume
and the third volume, not till 1827.
In 1815, the first part of his Dissertation
the Progress of
on
Philosophy was
published in the Encyclopoedia Britannica
Supplement, and in 1821, the second part. In 1828, a few
STEWART,
REID,
weeks
his death,
before
Philosophy of
the Active
appeared
Moral
and
BROWN
299
entitled
The
Powers,
the
was
richness
wealth
of
thought, and
to
exhibit
all the
of
scholarly attainment.
the
Stewart
improved on
phraseology of Reid, as for
example, by introducing,in place of the term, "The Principles
of Common
of its
Sense," which is objectionable on account
ambiguity, the more
preciseand dignifiedexpression, **The
and
charm
Fundamental
He
Laws
also made
of Human
Belief."
of
phenomena
the mind.
In fact, he was
much
better
psychologistthan
a
Reid; and yet Stewart's analyses and classifications are by
faultless.
Thus, he called consciousness
special
no
means
a
faculty, co-ordinate, for example, with perception, memory
and
it is an
of the
imagination, whereas
accompaniment
other
a
or
acts
necessary
am
and
states
element.
conscious
better
of
classification of the
of the
mind, and
Thus, if I know,
knowing.
Of
course,
is involved
I know
if
we
in them
that
are
as
I know,
conscious,
PHILOSOPHICAL
300
are
we
in all our
involved
Stewart
was
and
complete
than
minister
Brown,
equivalent
employed
in
positions
in
powers.
of
system
defending
advances
making
or
the
in building up
philosophy of his
Thomas
Dr.
(1778-1820).
Kirkmabreck,
at
capabilityis
tendency
compact
Brown
this
It is the present
to mind.
more
gained by Reid
5.
mental
consciousness
make
to
THEORIES
own.
Brown
born
was
at the
manse
of his
of the
united
parishes of Kirkmabreck
Samuel
and
Kirkdale.
His
with
there
was
attended
bright and
When
under
about
seven
charge
placed at
school.
on
First.
the
of age, Thomas
his
Edinburgh,
to
of her
He
showed
verses
sent
was
Captain Smith, by
of his uncle.
assigned theme,
his
verses
so
who
son,
to London
whom
he
their publicationin a
different schools while in London,
secured
uncle, returned
family
primary education
years
These
her
old, and
years
precociouschild.
very
the
the
the
to
two
was
and
the
on
was
ing,
writ-
by
Charles
that
he
ed
attend-
death
of his
to
biographer of Burns,
volume
with
of Stewart's
it, that
the
winter
ventured
Stewart's
to him
making
Brown
to
doctrine.
letter from
the
Brown
Philosophy.
next
Stewart
the
he
Though
make
in his
placed
who
was
attended
the
hand
so
captivated
the
on
certain
distinguishedM.
of
course
greatlyadmiring
criticism
first
Stewart
point
then
of
read
Provost, of Geneva,
criticism.
same
spent
his time
profitablyat
University, under
attention to general
the
able
in the
margin.
These
notes
were
finallyexpanded
STEWART,
REID,
BROWN
301
pubHshed
anonymously, and
by the high authority of the
attracting great attention, was
of
Annals
the
and
Medicine, highly
Review,
Monthly
distinguishedphilosopher.
praised,and attributed to some
that
for
Brown
began the study of law, but abandoned
he finished a course
and took the degree
in which
medicine
In
the practice of medicine, he
of Doctor
of Medicine,
Dr. Gregory.
became
partner of the famous
of
invited Brown
to
On account
declining health, Stewart
and
the
the
for
next
lecture
him,
1810, at
request of
year,
Stewart, he was
appointed his colleague in the department
thenceforward
of philosophy, and
discharged all the duties
of the professor of Moral
Philosophy.
Stewart's
lectures exhibited
classical elegance; Brown's
pletely
poetic imagery, and all the flowers of rhetoric. They comcaptivated his audience of students from sixteen to
books
were
exceedingly poputwenty years of age, Brown's
lar,
not only in Great
Britain, but in the United States.
Brown
For what
was
distinguished.^^ Not
only for the
attractiveness
of his style, but for his penetrating discernment
and masterly powers
accustomed
of analysis. He was
to resolve
subject he took up into simpler elements,
every
into
volume,
which
and
to
present
it in
popularity
for
was
new
form.
He
attained
an
undue
reputation culminating
during the five years
1835, and then through
the infiuence, chiefly of Coleridge and
Hamilton,
passed
into undeserved
neglect.
Brown's
classification of mental
is as follows:
phenomena
twenty
his
years,
from
1830
to
External
\ Sensations
States
Mental
Simple Suggestion
phenomena
Intellectual
Relative
Suggestion
Internal
States
Passions
Emotional
Desires
PHILOSOPHICAL
302
distinction
The
well taken.
is not
is
between
A
physical, a
THEORIES
the
external
and
internal
states
dent
antece-
clearly
or
an
Again, the
relative suggestion is
distinction of simple suggestion and
and
that of memory
not
correct
clear, nor
as
as
judgment,
for which
Association
undoubtedly is
they are substituted.
of primary importance in memory,
but
judgment is not
but is
merely passive,swayed by hints from various sources,
and in fact is the typical
active operation of the intellect,
an
form of thought.
has entirely overlooked
Brown
the will as a distinct act
internal
as
intellectual
an
emotional
as
state.
or
as
power
of the mind.
many
of the
It is not
Scotch
to
be confounded
philosophers are
inclined
with
to
desire,
do; for
we
is
appropriate.
things we
the sovereign power
of the mind, and a moral being is justified
condemned, according, as its decisions are right or wrong.
or
The
classifications of the psychical phenomena
as
tions,
cognior
ceptibilities
susfeelings,and volitions, implying the powers
of intellect,sensibility
and
will, is much
more
than that given by Brown.
clear, comprehensive and correct
Brown
of the terms,
the use
discarded
bilities,
susceptipowers,
done
faculties, and this has also been
by the
or
If
German
philosopher,Herbart, but without good reason.
ceptible
we
think, we are capable of thinking; if we feel,we are suschoose
of feeling;if we
have
to
or
will, we
power
and
and
these
decide;
capabilities,susceptibilities,
powers
term
the
compendious
are
conveniently designated by
is
that the mind
mean
faculties. This does not, of course,
triple,but that the one mind has three generic capabilities;
desire
do
many
for every
He
who
one
says:
thinks
Will
will to
not
that
he
is
no
It is the
than
more
same
succession
/.
of
adequate conception
be no personal
of himself.
In such a state of things,there can
indentity. It would certainlybe absurd to punish a certain
for what
collection of thoughts, feelings,and volitions now,
an
entirelydifferent collection did a long time ago.
It is true, that we
conscious
are
only of phenomena; but
thoughts, feelingsand volitions are neither self-originating,
refers them
to a subject who
nor
self-supporting.Reason
thinks, feels,and wills. It is by rational intuition, and by
thoughts, feelingsand
volitions,has
no
STEWART,
REID,
itself
as
the
that
only,
that
sensitive,
of
identity
of
justification
the
conscious
ego,
knowing,
personal
BROWN
of
phenomena,
active
and
the
303
is
ego
punishment
being.
the
The
condition
reward,
or
knows
tinuous
con-
of
and
ory,
mem-
the
seat
conscience.
of
Antagonistic
which
Brown
itself
state;
state
but
and
perception
the
such
truth
infers
in
that
in
affected
as
Reid's
to
held
the
and
next
of
theory
the
a
object
manner
as
is, perception
ideates
chapter.
its
preception
of
to
goes
cause.
induce
beyond
But
that
was
is
perception
in
it
the
more
the
a
mind
certain
mental
about
of
XXV
CHAPTER
Ferrier,
Hamilton,
Hamilton
1.
the
was
Dr.
father,
the
in
afterwards
under
the
care
their
of
mother,
his
in
father,
brother,
younger
Hamilton,
Thomas
his
Anatomy
of
death
his
and
William
Captain
of
the
On
Glasgow.
1791,
professor
as
Bart.,
succeeded
who
Hamilton,
Hamilton,
of
occurred
Thomas,
William
Dr.
Thomas
University
which
up
of
son
Hamilton,
William
Sir
(1788-1856).
McCosh
brought
ability and
were
of
woman
energetic character.
in Scotland,
early education
except
London.
for two
at
private school
Returning
near
a
years
he entered
the
to
University at the age of fifteen,
Glasgow,
and
studied
Jardine, and Moral
Philosophy under
Logic under
held
in
both
classes.
the first rank
Mylne, and
Balliol
In
he
and
entered
went
to
Oxford,
College.
1807,
the
He
into
entered
the
students
with
English
heartily
but
threw
other
exercises
gymnastic
sports of boating and
the
whole
into
his
force
of his
intellect
studies, delving
close
At
the
of his
of Aristotle.
especially into the works
he presented
himself
for examination
course
on
more
many
studies
first honors.
difllcult
than
those
required for the
His
and
long remembered
triumphant,
success
was
was
as
a
in
the
tradition
College.
secured
the degree B, A, and
first class honors, he
Having
with
the
of devoting himself
went
to
intention
Edinburgh,
that
to
but
medicine,
pursuit for the
shortly abandoned
studied
for the
study of law.
legal profession, he
Having
in 1813,
of the
Scottish
bar.
member
became,
Through
a
for himself
the
title of
legal investigation, he recovered
a
which
Baronet,
formerly had been held by the representatives
of the Hamilton
had
been
suffered
to lapse.
family, but which
William
In
18^0,
for the
at
chair
but
his
received
the
solicitation
of Moral
failed
to
of his
Philosophy
receive
the
friends, he
in the
was
candidate
University
which,
appointment,
304
of
burgh,
Edin-
through
PHILOSOPHICAL
306
collection
of
THEORIES
attributes
genus
how
could
the
by
of
and
genus,
species,
individuals
the
of
species
attributes.
common
extension
the
all the
or
of
He
showed
that of
quantity, emphasizing
the
form
Thus,
comprehension,
usually overlooked.
as
we
in extensive
class morally
can
reason
quantity : The
ble
responsibeings belongs to the class free beings; man
belongs to
the
class morally
responsible beings; therefore, man
belongs
the
class
free
In
to
quantity, we
beings.
comprehensive
we
reason
attribute
The
reason:
free
agency;
has
in
all
to
common
the
the
attribute
responsibility involves
the attribute
fore,
thereresponsibility; man,
has
man
free
attribute
Hamilton
claimed
is
some
is not
No
doubt
other
four
is not
some
this
Mr.
as
is
eight categorical
usually recognized: the
De
P,
four
only
The
of
P,
S
any
P.
some
them.
were
The
especially, some
has
shown,
nothing
last
has
Morgan
is not
propositions
these
of
P,
any
some
is all
some
is not
any
that
is true
P,
some
any
ambiguous.
all
P,
is not
thought
but
are
all S
ough
thor-
making
four
negatives,
S
some
Hamilton
unambiguous,
the
of the
doctrine
his
predicate,
of
P; the
P,
some
the
is all P,
all S
some
agency.
originality for
quantification of
propositions instead
affirmatives,
either
to
S and
P denote
always true, except when
the same
individual
by different n^ames.
in extensive
Relation
is the
thing in logic, and
important
of a proposithe terms
quantity, only four relations between
tion
with
the
is
is co-extensive
other, one
possible: one
are
contradict
excluded
one
the
other,
intersects
the
other.
take,
we
as
can
as
we
write:
write:
above.
by
is subordinate
one
If
the
may,
P, S is subordinate
relations
can
is
from
always
from
it, or
in
of
case
for
term
with
P, S intersects
the
other,
subordination,
subordinate
is co-extensive
to
to
P.
P,
the
or
we
ject,
sub-
is excluded
Denoting
these
the terms,
(C), (E), (S), (I,) placed between
we
which
S
S
S
read
(I) P,
S(C) P,
(S) P,
(E) P,
are
FERRIER,
HAMILTON,
which
givethe syllogisms
We
prove
McCOSH
307
co-extension,exclusion,
(C).
2.
(E).
3.
(S).
4.
(I).
It will be interesting
to represent the arguments by Euler's
notation with circles. These syllogisms
are
imambiguous, and
contribution
clear.
the
I
above
to logic.
as
a
perfectly
give
Reasoning,it is to be remembered, is an indirect comparison.
The relation of two
terms
to each other is determined
by
their separate relation to the middle term.
As to psychology,it is quite clear that Hamilton's
fication
classiof the faculties of the mind, as the cognitive,the
emotive, and the causative, is a great advance beyond that
in including
he is certainly
wrong
the causative phenomena, rather than under the
mistake characteristic of the Scotch philosophy.
emotive,
Desire is a feeling
rather than volition.
of the term
In his use
consciousness, Hamilton, though
in
it
to waver
not
seems
faculty,
clearlyright
making a special
between
its use as a compendious term, co-extensive with all
which he
the cognitive
and its use in a special
sense,
powers,
of
all the
calls self
-consciousness,as affordinga knowledge
self-consciousness,
phenomena of the mind; but this designation,
is improper,unless by self,
the acts and states
he means
and not
of the mind
its cognitions,
and volitions,
feelings
the mind itself. The truth is,we are conscious of the phenomena
"
of the
reason,
sine qua
mind; but
that
non,
is, by
know
the ego,
we
rational intuition,as
of mental
or
mind
the
itself,by
condition,or
phenomena.
PHILOSOPHICAL
308
In
maintaininghis
THEORIES
doctrine
of
perception,which he called
Natural
all his strength, which
exerted
Realism, Hamilton
indeed formidable, as his antagonistsknew
to their cost.
was
He
to teach
that we
seems
are
immediately conscious of external
'*For example,
objects,as in the following passage:
I
the inkstand.
see
modification
How
I be conscious
can
that
my
present
mental
it is
that
"
"
"
It is true
consciousness
of
the
inkstand
we
inkstand.
but
Between
be
mediate
no
as
or
process
to
the
appearance,
mental
our
own
but
the
the
the
other
holds
that
when
we
see
an
have
and
the
idea of the
inkstand, there
of
construction, we
idea, as our
sensation, and
tinguished from
On
We
in us; but
the sensation
causes
may
Hamilton
conscious,
are
object,you
operation.
of the
it
of the
the
inkstand
hand, Hamilton
are,
itself,the
seems
cause
to
teach
of the
that
tion.
sensa-
we
are
is
object.
says:
the external
be conceived
object perceived.^^ Nothing can
ridiculous
than
the opinion of philosophers in regard
more
For example, it has been curiouslyheld (and Reid
to this.
is no
or
exception),that in looking at the sun, moon
any
other object of sight,we
the one
doctrine, actually
on
are,
of
those
distant
the
conscious
other, that those
objects,or on
those
distant objects are
really represented in the mind.
absurd; we perceive through no sense
Nothing can be more
not
conscious
of the
external
He
"What
HAMILTON,
FERRIER,
but
what
is in immediate
with
its
aught external
contact
the
sun
system
the
on
of
laiown
should
account
laws
impotence
of the
but
of
of the
object.
or
may
not
may
be;
thought
Take
the
mind
to
is
either laws
are
law
Hamilton
impotence
The
conscious
are
facts.
cause,
necessary,
constitute
for the
primary laws
of harmony.
have
must
not
of
no
being
not
though
or
perception we
idea, but
form
The
conscious
not
are
diate
imme-
principlesof
can
empirically,
facts
we
and
philosophy, to be
necessary
for such
In
of the
309
relation
Then
organ."
of the inkstand.
nor
McCOSH
of
causality:Every
derives
conceive
this
for
event
from
law
absolute
an
warrant
no
of sequence
the
ment;
commence-
philosophical
fact
eternal
reality. Imagination, it
existence, but
imagination
to
does
show
cannot
the
that
its
On
reason.
though
it
the
is
disprove
impossibility. It
its
not
other
hand,
picture
reality;for
cannot
true,
an
is not
possible
im-
absolute
mencement,
com-
be
how
commencement,
An
event
cause.
it
can
be;
can
can
and
without
see
that
asserts
that
every
cause,
it can't
event
Hamilton
must
can't
be.
of being, is one
principle of causality,the reason
branch
of the generic law of reason
and consequent, the other
branch
of knowing.
rain
Thus,
being merely the reason
the ground to be wet; it is thus a reason
of being, and
causes
also be a reason
of knowing.
it may
of the
witness
The
of knowing that it has
ground, after a drouth, is a reason
The
rained, but
it is not
the
cause
of the
rain, or
the
of
reason
being.
The
laws
of
harmony
of which
Hamilton
of
of non-contradiction, and
identity,
be
more
fullypresented:
gives three,
of excluded
middle,
that
can
PHILOSOPHICAL
310
law
The
THEORIES
of
both
be true.
law
The
of
inclusive:
both be
Two
law
of
be true,
speciesof
contradictories,the
inclusive:
but
may
Two
contradictories
conflietives
versally
uni-
be both true
cannot
nor
false.
The
to,
both
cannot
false.
The
both
contraries
sally
univer-
not
here
names
these
laws
applicable
are
contradictories.
contraries, and
congruents, conflietives,
for example, of excluded middle, does not tell the
name,
as
The
kind
of
it is
which
propositions to
applicable,that
is, to
contradictories.
In
his
of
treatment
time, Hamilton
and
space
too
was
influenced
greatly
The
contradictory propositions
by Kant.
affirmed
is
and space
be
cannot
: Space is finite,
infinite,
is
The
ceive
equal authority.
impotent to conimagination
on
the
the
of
infinity
other
limit
hand,
beyond
which
there
that
is
that
ulterior
no
is not
space
In
evidence
but
reason;
that
there
is
faith,not
on
eternal
an
that
knows
no
Reason,
knowing
the
Hamilton
is
there
space.
finite.
On
it finite.
prove
clearlyapprehends
reason
therefore, knows
it cannot
but
space,
on
its
the
ultimate
Hamilton
works
philosophy
son
intimate
earliest
read
(1808-1864).
of John
friend
Ferrier
of
sister of Professor
James
be
for all
in
all his
writings.
his
will be modified.
Ferrier
2,
the
great is manifest
was
Frederick
education
Sir
John
was
at
and
Frederick
James
the
Walter
grandson
Scott.
His
Ferrier
of James
mother
was
Ferrier,
was
the
Wilson.
born
the
manse
in
Edinburgh,
of
and
received
his
Rothwell, Dumfriesshire,
in the
family
acquired a
he
which
Horace,
Dr.
of Rev.
for
love
he
McCOSH
FERRIER,
HAMILTON,
Latin
He
lost.
never
Duncan,
the
311
attended
later
the
burgh
Edin-
studied
He
Ferrier
and
lectured
for the
chair
1845
of
which
title, An
The
in
was
in
1832.
three
position he
as
Introduction
volumes,
assert
articles
the
vacant
received
the
Edinburgh,
at
Philosophy
for
Institutes
more
no
at
Blackwood
Philosophy of
of Ferrier
we
to
applicant
an
became
have
been
of Metaphysics,
notice
in the
above
interestingbook
on
on
and
order.
Greek
of Ferrier's.
He had
ever
Philosophy was
clear conception of what
a
Philosophy is in itself,and what
He
exhibited
a
History of Philosophy ought to be.
clearly
the significanceof the Ionic
and
the
Eleatic,
Philosophy,
Heraclitus
and
and
the
obscure
of
Pythagoras.
systems
He
entered
sympathetically into the spirit,and traced the
connection
of the
theories
of Empedocles,
Anaxagoras,
the
Democritus,
Sophists, Socrates, Plato, Epicurus and
A few
Zeno.
to
points only in this history, it is needful
written
than
that
sciousness
Con-
lished
pub-
entitled, respectively.Lectures
of
to
works
collected
failed
held
series
the
It is safe to
of Moral
Professor
but
Philosophy,
which
applicant
an
failed likewise
He
elected
was
contributed
the
Moral
Ferrier
Metaphysics
of Hamilton.
He, however,
of Civil History
of Professor
St. Andrews,
Ferrier
Wilson,
appointment.
of Logic and
by the death
appointment
under
advocate
an
for
Prof.
chair
vacant
the
in
of
death
receive
and
as
illness.
the
the
admitted
intimate
an
Hamilton's
for
the
was
formed
Hamilton,
On
and
School,
High
mention.
Ferrier
forward
evident
dwells
with
principleof change,brought
bination
by Heraclitus, and called by him becoming, a comof being and
It
is, however, at once
not-being.
that change cannot
be the^r^^ or ultimate principle;
favor
on
the
PHILOSOPHICAL
312
by the action of
which
is truly the ultimate
first principle. Cause
or
cause,
is an essential requisite
which
is also apprehended by reason,
of a first principle,
while change is known
empirically,either
experienced in consciousness, or perceived through the senses,
which excludes it from being a first principle.
Ferrier
also accepts the opinion attributed
to Heraclitus
for
itself is
THEORIES
change
that
an
effect
determinations
contrary
about
brought
into
enter
constitution
the
of
we
object. This is true, if by contrary determinations
diverse attributes^
form, as spherical,may commean
as
bine
any
if
with any
color as red; but it is not true,
by contrary
cubical.
for
and
we
mean
as
example spherical
conflictive,
It is true that objects are
undergoing continuous
changes,
and Ferrier would
from
the
is
raised
when
water
freezing
say,
the boiling point, calling the
successive
to
temperatures,
every
a,
6, c,
not-b is
not-a
that
"
c,
and
is b then
and
since
the
water
so
a
b; if b is not-b
is 6 and
is
temperatures
law
b is
c,
freezing and
at
the
of conflictions
same
holds
then
and
is
and
c,
boiling, and
ime
not-a
and
is
not-b
Ferrier
then
on.
so
has
c,
b is
c,
Therefore,
all intermediate
declares
b apart,
since
that
it
the
holds
PHILOSOPHICAL
314
they do,
relating,as
at
are
emotions,
the
for
by
of
sorrows
rational
of the
life.
enal,
phenom-
intuition.
The
sensations, appetites,instincts,
lose
aversions, will never
mind.
The
truths
of
reason
"All
experience. Ferrier says:
strict demonstrative
rigorousevidence
on
on
This
proof."
the
and
human
facts
the
for
certainty depends
facts
for
accounts
and
conditions
necessary
affections, desires
its interest
joys
apprehended
once
philosophy which
account
the
to
truths, the
Fundamental
THEORIES
of
"
is not
of consciousness, which
of
either
true
are
as
axioms,
certain
as
or
of the
demonstrated
truth.
of
justification
of his system,
polemic character
of
Ferrier says: ''The object of philosophy is the correction
of ordinary thinking; and
these inadthe inadvertencies
vertencies
as
corrected
generally confirmed, and never
are
by
thus
from
converted
psychology, and are
oversights into
it
is
further the business of philosophy to
something worse,
This
is what
refute psychology.
philosophy has to do,''
of psychology;
the
properly correct
Philosophy may
errors
In
it should
but
As
each
make
not
of mind.
deliverance
of
Ferrier, contradicts
he
confronts
doctrines
the
which
some
conform
opinions,
or
and
truth
the
to
of all reason,
psychological
truths
them, with the necessary
they contradict, stating first the necessary
It is,however,
error,
aims
to
with
ordinary opinion, or
overthrow
psychology itself,which
necessary
natural
laws, which
laws, and facing each
or
the
on
war
science
be the true
to
the
but
the
to
the counter
propositionexpressing
of psycholthe corresponding error
ogy.
business
of philosophy not only to
establish
Ferrier
positive truth.
scheme
of Reid
the
and
repudiates the common
sense
Scotch
philosophy.
Ferrier treats of philosophy in three divisions : Epistemology,
or
theory of knowledge; Agnoiology, or theory of ignorance;
of procedand Ontology,or the theory of being. This order
ure
is the reverse
of the order of ordinary thinking, which
is
failures.
the secret
of so many
The
not
questions of being canbe properly answered
till the questions of knowledge and
ignorance have been decided.
of knowledge,
that the unit or minimum
Ferrier contends
in regard to what
is known,
is Objectplus Subject,smd
that
thus
FERRIER,
HAMILTON,
McCOSH
315
are
inseparable in cognition.
distinguishable,
This is true.
Knowledge implies an object known, a subject
and
that knows,
synthesis of subject and objects; but in
itself;the two
are
knowing the object, the subject knows
The
known
together, but in a different way.
object is
if a fact, but rationally,if a necessary
known
empirically,
the subject is always
truth, and in either case,
as
not-self;
known
as
self. Knowledge is not self-supporting;
rationally,
it requires,as its indispensiblecondition, an
or
subject
ego
The ego in knowing an object,refers the knowledge
that knows.
in saying / know
that object. That
to itself,
knowledge
is impossible without
a
subject is at once
apprehended by
intuition.
The
rational
subject is, however, not strictly
of itself,
conscious
though conscious of the knowledge of an
itself empirically,but
it
object; that is, it does not know
rationallyapprehends the necessityof itself as the indispensable
condition
it knows
of knowledge, and
that
whenever
knowledge is impossible. The
object, otherwise
ego,
any
is
made
not
however, being always present,
specialobject
a
these, though
the
The
to
object.
belief.
that is thus
considerations
of
but
contradiction."
it is not
knowledge
per
matter
se
has
matter
of matter
not
been
shut
per
out.
se
Ferrier
is reduced
contradiction
per
se
per
se.
proved.
that
The
is
then
to
is
says
the
''By these
predicament
self-destructive;
self-destructive,but
impossibilityof
matter,
PHILOSOPHICAL
316
above
The
Ferrier
to
anticipates,and endeavors
besieges,not merely
but
the
ence
thing,
thing itself. The differ-
answer,
set
it
the
knowledge
aside,
thus:
contradiction
"The
of the
the
between
THEORIES
contradictions
two
The
this way.
cognizance of a circle is
that figure be presented,either reallyor
contradiction, however,
This
cognizance; it does
would
of this kind
the
But
leave
matter,
per
the
contradiction
altogetherunaffected.
circle is not only a contradictory
se
cognizance of a centerless
dictory
contracognizance, the object of it is, moreover,
a
circle is absolutely incogitaobject. A centerless
ble in itself."
Yes, and
by definition,a
circle has
circumference
of the
exclusivelyto
the circle.
to
illustrated,in
contradictory,unless
ideally,to the mind.
is limited
extend
not
be
may
we
on
to
per
say:
which
equally distant.
are
contradiction
**The
from
center
for
impossiblein itself,
add
may
which
all the
Ferrier then
attaches
Matter
per
circle without
points
is
se
to
goes
matter,
contradictory
is a contracenter
dictory
as
a
a
thing,just as much
thing." This Ferrier has signally failed to show,
of the centerless
though he attempts it thus: 'Tn the case
is
the
it
lacks an element
circle,
contradictory,because
object
is essential to the constitution,
center) which
circle;and
only of every known, but of every knowable
in like manner,
matter, per se
the element
wants
(to wit, the
constitution
is thus
thing. It
thing, and
but
that
the
introduced
been
its
to
The
to
contradictory,because
me)
which
known,
matter
contradiction
is essential
the
of every
knowable
is a contradictory
but
se
per
to
it
these
(as
cleaves
not
show)
only
remarks
the
to
have
cognition
object."
is
center
without
of every
certain that
only
not
is
point
of
the
circle which
shown
not
that
is
matter
impossible
is impossible
is no
subject, which
part of the matter
but only a part of the object of cognition. Matter
may
be known,
exist, though it cannot
apart from the subject.
without
Did
Ferrier
Ferrier
known
not
shown
Where
all matter
know
then
contends
.^^
that
matter,
per
se,
as
an
object of
edge;
contradictory;yes, as an object of knowlan
object of knowledge implies a subject;that is,
object implies a knowing subject; but Ferrier has
is the contradictory.
that matter, per se, as a reality,
knowledge,
for
the
is the
is the
contradiction?
If it is asked
how
can
it be
known
that
needful
not
failed
to
taken
the
jper se, is
matter,
to show
matter,
of
burden
per
proof
317
reality? The
only to show
that; but
that
prove
McCOSH
TERRIER,
HAMILTON,
se, is not
is,it is
answer
that
Ferrier has
reality.
upon
the
He
has
it.
carry
of
expedient
asking their
external material objects,
that there are
to
opponents
prove
there
that
of proof,
such
when
the burden
are
no
objects,
this
neither
the
have
idealists themselves;
falls upon
they
It is not simply the realityof matter
that,
done nor
do.
can
brings it into relation with mind, but the conception of the
reality.
that matter
Ferrier contends
per se is the contradictory;
but the contradictory is self-destructive and impossible; yet
Idealists
in general
Ferrier
'*this system is
maintaining that matter
holds
be, from
to
that
',*Thematerialist
blank.".
.
resort
loaf of bread
idealism, when
a
of consciousness, and is locked
into
turn
No
nothing.
the loaf, or
,
into
nothing,
but
what.f^ to
itself?
far, as
as
se
per
supposes
to
ceases
away
in
in
the
"
system
any
is
nonentity a
that, according to
be a phenomenon
dark closet,it must
a
"
absence
of
all
whatever
it may
can
be, lapses,not
sciousness,
con-
into
the
contradictory." Contradictory to
lapses into the impossible,for the
idea
or
contradictory is the impossible. The
appearance
of the loaf vanishes, but not the loaf itself. Suppose after
a
week, the loaf,for the time, not thought of, the closet is
opened, and the loaf is found to be moldy, what has been
time?
There
going on in the mean
was
an
object there,
Then
it
with
as
valuable
discipline,
of the
one
Latin
proverb :
Parturiunt
The
monies,
nascetur
PhilosophicalRemains
subjectspublished
worthy
clearness
will
true
and
of
and
consist
in Blackwood's
lectures delivered
occasional
ridiculus
at
publication. They
attractiveness
mus.
of papers
on
cal
philosophialso several
Magazine,
times, and
various
exhibit
the
of all of Ferrier's
deemed
characteristic
writings, and
abundantly repay for their perusal. This is especially
of the articles on
the Philosophy of Consciousness,Reid,
the Philosophy of Common
Sense, and A Speculationon
the Senses.
PHILOSOPHICAL
S18
overestimated
Ferrier, however,
he
when
it for
took
THEORIES
they would
that
granted
influence
the
of his works,
the
overthrow
older
he wrote
Edinburgh,
at
which,
of its
account
on
Sir William
Hamilton,
an
Stoic
on
essay
merit, he received,
the
honorary
degree
Philosophy,
motion
on
of
of
Master
of
Arts.
1835, McCosh
In
in 1839
Scotland, and
active
was
in the
became
he
While
in 1843.
entitled Methods
published
Physical and Moral,
saying: *'It is refreshingto
which
read
of
work
of
he
of the
in,
Brech-
at
Divine
ment,
Govern-
commended
Hamilton
a
church
establishment
for the
organized
was
his book
of the
Brechin, where
at
pastor
movement
Church, which
Free
minister
ordained
was
by
distinguishedfor
so
and
originality
difficult
somewhat
however,
method
has
do
to
by
apprehended
once
by induction
There
intuition
is,however,
arid
with
to
rational
an
then
We
external
do
induction
intuition.
know
it
by
Truths
which
may
be
discovered
We
find
the
reached
make
to
that
an
intuition
by
the
ence,
by our experilift a weight, that
power.
of power,
is an
object of
do
not
observe the
event, we
know
we
is at
interestingrelation existingbetween
effort,the exertion
an
tive
induc-
the
truth, which
fundamental
of cause.
investigationof the nature
for example in the effort we
is the efficiencyof force or
cause
in
what
understand
fundamental.
not
are
of
In
this
case,
the
observation; but
efficiency. How
external
event
requires a cause?
that non-entitycannot
springinto
HAMILTON,
once
reason,
the
real
of which
intuition,
319
nothing is
mere
it is known
and
at
induction.
by
of any
event
induction
and
generalizeby
McCOSH
require action
not
it is true
As
FERRIER,
that
it
affirm
requires a
cause,
that
event
we
may
requiresa
every
is
induction
the
not
intuition
generalization
by
cause;
that any
The
real intuition
particularevent
requires a cause.
is known
that is by rational intuition,
at once
by reason,
but the generalizationof the intuition,which
is not intuition,
is reached
by induction.
induction
The
here
employed is not ordinary probable
certain thing is found
in which
induction
by observation
a
this
but
be
to
instances
of many
true
of
class, that
is of all the
instances
whole
where
examined
been
events
induction,
It is
intuition
we
that
is
cause;
has
we
is identical
occurrence
an
Then
this
occurrence
is
But
particular event,
as
we
an
with
event.
cause.
that
an
we
this
can
say:
this
perfect
reach, by
can
witnessed
The
rence
occur-
event
has
event.
Every
has
event
The
this
therefore
occurrence
is identical
occurrence
say
we
occurrence.
can
tion
generaliza-
the
particular
observed
by
cause.
making
cause,
any
event;
an
has
then
cause,
after
requires
witness
event
that
conclusion
Suppose
has
every
note
event
every
deduction, the
each
that
know
found
of
true; for the number
infinite.
it
is
But
known
practically
that
interestingto
cause.
fact
indefinite,or
are
rational
by
the
and
with
particular event
this
has
cause.
McCosh
in which
In
1865,
also
published
he makes
McCosh
some
was
An
Examination
of
tellinghits.
elected
president
Mill's
of
New
phy
Philoso-
Jersey
wide
the institution
to
a
College at Princeton, and gave
reputation and greatly enlarged its usefulness.
In 1869, McCosh
published a treatise on Logic entitled
The Laws
Thought. In this treatise he gave
of Discursive
much
thought to the discussion of concepts.
itivism
series of lectures on
McCosh
Christianityand Posa
gave
in 1871, at the Union
Theological Seminary in New
York.
PHILOSOPHICAL
SW
McCosh
fundamental
while
In
in
Hopkins
1875,
published
of
treats
reply
In
forcibly
to
Without
or
virtue.
entitled
very
for
In
Cosh
Mc-
the
The
Scottish
interesting
and
the
extending
period
same
he
year
able,
valu-
wrote
lecture.
volumes
two
contain
his
thus
for
many
adding
stout
Ferrier,
lived
the
that
notable
future
much
of
of
that
Scotch
Reid,
was
Realistic
on
thoughts
mature
is
grateful
original
Philosophy,
Stewart
frequent
gave
useful
and
in
also
and
Review,
defender
but
McCosh
works,
Princeton
He
by
these
to
the
lectures.
held
combined
are
expressed.
addition
In
is
volumes
These
Philosophy,
ple,
princi-
of
book
published
McCosh
1887,
which
Belfast
Tyndale's
to
principles
Hamilton.
to
ing
maintain-
fundamental
foundation
philosophy
Scotch
Hopkins
foeman.
worthy
book,
Hutcheson
from
forming
Mark
Hopkins
the
other
the
McCosh
This
Ethics,
is
that
found
Philosophy,
of
benevolence
held
McCosh
benevolence
with
was
that
with
controversy
principle
opinion
the
in
engaged
the
on
THEORIES
and
utor
contrib-
public
many
life,
will
and
remembrance.
in
thought,
not
Hamilton.
that
McCosh
of
Brown
be
THEORIES
PHILOSOPHICAL
322
of Contiguity,Synchronous
applied to explain, not only
had been done by others, but emotion, reasoning,
as
memory,
volition,and action, both voluntary and involuntary.
Following Hartley, in this respect, other philosophers of
mental
this school are
state
wont
to explain every
or
process
and
association;
undoubtedly,
thought
inseparable
by an
may
idea
from
second
the
and
second
to
third,
one
a
a
through
pass
in the course
This
be observed
of a
be dropped.
may
may
law, which
he
styled, The
law
This
Successive.
aud
Law
he
conversation.
his
In
connection
intimate
and
states,
thus
the
but
to
particlesof
minute
ether
thus
sensation
held
He
caused
to
thought,
neither
be
the
the
result
in the
minute
the
human
is the vibration
the
ether, as
vibrates, and
to
spirit,to be
experience
this
upon
which
of the
of the
subtle
elastic
of the
brain;
the
may,
so
however,
intimately
sensation
sensation, the
is
is not
nerves
the ether
suppose
connected
whenever
the
the
with
ether
intelligent,
thought awakens
ego,
judgment,
thought, and
emotions, affections, desires, volitions,
passes
vibrations
interstices
particlesof
itself is intelligentspirit. We
ego,
in
way
postulating
nerves,
vibrate
of the
vibration
led the
tracing the
between
physiologicalfacts and psychical
originated Physiological Psychology.
physicaltheory, Hartley
as
which
transcend
sensation.
be admitted
that
Hartley's opinion cannot
reasoning is
series of ideas united
than
nothing more
a
by association;
for it has cogency.
The
premises are not merely associated
with
the conclusion, but
they necessitate the conclusion.
In mere
association, the premises would
simply lead us to
think of the conclusion, but as a matter
of fact, the truth of
the premises, there being no
formal fallacy,compels us to
of the conclusion.
ethical
attention
and
to
Hartley also gave
theological
questions;but he derives all knowledge of these subjectsfrom
His style is simple and attractive,and his specusensation.
lations
of his
said
of
the
truth
be
entertaining,whatever
may
conclusions.
The
doctrines
who
Priestley,
to
reduce
the
of
Hartley were
warmly advocated
by Dr.
was
distinguishedin science, and who hoped
science of mind
of physics, as he
to a branch
ASSOCIATIONAL
inclined
was
said:
to
'*Dr.
of
theory
materialism.
mind
marked
thought
clear
of
In
argument.
in the
pursuit of
is
fishes, as
he
thus
virtue
"Virtue
the
to
light
the
the
upon
theory
of
the
altruistic;but
reward
satisfaction
was
had
is the
an
utilitarian;
extreme
his eye on
the loaves and
definition of virtue which
of
doing
good
to
mankind,
in
we
external
take
we
he
he
will of
Utility has
for the
ethics
in his celebrated
seen
states:
obedience
and
Hartley, Priestley
celebrated
Paley, a
in philosophy the line of
moralist, followed
and Hartley.
out .by Locke
Paley had the
the ability to make
and
a
vincing
constatement,
theologian and
and
upon
323
William
(1743-1805).
Foley
power
to
useful
more
did
Newton
than
regard
thrown
has
Hartley
In
PHILOSOPHY
world."
external
2,
EMPIRICAL
AND
should
to
in virtue
aim
to
virtuous,
not
solely
chieflyfor the
worthy attainment
itself,but
virtue
as
be
the
most
moral
of
to
the
being.
Bentham
bom
in
3.
was
(1748-1832). Jeremy Bentham
London.
His father, who
him
the
tages
advanwas
wealthy, gave
of a good education.
He early studied Latin and Greek,
and
became
He
entered
proficient in those
languages.
son's
Queen's College,Oxford, where he thoroughly studied Sanderlogic. He received the bachelor's degree, and became
student
of law at Lincoln's
listened with delight
Inn.
He
a
decisions
Blackstone
at
of Lord
Mansfield, and
heard
lectures of
the
Oxford.
He
tion
investigatedthe principleson which all sound legislaHis reputation
be based, and published his views.
must
thinker
consulted, as an
as
a
rapidly extended, and he was
authority,in regard to legalprinciples,by many
ents
correspondin different countries.
In 1823, he established
The Westminster
Review,
noted
for vigorous thought and liberal opinions.
Bentham
politics,and
was
the
author
of
many
works,
on
journal
finance,
for
Seeking for a solid foundation
and morals, he accepted the principleof Beccaria,
the Italian jurist, *'The
greatest happiness to the greatest
number."
He
made
a
systematic application of this vital
and
Penalties, as also
principle in his treatises on Rewards
in his writings on Law
and Ethics.
both
law
morals.
PHILOSOPHICAL
3^4
Bentham
Mill,
intimate
was
in
and
THEORIES
with
small
James
influenced
Mill
and
John
Stuart
their
degree
speculations.
James
Mill
born
in the village
Jf.
was
(1773-1836).
called Northwater
Bridge, in the county of Forfar, Scotland.
His parents were
respectable people, and his mother, who
resolved
ambitious
to give her son
was
an
a
good
woman,
He was
education.
where
he
sent to the Montrose
Academy,
till his eighteenth year,
and
remained
then
the
entered
universityat Edinburgh.
and
Mill enjoyed the friendship of Sir John
Lady Jane
of their daughter.
He
guished,
distintutor
Stuart, and was
a
was
and
at
Edinburgh, for his attainments, in Greek
Logic. He greatly admired
Dugald Stewart, whose lectures
no
Mill
he
attended.
After
continue
not
he took
In
Stuart, who
was
a
accompanied Sir John
found
of parliament, to London,
where
member
he soon
he
literary occupation suited to his mind, and to which
applied himself with great assiduity.
He
started a new
periodicalcalled The Literary Journal
enriched
which, comprehensive in its scope,
was
by the
of distinguished scholars. Mill himself writing
contributions
articles for it on
history, biography, and on politicaland
social subjects.
In 1804, he wrote
the Corn
Trade which
was
a pamphlet
on
the
first of his economic
writings. In 1805" he married
1802,
Harriet
he
His
Burrow.
eldest
after his
distinguishedfriend
In
he
1806,
began
for twelve
his
and
and
History of
named
patron.
India
on
John
Sir John
which
he
Stuart,
Stuart.
was
gaged
en-
years.
in 1808,
acquainted with Jeremy Bentham
co-operated with him in elaborating and disseminating
and ethical doctrines, and by his clear statements
political
logicalreasoning gave to the Utilitarian philosophy wide
Mill
and
his
was
son
became
currency.
From
1806
to
periodicals,such
1818, he contributed
as
the
Edinburgh
able
articles to
various
the
British
Review,
ASSOCIATIONAL
Review, the
the Annual,
article
Eclectic
he
on
for
Annual
the
review
''Beniharns
and
and
Review,
wrote
PHILOSOPHY
EMPIRICAL
AND
''Fox's
of
Reforms,''
He
Edinburgh.
the
Review.
History'
also
Law
325
one
also
For
and
an
Money
on
the
Exchange
pany,
article on the East India ComLibertyof the Press, and a severe
Mill co-operated with William
Allen in founding and
writing for a periodicalcalled "The
Philanthropist,"which
He
also contributed
1811
to
1817.
was
published from
articles to the fifth edition of the Encyclopedia
valuable
many
wrote
on
Britannica.
In
1878,
Mill
published
his
with
and
great success,
gave
the India House, in which
he
met
History of India, which
him
an
important position in
gradually rose to the headship
of the oflSce.
Mill
of
one
Review,
principal writer for the Westminster
of
his articles was
criticism
the
a vigorous
Edinburgh
Other
articles dealt with English History and with
was
Review.
Ecclesiastic
establishments.
1821,
Stuart
John
Mill.
various
These
exhibit
and
he
immense
the
All his
forth.
labors
exemplify
deep logicalthought
of expression.
Mill's Analysis of the Human
that
chieflyclaims
second
Mind
attention.
our
edition, in two
Alexander
Bain, Andrew
mind
his
of intellectual effort he
amount
writingsshow
activity of
the
is,however,
shall make
We
volumes,
with
valuable
and
work
the
use
of the
notes
and
put
ness
clear-
by
John
Mill.
Stuart
is
an
outer
After
on
an
world,
not
ideal,but
interestingdiscussion
to the treatment
of ideas.
He
real.
of the
"
says
Mill
passes
sensations
which
senses.
The
PHILOSOPHICAL
3^6
have
we
presence
When
THEORIES
sensations
our
of the
cease
by
cease
something remains; so
sensation; something,
the
sensation.
Another
of the
this copy
name
The
.
the
The
of
consequence
than
more
remains
class
one
of
class of
other
objects,
image of
an
copy,
representation, or
denote
we
by which
sensation, which
is idea.
ceases,
the
of the
trace
this
trace,
sensation
after the
feelings I
of their
absence
I call it
hke, that
only by
its absence.
upon
the
exist
senses
call
tions;
sensa-
"
sensation.
is the
There
of the
rational
senses
intuition
is
of
conditional
verdure,
cannot
made
sensations
to
of leaves, since
denuded
appear
the
actual
be
it may
and
cause
ghost
may
credulous
an
be
will not
become
so
apparent
apparently
anticipation or
vivid
as
to
perception
seen
by
fearful
call back
of
the
vivid
the
sensation,
object.
idea
apprehension.
Thus
stimulated
by
ASSOCIATIONAL
EMPIRICAL
AND
PHILOSOPHY
327
Psychology. Ideas,
tend, according to Mill, to form
of
Associational
that
so
when
one
Instead
Mill
suggested
much
the
the
of
the
of
an
gether,
to-
union,
invariable
paniment.
accom-
John
Stuart
inseparable,which, however,
word
thing.
represented the
Bain
thought
indissoluble
word
school
indissoluble
an
is
of the
means
same
another,
if there
as
associated
attraction
an
was
ideas
adhering
as
between
to
one
them.
The
mind
tends
to
The
law
2.
tends
begun,
act
to
it has
as
acted
before.
revived
of integration:A
completion; for the
train
mind
of ideas
completed
has
once
that
train before.
The
S.
ideas
to
similar
law
another
or
is liable to
antithetical
similar
the
transition:
of
links
to
of antithetical
case
is
the
one,
the
either
when
complete
to
The
the
the
that
to
inevitable
is
the two
mind
by
for
of
of
way
school
from
in
opposites
passes
before.
the law
of
have
train; and
mind
the
that
trains
passed
knowledge
suggested,
it has passed
of that
account
the
train
one
has
of either
and
Associational
law
when
occur,
links, since
train
fault of the
from
completion
the second
philosophers
endeavor
the
train, since
case,
transition
antithesis
second
to
In
tends
of
integration.
Psychology, however,
make
almost
association.
too
any
much
process
is that
of it, and
whatever
good thing
may
by
be
greatly overworked.
Following the example of Locke, Mill devotes considerable
to the subject of language; and
though this part of his
space
work
is worthy of consideration, we
it without
must
pass
further
notice.
and
conscious
consciousness. Mill
regard to the words
correctlysays: ''If we are in any way sentient, that is, have
of the feelingsof a living creature,
conscious
the word
any
In
PHILOSOPHICAL
328
IS
the
applicable to
This
is
feeler,and
fine distinction
Likewise
it
be
can
volition, the
word
THEORIES
the
properly
said
conscious
is
If
mind
its activities.
and
have
we
feeling,''
the
to
consciousness
between
any
thought
or
thinker
the
or
applicable
to the thinking or willing.
If we
are
Feeling is not the only mental
phenomenon.
Mill
of
but
conscious, we
are
rectly
corcapable
being conscious;
held that consciousness
is
not
a
special
as
a capability,
faculty,but an element of any faculty,or a general capability
of being aware
of what
is going on
in the mind, and
sciousness,
conin any
mental
as
a state, is involved
phenomenon
the
wilier, and
to
consciousness
word
whatever.
Mill
to signify
expression,the conceptionof an object
the same
thing as the idea of an object. In logical usage,
the conception of a class of objects signifiesthe
however,
formation
of the notion
of the qualitiescommon
to all the
objects of the class. The product of the act of conception
the
uses
is called
concept, which
is not
the
idea; for
as
same
idea
an
picture of an object;
but a pure concept cannot
be imagined; it can
only be thought.
of a train
word
The
imagination, Mill employs as the name
of ideas, and shows why it is especiallyapplicable to poetic
be
can
imagined,
since
it is
mental
creations.
In
regard
to
to
classification
He
says:
*'Man
He
first
and
he
one
name
and
names
classification.Mill maintains
for the
acquainted
individuals; but
individuals
have
for
serve
certain, that
of
purpose
Little
in the
first becomes
not
can
of economy
sake
innumerable
men
economizing
were
in the
resort
men
of
use
with
names.
individuals.
innumerable,
are
He
names.
make
must
It is thus
individuals.
many
that
obvious,
classifysolely for
led
to
use
of names."
the
qualities,or
similar attributes
found
in all the objects of a class, though
these objects have
individual
attributes
that distinguishthe
The common
objects of the class from one another.
qualities
form
the
account
were
makes
of
the
common
Classification
economy
Mill
is, however,
of
of
thought than economy
of
studied singly,the finite powers
by the infinite wealth of nature.
hundred
of
thousand
black-birds.
value
greater
It would
in
securing
If objects
names.
would
man
Take
be
be
whelmed
over-
flock of
hopeless task
SSO
THEORIES
PHILOSOPHICAL
speciescut
the
from
out
denotation,
the
genus
and
extent,
the
content,
extent,
which
it is associated.
or
the
that
with
As
to
Mill
memory,
the
thing, ^,
the
up,
it will not
be
of my
call
we
"The
beliefof my
having
other
experiences
than
what
remember
thought.
Memory
involves
past
there
is
could
the
is the
those
have
we
of that
Yet
"
idea of
1, the
make
Mill
sciousness
con-
adds:
remember
however,
We,
of
state
J. S.
all
out
it,combined,
whole
it.
two,
seen
memory."
seen
species,so
will call
name,
having
the
of the
these
with
associated
course,
name
the
''Now
doubted,
which
the
or
says:
idea
of
are,
We
heard,
tasted, smelt
touched,
or
the
recognitionof these
without
though
memory,
experiences. In retention
is a retiringof the idea from
consciousness, yet there
the past experience
conserving of the effect, otherwise
be recalled.
In reproduction there is a recallingof
not
idea
back
to
consciousness, and
the
of the
reconstruction
idea.
it does
constitute
not
experience as
then
as
The
I.
or
and
mine, unless
am
of associated
now.
real
on
and
word
in the
most
belief under
truth
of
belief,that, in such
and
remember
mean
past
a
same
simply
being
string
ideas?
important
three
existences,present, past,
belief
not
essentiallythe
were
the
Beliefis the
considers
could
I
I
Does
sensations
chapter
Mill
it.
or
heads:
in Volume
Belief in events
propositions. He
of an object,there
such
one
says:
"In
is included
circumstances, I should
my
the
have
such
be
and
AND
AL
ASSOCIATION
EMPIRICAL
sensations.
such
PHILOSOPHY
Is there
for
answered
immediately yes;
sensations
the effect,
there
as
5
in my
the cause;
and
is
object
of
of
than
to
the
the
to
word
belief
my
something
effect,the
as
name
denotes
cause
It will
with
the
where
the connection
is conconsequent,
stant.
From
this, it necessarilyfollows, that between
a
ideas
our
not
cause,
more?
is belief of
The
appropriate.
antecedent
none
that
anything
that along
331
between
is the association
antecedent
and
intimate
more
in
consequent
and
intense,
the
order
of
events."
Again
nothing
longer a
Mill
the
to
"That
says:
mind,
human
cause
but
and
means,
can
mean
antecedent, is
constant
no
in
far from
of
of the
one
other
bisect
times,
school
and
schools
two
the
the
which,
this
at
time,
philosophical world
"
at
as
the
most
intuitional
The
experimental method
do for science, but it will not
do for philosophy, since
may
of reason
in establishing
philosophy is the employment
fundamiental
principlesthat shall give unity and harmony
antecedent
Is a constant
the sole meaning
to knowledge.
It is,if the antecedent
is not
but if it is
of caused
efficient;
not eflScient,if it fexerts no
influence, it might as
no
energy,
well
be
experimental."
in
absent,
is
therefore
which
efficient,exerts
would
effect
no
case,
influence
follow; it.
is
Is
dynamic.
it not strange that the experimental philosophers,who
claim
to build on
experience, do not consider that they exert their
whenever
they lift a weight .f^ Their own
experience
energy
is dynamic, that is,
ought to teach them that the antecedent
antecedent.
than a mere
Philosophy requiresa rational
more
basis.
If
would
first assertion
"Our
is indissoluble
by
no
the
principleof association.
that
was,
or
be
Whatever
follow.
not
explains it
there
exerted
antecedent
the
an
in
association
instance
every
of ideas.
by all
as
the
men
that
was
be
to
belief.
cases
this, and
There
identity
of indissoluble
nothing
is not
more,
more
second
association
are
says
of belief,
Our
assertion
He
admitted
acknowledged
decisive
instance
of
of
belief
and
association
than
the
dread
of
PHILOSOPHICAL
332
is here,
There
ghosts.
association."
that
association
depends
as
the
on
reason
association.
transformed
Mill
THEORIES
indisputably
Mill
has
into
belief;but
enters
When
attempts
evidence
to
that
show
right relation
with
showing
belief
cases,
is
than
more
is conclusive, the
all
taken
mere
belief is
evidence, includingthat
resolvable
in many
soluble
indis-
into knowledge.
syllogisticreasoning, is
on
in
probable evidence,
on
evidence
the
of
case
successful
been
evidence, at least
for the belief,and
of P
and
S to
into
association.
is P,
just
The
conclusion
M,
not
on
as
Why
valid
as,
of
is
all
depends
tion
their associa-
M.
Volume
II, Mill
carries
forward
his
investigationsby
his ever
ready law of association,that a former experience is
known
recalled whenever
which
was
anything recurs
along
with that experience in time or place.
He
considers
of language and
the discussion
resumes
relative terms, and abstract
especiallythe subject of names,
as
This
is one
of the most
relative terms.
interesting and
and
will well repay
instructive chapters in the whole
work,
careful study. He
then
to
numbers,
on
privative
passes
In
terms,
space
and
time.
of all qualities
regard to quality.Mill says: "The names
of objects are
Are they anything else.^^
of sensations.
names
of our
tion
Yes; they are the names
sensations, with the connotaof a supposed unknown
As
of those
sensations.
cause
of
far, however, as our
names
knowledge goes, they are
is never
sensations, and nothing else. The supposed cause
to us."
known; the eflFectsalone are known
This
the
quotation brings out the difference between
experimental and the intuitional philosophy. We experience
the effects,the sensations, and the experimental philosophy
that is all we
know, and virtually,that is all there is;
says
the intuitional philosophy says,
is a
there
know
that
we
for the sensations, whether
the specificcause
know
cause
we
do not
of
know.
for the peculiar taste
There
is a cause
or
for that of sugar,
salt,and a different cause
though we may
be able to account
for either, or to explain the reason
not
In
for their
is
difference.
In
many
clearlyexplicable.
Thus
cases
an
the
difference
of
iron
ball three
inches
tions
sensa-
in
ASSOCIATIONAL
diameter
exerts
greater pressure
particleof which
has
PHILOSOPHY
the hand
on
it contains
because
diameter,
in
inch
EMPIRICAL
AND
and
weight,
more
adds
to
333
than
ball
one
matter,
every
the sensation
of
pressure.
Mill
Again
by
me,
ideas included
other
of the
belief
the
all the
other
is
rose
to
indissoluble
union
sensations
sensation
I refer each
when
mean
previous
with
sensations
under
of
smell
perceived
all the
immediately
me,
term
are
suggested along
rose,
union, presupposed. But this
suggested
their indissoluble
it, and
with
idea
the
or
the
"When
says:
to
of
of those
each
is all which
the
rose
its cause."
as
the qualitieswhich
sensations are united because
in
called
the rose.
The
the object
united
them
are
The
or
their
associated,
When
ideas,
that
so
to another, does
are
the
he
in
of them
one
any
takes
person
united
rose
you
transfer
your
are
really
excite
tions,
sensa-
thus
experience, and
sensations
or
the
cause
of them?
As
to
time. Mill
says:
preciselythe meaning
objects, is
''Succession, without
of the
word
time."
That
is, from
ideas, of whatever
nature, abstract
this abstract, this succession is time.
To
train of sensations
or
succession, and
mind, time is that
the
my
in which
to be or
the
succession should
opportunity, the
If there
of all
that
should
things
as
be
no
they
succession,no
are,
time
change, but
would
though
it is the
still be
a
a
change,
continuance
condition
of
is not time,
idea of time.
chronologicalantecedent of our
If there should be no continuance
of things,but an unceasing
succession or change, time would
still be a condition of that
succession or change; hence
of
time is not the continuance
things. Time, then, is that which renders both continuance
and succession possible;it is their condition, or that without
which they could not be.
In
is an
word
regard to space. Mill says: "The
space
like other abstracts,
from
its concrete,
abstract, diflfering
PHILOSOPHICAL
334
the
dropping
by
abstract
terms
because
they
connotation
(denotation). In
explained through their
be
can
note
leaving
names,
THEORIES
or
name
the
out
what
may
be
part
rest."
This
wire,
cord,
of
all
cases
concretes,
the
concrete
illustrated
by
rod,
a
or
a
leaving out
matter,
Take
cubic
foot
of
of
length.
wood, or
a
iron, or of
we
have the geometric cube.
stone, and dropping the matter, we
aid us in reaching the idea; but when
have
the
This may
we
reference
idea, a cubic foot, as a geometric object, without
taking
and
the
have
the
to
concrete
Likewise
space.
remains
matter,
we
as
form
may
the
and
enlarge indefinitely,
we
may
we
have
idea
if
no
would
matter,
with
go
knowledge
no
sensations,
idea of motion
the
derives
Mill
be
of pure
sphere, which
matter,
reality,would
of the
in
as
moving
the
from
tips of
tactual
the
fingersof
We
have
here
along the bare left arm.
sensation in the tips of the fingers,local change
and
the
left
the idea
right
of force
hand.
space
time
through
right arm
by
with
tactual
by
which
for the
of sensations
followed
be detected
can
right
continuous
in the
blended
are
the
be
may
sensations
implies the
Motion
involved
of space,
movement
till finallymotion
muscular,
sensations
energy
ideas
The
ocular
thus
or
The
also involved.
and
muscular
and
arm,
muscular
and
hand
in the
space
the
too.f^
go
space
would
there
though
of
form
we
If there were
infinite space.
If all mind
should
annihilated.^
be
limited
an
the eye,
the eye
and,
alone.
object moves,
object from one
required
passage
another.
to
point
path
Any change in the motion of a
body requires force, that is, a cause,
dynamic antecedent.
a
ated
series of associIn regard to personal identity,we
have
a
and
sensations
ideas, past and present, including the
also the
of the
of its
of
memory
this
Does
believe
forms
the
series constitute
that
the
the
consciousness
the
of other
''There
note:
this bond
person
to
me
who
and
was
constitutes
the
my
the
Mill
is
says:
some
tence."
exissort
they were
throughout,
say
me
person
ego."
''I
which
my
of
bond
makes
same
present.
consequents
also formed
has
men,
of
Is it I?
ego?
of antecedents
in
adds
the feelingsof
and
train
existence
J. S. Mill
among
and
past
We
do not
say.
ASSOCIATIONAL
I
PHILOSOPHY
memory
of the
past and
conscious
am
and
begins
then
of the
of
"Reflection
mind
is
say
ideas, but
his discussion
says:
ideas,
present.
The
the
and
ego
335
the
am
ness
conscious-
I remember
not
am
not
am
holds
or
the
am
feehngs, but
feeUngs.
notice which
"That
and
sensations; I have
I have
Mill
ideas
present
train of ideas
He
EMPIRICAL
the
was
but
AND
the
the
sensations,
ideas, nor a
gether.
experiencesto-
reflection
by quoting Locke:
takes of its own
operations."
nothing but
consciousness; and
is the
Reflection
having sensations and ideas."
than
is,however, more
simple consciousness, or being aware
of what
is passing in the mind; it signifies
the study of these
tion,
identificaphenomena, their examination, discrimination
or
consciousness
classifications.
and
careful
investigationof
reflection
reveals
the
following
of the thoughts from
Abstraction, the withdrawal
processes:
irrelevant
desired
phenomena; attention to the phenomena
the separation of these phenomena
to be understood
; analysis,
into their elements; synthesis,or putting together again the
elements
found
by analysis;comparison, or ascertainingresemblances
and
differences;discrimination, the distinguishing
of differences;identification,
the detection
of sameness
or
resemblance; classification,
or
assigningthe unlike to different
classes, and
like to
the
of classes and
naming
of
things by
discriminate
the
individuals,and
genus
the descripdefinition,
tion
differentia that
and
the
class; denomination,
same
enables
to
us
identify.
pain, Mill correctlysays can be known
only
The
idea
of
identifies
with
by experience.
desire,
pleasure he
and the idea of pain with aversion, each with a reference to
Pleasure
the
or
to
and
future.
It
with
seems,
the
probability
intellectual
of
element
reahzation.
In
expectation
like
manner,
of aversion
and
compound
expectation. They
intellectual,but differ in the emotional element.
Mill has noted
cause
of
is most
based
fear
agree
on
is
in the
but
THEORIES
PHILOSOPHICAL
336
very
money,
of pleasure,as
remote
cause
frequently the more
the means
of affordingmany
pleasures,and of gratifying
innumerable
desires.
desire
Men
wealth,
power,
motives
The
sensations, the
appetites,the instincts,the emotions, the affections,as love
the
aversions.
These
desires or
or
hatred, and
not
are
of
of
in view
which
strictlycauses
volition,but are reasons
action
to
the
spring from
heroism.
The
virtues
command
approbation of mankind,
the
the
the
possess
individual
individual
vices
are
conscience, and
obligationto
do
evil consequences,
"With
the idea of our
from
is formed
business
of
becomes
paramount
In
regard
is to find out
is
by
same
which
name.
acts
own
of
acts
association
of
virtue, there
in due
in the
Will, Mill
what
advantages
strength,which
to
When
''The
object of
peculiarstate of mind or
all men
action is preceded. From
It is called Will by everybody;
to be
it is the
to
this
main
virtue
breast."
that
derive
we
human
says:
naturally
are
fellow-creatures.
our
good education
to
conduct, is by
to
virtuous
the
in
avoid wrong
finds,in the good
As Mill says:
its final confirmation.
right and
or
associated
linked
are
considered
conscience, and
The
virtues
vices.
consent,
common
The
and
state
of mind
the
inquiry
consciousness
it receives the
and
or
by
body
every-
conscious-
PHILOSOPHICAL
338
Mill
gives
immediately
intervention
in
of
case
in
the
but
muscle,
of
idea,
When
scarcely
reach
I have
he
Mill,
says
him:
as
right
and
or
The
beings,
good,
at
is
a
so
both
to
as
to
This
large."
regarded
greater
evil
for
actor
is
greater
than
regulating
not
good
blame.
himself
and
to
objectionable,
than
praise,
dominated.
pre-
much
inastest
produce
to
his
actions
greatest
of
of
title:
human
amount
his
fellow-creatures
if
praiseworthiness
and
of
pleasure
description
alternative
the
the
the
them
Stoic
Epicurean,
in
seen,
the
Stuart
exclusive
the
gives
he
from
deduce
the
as
is
chiefly,
method
John
son,
was
as
act.
Philosophy.
actions
of
the
distinguished
qualities
taking
the
other.
Mill,
was
His
morals
of
but
psychological
he
and
ness
conscious-
book,
James
the
that
the
idea,
of
the
personal
which
the
Associational
tendency
of Rules
Book
his
for
of Ethics,
up
Utilitarian.
is confirmed,
This
Book
''The
the
take
that
of
willing
power
but
idea
the
associated,
treating
reason
idea;
the
yet
cause;
often
making
Utilitarian,
wrong,
pain."
in
standard
was
the
over
indirect
an
of
willed
only
school
a
has
without
and
in
''In
of
one
not
the
will
so
hand
was
His
it
the
explicit
the
Mill
of
been
for
of
Ethics,
have
leader
and
representative
nature
my
quite
was
prominent,
of the
that
me
sists
con-
appropriate
immediately
not
and
willing
the
intervention
the
will
forth
been
because
In
not
action
informs
is
the
case,
through
itself, is
could
ego
the
were
muscular
the
will
the
of
existence
into
without
instinct;
or
power
muscular
idea
or
habit
our
of
idea."
the
over
muscle
the
over
of
of
''that
calling
of
sensation
result
holds:
power
if this
Even
will,
he
power
the
following
the
volition,
that
idea;
of
examples
interesting
and
numerous
contraction
the
THEORIES
blameworthiness
of
CHAPTER
and
Associational
and
London,
He
eight.
and
read
In
regard
that
scientific
any
Logic
Political
and
read
He
Adam
of
Theory
make
to
He
the
Economy,
what
conclusions."
Mill
read
walks
great
deal
the
He
family
but
left
then
of
kept
his
up
duty
of
of
agents
The
concert
he
his
he
as
of
detect
his
he
read,
took
their
as
they
under
fourteen
in
ical
Polit-
in
thus
was
the
of
years
with
company
spent
India
became
soon
to
in
year
in
Mill
House
the
France,
diary what
the
gave
in
examiner.
letters
instructions
wrote
clerk
as
assistant
examine
write
and
which
object
and
notes
recorded
the
was
company,
main
views
experience.
entered
dispatches
practical
In
in
examiner
the
and
habits,
ofiice, and
the
many
which
studious
He
father."
for himself.
was
France,
Bentham.
eighteen,
examiner's
for
in which
erroneous
think
till he
father
England
interesting
When
The
his
or
or
Ricardo's
Ricardo,
He
believe
and
history, taking
his father,
to
breakfast.
Samuel
Sir
found
the
of
tutorship
age.
taught
of
of
thirteen.
my
father's
superficial
to
Latin,
not
by
me
arguments
was
substance
before
together
careful
in
he
rehearsing
and
he
Thus
and
mode
Nations
of
age
thorough,
the
my
lights
Smith's
in
was
more
superior
fallacious
was
"It
says:
than
of
Wealth
do
more
taught
were
to. Smith's
apply
me
faculties
Economy
Rent.
was
the
at
when
''I
the
Arithmetic
Greek
says:
ever
the
Smith's
both
in
began
of
Economics
Mill
teaching
training
for
fitted
better
and
education
his
to
twelve
when
Logic
began
He
Algebra
of
born
was
that
age,
and
amount
great
of
Latin
of
study
the
five, and
at
Mill
father.
his
years
{Continued)
"
Stuart
by
three
when
Philosophy
John
instructed
was
Greek
of
study
Empirical
(1806-1873).
Mill
5.
XXVII
him
in
of
the
reply.
experience
affairs.
with
called
The
few
kindred
Utilitarian
spirits. Mill
Society^
the
organized
object
of
club
which
S40
PHILOSOPHICAL
the reformation
was
social
of
two
Review,
magazines,
new
Bentham's
house, and
In
the
life.
He
is
one
part in
in
engaged
had
He
Chronicle,
wrote
many
great ability. At
oi Bentham'
edition
found
He
and
the work
ale
RationHe
congenial.
'T
says:
views
in
was
occasionally liable
it occurred
exhibited
an
the
him.
to
autumn
reformer.
edited
and
his
Parliamentary History
open
Evidence, and
active
an
were
of which
some
request, he
of Judicial
Traveller
the
and
disseminated
He
the
Review
took
Mill.
newspapers,
Westminster
The
of
James
and
Bentham,
through
THEORIES
of
state
In
to.
in Mill's
of
career
this
social
such
nerves,
mental
as
every
of
frame
mind,
the
to
heart
the
The
had
pursuit
how
could
I seemed
means.
cloud
did
overworked;
aesthetic
not
he
He
nature.
rest, from
prolonged
read, slowly
says:
**The
cloud
I
miserable
I had
as
to
foundation
had
All my
happiness
of this good.
end
The
there
have
soon
had
again be
ever
nothing
pass
also
ceased
his
left to
starved
for
time
health
and
I had
.
any
had
in
interest
live for."
Mill
was.
and
of
mind.
his
after
still continued
tone
now
ceased
write, and
to
to have
was
his affections
he
which
on
fact
The
away.
writing, though
recovered
life;though
the whole
me;
fell down.
in the
charm, and
to
put
within
sank
constructed
found
been
to
me
to
He
again enjoyed
again was
as
learnt by experience
I
needed
to be cultivated
passive susceptibilities
well as the active capacities,
and required to be nourished
as
and enriched as well as guided."
He found
satisfaction
in reading Wordsworth's
: He
poems
"These
themselves
addressed
powerfully to one
says:
poems
of the strongest of my
the love
pleasurable susceptibilities,
of rural objects and natural
scenery."
that
the
AND
ASSOCIATIONAL
Mill
enjoyed
the
him
encouraged
became
and
Mrs.
Taylor,
341
congenial
his
assisted
wife, and
and
in his literarylabors, and who, if his estimate
correct, had
Mill served one
term
of her
PHILOSOPHY
friendship of
aftewards
spirit,who
EMPIRICAL
was
not
though he was
and
attention,
intellect
an
as
member
inferior to
not
of the House
his
own.
of Commons
his
1874.
Of
Mill's
magazine
articles, the
one
on
Utilitarianism,
as
published in Frazier's in 1861, will serve
a
type, as it was
reasoned
to the objections to his ethical
answer
a
carefully
article
this
he
In
explained that he meant
theory.
by utility,
what
sensational
whatever
not only
tributed
conpleasure, but
gave
the pleasures of the imagination, or
afforded
to
satisfaction
His
to
reason.
joint product of
himself
He says: "The
and wife.
Libertyis likelyto survive
written
(with the
longer than anything else that I have
the conjunction
possible exception of the Logic), because
with mine
it a kind of philosophic
of her mind
has rendered
of a single truth, which
the changes progressively
text-book
in ever
in
modern
to bring out
taking place
society tend
and
importance to man
society, of a
stronger relief: The
large variety of types of character, and of giving full freedom
itself in innumerable
and
nature
to expand
to human
flicting
conbook
On
the
describes
Liberty, he
as
directions."
Of
Mill's
length and
other
I shall
books,
shall then
pass
notice
the
Logic
at
some
on.
many
years
Mill
had
PHILOSOPHICAL
342
is resolvable
conclusion
and
syllogisms,
that
in every
syllogism the
in
the
implied
premises.
is
How,
and
into
THEORIES
definitions
the
from
these,
was
difficultywhich
felt,and
truth,
now
the theorems
how
be
which,
no
all events,
at
one,
no
thought, had
had
one
in
ciently
suffi-
succeeded
in
'
clearingup.
The
which
to
appears
the
be
argument
to
When
say,
we
All
is
Socrates
is
Socrates
men
are
mortal, Socrates
the
mortal; that
are
assumption, AH men
unless we
of the mortality of all men,
the mortality of every
individual man;
whether
to
Socrates,
be
name,
is
fore
there-
man,
mortal; it is unanswerably
syllogistictheory,
mortal, is pre-supposed
of
adversaries
the
prove
him.
to
new
untenable
fallacy of
granted that
involved
truth,
new
the
maintained
Mill
must
him
mortal
or
other
any
not, the
or
in
urged by the
the proposition,
the
more
general
we
cannot
that
be
assured
already certain
are
that
of
if it be stilldoubtful
individual
we
choose
may
degree of uncertainty
same
assumes
Mill
where
as
here
the
induction.
known."
chose
major
It
the
premise
is, of
favorable
most
view,
men
major premise, that
in perfect induction
where
where
it is possible to examine
done
for this
is
course,
all
case
the
instances
every
are
few, and
instance; but
from
EMPIRICAL
AND
ASSOCIATIONAL
general experience,it
all men
probablethat
mortal?
is raised, Is Gabriel
Gabriel
is
or
man
mortal; Gabriel is a
Any
mortal.
are
truthfullysay. All
knowing the existence of
without
informed
when
and
then
that
Gabriel
any
known
men
are
probably mortal,
man
Gabriel;
as
such
Gabx'iel is
that
the tion
queswhether
is probably mortal.
are
men
gree
highest de-
say, All
can
Gabriel
can
one
343
suppose
being
Now
therefore
man;
Now
it not
angel.
an
in the
accepted,as
be
can
PHILOSOPHY
he
man,
can
say
probably mortal.
is
Sometimes
John
that
know
board
aboard
Brown
can
that
aboard
all
that
vessel
board
on
John
drowned;
were
that
statement
of
was
on
d, the number
if the
n,
or
Now,
on
is
the
suppose
term
I wish
to know
is 5, the common
100.
I write:
the
a,
a-]- 5,n
.
have
to
/,thus
true.
sion
progres-
difference
common
Mill's
petitiois not
arithmetical
an
time
is there
hence
none,
the
(n
"
l)d.
l)d.
difference
"
(n
first term
I did not
is
vessel at that
Where
and
Then
of the
being one less than the number
is evidently expressed by the formula
:
Z
terms
of
first term
of terms
coefficient of d
The
term,
There
a,
all
certain
that
drowned.
can
board
syllogisminvolves
every
terms,
that
down.
vessel,at
certain
Brown
it went
when
Brown
time; therefore John
was
of the petitiohere.^
the shadow
Again,
know
to
know
for I may
that John
not
Brown
I learn,the next
day, that John
suppose
but
was
say
drowned
was
drowned,
were
was
Brown
know
a-{-
{n
"
5 +
99 X
3, and
series whose
the
number
of
l)d.
100, and
of
this answer,
d
=
="=
3,
302.
to
know
the formula.
PHILOSOPHICAL
344
it may
from
be objected that a deduction
a perfect
is useless, since the conclusion
what
asserts
simply
Again,
induction
already known,
Thus, Capt. Smith
these
the
when
was
and
THEORIES
has
three
major premise
John, Thomas
sons,
all of the
Captain's
visited England,
are
John
sons.
has
England, Thomas
England, as Capt. Smith
perfect induction, all my
well
and
and
Henry,
has
visited
has
Henry
and
knows,
state
can
it may
be worth
while for Capt. Smith
not
to prove
that John
has visited England, by saying, All
John
Let
this
however, whether
see,
us
will reveal
fact
new
visited
young
he
England.
man,
Capt. Smith's
entering into a
is the
he
Captain
Now
yesterday.
syllogism thus:
England; this young
deduction
visited
therefore, this
deduced
fact
young
man
to you
new
of
part of
of
had
sons
he
that
was
visited England;
he
informs
you
with
whom
you
make
Capt.
from
fall in with
you
Smith
can
you
All
which
course
all his
him,
with
conversation
of that
son
that
nor
sons,
therefore
in the
had
he
sons
my
drawn
neither
know
for himself
another
and
day
next
would
stranger, you
conversed
the
from
that
you
the
Suppose
be
cannot
one,
inform
should
of
that
some
Suppose you,
visit Capt. Smith,
should
country,
conversation
one
to
as
Now
legitimate deduction,
perfect induction.
the
but
of my
sons;
that before.
is one
visited England; but John
has visited England; for he knew
have
visited
visited England.
have
sons
established.
was
Smith's
legitimate
have
sons
of
Capt. Smith,
You
have
has visited England.
and have not been guiltyof begging
man
is the
son
question.
refers to the
common
"
*'
foundation
of
both
the
The
others.
.
third
kind
of
reasoning is from
particulars to particulars." He
says:
is
is
mortal
"The
proposition that the duke of Wellington
from
thing
someevidently an inference; it is got at, as a conclusion
from
the
it
tion,
proposielse;but do we in realityconclude
All
men
experience
now
dead,
are
mortal
of John,
we
are
.^^ I
Thomas,
entitled
to
answer,
no.
If from
.
our
living,but are
were
etc., who
conclude
that all human
beings
g46
THEORIES
PHILOSOPHICAL
generalizations.
which
is
far from
so
what
In
being
then
sense
earliest
our
can
induction,
be
principle
regarded
In the
others?
in which
only sense
(as we have already seen) the general propositions which we
place at the head of our reasonings when we throw them into
really contributed to their validity.
syllogisms,ever
In founding the great generalization,that the course
of
is uniform^ on
nature
prior generalizations,and at the same
of those prior generalizations,
it the warrant
time, making
has not Mill been guilty of reasoning in a circle?
The
tion
objecthat his explanation involves the fallacy of the petitio
his objection to the
forcible than
more
principii is even
syllogism, on the same
account; for the major premise was
from
used in finding the particular cases,
which
it was
not
the
generalization,while according to Mill's theory, the
for those prior inductions
is the warrant
uniformity of nature
it is the generalization.
of which
for the principlethat the course
Well, what is the warrant
as
warrant
our
"
of nature
is
have
events
take
not
place,
since
and
conditions
Like
signifiesessentiallyalike,
for whenever
determines
two
the
it in the other.
otherwise
causes
The
there
are
is
one
by
conditions
or
differ;
causes
whatever
is present to determine
be essentially
must
alike,
case
warrant
no
like consequences.
If the effects
identical.
however,
cases,
they would
entity.
essentiallyalike,then
effect in the
All
spring into
cannot
not
the
effect?
otherwise
allowed
are
alike, it is because
not
are
causes
and
cause
causes,
non-entity
Like
and
of
Mill
the principle of the
did not
Why
accept, at once,
Because, as
uniformity of nature, as a rational intuition?
an
empirical philosopher,basing all knowledge on experience
he rejected the Intuitional
Philosophy altogether. He says:
"The
by
and
notion
that
truths external
mind
be known
may
intuition
or
intellectual support
By
the
to
the
intense
enabled
reason,
aid
of this
of false doctrines
theory,
feeling,of which
to dispense with
and
is erected
justification.There
the
the
into
never
every
and
inveterate
bad
institutions.
belief and
every
is
origin is not remembered,
obligationof justifyingitself by
its
was
own
an
instrument
and
devised
AND
ASSOCIATIONAL
for
or
on
EMPIRICAL
PHILOSOPHY
"
is sometimes
use
wrong
The
or
made
347
reception
not
falsity,
of it.
ing,
Noth-
for wrong
purposes,
than the tongue; shall we,
therefore, cut it out, and cast it
In fact. Mill's theory reduces
rational philosto the dogs?
ophy
perhaps,
frequently used,
more
empiricalscience.
to
Mill
is
defines
thus:
cause,
is the
"The
then, philosophically
conditions, positive and
cause,
of the
sum-total
speaking,
negative, taken together,the whole of the contingencies of
description, which
being realized, the consequent
every
Mill
It will be
that
includes
seen
invariably follows."
under
the term
the non-dynamic condition
well as
as
cause,
of support, then, is as much
the dynamic.
absence
The
the
of the fall of a body as gravity itself. It would, however,
cause
accord better with the popular view, which is important,
when
there is no
serious objection,to call the combination
of the dynamic conditions
and the non-dynamic
the cause,
is
conditions, simply the conditions; but Mill's idea of cause
and invariable
that of efficiency,
not
but that of immediate
and
of James
is the theory of Hume
antecedence, which
Mill; but there is more
immediate
Mill's
in
cause,
as
we
have
before
shown, than
antecedence.
of the four
of
methods
experimental inquiry,
which
he calls,the Method
ence,
of Agreement, the Method of Differthe Method
of Concomitant
of Residues, and the Method
Variations, exhibits clear and profound thought. In fact,
his extensive
Inductive
of
treatise on
Logic is a monument
untiringindustry and deep research, unrivaled in this field of
of every
lover of
and merits the sincere thanks
investigation,
of our
science.
The
in consideration
subject, however,
limited space, is too extensive to follow minutely in a detailed
brief quotation,
examination.
We
be content
with one
must
"Let
as
a
A, then, be an agent or
specimen of his method:
and
let the object of our
inquiry be to ascertain what
cause,
the effects of this cause.
If we
either find or produce
are
can
the agent A
in such
that the
a
variety of circumstances
theory
different
have
cases
then, whatever
indicated
is tried
suppose
as
effect
we
find
effect of A,
the
along with
that
circumstances
no
and
is next
C, and
in
common
in all
except A;
trials, is
our
produced
for
example,
Suppose,
that
tried with
the effect is A
and
that
C; and
E, but without
PHILOSOPHICAL
348
C, and
and
thus:
and
effect of A
second
is fulfilled
this condition
for
experiment;
been
have
Then
E,
in the first.
produced
must
effects of A,
not
are
not
were
effect is A
the
it in the
by
they
that
THEORIES
by
we
they
nor
are
Whatever
produced
not
and
is
in both
reason
may
were
duced
pro-
E, for
reallythe
instances; now
circumstance
The
except A,
have
been the effect of B or C, since
of D or E, since it
they were
not; nor
no
Therefore
not.
were
is the
effect of ^."
Mill's
of
theory
weakness
exhibits
however,
space,
the hand
from
inherent
He
empirical philosophy.
"Space is
says:
sensation we experience,for example, in moving
one
tion
sensapoint to another.
Space a muscular
of the
the muscular
the
discusses
Mill
in
all of
critical skill,and
acute
ability,and
eminent
he
though
necessary
and
these
be
may
thinkers
of the
with
regarded, by
all who
our
world, and
he
honor
doing justiceto
justlyregarded
which
consideration
fails in
as
one
of the
most
well
character.
Bain
the Emotions
Psychology
It will not
of these
and
and
the
Will; Mental
Ethics; Logic,
and
Deductive
be necessary
to enter
since
works,
they follow
upon
Moral
and
a
Science;
Inductive.
detailed discussion
the course
essentially
by the two Mills, and present really no new
phase of
I shall,therefore,content
myself with a notice
a few
points of Bain's doctrines :
taken
phy.
Philosoof
only
ASSOCIATIONAL
AND
EMPIRICAL
PHILOSOPHY
349
"The
He
says:
that constitute
operations and appearances
indicated
mind
are
by such terms as feehng,thought, memory,
conscience, imagination, will, passions, affections,
reason,
But
the definition
of mind
taste.
aspires to comprehend,
in few words, by some
of
generalization,the whole kindred
mental
ter."
facts, and to exclude
everything of a foreign characIn
speaking
constitute
Bain
mind,"
mind
If "the
operations
Bain
is the
elsewhere
feels and
"the
of
identifies
total
sum
wills, but
that
appearances
with
mind
its
phenomena.
subject experiences," as
of
mind
declares, then
and
is not
which
that
thinks,
reason
can
Again
existence
see,
external
have
can
says:
of
independent
an
world
that
but
we
that
nothing exists
do
not
to the
of the modes
"We
We
know,
of
and
are
says:
to
related
way
"The
act
very
to
of
is
an
affirming,
mind.
human
'choice' gives us
word
the
minds;
our
in
warranted
not
any
discussing
nothing
know
course,
in any
of
world, the
material
unknown
Will, Bain
incapable
are
can,
is not
foundation.
other
no
Bain
contradiction."
As
is the
feeler
one
libertyof
voluntary
designating the supposed
is
The
real meaning of this word, that
to say, the
only real fact that can be pointed at in correspondence with
different
of several
it, is the acting out one
promptings.
When
of
several
submitted
article
out
a person
purchases an
of
actions.
to
view, the
greater than
said
a
in
moment
recommendations
of the
rest, and
of that
nothing
one
more
needs
said
to
be
really be
happen that
exactly balanced,
It may
are
are
for
and
PHILOSOPHICAL
350
THEORIES
decision is
suspended thereby.
the
then
choice
and
compel choice;
decision
but
is in the
inducement,
an
Bain
not
in
say
is the
This
whole
is,according
for
and
the
is
no
fact
the
the
that
and
only
but
'*^The
when
the
the
is
the
and
of
causes
that
ego
an
is
reasons,
as
mind,
the
to
are
there
deliberates
that
ego
of
meaning are
giving a
side that has preponderated.
the act of choosing."
That
risen
of
of motives
decision, in view
there
to
substance
supposition
not
is
motives:
long time;
to
motive, which
of balanced
case
has
of motive
superior energy
make
must
cause.
consideration
some
in the
not
continue
even
equipoise may
decision is actually come
to,
that
he
suppose
and
to
But
The
he does
person
on
goes
there.
"
volition,
makes
the
fiction;that
chooses, but
is
there
is,
only
an
operations without
operator,
which
the motives
produced them.
save
designation 'libertyof choice' has
Again, Bain says: "The
interference.
real meaning, except denying extraneous
no
deliberation
choice
and
as
But,
different
the
between
as
motives
of my
own
choice.'
Various
meaning in 'libertyof
present or prospective pleasures and
is
no
result
act; the
to
me
of the
stronger than
another,
Bain
'
in
mean
urging
that
by
me
'me,
conglomerate
phenomena, but
a
he
that
he says :
sum-total
when
during
the
the
he
The
and
subject,
has
made
"
that
whole
Various
of
when
the
urging
group
motives
How
the
"
one
"
is
Does
concur
subject experiences
is not
ego
one
case."
of his life?
course
act?
bundle
and
that
he
that
shows
in
concur
"
is the
motives
says
decision, and
can
sum
such
of the
"
I will do it,
will
perform
act
himself;
passive
but
and
not
active,
rationallyactive,
arbitrarily
by "1,"
bundle
of
not
himself, a personality,
a
means
operations.
means
but
and
act," the
to
he has had
"
pains
conflict
mind, there
It
is,however,
due
in this, he
to
one
Bain
to
entitled
counts
state
The
himself
not
and
exhibit
the Intellect
XXVII
CHAPTER
French
Voltaire
1.
Philosophy
(1694-1778).
is not
of the
his
not
was
though
facts
His
facilityin making
of ten,
age
le-Grand,
where
gave
he
he
the
his
mulgator
pro-
forth,
set
the
de
and
chief
Chateau-
Deism.
in these
father
the
to
seven
course
Jesuit
the
to
years.
instruction,
of
which,
from
doubt,
no
who
college,
desired
him
regarding|literature,
the
worthy
name.
will
of
He
attempts,
College, LouisThis
college not
but
encouraged
Voltaire
gave
formed
The
father
in
for
prepare
of the
his
law,
as
in
suited
to
and
wrote
attachments,
sion,
profesno
fession
pro-
formally
read
more
conflict
some
son,
man
young
and
pursuits
romantic
some
to
in
himself
found
he
choice
the
his
actually engaged
He
to
Abbe
and
philosophy
him,
the
in
theater.
home
Coming
sent
was
performances
for
while
As
lettres
verses,
remained
wide
dramatic
with
to
belles
in
of
possible manner,
literary career.
intrusted
him
that
school.
it is due
work,
wonderful
was
instructed
certain
Voltaire
encouragement.
the
taste
his
of
importance
originator, but
briefest
the
education
who
received
only
in
of
Philosophy
The
an
of
field
life, and
showed
of
doctrines
chief
early
neuf,
At
that
necessarily
of his
soon
Enlightenment
mitted
sub-
pretense,
his
tastes.
libelous
prosecution, his
father
him
into the country,
his friend, the Marquis
with
sent
de
St. Ange,
where
he was
to
study law; but he
supposed
his time
and
gathering the gossip of
writing essays
spent
he afterwards
with
used
history which
telling effect.
to
Paris, and
Returning
entering into literary society, he
his tragedy
read
of Oedipe privately to his friends, and
was
for
poems
which,
introduced
the
in
to
ambitious
lampooning
hated,
he
was
the
avoid
to
*'
famous
Duchesse
the
banished
the
du
regent
from
court
of
Maine.
Orleanes,
Paris.
251
of
danger
the
Sceaux,"
For
whom
After
his
coterie
supposed
the
being
of
aid
Duchesse
allowed
to
PHILOSOPHICAL
352
he
return,
Kbels, and
and
recast
the
arrested
was
and
Oedipe
interview
An
THEORIES
propensity to
and
began
with
the
Bastile, where
he
the Henriade,
him
induced
regent
and
the
to
sent
libel.
to
curb
his
His
acted at
Oedipe was
the Thfeatre Francais, and brought him both reputation and
The
next
money.
year, the Lagrange-Chancel's libels called
Philippiques,again brought him under suspicion, and he
time with Villars,
was
informallybanished, and spending some
he added to his stock of historic gossip.
he was
Later
secret
as
a
employed by the government,
diplomatist; but fallingin with his old enemy
Beauregard,
he
got the
with
he
He
encounter.
an
He
quarrelled.
his work
and
Rouen
of
worst
whom
continued
at
sarcasm
the
on
afterwards
went
Henriade
with
met
to
which
the
was
Rousseau
Hague, and
first printed
revised.
cess,
tragedy, appeared first with great sucfell
into disrepute; it was
afterwards
but at length
revised and regained its popularity.
de Rohan, he repliedwith keen
Insulted by the Chevalier
of the Chevahe was
beaten
lier.
satire for which
by the servants
Voltaire
himself
sent
to the
sent
a
challenge,but was
This was
Bastile, and shortly after to England.
an
tant
imporvisit for him, as it gained him distinguishedfriends,as
Young, Pope, Congreve, Malborough, and exerted a great
influence on his subsequent life.
Returning to France, he published, in 1731, his Charles
and
in 1733
les
XII,
appeared Lettres Philosophiques sur
and
latter
the
du
Gout,
The
was
demned,
conAnglais,
Temple
The
Mariamne,
sl
searched
of harm's
for, and
burned.
Voltaire
himself
took
independent duchy of
he did
the chateau
at
Lorraine, and dwelt
Cirey, where
important literarywork, as well as minor work of more
fugitive
with
the
the
latter, was
a
writings. Among
pamphlet
sounding title, Treatise on Metaphysics, Though Voltaire
knew
little of metaphysics, this pamphlet served his purpose,
vehicle for his ridicule of religion,
as
a
though softening his
out
attack
In
and
under
1739,
back
the
he
by going
way
cloak
made
again
to
the
to
of Deism.
journey
Brussels.
to
He
Brussels, thence
visited
to
Paris,
Frederick, the
PHILOSOPHICAL
354
though
and
poor,
In
Valette.
happy
as
THEORIES
her
gave
in
marriage
was
the
From
her
the
to
last
Marquis
of Voltaire
days
beauty and
de
as
goodness
she received
home, and
after five
died, whether
Deist
Poems
Christian
is not
of Voltaire may
be
Prose
Romances,
literaryworks
The
or
proper,
very
certain.
grouped
as.
cal,
Theatri-
Historical
Works,
Scientific Works,
laneous
Philosophic Writings, Criticisms, Miscelindeed that the
Writings, Correspondence, so many
all the
In
work,
of Voltaire
volumes"
"hundred
and
for
if not
literarymen
Voltaire's
named
above
literaryform,
unrivaled;
as
has
he
stands,
ever
of the marvels
one
current
divisions,Voltaire
will
and
become
as
hold
an
his
ing.
say-
did
great
artist,unsurpassed,
place
among
of the world.
in
sensations, what
eternal, or
is :
"
God
essence
can
we
know
good conduct,
the
then
and
of the
not
for the
things he
has
of the
infinite and
the
reply
understanding
thy own
of penetrating into
purpose
created."
for
FRENCH
He
ENLIGHTENMENT
PHILOSOPHY
355
assertion
that there can
be
eagerly accepted Locke's
the
that
matter
think,
can
opinion
objection to
of
stance,
the
soul
the
a
as
rejecting
hypothesis
spiritualsuband
and reducing all realityto God
matter,
ing
regard-
valid
no
thus
both
as
eternal.
For
he
says:
"No
axiom
has
ever
been
out of
generally received than this, that nothing comes
of the present
"We
nothing.'''He sarcasticallyobserves:
created
day are so happy as to know, by faith, that God
still
of nothing."
matter
Just
out
here, if Voltaire
were
edge
like to ask him whether
he regarded the knowlalive, I would
of the axiom. Nothing comes
out of nothing,as a modified
more
sensation.
essential
immortality was
to the preservation of morality, and
encouraged this belief
for its practicalvalue to society.
in taking dark
Voltaire found
Pleasure, it would
seem,
views
of things,especiallyof human
life,and the prospects
of humanity.
the burial of
such
He
dwelt
disasters
as
on
Pompeii by the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius, or the earthquake
of Lisbon, asking the question, as
if directed
to
Leibniz,
be?"
"If this is the best possibleworld, what
others
the
must
Hence
he concludes
is good, he is not omnipotent.
that if God
proved himself
Notwithstanding his cynicism, Voltaire
to be a philanthropist by his defense
of the oppressed and
his compassion for the friendless.
He
held that
morality
is the essence
of religion,and
had
little or
no
respect for
tion,
toleraHe
denounced
dogma.
impostors, and advocated
and
the enlightened and
ruling classes of
urged upon
Voltaire was
society their duty of ca,ringfor the masses.
ethical reformer
rather than
an
metaphysical Philosopher.
a
de
^.
Charles
Secondat,
Montesquieu
(1689-1755).
Baron
de La Br^de
of a noble and
et de Montesquieu, was
the Oratorian
well educated
at
wealthy family. He was
School
of Juilly and
destined
to the
and
at
Bordeaux,
was
and
His
left him
his fortune
uncle
an
profession of law.
important judicial office, the presidency of a district of
Voltaire
held
that
the
belief in
France.
The
fame
of
works:
Montesquieu
The
letters purporting
to
traveling in Europe.
Lettres
Persanes
be written
by
In
this
his
chiefly on
rests
two
book,
were
in
Persians
the
three
portant
im-
guise
of
of distinction
Montesquieu
satirized
PHILOSOPHICAL
356
the
THEORIES
and
social,political,
shocked
his grave
readers
by tales
made
The book
sharp hits, was
life.
of scandal
day,
from
and
social
next
book
grandeur des
dignifiedbook
was
entitled
Romains
la
Considerations
les
sur
This
et leur decadence.
de
causes
was
more
popular in
The
the grandeur, and
Paris.
salons called the Persanes
the Considerations,the decadence
of Montesquieu; but the
Considerations
the greater book; it had
extraordinary
was
In it Montesquieu dropped scandal, and
merit.
discussed
the more
and sociology. It is a
serious questions of politics
tated
noteworthy incident that a copy of the Considerations, annothe Potsdam
abstracted from
by the great Frederick, was
libraryby the great Napoleon.
Montesquieu's third and greatest book, called Esprit des
than
the
Persanes, though
not
so
social tions,
quescould affect the
forms of Government,
and whatever
quieu
condition
and happiness of the people. It entitled Montesto be regarded the pioneer in the philosophy of history.
Lois, contains
His
his mature
important views
of character
views
be
can
on
and
political
thus summed
up
ence
differ-
That
by difference of circumstances,
and
especiallyby the peculiar laws of the state; that it is
better to worship duty rather than wealth or social position;
that extremes
is determined
should
be
found
in the
and
avoided
a
was
State
or
the
safe middle
great wrong
in the
to
the
course
people,
perity
pros-
victory in
people depends not so much
upon
public sentiment, love of liberty,patriotism,
morality;that the laws of nature are the orderly
of
resultingnecessarilyfrom the constitution
of the
war,
as
on
industry and
movements
of
man;
is in it
FRENCH
ENLIGHTENMENT
PHILOSOPHY
considered
Montesquieu
ideal of perfection. He
won
ideas, and
liberal
made
the
the
English
the
over
357
the
government
educated
politicaldoctrines
class
to
of Locke
the
from
To
of
property
common
is
modification
mere
it may
be replied that La Mettrie
of which
the sensation
conscious
we
are
this
that
change
in
sense
organ,
brain
from
nerves,
the
which
and
the
Of this action
is not
The
nor
realm
When
matter.
afferent
a
nerves
part of the
quivering
of
consciousness.
of matter,
belong
to
nerves
nerve
objects
the
back
some
move
there
is
no
is
matter.
not
shown
nothing
act
on
but
some
impressionto
along
organ,
the
as
consciousness.
the
the
efferent
hand.
tion
Sensa-
but
an
accompaniment.
neitlier
thought,
sensation, nor
process,
is
The
the
carry
is sent
response
muscles
of the
external
has
of
the realm
nervous
of mind.
The
one
is
physical,the
PHILOSOPHICAL
358
other
ble
The
psychical.
by the laws
and
mind
their
and
"potency the
of the
essence
Mettrie-was
matter
disowned
never
of L'homme
Condillac
to
common
mind.
materialists
4.
and
substance,
genus
and
species,matter
inventor
Regarding
two
La
motion.
expKca-
not
are
substance, the
species of the genus
attributes, we
possibly find the ground of
may
and
the
explanation of their interaction, in
union
its two
of consciousness
states
of matter
the
as
of
support
THEORIES
by
the
as
the
known
be
Machine.
Etienne
(1715-1780).
de
Bonnot
Condillac
received
mere
of straw.
man
but
there
when
in
are,
than
was
infant, the
an
He
fiftyvolumes.
was
Wealth
of
opinions
des
in
Nations.
The
L'Origine
are:
Ecrire, UArt
des
Condillac
de
conditions, evolve
of the
one
Commerce
the
1776,
et
same
author
des Connaissances
ideas.
of
more
greatest treatises
le Gouvernement,
year
giving
books
powers
ideas,
which,
his
Smith's
as
philosophical
Humaines,
Traite
de
Systemes, Grammaire, UArt
Raisonner, L'Art de Penser, La Logique, La
Traite
Sensations,
Langue
wrote
published
of
germs
innate
no
course,
writer, the
entitled, Le
economics,
which
proper
voluminous
of
are,
Condillac
on
There
des
Calculs.
derived
all
mental
Locke's
operations, even
the
"reflection," from
one
origin, sensation.
Memory,
imagination, judgment, reasoning, all actual or conceivable
sensations.
mental
transformed
It is pertinent
are
processes,
transforms
As
to
the sensations?
enquire, What
passive
transform
themselves.
There
not
is,
effects, they can
called mind, which
is conscious
therefore, a power
and
sensations, examines
them, analyzes,interprets,
them.
The
reason,
are
the
same
the
not
continuous
identity,the
Condillac
very
ego,
same
which
each
which
criticized abstract
obscurity with
the
clearness
is the
the
person
systems, and
of the
classifies
judgment, the
are
capabilitiesof
of personal
core
very
imagination,
but
independent powers,
memory,
of these
concrete
calls /.
contrasted
system
their
built up
ENLIGHTENMENT
PHENCH
from
classes:
based
divides
He
sensations.
Systems resting on
hypotheses, systems,
on
PHILOSOPHY
S5d
from
the
facts of sensation.
the
discards
Cartesian
test
of
truth, clearness
distinctness,but makes
identitythe test, not identityin
He
did not
form, but in essential meaning.
begin with
and
Series
as
Descartes
of facts
sensation.
from
transformations
is, therefore,
There
to
common
are
all the
one
initial fact of
one
method
of
analysis
step by the
test
block
At
of marble.
first it is destitute
not
only
of
the
sensations.
idea
of succession, then
Let
the other
senses
of sensation.
thought, but
is first given
is awakened,
then
comparison by
be
awakened,
the
to
in
statue
memory
variety of
succession,
PHILOSOPHICAL
360
in
similar
has
no
be
could
would
have
but
begin with,
converted
be
thus
no
power
should
have
it is evident
that
the
finallywe
like man;
to
senses
nor
then
manner,
thinking being,
THEORIES
into
could
and
be
not
sensitive
given
But
statue
tion,
sensa-
if
thinking being.
tions
sensainduced,
they
being passively
awakened,
of interaction.
would
There
be needed
conscious
of the sensations, analyzing
indwelling mind
them, recombining, comparing, discriminating,identifying,
classifying,
defining. A sensation is itself and nothing else;
it is not
law of
idea, nor
an
a thought, nor
a volition; the
identity will not apply; and Condillac has certainlyfailed in
an
his attempt
mind
deduce
to
from
sensation.
Helvetius
classes, served
in
published
readers.
The
popularity,and
Alarmed
by
hurried
an
advertisement
several
languages,
as
book
in
the
did
few
which
France,
persecuted authors, Frederick
him
had
It
took
of
its
excited, Helvetius
his book
refuge
was
multitude
long maintain
quite neglected.
was
years
and
from
and
book.
however,
not,
storm
for the
with
that
friend
of
highly esteemed
Why
did
De
qualities.
I'Espritraise such
statement
storm.?
of which
faculties, memory,
On
will
account
answer
of
the
imagination, judg-
Bm
THEORIES
PHILOSOPHICAL
His
writings are
to
even
so
name
of
and
he
1745,
made
mind
Inquiry concerning
In
the
of
of the
question
a large variety
versatilityand
over
great
to mention
free
Virtue
the
translation
that
works
of
have
Shaftesbury's
and
morning of Good
Friday and the
evening of Easter Monday, he wrote Philosophic Thought, and
shortly after supplemented it by an essay On the Sufficiency
in 1747.
the Sceptics Walk
of Natural Religion. He wrote
His
letter on
him
The
Blind, published in 1749, made
known
of letters,as an originalthinker.
It was
to the world
It
the dependence of ideas on
the senses.
written to show
however
unacceptable to the authorities, and he was
was,
into prison.
thrown
A bookseller
applied to him for a translation of Chambers'
the work; but, on
to undertake
Cyclopcedia, He consented
that it would
be better to produce an
reflection,concluded
latest thought of the
work
which
should
contain
the
original
for the
License
time, and to this the publisher assented.
work
secured, the contributors
were
was
engaged, who
and
Diderot
the
afterwards
known
French
as
Encyclopoedists,
Editor-in-chief.
was
appointed
After reaching the seventh
volume, the work fell under the
forbidden.
displeasureof the authorities, and its continuance
1746,
between
extend
They
exhibit
a
subjects,
SuflBce
it,then,
originality.
a
philosophicbearing.
In
it is out
that
numerous
all of them.
the
By
vexatious
under
work
work
incessant
for
twenty
bert
and
the
years,
Diderot
Philosophy.
atom
from
that
combination
and
sensation.
the
attribute
and
Diderot,
to
conjunction
the
the
D'Alemberfs
held
that
of
dead
atoms
raises
the
original atom
atoms,
can
to
could
suppose
have
question:
consciousness
in
inherent
it is absurd
for
several
classic in
are
sensibihty was
beginning;
D'Alembert
of such
Dream,
If
by
life
we
the
arise which
ENLIGHTENMENT
FRENCH
has
in
its seat
All
repHed:
but
in their
finite individuals,
their
no
There
individual.
Diderot
it has
been
verser
did
bach's
The
of the
many
know
inner
did
of the
him
at all.
Salon, he charmed
At
as
one,
Diderot
admiring
that
so
powers,
his friend
circle of
into
orchestra.
know
not
by individuals?
one
great single
blend
atoms
Diderot
relation,form
is the
said, whoever
not
whole
363
aggregate?
mean
you
instruments
noted
was
by
do
sensations
The
of the
music
the
What
individuals.
no
are
atom
one
whole.
aggregate
one
PHILOSOPHY
as
Baron
con-
D'Hol-
friends
by
his
wonderful
giftin conversation.
Diderot, notwithstanding
amassed
never
than
$600
Diderot
fortune.
working
often
When
whole
makes
Diderot
His
Voltaire
year.
"500
wished
his
extensive
income
literary labors,
did not
average
indignantly exclaimed:
year
in
to
for "120,
while
singleday !
provide a suitable
an
more
Think
army
of
tractor
con-
dower
for his
himself
for
and
straitened
daughter, he found
means,
proposed to sell his library,his most valued possession. The
her
of Russia, hearing of it, directed
Empress Catherine
agent in Paris to buy the libraryat a price of "1,000, and
then requested the philosopher to retain the books
till she
called for them, in the meantime
appointed him her librariafi
with a generous
salary.
Diderot
French
life and
the
was
soul
of permanent
value
insight,clear
and
originality,
gave
his
to
he
contributed
little
philosophy,though his
light,and his penetrating
views, expressed in his written works,
the progress
brilliant as the
to
of the
culmination
the
and
of
in the
made
Palatinate,
came
to
for life.
it his home
Paris
He
Holbach
was
man
was
when
the
young
center
man,
and
heart
and
of
Enlightenment Philosophers.
well-informed, and
his
excellent
PHILOSOPHICAL
364
placed ready
memory
He
disposalhis
manner,
opinions. Impassive
of gravity of the group
center
vast
and
of
of knowledge.
store
his
to
generous
of his
tenacious
the
his
at
in
qiiiet
was
THEORIES
friends,and
inflexible,he
was
philosophers, who
whole
the
to
order
of
compact system.
sensationthe systems of materialism, alism,
detached,
atheism, hitherto somewhat
combined
Holbach
fatalism, and
into
one
The
He thus
System of Nature.
Sovereign of all being, and Ye
"
"O
Nature,
Virtue, Reason,
and
Truth, be forever
our
invokes
her
only
Nature:
Daughters,
Divinities!"
taught
making ourselves happy
morality
chastises imthe
of
others; that nature
happiness
through
that religionapplies inefficient remedies
quiring
by reHe
that
renunciation
contrary
to
human
nature;
that
true
the mind
cal
morality cures
through the body, instead of mythiand
that
the
road
to
beliefs;
one
sure
happiness is to
labor for the general welfare.
Theology is mythology, and class government
oppression.
rules
the
in
the
moral
world
in
physical. In
as
Necessity
sciousness.
fact, the moral world is the physical with superadded con-
Since
hypothesis of
nor
of the
organism
as
spirit,
Soul,
acted
nature
on
as
the
by
is alive, there
the
and
author
ruler
external
of
the
causes
is
no
governor
need
of the
of nature,
of mind.
Voltaire
tem
greatly shocked
by the doctrine of the Sysof Nature, and called it illogical
in its deductions, absurd
in its physics, and
abominable
in its morals.
Voltaire's
refutation
of comconducted
after the popular method
mon
was
rather than by a method
strictlyphilosophical;
sense,
but Voltaire was
Atheist.
an
a Deist, not
doned
Holbach
taught that mythical hypotheses will be abanfar as
scientific explanations of phenomena
are
so
discovered.
was
(1712-1778)
Rousseau
8.
his father
from
When
of Geneva.
native
PHILOSOPHY
ENLIGHTENMENT
FRENCH
who
Jean
Jacques
years
of age,
ten
brought
had
him
up
Rousseau
he
in
365
was
separated
was
very
irregular
fashion.
irregular
famous.
His
led
He
became
go
back
He
contention
that, if
and
artificial,
and
we
was
to
are
that
attain
civilization is
happiness,
we
too
must
nature.
to
another
wrote
which
equal in merit
essay
though
to
the
not
equality,
prize on The Origin of Inthe
at least
securing
prize,was
for
other.
books
which
treatise.
The
relation
that
of
of Rousseau
but
to
of
the
French
Illumination
He
was
from
opposition.
harmony,
from
reasoning
feeling,
speculation to conscience, from
theologicaldogmas to the experience of the heart.
Morality
be
This
recedes
advances.
as
knowledge
true, at
may
certain epochs, but the experience of mankind,
that the
the
highest morality will, at
greatest happiness attends
but that morality
length, be heeded
by the human
race,
will be based on knowledge.
Social order, according to Rousseau,
rests
a
on
contract,
ruler and people, but between
selves,
the people themnot beween
who
to certain
regulations for mutual
tion,
protecagree
each
citizen submitting to the law for his own
good,
thus
is the
The
securing the general welfare.
government
middle
between
term
the citizens as
sovereign law-giver
not
to
turns
PHILOSOPHICAL
366
of
citizen
the
and
pohtical
opinion
human
influenced
existence
and
The
its
its
did
erratic,
too
through
his
literary
gift
political
theories
were
has
exerted
its
checks
as
is
evidence
to
that
of
immortality,
and
wise
Like-
feeling.
conscience,
its
and
fication
justi-
social
educational,
in
wide
and
lasting
making
in
Philosophy;
speculative
influential
his
and
political
influence,
largely
writings
in
his
interesting.
about
bringing
the
revolution.
add,
at
close
the
Philosophy
of
proper
education
on
instinctive
in
in
yet
matters,
We
real
freedom
of
excel
not
he
French
views
profitable
the
authority
under
un-
Froebel.
are
God,
in
consequences.
Rousseau
were
but
assurance
finds
His
God
world,
the
inward
the
in
His
is
subject
faith
on
child,
the
and
of
Atheism;
Soul,
morality
views
consensus
the
founded
himself.
Pestalozzi
the
Materialism
have
the
is
majority,
is
Let
educate
Basedow,
for
feeling.
the
education
nature.
largely
Proofs
least
at
of
theory
corrupted
all
of
sovereign
citizen.
Rousseau's
guidance,
The
subject.
as
individual
the
THEORIES
Literature
than
of
is
for
this
chapter,
distinguished
the
profundity
The
that
for
more
of
its
French
the
lightenment
En-
brilliancy
Philosophy.
CHAPTER
Eclecticism, Positivism
Reaction,
(1754-18^1).
Maistre
1.
noble
XXIX
His
family.
father
was
Joseph de Maistre
president of the
Savoy.
Joseph having completed his studies
in the civil service, and
appointment
an
of the Senate
of Savoy.
member
When
France,
to
work
he
went
entitled
to
Lusanne
where
Considerations
sur
at
Turin,
at
length
was
in 1796,
he
received
became
annexed
published
This
France.
of
Senate
Savoy
la
of
was
book
ary
prevalent skeptical and revolutiontheories
of the time, but from
religiouspoint of view.
a
His
celebrated
most
works, Z)w Pope and De V Eglise Gallicane, were
polemics against the philosophy and political
views
He
of the philosophers of the so-called
illumination.
all such
crime
regarded
against order,
speculations as
a
against religion,and against the well-being of mankind.
directed
was
De
the
against
Maistre's
opinions
can
be
thus
summed
up:
He
denied
all
that
possibility of physical causation, and affirmed
material
movement
origiaates from
spiritual beings. Let
if they
scientists
physical
themselves,
will, with
amuse
of intermeddling with social
beware
but let them
phenomena,
is faith, not
and
religious questions. The guide of mankind
God
imparts his guiding truth through the church
reason.
and
the state, and
not
reason
through philosophers. Human
is a blind
authoritative
be
There
guide.
must
guide.
an
chief
misFree
The
should
have
been
thought
permitted.
never
tinued
conwas
began with the so-called reformation, and
taire
Volthe
of
the
by
philosophy
eighteenth century.
buffoon.
was
a
Montesquieu, Condillac, Helvetius,
the
La
Mettrie,
Holbach,
only remedy
the Pope, and
He
is to
go
submit
commended
war,
purifying agencies,
humanity.
from
Man
without,
and
back
to
the
recognize
his authority as
and
hangman,
necessary
is
and
in the
the
a
the
disordered
367
from
of
infallibility
heavenly
his illumination
The
of mischief.
disseminators
were
above.
guide.
inquisition,as
condition
his sensations
of
THEORIES
PHILOSOPHICAL
368
As
the
His
that
on
delight,and
attended
cultivated
He
Roucher.
He
he
was
his studies
some
dismissed
from
the
poetry, and
intimate
was
became
acquainted with
Condillac, D'Holbach, and
D'Alembert,
Americans, Franklin
Mirabeau, land with
and
and
college,
Jefferson.
He
with
the
with
poet
Turgot, Diderot,
the
was
distinguished
intimate
with
Condorcet.
Cabanis
finally chose the professionof medicine, and
studied the mysteries of physiology with the deepest interest.
He
was
member
of the National
Institute,and
was
ed
appoint-
professorof Clinics.
of 1797-8, Cabanis
read a series of papers
on
between
the soul, which
the body and
were
In the winter
the
relation
form.
additions, in book
published in 1802, with some
Though he entertained a great respect for Condillac, he held
not
against him that our sensations were
wholly excited by
external causes;
for physiological conditions, the internal
the causes
workings of the various organs of the body, were
of sensations of which
are
distinctlyconscious.
we
The instincts and appetites,in close relation with the vital
all
feelings,the emotions, the affections, the desires, are
from which the higher operationsof thought
a constant
source
take their rise. His works
to be regarded as connot
tributions
are
"the
to materialistic philosophy, though he says
brain excretes
thought as the liver,bile."
maintained
Cabanis
that there is a universal instinct,and
force pervading all nature.
one
Biran
Maine
de
de Biran
3,
was
(1766-1824). Maine
He
the son
him a good education.
of a physician who
gave
of the life-guards
of Louis XVI.
was
one
PHILOSOPHICAL
370
THEORIES
the existence of
to
apprehends the necessity of noumena
neither
not
are
self-supporting,
phenomena; for phenomena
from
can
they spring
non-entity into being.
deal,
We
that
not
now
can
see
empirical philosophy can
with noumena,
the realityof which
it will either ignore or
deny. Empiricism is, therefore, a one-sided
philosophy, a
its
in
partial system.
entirety,is both
Philosophy itself,
empirical and rational.
Judged by its history,philosophy includes the five phases :
Empiricism, Idealism, Skepticism, Mysticism, Rationalism.
Marie
nator
^. Ampere (1775-1836). Andre
Ampere, the origiof the science of Electro-dynamics, was
a
a
physicist,
mathematician,
and
philosopher,and
in all these
eminent
respects.
He
for the
associate
the
was
most
consciousness
and
friend
of Maine
with him,
part, in agreement
of the energy
of the ego the
de
Biran,and
making the
starting-pointin
as
in
method
was
philosophicalinvestigations. His psychological
that of the English associational philosophers.
He investigatedhow
sensations
and ideas are involuntarily
associated, and how scientific knowledge is possiblethrough
mental
with
description,
mere
activity. He is not content
but explains the appearance
of complex phenomena
by the
Thus, a low
blending or association of simpler elements.
voiced
reader
be
when
not
ui^erstood
reading an
may
unfamiliar
but
be followed, word
by word,
passage,
may
each
with
known
In
distinctlyheard,
no
increase in the
reads
he
familiar
passage,
distinctlyheard.
moving an
Ampere
arm,
being
are
consciousness
since when
the
force, or
of effort, and
another
of muscular
learn
when
moves
that
one's
sensation, but
nature
energy,
of
cause,
distinguishedbetween
not
as
the
sensation,
muscular
there is a consciousness
of the
arm,
effort, we
as
antecedent, even
of effort.
more
than
From
conscious of
are
Though Ampere correctlyheld that we
tween
that the relations bephenomena
only, yet he maintained
noumenal
the phenomena,
involving causality,imply
reality,
validity. Cause, time, and space have noumenal
form
the
of
inference
under
reach
them
though we
by way
of hypothesis. We
of
as conditions
apprehend their necessity
phenomena.
ECLECTICISM,
REACTION,
hypothesis,however,
The
force of
is
POSITIVISM
and
necessary,
rational intuition,which
371
has
all the
the
apprehends
necessity
of ph^iomena,
the absolute necessity,
not
of the conditions
conditional
the
but
necessity; that is, phenomena
being
be.
We
know
must
change empirically, for
given, cause
in
the
of
movement
this change,
a body; but
example, change
is
known
without
impossible,without
by experience,
cause,
time.
the
without
of
Hence,
necessity of cause,
space,
is
of time,
and
infalhbly apprehended by rational
space,
a
intuition.
de Biran's
In Maine
of self
we
as
to that
cause
bridge.
cannot
opinion, the
Here
we
of external
encounter
of
from
passage
is
causes
one
of the
the
edge
knowl-
gulf
profound-
over
The
be
gulf, however, can
metaphysics.
questions
is
but
The
the
bridge
rationally.
bridged, not empirically,
that
into
Maine
de
non-entity can not spring
being,
principle
asks the question: ''What
teach
Biran
experience can
us
in which
whether
the forms
co-ordinated
are
phenomena are
in
whether
that
in
the
is,
absolute,
things, or
they are
only
them.f^
external
which
Can
mind
apprehends
experience
this
which
reflection
shed
must
light on
ever
question
any
both possibilities
fit in equally well with the
Do
raise?
not
The
is, experience cannot
tell, nor
answer
phenomena?"
of
but
tell.
relations;
reason
can
perhaps Ampere's theory
Events
are
our
knowledge,
continually happening without
side
from
of
the
the
other
on
globe, or elsewhere
us,
away
est
far removed
real and
from
necessary,
is not,
as
Kant
apprehension, but
If the
The
us.
The
events
are
held, merely
the
events
are
the
subjective necessity of
objectivenecessityof the cause
hended.
appreare,
the
cause
must
be.
question is, do we
necessarilyapprehend what
may
what
be an
do
is a
not
truth,
or
we
objective
apprehend
Is the necessityin the apprehenobjectivetruth?
sion,
necessary
in the realityapprehended?
Kant's
or
great mistake
in placing the necessity in the apprehension, and
this
was
mistake
from
has thrown
track
philosophy on the wrong
his day to ours.
There is no
subjectivenecessitywith the empiricalphilosophers,
while
consistentlyadhering to their theory; for a
with
them
is not
is
but antecedence, and
cause
efllciency,
S7^
PHILOSOPHICAL
by
necessity or
induction, which
but
when
say,
with
the
reached
they
have
even
in the
in this
that
event
every
must
the
necessity,the event
being given,
and not in the subjective affirmation;
find
noumenal
we
reality,not only in ourselves
strikes
which
fatal blow
objective world,
a
cause
in the
but
of mankind,
rest
placing
objective cause,
cause,
and
THEOHIES
subjective idealism.
to
In the
of nature, in the
is the dynamic
course
of science and
development
which
philosophy, cause
explains the
agency
tendency of everything to order, to a comprehensive and
symmetrical unity.
Cousin
Cousin
5.
(1792-1867). Victor
began life in
in receiving a
fortunate
troublous
times, but was
good
in the Lycee where he studied
classical education
eightyears.
The
teaching he received gave him a taste for rhetoric and
On
oratory.
of
the
Sorbonne
the
entered
In
miguiene's lectures
him,
on
of
decided
the
on
minds.
powerful
afterwards
He
life."
of my
course
philosophy by Royer-Collard
on
in terms
by
me,
hall
oration, and
with
listened
in the
thus
well-deserved
tinction
dis-
with
delight to Laromade
pression
a
philosophy, which
deep imwas
highly susceptibleto the Influence
he
as
Latin
of Paris
School, he
Normal
the
crowned
was
eloquent
an
School
Normal
he
said:
"Those
also heard
He
of whom
he
lectures
the
lectures
always spoke
of great respect.
He
''Royer-Collard turned
says:
the severity of his logic,from
the beaten
path of
Scottish
de Biran
Maine
also influenced
Cousin's
of the
by
philosophy early
Reid's
philosophy."
and
was
Ampere.
its eclectic
shows
He
character
of immediate
by
of external
theory
perception
combining
Maine
de
Biran's
of the consciousness
with
doctrine
objects
and
with
tions.
of self-activity,
Ampere's view of absolute relaTo
the
absolute
philosophy
is
not
these,
at
of
though
Schelling and
by
similar
later
taken
reason
impersonal,since
vitiated
the
to
date, he
from
added
German
the
Hegel.
He
that
Every
in others.
the
man's
doctrine
speculative
taught that
reason
this is because
reason
of
is his
it is
own,
ECLECTICISM,
REACTION,
in the
professor of philosophy
As
Cousin
lectures
the
took
elements
on
history
School
of Paris,
of
charmed
therefore
and
the
human
mind,
the
method
of eclecticism, to
form
systems, and
and
Normal
373
philosophy to enthusiastic
his
were
eloquence.
all schools
of philosophy have
the position that
that absolute
of truth, and
is impossible to
error
gave
audiences, who
He
POSITIVISM
said:
complete
'As is the
that
take
the
what
whole.
of
method
with
is true
He
from
insisted
philosopher,so
procedure
true
is
all the
method,
on
is his system,
destiny of his
decides
the
adoption of a method
philosophy."
will not do; it will lack
A conglomerate system, however,
be unity in the central principles,
consistency. There must
these must
be fundamental;
but having complied with
and
this condition, a philosopher may
rightfullybe eclectic,for
this will secure,
to completeness.
at least tend
or
and
the
Cousin
gave
to
currency
will.
intellect, sensibilityand
of
philosophy
review
perhaps,
the work
6.
criterion
His
philosophy.
entitled, Du
on
the
of the
lectures
on
faculties
His
most
Vraiy du
and
Beau,
the
into
the
reading, especiallyhis
Germain
of
and
are
that
and
She
well worth
of Locke's
division
the
valuable
history
searching
work
du
Bien, that
good.
is,
is,
matician
(1776-1831). Sophia Germain, a lady matheof developphilosopher,investigated the course
ment
sciences
and
and
sought for the
philosophy,
of truth.
held
the
that
inter-relation
researches, and
mind
human
to
found
guide
the
in
realizes the
scientific
and
need
of order
philosophic
and
and
proportion, giving unity
including the principleof causalityas a specialform.
of asking why that is,seeking for the final cause
Instead
are
beginning to search for the how, and the
or
we
purpose,
how ivhat; that is,we
are
tending towards positivephilosophy;
and this was,
at that time, undoubtedly the drift of thought.
7.
Jouffroy (1796-1842). Theodore
Jouffroy emphasized
the importance of the psychological method
of consciousness
or
introspection,and exaggerated it to the neglect
of both
physiology and metaphysics. He carried forward
with
the eclecticism
of Cousin
more
sobriety,but not with
such lofty flightsof eloquence.
PHILOSOPHICAL
374
Eclecticism
pupil of
also
was
the nineteenth
eclecticism
was
Condillac, on the
the other, and
on
Saint-Simon,
of
name
as
advocated
school
of
by
if he
be called
soldier in
is entitled
social
aiding
the
to
philosopher.
the
American
their
Britain.
Great
independence from
project of connecting the Atlantic and
ship canal through the isthmus of Darien.
the
Pacific Oceans
the
that of
should
French
gain
to
and
reformer; and
philosopher,he
colonies
He
hand
he maintained
between
mean
French
on
theologicalphilosophy
thus reconciled them
in a higher unity.
Claude
de
(1768-1825).
Henri, Comte
was
served
He
by Damiron,
work
century, in which
true
one
Saint-Simon
8.
strongly advocated
in 1828
published
Cousin, who
philosophyin
that
THEORIES
He
no
in poverty.
work
Saint-Simon
of French
founder
and
his
among
did
He
held
devote
and
wealth
the
in
his belief in
its essential
men
Comte
of
He
talent;
were
oned
reck-
abolition
of
leaders
influence
to
the
private property,
of society should
relief of the
poor,
society.
his
greatest work.
God, and
elements
He
excrescences.
and
of
the elevation
aflirms
him
Auguste
capitalistsand
that
their
around
the
disciples.
advocate
not
Saint-Simon
to
had
but
was
said:
proposes
The
to
New
reduce
by clearing away
''The
new
its
Christian
Christianity^
Christianity
dogmas and
organization
the spiritual,
the
ECLECTICISM,
REACTION,
found
the
with
Socialistic church
practice of
immoral
could
and
of Enfantin
doctrines
and
his
fantastic
free love.
this, and
endure
not
POSITIVISM
rituals,and
Bazard
withdrew
party, which,
and
from
on
suppressed by
practices,was
375
his followers
the fellowship
account
the
ing
allow-
of their
civil authorities.
of
(1798-1857) Auguste Comte, the founder
the Positive
Philosophy received his elementary education
At the age of sixteen, he
town.
at Montpellier, his native
admitted
to the Ecole
ously
Polytechnique, where he strenuwas
applied himself to study. After two years at this
taking a leading part in a students'
institution, Comte,
to Paris,
sent
home, but he shortly returned
rebellion,was
and supported himself by teaching.
of Franklin, and
Comte
wrote
to a
was
a
great admirer
friend: "I seek to imitate the modern
Socrates,not in talents,
of living. At five and twenty, he formed
but in the way
a
wise
his
of
and
fulfilled
design
becoming perfectly
[moral],
have
undertake
I
dared
the same,
to
design.
though I am
He
not
thought of going to America, but a
yet twenty."
friend told him
that the Americans
were
so
practical,that
could make
not
even
a
Lagrange, the great mathematician,
livingthere only by land surveying.
By the aid of a friend he attained a positionas tutor in the
family of Casimir Perier, at a good salary,but finding the
work
irksome, he resigned his position after a trial of three
Comte
9,
weeks.
When
with
about
twenty
Saint-Simon, and
six years.
of age, he became
assobiated
with him
years
was
After
acquainted
for
about
his
own
beginning
independent career, he
under
wrote
to a friend: "I certainlyam
great obligationsto
Saint-Simon; that is to say, he helped, in a powerful degree,
in the philosophicdirection I have now
to launch
me
definitely
worked
for myself, and
out
I shall follow that, without
of
But after six years
looking back, for the rest of my life.
Comte
and
Saint-Simon
the
association,
as
parted company,
master's
be
to
could
dured
enpretensions
no
superiority
longer
low
w
ho
estimate
by his ambitious
disciple,
placed no
"
on
his
own
intellectual
powers.
to
to
in fife,Comte
far
so
Saint-Simon, as to call him
a
say
Later
that
his influence
over
him
PHILOSOPHICAL
376
Comte's
marriage
separation from
correspondence.
his
condemned
in
happy and finally ended
wife, though they kept up a friendly
not
was
in
formed
the
Comte
1848,
husband
Clotilda de Vaux, whose
Later,
of Madam
been
THEORIES
for
hfe
quaintance
ac-
had
the
rated
her
galleys. Comte
highly, even
extravagantly. She supplied the cravings
very
her death, which
of his heart, and he deeply mourned
occurred
after the acquaintance of one
year.
of boys who
In 1833, Comte
was
were
appointed examiner
Paris.
to the Ecole
candidates for admission
at
Polytechnique
for
this
work
with
other
The
of
him,
sources
salary
gave
He
a
respectable income.
discharged his duties as
revenue,
examiner
with this work,
thoroughly. An incident connected
shows
that
wrote
to
disclose
when
Comte
was
his wife:
the
I find
"I
and
sweet
a
young
not
addition
to
destitute of
man
whose
you
were
heart.
generous
to
to
you,
examination
is
carefullyon
not
work,
even
when
me
thoroughly
may
I dare
over
comes
He
would
"
guard.
writing his
my
free
a
Philosophy, he gave, for seventeen
years,
of popular lectures on
He
lost his posicourse
tion
Astronomy.
examiner, and with it half his income, by a needless
as
in the preface to the sixth volume
of his philosophy,
statement
which
who
offended
had given him the appointment.
the men
He
of State to the King,
applied to M. Guizot, Minister
Louis
Philippe, to establish, in the University, a chair of
the History of Science, hoping to receive the appointment to
this chair as professor. He gave, in substance, the following
Positive
reasons
"If there
are
four
chairs
devoted
to
the
and
philosophy, that is, to the study of dreams
aberrations
of thought through the ages, surely there should
be one
of real knowledge."
at least to explain the progress
Comte
The chair was
not established.
suggestion
says : The
first
Guizot's
at
was
philosophic instinct, and
approved by
then repelledby his metaphysical rancor."
financial straits,his friend, J. S. Mill,
Hearing of Comte's
with
advanced
the help of Grote, Carrie
and
Molesworth,
him
the sum
The
of "240.
same
was
repeated for another
effort to
made
when
no
Mill, learning that Comte
year,
take care
him that he must
his own
mend
fortune. Informed
history
of
''
PHILOSOPHICAL
378
vain
of succession
There
theory
doubt,
of
"
"
of truth
large measure
stages of human
three
the
destination
of
resemblance.
is,without
of
THEORIES
progress;
in Comte's
but
these
strictlysuccessive.
Many minds,
but
those
the
not
ignorant,
highly cultivated, yet
simply
of
the
hold to
validity Theologicalconceptions. Metaphysics
and has come
to stay.
shows
Science, despairingto
vitality,
find the ultimate
explanations of things, and though legitimate
in its method, and the prevaihng stage at the present
time, does not go to the depth of things, and is, by its own
confession, superficial.Philosophy is deeper than Science,
of phenomena, the human
Not
knowing the natural causes
to
mind, in the early periods, referred them
supernatural
is
The
Comte
admits, the
as
theological stage,
agencies.
mind; yet he denies to
point of departure for the human
"I
must
theological conceptions any
validity. He
says:
becomes
remark
one
apparent
upon
very strikingtruth which
the
astronomical
science
distinct
of
its
and
pursuit
during
ever
increasingopposition,as it attains a higher perfection,
the
to
theological and
metaphysical spirit. Theological
philosophy supposes
everything to be governed by will,and
that phenomena
therefore, eminently variable, at least
are,
ceives
virtually. The positive philosophy, on the contrary, conthem
subject to invariable laws, which permit us to
predict with absolute precision.
The
views is nowhere
radical incompatibilityof these two
than in regard to the phenomena
of the heavens,
marked
more
since in that direction, our
prevision is proved to be perfect.
The
punctual arrival of comets, and eclipses,with all their
train of minute
incidents,exactly foretold,long before, by the
stages overlap and
are
not
"
aid
of ascertained
that
which
such
events
could
not
astronomical
must
be
must
be
lead
free from
will,if it
was
the
common
the
thus
control
mind
to
of any
subordinated
to
feel
will,
our
decisions."
"is no
theologicalconception that with God
is the
of turning." How
shadow
variableness, neither
laws incompatible with
the
uniformity of the astronomical
conception of God who is "the same
yesterday, today, and
But
it is
laws,
ECLECTICISM,
REACTION,
material
stabilityof the
uniformity of the laws
The
of
existence
POSITIVISM
379
universe, consequent
the
on
the
on
and
is the
this
of
"
The
one
or
power
the
other
the
"
of
power
foreseeing
or
of
of theological
to
our
outgrowth
modifying is necessary
philosophy. Our previsiondisproves the notion that phenomena
which
from
is
the
same
will,
a
supernatural
proceed
thing as callingthem variable; and our abilityto modify them
under which
shows
that the powers
nate
they proceed are subordi"
to
As
our
the
own.
of any
phenomena
science
become
complex,
more
first power
(that
prevision) decreases, and
of
the
or
(that
modifying) increases, so that one
of
the
always present
world
the
unquestionably
the
that
other
events
is
of
ruled
not
are
show
to
other
the
laws."
it is
But
theologicalconception
that
dominion
the
should
man
the
over
fowl
earth, and
earth."
*'have
over
This
subserve
and
his
Comte's
cattle, and
over
sea,
and
all the
the
creeping thing that creepeth upon
certainly gives man
ample license to modify
which
surround
interests, and
this modification
nor
the
over
fish of the
will that
every
circumstances
the
air,and
of the
over
it is God's
thus
is not
incompatible
with
classification of the
him, and
to
promote
subversive
the
idea
sciences
of
cause
them
to
his
happiness,
ceptions
theological con-
of God.
begins with
the
most
PHILOSOPHICAL
380
which
each
has
passed
THEORIES
from
the
theological,
through
the
method
metaphysical,into the positive
stage. The deductive
of reasoning prevailsin the more
simple and general of the
sciences,and the inductive in the more
complex and special.
Comte
The
six groups
regards as irreducible. The passage
from a lower to the next
higher is accomplished by a leap
over
The
gap.
same
law
holds
as
to
the
subdivisions,also
to
as
from one
of energy
mode
raises the question whether
transmutation
The
another
to
identityof fundamental
even
of
apparent
closer
manifestations, and
cause
also
may
continuity
admit
explainthose
discontinuityof manifestations
to
inspection,
not
of manifestation
has
or
of discontinuity
where
cases
been
found, by
continuity.
At
least
later
the
investigationshave proved that, in many
cases,
hiatus of discontinuity,
supposed by Comte, has been resolved
into continuity;but the fact of continuity may
be regarded
method, since it has been found by
as
a triumph of the positive
that method, and
not
by the metaphysical, and hence that
Comte's
mistake
from his forsakingthe positivemethod
arose
for the metaphysical ; but this is a clear proof that the methods,
not
metaphysical and positive,by their overlapping,are
discontinuous
and
successive.
results of such
do
a
effect
method
thousand
two
absurdity.
proportion to
propositionis established
years of psychologicalpursuit,no one
satisfaction of its followers.
to the
They are divided, to
this day, into a multitude
of schools,still disputingabout the
are
very
in
observe; if you
elements
its
of their doctrine."
After
REACTION,
ECLECTICISM,
of
POSITIVISM
381
its
instead
element.
know
that
If I know,
I know,
I know
I do not
that
know.
know;
are
not
conscious.
are
that
psychological method
The
results
good
laws
Comte
as
of association
has
We
supposes.
and
as
memory,
of which
been
not
but
appear;
need
exhibited
so
be
We
there
are
we
fruitless
refer to
only
by the
of
not
In like manner,
it may
involve
consciousness.
shown
for if I do
of
of
the
Associa-
tionalist
rational
various
intuition; the
authors
who
have
collateral, uses
written
the
works
of
subject; it studies
comparative psychology, biology, physiology, anthropology,
of society, and
and
the phenomena
sociology; it observes
acquaints itself with literature,as found in history,biography,
lished
Psychology has estabpoetry, the novel and the drama.
something worth knowing; for writers on economics, on
sociology,on ethics, appeal to psychology for fundamental
principles.
substitute
mathematics.
For logic,Comte
He says:
would
is found
of advantage
in logic in directing and
"Whatever
strengthening the action of the understanding is found, in a
study, with the immense
higher degree, in mathematical
of a determinate
cumscribe
added
advantage
subject,distinctly cirfree
admitting of the utmost
precision, and
is inherent
in all abstract
from
the danger which
logic of
leading to useless and puerile rules, or to vain ontological
speculations."
closing
But certainlylogichas performed a valuable service in dislaws of thought
the law of identity,
the fundamental
on
the
"
"
of congruents,
of conflictive whether
contraries
dictories,
contraor
it has also exhibited
and consequent;
and of reason
the
doctrine
whether
of
concepts,
deductive
or
of
judgments
inductive, and
and
laid
of
down
reasoning,
the
safe-
PHILOSOPHICAL
S82
fallacy.
against
guards
All
it
this
its
notwithstanding
mathematics,
has
done,
and
which
achievements,
great
has
done.
not
held
Comte
but
He
he
arrive
for
reason;
induction
fact;
and
only
so
far
philosophy
Comte
in
place
if
thought,
humanity
not
does
of
its
religion
of
.f^
worship
guiding
human
to
its
human
part.
it
in
his
to
is
humanity
is
better
humanity.
Love
brotherhood.
to
God;
for
second
feeling
to
co-ordinate
with
ought
part.
be
to
as
God
to
and
it
quality,
Love
of
object
proper
be
may
Worship
is
of
religion
acceptable
is.
religion
its
science.
whatever
scarcely
precept
True
without
and
religion
Every
to
seems
empiricism,
His
heart,
the
and
assigned
it
in
foundation,
importance.
humanuy,
A
he
it
it
good
made
and
head.
but
Worship
elevate
first
his
humanity;
precept.
to
to
be
certain
with
does
pure
may
mystic;
discredit
no
into
it
nature,
superior
relation
resolved
of
it
be
extended
if
objective
all, though
at
something
was
due
is
be
accords
certainty,
logical
no
philosophy
positive
strive
has
be
can
but
the
not
may
can
This
but
therefore
it
generalization;
for
induction;
nature
It
analogy.
craving
it
for
it.
metaphysical.
as
and
of
tion
intui-
the
by
real
by
law;
natural
Not
method,
confirms
for
subjective
is not
mind
the
laws
positive
by
.^^
probable;
the
the
to
it
the
of
method
that
reached
of
only
warrant;
said
principle
experience
as
of
satisfy
its
at
this
only
according
tendency
the
immutability
have
gives
application
due
the
immutability
necessary
its
to
discarded
he
therefore,
must,
such
for
strictly
did
how
of
or
THEORIES
has
man,
CHAPTER
Later
If
1.
he
German
a^^r (1814-1878).
medicine
Surgeon
XXX
Philosophy
Julius
Robert
Munich
Tubingen,
Dutch
for
ship bound
position as physician
and
at
for
obtained
Paris,
Java.
in
after studying
Mayer,
chosen
was
After
returning,
Heilbronn,
his
native
agency,
had
city.
indestnictibihty of matter,
already been proved by Lavoisier,
The
kindred
for the
of energy.
The
out
passes
when
they
passes
into
is
unite
heat,
this
from
of
way
transformation
the
transformed,
"
into
do
in turn,
between
and
a
effect; it
no
hydrogen
Motion,
when
checked,
produces
vanishing
motion.
oxygen
this
and
There
and
cause
the
relation
constant
is the
fact
prime
the
and
water.
heat,
the
prepared
principle of reason
it by experiment.
proved
than
form
to
and
it is
which
into
conservation
existence
relation
constant
effect
of
human
this
and
than
effectuin,rather
held, passes
Mayer
as
cause,
more
the
"
inferred
Mayer
aequat
causa
truth
by
The
formula,
valuable
that
only
not
by Colding,
several
this
minds,
and
^.
Leibniz
VogL
obtained.
without
reach
in the
(1817-1895).
Physiologist, maintained
Joule,
found
to
often
results, illustrated
Karl
that
383
man,
English-
an
be
that
true,
work
by
the
at
Newton
Calculus.
of the
discovery
discovered
by
and
intercommunication,
similar
sists
con-
conservation
independently
is often
illustrates, what
of the
also
was
merit
Mayer's
principle
by Helmholtz,
Dane,
thing, and
same
be
discovering the
in applying it to
of conservation
law
and
can
in
but
of energy,
The
results
Vogt,
matter
is the
Naturalist
and
only substance;
PHILOSOPHICAL
384
is the
brain
the
that
function; that
either
thus
motion
THEORIES
of
organ
thought is
to
the
which
consciousness
brain
as
of
matter^
"
vibrations
the
or
of
is the
the
filiaments
of the
brain.
Moleschott
3,
his
(1822-1893).
principlethe
conservation
of matter, which
is the constant
Force
of energy.
of matter, and circulates
devoid
never
with
and
with
the
Moleschott
Jacob
he
took
for
held to be
ment
accompani-
it
with
will.
his
that
doctrine
Moleschott's
may
be thus
stated
The
foundation
with two
attributes, material and
realityis substance
found
that
these
and
are
never
spiritual,
apart, but are not
in
ratio
each
the
and
to
to
other,
always
same
so
as
vary
extension
and
the
the
inertia, on
hand, or
one
approach
will
the
firmest
other.
His principal
and
on
highest thought
he called Kreislauf des Lebens.
work
(1824-1899). Louis Biichner held that mind
^. Buchner
and matter,
to speak more
or
generally,force and stuff, are
necessarilyand inseparatelyconnected, though he does not
of the relation, more
than
to
attempt to explain the nature
of all
say
that
stuff;but
mind
even
is
this is
His
knowledge.
by Moleschott's
Biichner
and
of
that
energy;
holds
of matter,
force a property of
or
of belief rather than
of scientific
matter
property
that
famous
Kreislauf des
the ultimate
the conservation
that
the
of matter
intricate
Siqffwas
gested
sug-
Lebens.
basis of all
involves
complexity
being is matter,
the conservation
of
the
organism,
PHILOSOPHICAL
386
THEORIES
the activities
Psychical phenomena
are
tissues of the hving organism.
The
of matter
and
energy,
law
The
universe.
is the
of the
law
basis of the
of substance,
complex
of the
vous
ner-
tion
conserva-
stabilityof the
Haeckel, is the
according
only cosmological law.
Haeckel
accepts the theory of evolution
as
expounded by
and
the only true
Darwin,
of
as
regards Pantheism
system
His views
are
Theology.
forciblyexpressed in his writings:
The History of Creation, The Evolution
of Man, and The Riddle
of the Universe,
Riddle
The
In
of Spinoza:
of the Universe, Haeckel
says
**We
adherel firmly to the pure,
of
unequivocal monism
extended
substance
and
Spinoza: Matter, or infinitely
spirit
sensitive
and
(or energy), or
thinking substance, are the two
fundamental
attributes, or principal properties of the allof the world, the universal
stance."
subembracing divine essence
since come
Again, "All the changes which have
the idea of substance
reduced, on a logicalanalysis,
are
over
to this supreme
thought of Spinoza's; with Goethe, I take
it to be the loftiest,
profoundest, and truest thought of all the
to
and
true
"
ages.
5.
born
Lotze
at
educated
(1817-1882).
as
district of Fichte
the
Bautzen,
physician
Hermann
Rudolph
at
and
His
Leipzig.
Lotze
was
Lessing, and
teachers
was
in medicine
and
Volkmann
Fechner.
Weisse
Weber,
physics were
in
his
the
was
philosophy. He graduated
same
guide
year,
of medicine, and
both as a doctor
of philosophy and a doctor
in both.
afterwards
became
He was
at once
a docent
sor
profesof philosophy at Gottingen, and
the
elected
to
was
same
and
chair
at
Berlin, but
ideal
Lotze's
trace
one
the
after died.
soon
idea.
In
him
speculative tendencies,
reconstruction
accomplish this, he
the
mistake
of romanticism
and
mechanical
that
of materialism
for the
thus
that
saw
sum
connections
of
romantic
on
must
to
avoid,
attempt
nature,
and
which
the
on
the
to
to
scientific and
the
overlooking
of
world
realistic foundation.
he
of
of the
him
leading
taking matter,
reality.
total of
philosophers,
combined
were
idealism
of
the
interconnections
and
development
eternal
of
that
was
one
the
To
hand,
real conditions
on
is
the
only
other,
work,
frame-
LATER
Lotze's
He
of
point
endeavored
PHILOSOPHY
GERMAN
departure
is the
whatever
is
analysis of the
thoughts
to
of
value.
any
the relations
is the
Ideas
of ideas, and
to
hence
universal
forces
nature.
concept, that
eternal
of
source
things, and
also of things.
physicalphenomena,
regular operations of
represent
In his medical
not
of
mechanism
show, by an
ideal principleis involved, which
an
S87
in
stitutes
conliving organisms; but mechanism
only a part of nature, the spiritualalso has its place;
it is the relation of the material
and spiritual
that has interest
for philosophy. This relation he traces
in his Microcosmus,
work
which
Cosmos
and Herder's
a
supplements Humboldt's
Ideen.
The
Microcosmus
physiology, human
theories, and
realized
as
shown
relation
in
psychology
philosophy of religion.
spirituallife, at its highest value,
losses.
with
It is the
than
of science, to
cause
and
inquire
and
effect,means
and
mechanical
of
business
into
the
to
history, cosmological
that
only in combination
and
causes
culture
the
holds
Lotze
of
treats
system
philosophy,
and
nature
is
of
rather
relation
of
and force,freedom
end, substance
spirit,which, in practicallife,and
and
necessity,matter
in the special sciences, are
for granted. Philosophy
taken
science.
goes deeper than
of ca^se,
of all change, may
the source
Though the nature
be learned
from
of effort we
experience in the consciousness
make
in overcoming resistance,yet its necessityis presupposed
plying
whenever
there is experience of change, thus imby reason
the interconnection
of phenomena.
The
very
tion
concepof nature
in reciprocal
is of a pluralityof real elements
interaction
is not
the only
interaction; but this mechanical
feature of our
conception of nature, which is even
impossible
without a connecting cause.
be an all embracing
There
must
cause
to
constitute
things turned
into
immanent,
a
one
not
this
cosmos,
that
system.
transcendent.
The
which
is, a universe
one
great
Things
cause
in
is all
fore
is,there-
their relation
related to one
There
another.
is,
are
ground cause
substance
the
all
the
then, an original
embracing principle,
Deus
sive Natura
of Spinoza, which
called the ultimate
Lotze
fact of all thought
the ultimate
postulate; it is presupposed
in the simplest case
of reciprocalaction.
to
"
PHILOSOPHICAL
388
Materialism
and
Idealism
the monads
Neither
thought
THEORIES
of
thus
are
Leibniz,
restingplace; the
reconciled
and
united.
nor
basis
afford
monistic-Spirit,
as
all
at
as
points,
energy
the points of energy
and cause
The
to interact.
not
points canbe extended
small, for then they would
solids,however
have parts and be divisible;neither are they inextended
solids,
for then they would
be nothing; they are, therefore, points of
This
extension.
view
loca-ly placed, but without
energy,
renders
the creation
of so-called
matter
ceivable.
possible and conWhat
is this one
substance
We
or
primal cause?
it only by analogy to ourselves
understand
can
as
causes;
but we
ourselves
know
bilities.
as
subjects of activities or susceptiand
do
As finite spirits,
suffer, so likewise
we
can
the infinite Spirit.
can
"The
soul
To
obviate objectionsto freedom, Lotze
says:
evolves
from
itself resolutions, starting points for future
that every
if experience convinces
us
movements,
of external
effect having
is at the same
time an
event
nature
its cause
in preceding facts, it still remains
possiblethat the
life does not
consist throughout of a
cycle of inner mental
rigid mechanism
working necessarily,but that along with
a
could
held, which
Lotze
be
must
itself
exert
...
unlimited
absolute
freedom
of
will,it also
"
commencement.
however,
is not
antecedent
an
caused
by
the
ego.
in the
ego,
the
subject of
but
being, free to
are
volitions
is caused
does
The
caused,
to
freedom
the
cause
it does
cause
own
not
them.
volitions.
follow
The
that
free, but
volition, but
not
in the
volition, which
its
Divine.
or
therefore
is not
from
nothing, not
human
from
mind,
is caused, and
but
event
volitions
from
of
power
commencement,"
absolute
commencement
events,
volition, as
This
"
limited
possesses
is not
an
Now,
the
doctrine
cause
event,
because
of the
of freedom
them.
require free volitions,but a being free to cause
The
in its origin^but in its acts.
ego, as a being, is free, not
A perfectlynew
with the primal
beginning, not connected
and
without
with anything else,is an event
a cause,
or
cause,
is therefore
and
possible
impossible. Yet it is conceivable
that the primal cause
time, and originatea
can
act, at any
line of events,
unless its energies are
new
engaged as to
so
leave no reserved
thus implying that it had exhausted
power,
itself in the universe.
Even if the primal cause
originatesnew
not
LATER
GERMAN
PHILOSOPHY
389
events
new
though miraculous,
the primal cause.
nature,
but
by
violations
as
his
violate
of
caused
not
Miracles
laws
the
laws, he
own
violations
not
are
of
should
does
of
by existing events,
never
be
God
does
of nature.
simply
laws
any
that
which
ceived
con-
not
would
not
the existingforces
of nature.
by
of
absolute
an
commencement,
supposition
or
a
mencement
comfrom
admits
the
of
nothing,
possibility a time,
in the past, when
back
there was
absolutely nothing, not
if so, non-entity sprang
into entity, and
the first cause;
be done
The
far
even
is not
cause
of
the
causality is
is
there
itself,or
condition
necessary
delusion, and
causal
no
of
event
any
there
would
have
never
been
Lotze
similar
that,
held
or
commensurable
last
necessity,that
which
If
exhibit
we
the
desire
to
analysis,it is not
leads
us
infinite
to
trine
doc-
come
of
may
entire
universe,
or
Lotze's
universe.
is unfortunate.
not
an
absolute
mencement;
com-
originatesit.
universe
need not be wholly
be reciprocallyrelated,and
aesthetic
but an
a logical,
mind
that
even
in the
to
the
but
events,
established
fact of
any
commencement,"
expression, "absolute
series,originated by a mind, has
new
it is related
or
between
connection
would
this
event,
an
to conceive
which
variety in perfectharmony.
understand
the
inner
nature
of
things,
we
spiritual
nature,
deeper than
goes
the mechanical
conception. Things are real beings, existing
for themselves, and
not
are
merely poetic ideas of our own
God's
be true
that
however,
creating. It may,
they are
ideas.
The
all-embracingworld spiritrenders the universe
in its
of its parts, and
comprehensible in the interactions
must
conceive
relation
Lotze
after
them
the
as
feelingbeings, and
to
ourselves.
held
from
that
we
can,
in
analogy
of
our
own
this method
some
degree, understand,
own
our
spiritualstates, that
personality, since in that
the absolute
by
world
analogy
principle is a
case
only could it
in our
independence and
case,
originality.But
possess
and
obstacles
which
resist
efforts
encounters
personality
our
disturb our
feelings;but in the all-embracing cause,
feelings
PHILOSOPHICAL
390
set in motion
are
God
that
beings
degree
he
of
own
themselves, and
manage
God,
and
be conceived
activity. It may
resistance in the finite
encounters
objects,and even
has created, and
he has granted some
to whom
independence. Free beings, within certain limits,
by
its
in fact
as
THEORIES
often
man
even
may
does, and
is
Lotze
is the
this
the
other
In
God
this be, if
forms
of existence
Being?
Timeless
contradictories; but
case,
them
species under
substance
be
spirit,though it must
higher genus than substance,
contraries.
contradictories, but
holds, the
inconceivable.
consider
this
will of
the
Lotze
as
the Divine
spiritare
we
to
and
to
not
are
when
substance.
matter
Passing
and
matter
only
case
genus
both
that
counter
run
one
or
matter
We
be
cannot
may
other.
the
and
spirit
conceive
and
spirit,as geometric
forms
in pure
of non-existence
as
even
opposed to
or
space,
is not necessarilyspirit,
both matter
and spirit. Not-matter
for it may
be a form
of space
a
or
portion of time, or even
than
matter
nothing.
the reciprocalaction of
unity of the universe makes
which
is continual, is a constant
parts possible;and this action,
The
the
witness
of
interest
common
and
common
end
"
the
ethical principleof
The
highest possiblegood for the whole.
reciprocityis,therefore the controllinglaw according to which
the
universe
system
may,
is carried
forward
to its consummation.
Lotze's
Pantheism.
are
attributes.
are
the
reasons
for
Stimuli
the
to
nerves
391
the
brain, and
the
is
of the brain
reaction
from
carried
are
PHILOSOPHY
GERMAN
LATER
"
of the
of the
sense
if it
if he
does
exist, and
that
find
can
history."
will be
mortal
ima
anything,
person
fillworthily a place in the moral
realm, and
can
fillthat place, but otherwise, he will pass out of
means,
if he
to
will pass
the reality of which
away
in the transitory phase of the world's
everything
place only
This
so
that
means
existence.
Fechner
9.
born
Lanwich.
at
but
in
account
In his
His
chief
In
1835,
he
was
few
years,
he
was
physics.
Gustav
(1801-1887).
forced
of his eyes.
thinking,he
was
an
as
was
Fechner
quantitive
to
influenced,
Lotze, and
idealistic world
studies
were
was
medicine
and
of weakness
by Weisse,
Fechner
Theodor
with
him
retire from
to
the
relation
between
connected
considerable
he endeavored
conception on
conception that
formed
his post
on
extent
to
struct
con-
realistic basis.
there
mental
is
and
definite
material
the
by working out this conception he became
founder
of the experimental science of psycho-physics, or as
it is otherwise
called,of physiologicalpsychology. To ascer-
facts, and
PHILOSOPHICAL
392
facts pertaining
the
tain
and
system
laws
mental
Fechner
two
experimental method,
and
He
were
does
universe,
thought,
nor
nervous
their
determine
give
to
to
"
from
matter,
the
world
employ
tion.
imaginafrom
God
nor
from
conscious
of
God
finite,and
just
support,
to
the
or
darkness
and
strong tendencies
separate mind
does he derive
not
of the
connection
the
of his life.
found
In
the
to
manifestations,
the work
became
the
THEORIES
is immanent
the
as
in
human
world
the
body,
of his
is conscious
person
the
as
spirit,by pervading
Each
support.
the
the
own
his
in
Lotze.
The
life is the
the
existence
concept
world.
progress
to
and
Fechner
of the world
life of the
unfolding and
both
necessary
The
of the world
through
to
whose
in
seen
infinite time.
Herein
Fechner'
the world
see
view
as
is
universe
of matter
or
would
see
view, would
see
,"but
concave
the
surface
it
of
universe
Fechner
mind,
advanced
exact
an
the
two
substance.
mental
surface, while
by changing
his
one
point
without
is, convex
and
beyond
Spinoza
relation
mathematical
sides of existence,
He
found
that
or
the
in
attempting
between
and
two
that
to
attributes
cover
disand
matter
of the
changes in corresponding
not
directly proportional,
is equal to the ratio
state
to that state
multipliedby
the
mind,
without
observer
an
one,
as
within.
concave
one
its
as
is dm,
j) is
dp.
THEORIES
PHILOSOPHICAL
894
ism
material
from
how
explain
to
motion,
difficult to
means
matter
and
purely
intellectual
itself?
One
sit in it?
creditors,
what
they
hand,
from
mind?
genus
that
could
the
on
other
is the
result of
his debts?
in
from
hand,
matter,
and
which
substance,
and
do
they
mind, however
err
not
matter
a
sentation;
repre-
attempts
one
troubled
will
rich; but
believing that
Matter
of their connection,
debt, and
If materialists
mind
err,
in
himself
imagine
when
consequence
deeply
about
come
by no
representation of
an
organization of
whole
our
is the
man
deduce
can
other
the
can
pay
money
sensation
it is,
dispositionsto sensation."
identical
with
representationof matter
call it
Let
can
us
imagine a chair.
but
to
yet
conceive
its movements
is the
But
conscious
in
by his
his imaginary
believing that
idealists, on
deduce
can
may
is the
the
matter
species of
explanation
be
ground and
unity of all existence.
in
born
). Eugen Diihring was
in the atmosphere of free religious
the true
Duhring (1833^
Berlin, and was
brought up
his favorite
and
thought. Mathematics
were
astronomy
of
branches
knowledge. He studied for the legalprofession,
entered
its practice,but was
forced to abandon
this
and
on
vacation
of disease of his eyes which
account
on
finallymade
him
blind.
His affliction increased
his natural
tendency to
enemies.
and
all
who
differed
from
him
to
suspicion,
as
regard
11.
His
wife and
later his
off from
becaijiehis amanuensis.
practice of law, he turned
son
his
thoughts
investigation
philosophical questions, paying
attention
to
especial
Epistemology,orthe theory of knowledge.
He took up the Kantian
problem of the scope and limits of
knowledge, and discussed it in the spiritof positivescience.
This
His
Dialiktik,
he called Naturliche
principal work
Cut
to
the
book, excellent
the
the
of
of
is valuable on account
matter,
the relation of the critical to the positive
in form
and
lightit throws on
the
philosophy. He
principle of
distinguished between
of
law
law
of thought, from
the wider
a
sufficient
reason,
He
out.
reality; and this principle knocks
dogmatism
directed attention
he called the principleof insufficient
to what
fall
which
of proof should
requires that the burden
reason,
the one
who
on
new
a
theory in conflict with that
proposes
which
is generally accepted as true.
This hits the idealists
who
call upon
realists to prove
that things exist,as is gener-
LATER
GERMAN
PHILOSOPHY
from
395
human
it is the
thought, when
that they do not
business
of the idealists to prove
exist.
so
throw
Realists, in meeting the challenge of Idealists should
it belongs.
of proof where
back the burden
Diihring calls his philosophy, the philosophy of reality,
facts of which, as
known
the fundamental
by experience,
of theoretical
afford the subject matter
must
investigation.
aside the facts, and to speculate on
To throw
concepts, is to
leave the solid ground of realityto explore the cloudy region
of the unreal fictions of the imagination.
the great thinkers
of the seventeenth
Diihring admired
Hobbes
such
and Spinoza, and
Galileo,
Newton,
as
century,
reactionists;
regarded the philosophers of the nineteenth
as
of science in the nineteenth
is its glory; the
but the advance
of
subjection of theory to the test of experiment is a matter
great practicalimportance.
in the critical spirit,
In his theory of knowledge, conducted
Diihring seeks to ascertain the relation of thought to reality.
interconnection,
by continuous
Thought strives to advance
but a real thing is
and like a line, to stretch on
indefinitely;
take place only by the addition
definite, and continuation
can
of particularreals, also definite in magnitude and in number.
Pure
thought is not restricted to real things. Thought,
however,
restrict
may
realities of nature,
overthrown
by the
of
the
From
consequence
From
must
this
be
cannot
we
of
test
to
of
that
the
absolute
or
first cause,
In the
or
by link,back
or
we
may
thought
to
the
Diihring
of nature
that
cannot
had
nature
further
deduced
go
a
consequence
the
back
in
beginning.
that
there
of the
creator
they
often
confirmed
number,
hence
We
the
to
turn
break
science,
are
hypotheses which
hypotheses,
facts; but
processes
and
eternal
an
beings.
in
facts.
deduce
can
it makes
definite
law
infinite regress,
an
when
save
correspond
course,
it does
itself, as
in
series of
some
finite but
the
cause
at
origin either
free
causes,
as
in the
human
lute
effects,there is no absothe chain is connected, link
and
causes
discontinuity,but
to
their
will have
its head.
discontinuity,
it was
fail to find continuity by experiment where
forsakes
its sphere and
science
exist.
Hence
discover
continuity
in
apparent
PHILOSOPHICAL
396
dogmatizes, when
natural
event, not
depending on any
it
impossible; must, however, be dependent
it is not an absolute commencement.
cause;
the
it says
an
is
causes,
some
on
THEORIES
part, there
is
correspondence between
thought and reality,or the relation of premise and conclusion
of
that
effect.
and
stand
to
cause
corresponds
They
the reason
of knowing and
related as the reason
being; but
that causes
the deep principle,
nature
underlying all reality,
For
most
to
of
factors
the
objectivenature
things,and the subjectivenature of thought. In speculative
be disagreement between
the concepthought, there may
tion
and the reality,
but in real knowledge, there is harmony.
tence
Diihring held that to give a complete pictureof real exis-
because
is the task
all it
and
nature
of
assigns ends
to
intended
not.
or
mechanical
The
which
lend
make
finds
Diihring
the
realizes his
to
or
forms
in the
he
of
one
beings
included,
first
cause
"
He
Spinoza.
encounter
to
are
the
foils,
effort, promote
in
sympathy.
in
society, and
highest good
).
not
living.
basis of ethics
(1832-
"
whether
final outcome,
exist for the higher; the
existence, lead
progress
reality
rational.
life worth
of human
Wundt
results
conscious
charm
in nature
sive Natura
lower
The
happiness,and
12,
Deus
the
nature,
resistances
recognized
all reality,includingthe
substance, the
one
He
but
embraces;
but
only phenomena,
the
philosophy.
"
will be universal
Wilhelm^Wundt,
dividua
in-
The
the
summation
con-
brotherhood.
Professor
of
he
holds
to
be
the
science
of immediate
consciousness
phenomena.
In
regard
to
Fechner's
work, Wundt
said:
'*The
Psycho-
he founded
"physicswhich
only the first conquest
was
field in gaining full possession of which
be no
there can
insurmountable
that such a beginning has
obstacles,now
on
more
been
made."
Wundt's
work
which
he
called
PhysiologischePsychologic,
first
of
aims
published in 1874,
science
PHILOSOPHY
GERMAN
LATER
to
philosophy, thus
and
397
basis.
Wundt
volumes
three
wrote
on
Ethics
The
/.
Facts
of the
Principles of
The
Life; II. Ethical Systems; III.
Morals and the Sphere of Their Validity. He classifies Ethical
Under
ethics of
Systems, as to motives, and as to ends.
Moral
motives, he
Ethical
classes
placing ethics
ethics
of
of
Intuitionism
feeling under
under
understanding
Ethical
and
piricism,
Em-
intuitionism, and
empiricism;
but
ethics
of
he relates to both.
reason,
individual
Science
universal.
and
philosophy
and
not
are
identical
either in aim
or
principleswhich
Wundt
are
the
facts; but
harmony of science
their co-operation in the advancement
Wundt
to
for
account
the
harmony
tend
to
the
holds that
laws
of the
between
the
labors
of
philosophy, and
of knowledge.
the laws of our
apprehension of objects,
objects themselves, thus postulating the
and
man
nature,
and
manifest
in their
action.
inter-
are
important works by Wundt
Logic, System of
Human
and
Animal
Psychology, Folk Psychology.
Philosophy,
Paulsen
13.
Paulsen, Professor
(1846-1908). Friedrich
of Philosophy in the University of Berlin, has written
a work
entitled A System
called Introduction to Philosophy, also one
of Ethics, both of which have been translated by Professor
ThiUy.
Paulsen's specialmerit is his success
in making philosophy
the
has
aimed to do this especially
to
intelligible
people. He
Other
in his treatise
Socrates
down
instructive.
ethics.
on
to
He
the
has
His
historical sketch
present is remarkably
of ethics
from
interestingand
THEORIES
PHILOSOPHICAL
398
In
his
utilitarianism, as
morality
did
edition, Paulsen
second
is older
moral
than
what
The
of conduct
call his
system
philosophy,yet
is advantageous
experiencedecides
consequences
not
he
holds
that
disadvantageous.
stand, therefore, in his opinion,
or
condemnation.
or
justification
Stirner is best known
as
IJf., Stirner (1808-1856). Max
entitled Der Einzige und Sein Eigentum,
the author of a work
and his Property,
be translated. The Unique One
which
may
more
or
smoothly, though less accurately. The Ego and His
as
its final
Own.
This
His
is Anarchism.
system
remarkable
considerable
it sank
at first attracted
of the
current
thought,
out
of
abolition
of all law
of Hobbes
sight for
in it has
the
above
the
will of the
ego.
This
reminds
penalties.
who
LATER
Walker, who
J. L.
aside
wrote
government,
consulted."
for the
not
that
knowing
that
sake
it would
doctrine
work,
this
the
399
introduction
establish
Bying[Stirner]would
regulation
any
only
convenience
'*He
says:
would
not
the
able
very
for
and
would
But
believes
Stirner
but
convenient,
deemed
PHILOSOPHY
of Stirner's
translation
ton's
lay
GERMAN
our
strong
to
refrain from
strong would
of the weak,
but for their
the
bring
results
best
weak?
the
oppress
is
such
duct,
con-
sake,
own
themselves.
to
its consequent
egoism, with
anarchism, is based on the assumption of the total selfishness
of the ego, which
it is assumed
always acts in view of its own
interests.
Benevolence
is,therefore, rejected as constituting
of human
Let us see.
nature.
no
originalelement
Suppose
The
ultra egoist
an
action.
a
He
exclusive
of
have
to
his choice
at
he
can
$1,000
worth,
$1,000 worth
get, say
can
or
the
would
concerned,
would
and
answer,
that
course
would
of that
out
damaging
be
benevolent,
not
damaging
displease.
B,
ultimate
an
that
the
man's
To
this
motive
help
would
law
only
one
nor
the
take
more
good
and
regret
that
when
the
is
motive
element.
is
that
does
usually
not
plex,
com-
will of the
ego
enlightened
and
The
ego
to
Granting
selfish element,
benevolence.
more
for
they are
the egoist
as
damage
well as selfishness,is
that is, the doctrine
please you,
not
therefore, as
contains
than
.^^
choose
he
it may
be replied,if you
were
neither enjoy helping A nor
regret
of human
always
invariably
containing
answer
get
eiijoy helping A,
nature;
selfish
is false.
exclusively
exclude
would
answer
would
element
ego
far
so
by
being
person
would
I should
A, because
Benevolence
is
other
no
himseK,
for
good
by
neighbor
of
I would
you
for himself
indifference; but
this is Stirner's belief, I would
benefit
To
of
of
courses
his
benefit
or
two
good
of conduct
course
matter
course.
B,
of
time
same
get $1,000
B
$1,000,
regard for A
no
the
between
benevolent.
Other
considerations, it must
be
admitted,
exclusively
egoistmight
if I
or
help me,
more
egoistic,
foregoing case.
may
If
I
will
he
help A,
probably in turn,
say:
and
damage B, he would
likely damage
me,
I act.
Suppose, however, these
enter
into the
The
on
these
siderations
con-
considerations
THEORIES
PHILOSOPHICAL
400
by
were,
some
"
the
consciousness
I love
happy.
pleases me.
being, and
me
why.^
If Stirner
by
their
or
refreshed
Let
their
or
torment
the
the
be
is an
selfishness,
be
us
reconsider,
involved
combination
in
idea
the
modern
have
generally
but why?
except from
the
extent
attach
the
is
more
slow
benevolent
heart.
if benevolence
but
ego,
as
that
of
quantity
to
the
tonic
Pla-
and
Hegel, philosophers
than
importance to content
more
is
content
invariable,
practically
growth
subject to
importance
refreshed
altruism.
content,
Plato
to
From
because
of
is tormented
he
of the
element
concept,
attached
to extent;
has
and
common
individuals.
to
since
but
ment
tor-
matter
egoism
point, the two kinds
content
corresponding
"
refreshes
nor
this
at
objects having
down
be
tormented
philosophy only
of
knowledge
or
neither
ultimate
feeling
every
utterly selfish,the
would
it
because
me,
feeling with
was
others, he
final
to
their refreshment
refreshment;
or
with
be
love makes
because
natural
refreshment,
would
He
can
as
fellow
torments,
indifference.
would
their torment
But
Egoism
have
.1
of others,
well
loving is
because
too."
me
of
of
the
to
permanent
than
to
the
transitory. The
corresponding to the
content,
concept
be an object of thought, and gradually become
though it may
more
complete and perfect,cannot, by itself,be pictured by
the imagination.
It contains
nothing subject to either pain
or
pleasure,while the extent embracing classes and individuals
which
be imxproved or damaged, or suffer pain or pleasure,
may
has value in itself,
equal if not superior to that of the concept.
Take
His uniqueness,
individual, for example Aristotle.
an
that
in which
Disturb
that,
and
as
he
or
differed
from
destroy it,and
his value.
or
men,
Aristotle
had
gave
him
value.
Aristotle
susceptibleof happiness
other
as
CHAPTER
XXXI
Philosophy
Evolution
of
Charles
Darwin
born
at
(1809-1882).
was
studied
in Edinburgh,
He
medicine
Shrewsbury,
England.
and
in neither
but
of these
theology at Cambridge,
engaged
towards
science.
professions, as he felt a strong attraction
He
the
round
world, from
joined the Beagle in its voyage
This
1831
Darwin's
settled
1836.
to
destiny as a
voyage
1.
Darwin
Naturalist.
the
works
most
following are
important of Darwin's
and
Origin of Species, published 1859; Variation
of Animals
Plants
Descent
under
Domestication,
of Man,
1868;
1871;
in Man
and
We
Animals,
Expression of the Emotions
1872;
The
The
with
especially concerned
Origin of Species and
are
The
Descent
of Man,
The
importance
origination of the
of Darwin's
teaching
evolution^
of
theory
does
not
that
"
rest
on
the
different
the
natural
for
produced
by
causes,
his
held by others
before
been
him, but on
in
the
of supporting this theory, by collecting facts
method
in
of natural
indicating the action
organic kingdom,
causes
the production
of variations
species.
leading to new
the
did
Darwin
not
to
origin of life by
explain
attempt
organic species
opinion had
have
been
this
natural
or
the
but
causes,
survival
referred
of the
the
to
of
origin
the
fittest; for
Creator,
later
but
of life he, at
origin
the
called
selection,
natural
species by
it
first,
inexplicable
an
mystery.
Darwin
of
to
Malthus,
that
than
the
the
entire
for existence
the
means
of
animal
in which
of
surviving, while
struggle for life is
developed
led to
was
would
the
the
be
unfit
means
would
fittest
would
of
transmitted
402
be
the
stand
likely
to
perish.
and
the
by heredity.
The
evolution,
chance
best
The
qualities
process,
OF
PHILOSOPHY
40S
continued
form
EVOLUTION
new
species.
struggle for existence develops certain qualities,
in the organisms, adapting them
to their environment,
or
powers,
environment
natural
the
favors
those
selection,
itself,
have
varieties which
The
outcome
developed these powers.
instances
of the struggle,in some
at least,is progress,
which
of man,
in case
means
especiallyintellectual,moral, and social
the
While
advancement.
writings afford
Darwin's
application of the
inductive
the
features
common
creator.^
does
of the
that
proof
of
But
in
does
common
he
carries
house
forward
is
that the
that
common
barn?
features.
life were
the
Cannot
Many
house;
the
developed
will
house.
to
are
prove
barn, then
thorough
investigation,and
barn
that
prove
builder
common
be
features
carpenter builds
features
the
no
is the
advanced
more
method
instructive.
interestingand
species have many
otherwise
two
illustration of the
an
of
but
The
is
There
few.
God
was
restricted
The
in this respect.
human
line, for all that
been
have
from
the beginning; but
human
know, may
we
features
of man's
be found
in lower
organism may
many
into the
proving that the lower evolved
organisms, without
not
higher,
wanting
that
or
had
man
which, by
the
simian
test
of
fact, would
conclusive.
origin of
The
the
but
matter;
'Xife
is the
originate?
life has
never
of nature
method
issue
of
answer
proved to be inorganic
is, as Tyndall declared:
life."
antecedent
rational
The
been
to
seems
How
did
then
be: From
the
life
living
did the
asked, "How
living Creator
may
is eternal,
is, the living Creator
originate?" The
answer
and did not originatefrom anything. Events, new
beginnings,
Creator.
have
It
eternal
but
causes,
they would
Darwin
be
discussed
slighttrace;
former
type
have
no
causes,
for if
so,
be eternal.
not
causing them
realities
to
be
and
or
atrophied, and
thus
sometimes
simpler form.
disuse
of certain
organs,
PHILOSOPHICAL
404
originof
The
variations
the
The
selection.
natural
THEORIES
is
not
to
be
confounded
with
of
variation, produced by
in the environment, change in the climate,
whatever
cause
absence
of
abundance
or
or
scarcity of food, the presence
fits or
enemies, confirmed
habits, or growing intelligence,
its
for
the
animal
habitat.
unfits
Then, by natural selection,
origin
those
fortunate
natural
survive
and
transmit
the
The
impliesimprovement
as
to
the
ditions
con-
of life.
Darwin
effects of natural
the
traces
caused.
variations, however
that the
simply means
causes
point where
best
animal
its
and
sense,
continuous
be
includes
theory of
investigation
the
progressive up to the
organism, instincts,habits, intelligence,
are
and
environment,
then
and
descendants, remain
the
cease,
environment,
variations, though it would
established
of
meet
with
the
and
long as the
but a change in
same
as
essentiallythe same;
after a lapse of time, would
the
than
The
remains
environment
account
unknown.
are
and
for the
fitted
selection between
the
Callingthe variations accidental
call for
new
resistance,on
confirmed
habits,
more
organization and
change in the environment
if the
it would
had
meet,
been more
continuous.
far as man
survival of the fittest,
is concerned, does
The
so
the survival of
at least,always mean
not, in certain cases,
and
morally the best; for the savage
intellectually
with
fitter to
tribes of Africa, compared
Europeans, are
survive in the malarious
regions of that continent; but it
and for a long period, that
holds true, take the world over,
those
of the fittest
the survival
means
and
established.
become
of evolution, and
so
This
optimism
is the
is
more
natural
quence
conse-
reasonable
than
pessimism.
,
There
is
no
doubt
eagerlyaccepted evolution
truth
in evolution
materialists
that
as
and
atheists
have
nor
atheism.
the
OF
PHILOSOPHY
Creator,
The
whole
God
he
working, and
does
iminent
as
of evolution, and
process
is his
regarded
the
the
natural
in
405
law
works
nature,
working
of his
mode
violate any
not
EVOLUTION
of natural
the
forces
is natural
working
in producing any
law.
result
may
otherwise
certain things which
would not be
in doing so, neither sets aside, nor
violates any law;
law
to
be restricted to the
progress
of evolution
of nature,
The processes
through the entire realm of nature.
tended
occurring according to general laws will inevitably be atby certain evils,but certainlyby less evil than that
attending continual intervention, and interruption of law,
thus throwing every
thing into confusion, and rendering it
for, the
impossible to foresee, to anticipate,and to prepare
irregularand lawless changes.
evils which
The
undoubtedly in the world give ample
are
for the exertion of our
in mitigating them, and
scope
powers
for relievingthe unfortunate, and for laboring for the intellectual
and
not
may
Darwin
be
moral
able
elevation
to
of the
solve the
has
human
problem
duty."
our
Though
race.
of
evil,yet
To
we
we
can,
as
mitigate evil,to
of moral
development.
duty, is the best means
2,
born
at
Spencer (1820-1903). Herbert
Spencer was
He
self,
was
Derby.
encouraged by his father to think for himthis he was
slow to do.
and
At an
not
early age, he
showed
for history and for natural
science and mathematics.
a taste
He worked
several years as a civil engineer; but his
to authorship in the line of philosophy.
calhng was
In accepting the doctrine
of the relativityof knowledge,
do
our
he
followed
boldly
Hamilton
forward
to
and
Mansel,
its consequences.
in agreement
with
Mill, Lewes,
with the Scotch
philosophy.
His
but
He
Darwin
carried
was,
and
the
doctrine
however,
Huxley,
more
than
PHILOSOPHICAL
406
THEORIES
Statics,Study of Sociology,Education,
Various
Comments,
Fragments, Inadequacy of
Selection,DescriptiveSociology,and Autobiography,
and
Facts
Natural
not
embrace
all that
be known.
may
it is
self-evident,or it
of the relative
we
distinguishedfrom
as
the
by
mean
is,that which
absolute.?
is not
it is, of course,
by the
mean,
mean
may
related
unknown
If
to
and
absolute, the
we
We
have
that
the
rational
objects of
of
knowing, in which
that our
knowledge is
the absolute.
the
mean
anything, even
unknowable;
What
do
unrelated,that
to our
thought,
but
not-dependent,it may
if
simply
possibly be
we
object of knowledge.
Spencer's teaching in regard to the absolute, which
calls the ultimate
reality,is certainlycontradictory.
he says: "The
ultimate
realityis of all things the most
He also says: "The
ultimate
realityis unknown
an
unknowable
''
These
irreconcilable
he
For
tain."
cer-
and
they
by
knowledge is
may
appear,
of two kinds : rational,and empiricalor positive.
That
the ultimate
certain
realityis of all things the most
is rational knowledge; it is known
by reason; for if there were
ultimate
would
have
been
no
reality,there never
anything.
But
the ultimate realityis unknown
by sensation and perception;
that is, it is unknown
empirically or as positive
knowledge. How
easilymight Spencer have reconciled the
conflicts in philosophy, between
rational
the empirical and
the authority of rational intuition
schools, had he admitted
in consistencywith his own
teaching that what is intuitive to
the individual was
empiricalto the race, the facultyof rational
intuition being gradually evolved
by the long experience of
be
two
accounted
statements,
for
the
as
fact that
mankind; yet it could not have been evolved had there been
ual
no
faculty to be developed; but however, formed, the individhas
now
the
facultyof
rational
intuition.
PHILOSOPHY
absolute,
If the
the
as
first
certain, as
and
unknowable.
is not
mode
know
We
know
we
the
that
it is the
Mill
Stuart
knowledge
Spencer
of the
The
for
find
to
of science
in each
in the
reconciliation,he
to
universe
unknowable.
for both
truth
is
did
of
tacit conviction
insoluble
an
mystery,
unknowable.
therefore
manifests, and
unknowable
not
this:
to
which
ceivable
Inconto the
The
power
therefore, know
we,
therefore
unknown
and
The
realityis both
by a restatement:
known
to exist
by reason
empiricallyas to its essence.
essential
scientific ideas
soul, matter,
these
our
self
him-
agreement.
declares, is the
The
universe;
fundamental
be
utterly inconceivable,
it is to the imagination, but
amounts
reason.
Spencer's doctrine
the
being.
it is eternal;
must
and
which
that
its
the
and
there
case,
the ultimate
that
realityof
know
power
and
essence
unknowable."
and
unknown
attempted
reconciliation
basis
the
to
is; we
ultimate
its
to
as
calls it '*an
is truth
reality,is
Spencer
certainly
Spencer probably meant
as
cause
ultimate
of it is
knowledge
John
first
that
not
407
declares,it
unknowable,
and
it is unknown
that
the
cause,
EVOLUTION
OF
The
as
or
power,
a
reality,but
realities
are
ultimate
is
corresponding
expressed by the words
time, space,
force.
If the
reality,is
wholly unknown
religious and
to
God,
creation,
realities
expressed
"
then
guish
distincannot
we
wholly unknown,
These
but
do
them;
we
distinguish.
terms,
is
have
the
not
therefore,
not
time,
same
meaning.
Space
know
and neither space nor
time is force.
We
by experience,
when
lift
what
force
is,
not
we
as
though we may
a
weight,
by
terms
are
between
know
the
essence
of the
Spencer's criterion
of
substance
which
force.
is
exerts
PHILOSOPHICAL
408
Let
apply Spencer's
THEORIES
of
We
motion.
body,
which
then
a
have
test
the
part of which
idea of space
the
body
as
that which
occupies, and
tains
con-
through
moves.
Space, then, is a reality,though not a
substance; it is extension in three dimensions, whether
empty
is
the
but
the
filled
i
s
the
not
filled;
or
a part
filling
yet
space,
it
of space.
We
know
finite
to
finite
of contradictories,that
Let
what
reason
see
us
the law
infinite.
or
respect
by
its finitude
or
infinitude.
If
we
space
is either
declares
suppose
with
space
or
has
hence
unlimited
in any
finite,and
case,
thickness
the
whole
it occupies unlimited
space;
of space
be limited or
cannot
is,therefore, infinite,and
this is known
to
be true
therefore
though not picturableby the imagination. Reason
by the law of
apprehends space to be infinite. We know first,
is either finite or
infinite; we
contradictories, that space
know
that it is
know
that it is not finite;therefore, we
next
infinite.
Conceivability is not, therefore, the test of truth;
be
for we
to
by the imagination, conceive space
cannot,
be
finite,neither can we conceive it to be infinite;but it must
either finite
We
or
infinite.
we
mean
the
unrelated
to
to
to thought, it is, of course,
not known
anything else,even
exist,and the assumption of its existence is utterlygroundless;
but if,by the absolute, we
the non-dependent, it is not
mean
be
to
rationally
necessarily unrelated
thought, and may
The
be
known.
dependent must
dependent on something.
PHILOSOPHICAL
410
it
be
would
at
at
must,
demonstration
if the
be,
basis
THEORIES
once,
be
basis must
insight of
rational intuition.
Let
try, in another
us
the ultimate
to reach
way,
declared
of
inexplicableand
be
thought,
able.
unknow-
by Spencer
begin with any object,either mineral, vegemay
table
class
for
the
What
animal,
or
example,
quadruped.
say,
is implied in thinking quadruped as existing? We
answer
the thinking subject and the class quadruped, at least as an
The
object of thought. We call the subject /, or the ego.
object thought of is a class or collection of individual objects,
and may
be defined thus : Quadrupeds are vertebrates having
though
to
We
four
feet.
We
have
now
wider
the
includes
has
The
been
remains.
diminished.
we
been
has
extent
Suppose
having
their
extent, diminish
of the class,making
it
determination,
existence
of all other
increased,
while
of its
retained
the
and
wider, and
the
retain
tent
con-
thinking,
animals;
are
content,
the
skeleton.
is
vertebrates
say
existence
ego, conscious
The
the
we
crease
intence
exis-
the
of the
existence
crease
organized beings; we inthe extent, by taking in vegetables,without
dropping
the
still
both
the content,
animals, and decrease
retaining
Let us say organized beings are
object and the ego.
beings;
retaining the ego, we have dropped from the content
every
attribute
in every
but existence, and
have
taken
object in
the universe.
Does
being equal nothing, as Hegel asserts?
ego.
Let
only
the
with
specification,
along
vertebrates.
vertebrates, which
animals
attribute; their
characteristic
without
class
us
now
say
animals
content
one
are
for its
sense
every
that
it
can
not
be referred
to
wider
class, it is known
knows
along with the ego which
its existence.
Were
it possibleto drop existence, everything
would
vanish, including the ego, leaving nothing to know
and
could not
We
nothing to be known
a
perfect blank.
immediately
in itself and
"
even
assert
the
blank; for
to
assert
would
call back
the
ego.
PHILOSOPHY
supposing
even
it
EVOLUTION
annihilated; but
is to
deny existence
OF
411
it is not
annihilated; for
without
deny,
If
To
deny
reality.
assume
self-stultification,
the
ego,
could
not
ence.
subjective exist-
or
could
we
of the
sense
The
dependent.
unknowable;
for
knowledge of
independent or
of the
knowledge
absolute
of the
the
opens
the
of notand
dependent implies
the
absolute.
The
for valid
way
the
edge
knowl-
knowledge
of
the known
Spencer
of inner
defines
relations
definition is the
Life
to
the
whether
life thus:
is the
active
or
relations."
outer
continual
A
more
adjustment
complete
following:
outer, and
outer
to
*'Life is
which
cause
the
outer
inner, to
any
adjusts the
the
to
or
inner, and
inner
each
relations
relation,
PHILOSOPHICAL
412
THEORIES
thus: "Evolution
is
Spencer's definition of evolution runs
of
and
concomitant
matter
of
integratiorr
dissipation
an
the
from
which
matter
motion; during
an
indefinite,
passes
definite
incoherent
coherent
to
a
homogeneity
heterogeneity;
the
which
retained
motion
and
during
undergoes a parallel
transformation.
"
motion, and
matter,
interpretationof all phenomena
What
force?
are
in terms
Spencer
"The
says:
of matter,
motion
force
is
"
"
creeds, however
gross
absurdities
the
associated
with
forth in their
irrational
the arguments
set
them, however
hood,
must
not
defense, we
ignore the verity which, in all likelilies hidden
that
within
them.
are
not
general probability
absolutelybaseless is, in
The
OF
PHILOSOPHY
this
enforced
case,
by
We
.
rehgions,
though
of
adumbrations
all
The
the
line
and
of
the
possessed
readable,
are
his
in
seen
of
presence
omni-
therefore,
sure,
actually
true,
rendered
He
clear
was
yet
are
that
so
drift
science
is
in
generalizer,
great
The
all
bring
to
mankind
statement,
instructive.
as
attempt
be
has
Ethics.
power
well
as
them
Spencer
and
Sociology
be
the
to
truth."
the
service
greatest
due
may
of
none
even
413
probability
further
behefs.
the
of
EVOLUTION
his
of
under
books
his
mind
the
law
is
of
evolution.
held
Spencer
in
developed
human
The
is
reality,
ability
to
experience
it
must
is
Space
a
cause;
of
the
by
therefore,
the
now
apprehend,
time
be
must
mate
ulti-
an
though
can
infinite;
an
up
acquired
he
there
doubt,
sion,
apprehen-
necessity
has,
that
of
ages
built
individual,
the
been
no
and
gradually
so
long
clearer
individual
intuition,
have
the
has
have,
and
as
to
The
principles:
the
system,
further
been
has
race.
rational
the
event
every
the
of
axiomatic,
for
intuitive
now
intuition
intuition
nervous
truth,
apprehend
of
power
brain
the
of
the
rational
through
acts
fundamental
that
so
evolution
modified
in
basis
of
power
by
man
action,
organic
the
the
experience.
reflex
by
that
is
as
infinite;
ultimate
an
reality.
Note:
it
has
been
original
best
appear.
Philosophy
to
assiduously
thinkers;
defer
has
but,
entering
cultivated
at
into
least
this
in
votaries
many
for
by
the
America,
field, however
of
number
good
present,
where
it
is
inviting
thought
it
may
INDEX
Abelard,
Aristophanes,
124
Absolute,
269,
Academic
School,
Aenesidemus,
Aeons,
Aristocles,
407
83,
82
Ariston,
96
Aristotle,
Arius,
105
Aetiology, 84,
Agnosticism,
Agnostic,
106
84
84
Albertus
Magnus,
Alexander,
the
Alfarabi,
Algazel,
Alison,
169
Association,
321
Athanasius,
112
Atomists,
130
Great,
261
27
Augustine,
63
Averroes,
127
128
Avicenna,
128
127
Ambrose,
113
Ammonius,
Ampere,
127
Bacon,
Fr., 144
Bacon,
R.,
Bain,
99
348
Bayle,
63
25
Bentham,
Anaxarchus,
30
Berkeley,
Anaximander,
10
141
Boehme,
Andronicus,
64
Boethius,
Bona
of Pure
Antiochus,
Apologists,
Brown,
300
Bruno,
142
384
331
109
82,
Cabanis,
127
368
Campanella,
94
50
Aristippus,
139
Ventura,
Butler,
64
254
74
Biichner,
50
Philosophy,
Arcesilaus,
242
97
Antisthenes,
Apellicon,
Reason,
208,
139
11
Antinomies
323
Bernard,
Anaximines,
122
105
184
Anaxagoras,
Anselm,
127
Basilides,
370
Amyntas,
Arete,
113
298
Alkendi,
Arabic
63
111
Atheism,
Agrippa,
53
53
Amauld,
93
42
Cardanus,
49
Carneades,
415
143
142
95
INDEX
416
Eckhart,
Cato,
Eclecticism,97
95
Ego,
239
199
Eleatic
Celsus, 111
104,
Christianity,
140
Philosophy,13
Empedocles,
107
23
Chrysippus, 76
Empiricism, 321
Cicero,
98
Epictetus,74
Clarke,
203
Epicurus, 71
Cleanthes, 75
Epistemology, 409
Clement, 105,
Erigena, 118,
110
Eubulides,
Sense, 294
Common
Compte,
375
Conceptualism, 120,
Condillac,
Euclid
of Megara,
Euclid
of Alexandria, 47
Evolution,
368
Consciousness,
243
145
Fatalism, 261
Fechner,
Crantor, 94
391
Ferrier, 310
Crates, 73,
75
Cudworth,
188
Fichte, 250,
255
Freedom
Cumberland,
190
Cynic School,
Fox, 141
50
Cyrenaic School,
49
Gassendi, 169
385
Genus
and
Germain,
D'Alembert,
Darwin,
Species,124
273
368
253
402
Gilbert, 124
Deduction,
Definition
67
Glanvill, 167
of
Democritus,
Philosophy,5,
10, 26
Diderot,
Gorgias,38
361
Diodorus,
Diogenes
Gnostics, 104
28
Grote, 32
48
Guyon,
of
ApoUonia,
141
11
51
84
Haeckel,
385
Hamilton,
304, 409
Dionysius of Syracuse, 53
Hartley, 321
Dionysius,the
Hartmann,
Areopagite,118
287
Dogmatists, 86
Hegel, 267
394
Diihring,
Helvetius, 360
Duns
47
402
of God,
Existence
302
Cousin, 372
Czolbe,
48
Eusebius, 112
358
Condorcet,
Cooke,
125
138
Scotus,
132
Heraclitus, 18,
57
243
INDEX
418
Philipof Macedon,
Scotus
63
Erigena, 118,
Philo, 106
Self,199
Philolaus, 20
Seneca,
Sensational
Plotinus, 100
Sextus
Polemo,
Socrates, 42,
73
81
110
Poly carp,
Philosophy, 37
Empiricus, 84
Socratic
Polus, 41
Sophists,32
Space, 233,
Porphyry,
Spencer, 405
101
Stewart,
St. Martin,
Harmony,
Pre-established
182
310
Spinoza, 172,
Posidonius, 74
254
297
141
Stilpo,73
196
265.
Sufficient Reason,
Principleof
62
Schools, 47
Polytheism, 102
Port
138
Stirner, 498
Stoics,74
183,
Substance,
199
Syllogism,66,
187
342
Proclus, 103
Prodicus, 37
Telesius, 142
Protagoras,33
TertuUian,
Pyrrho,
Thalis, 9
82
Pythagoras, 20,
110
Theodicy, 81,
58
183
Theophrastus, 64
117
124
Thomas
Aquinas,
Thomas
Relativityof Knowledge,
406
Time,
Timon,
83
Toland,
Rousseau,
Trivium,
Ruysbroeck,
117
117
Tropis, 84
141
Tyrannion,
Saint-Simon,
41
235
Roscellinus, 120
365
131
Kempis,
Thrasymachus,
293
Richard
64
374
Scepticism,82
Unconscious,
Schelling,264
Utilitarianism, 341
Schopenhauer,
Scotism,
Scottish
V.
287
284
Duns
School.
117
Scotus, 132
293
^'alentinus, 105
Victorines, 139
141
INDEX
Voet,
Vogt,
419
Wundt,
161
396
383
Voltaire,
Xenocrates,
351
73
Xenophanes,
Whewell,
Will.
Xenophon,
67
Freedom
of,
William
of
Champeaux,
William
of
Occam,
Wolff,
187
13
42
155
122
134
Zeller,
Zeno
Zeno,
57
of
the
Elea,
Stoic,
16
73