A

CRITICAL

HISTORY

PHILOSOPHICAL
THEORIES

AARON

SCHUYLER

G.

RICHARD
THE

GORHAM
BOSTON

BADGER
PRESS

OF

Copyright,1913, by Richard G. Badger.

reserved
All rights

H^

"

t
c
r

The

Gorham

c
I

Press,Boston, U,

"0I.A351925

S, A.

PREFACE
result

is the

Philosophy

obtained

by

the

of
employment
principlesthat

discovery of those fundamental

It seeks to reduce
give unity and harmony to knowledge.
and multiplicityto unity, and to find
complexity to simplicity,
the ultimate
plained
exare
reality. Facts acquired by observation
reason.
by
The history of philosophy is the record of these speculations
criminati
their results.
A critical history of philosophy is a disand
of the theories
of the philosophers
examination
in the

reason

schools, in order

of the various

their truth,

confirm

relations

of the

different

the occasions
systems, the conflict of their principles,

of their

to

expose

their

and

to test

and

appearance,

To

understand
of the

the

reasons

systems,

the

for their

the

trace

of their

development.
principlesmaintained
by

the order

various

is to

to

errors,

conflict

schools, the
theories,and the connection

understand

philosophy

itself.

philosophers
principles,

of the various
The

nal
phenome-

world and
product
the human
mind; philosophy deals with both.
Uncritical
the sole reality.
as
thought accepts appearance
Science classifies phenomena
and determines
their laws, while
philosophy attempts to find a rational explanation of phenomena
facts of experience. That
of
treats
is. Science
as
phenomena and their laws, while philosophy seeks for causes
and the rational explanation of phenomena.
Nothing can be
more
interestingor more
stimulating to thought than the
study of the relations of philosophy and science.
It will be found
that no
system of philosophy is without
be only a crude
merit, though it may
some
beginning, or a
of exone-sided attempt to give an
of the mystery
account
istence.
Broad
views
are
requisite,if we wish to avoid the
of all partialor incomplete systems.
errors
As the mission of philosophy is to give a rational explanation
of the phenomenal, it cannot,
therefore, disregard the facts of
stillbe
and
true to its calling. On the other hand,
experience,
to deal exclusivelywith phenomena,
discarding the necessary
don
principleswhich afford their rational explanation, is to abanthe guide of reason,
it into transformed
to resolve
sation.
senor
world

Herein
exists

of two

the

of their

is the

is revealed

between

the

the

factors

chief

empirical

the external

"

conflict
and

in

philosophy,

rational

schools.

as

it
To

PREFACE

discard

that

is to
their

doomed

the

of

which
miss

to

and

combination

of
is

one-sided

is

course

is

sight

principles

necessary

Either

of

lose

is to

facts

neglect

failure.

to

to

explanation.

true

methods

two

explained;

be

osophy
phil-

True

^the

observation

"

their

and

phenomena,

explanation

the

by

aid

rational

of

principles.
is

study

No

the

in

will

the

course

of

temper

distinction

of
of

such

sense

great

master,

philosophy,
will

he

his

Philosophy

rather

the

in

nor

The

reward.
with

accords

love

of
of

benefit
because

will

of

is

philosopher

that

investigations
is

will

spirit,

his

of

view
re-

falsity

or

reader

the

partisan

fail

not

ideas

and

that

but

but

agreement,

of

nor

confer

in

pass

truth
If

and

theories

the

biased
un-

mankind.

attitude

proper

their

in

will

he

the
will

examined.

things
of

and

neither

controversy,

of

theories

treatise,

candidly

between

good
The

this

and

that

These

investigations,

these

study

of

critically

be

than

philosophers.

of

speculations

interesting

more

wisdom.

an

on

of

advocate

an

that

not

independent
thinkers,

other
of

receive

divergence,
a

more

of

disciple
school

certain

thinker,

because

not

and

hearty

and

on

that
welcome.

as

of
count
ac-

CONTENTS

Chapter

PAGE

I.

The

Milesian

II.

The

Eleatic

III.
IV.

School

School

Heraclitus

and

Empedocles,

18

Pythagoras

18

Atomists.

the

Anaxagoras,

^3
...

V.
VI.

VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.

The

32

Sophists

Socrates

Immediate

and

Successors

42

Plato

53

Aristotle

63

The

Skepticism

in

Eclecticism,

Stoic

and

Epicurean

Schools.

71

Philosophy

82

Neo-Platonism,

Gnosticism.

96
.

XII.

Patristic

Philosophy.

107
.

XIII.

Scholastic

Philosophy

XIV.

Scholastic

Philosophy"

XV.

Transition

to

Modem

XVI.

Modern

Philosophy

XVII.

Modern
Modern

XVIII.

XIX.
XX.
XXI.
XXII.

117

Period

Second

127

Philosophy

142
158

Philosophy"

Metaphysical

172

Philosophy"

Enghsh

188

and

"

Hume

208

Kant

227

Fichte,

Jacobi,

Schelling

250

Hegel

267

Herbart,

XXIV.

Reid,

XXVI.

Period

Cartesian

Berkeley

XXIII.

XXV.

First

"

Hartmann

Schopenhauer,

Stewart,

Hamilton,

293

Brown

Ferrier,

Associational

280

and

McCosh.

Empirical

304

Philosophy.

321
.

XXVII.

Associational

and

Empirical

Philosophy,

(continued)
XXVIII.
XXIX.
XXX.
XXXI.

French

Later

339

Enlightenment

Reaction,

Eclecticism,

German

Philosophy

Philosophy

351

Positivism

367

Philosophy
of

Evolution

383
402

CRITICAL

HISTORY

OF

PHILOSOPHICAL

THEORIES

CRITICAL

HISTORY

PHILOSOPHICAL

THEORIES
CHAPTER

Milesian

The
Milesian

OF

School

its name
from
of Philosophy received
Miletus, the city of its chief philosophers Thales, Anaxiand Anaximines.
The
mander
Ionic Philosophy is often
term
is too generic
applied to the Milesian School; but this term
The

School

"

as

it would

include
that

from

species

of

therefore,
of the

head

philosophy

of the
same

Tlie^term

genus.

Milesian

the

two

School

are

is,

is needed.

(640-548 B. C.)" Thales of Miletus was

Milesian
Philosophers, and, in fact, he was
consent,
philosopher. Standing by common

of the

is distinct

which

School, though

Milesian

specificallywhat

of Heraclitus,

Thales

1.

Greek

the

the

the
the
at

first
first

the

Greece, the leader in philosophic

for his mathematical,
and
astronomical
speculation, noted
scientific attainments, and
for his practical sagacity and political
influence, he is to be regarded as no ordinary man.
It is said

seven

wise

men

of

curred,
ecUpse which ocaccording to the Julian calendar. May 28, 585 B. C.
The
probability,however, is that he only explained the cause
of the eclipse after its occurrence.
As
civil engineer, he
a
of the river Halys,
superintended the changing of the course
in that he
His politicalinfluence is seen
by order of Croesus.
the Milesians
dissuaded
from
with Croesus
allyingthemselves
against Cyrus.
In opposition to the poets who
explained the phenomena
of the world
by the intervention of mythical divinities,Thales
itself. He
sought for the principleof things in nature
was,
the ultimately
therefore, a natural
philosopher. He found
real, the principleof the universe, in water, which he supposed
with
The
life and
motion.
to be endowed
important part
which
of nature,
water
no
evidently plays in the economy

that

Thales

predicted

the

solar

first principle
him
in this opinion. The
doubt, confirmed
which all things are generated.
V ^PXVf is that from
It is not

probable,

as

Aristotle conjectured, that

0

Thales

was

PHILOSOPHICAL

10

THEORIES

led to this view by the old mythological notion of the poets.

and Hesiod, who
had ascribed
the originof all things
Homer
and

Oceanus

to

Tithys, or because the gods swear

by water,
is
in
proceeding
opposition to mythology. His

for his whole

based
the observation
of facts; but that water
on
theory was
is the principleof things, that it is the living and life-giving
ening
principle,affordingby its motions, its modifications, its thickand
less
thinning, a satisfactoryexplanation of the countfor a moment,
be enterof nature, cannot,
tained,
phenomena
though it plays no unimportant part.
the theory of Thales
then can
be regarded as philoHow
sophical?
Not
because
it gave
a true
nomena
explanation of the pheof nature,
but because
in discarding
of its right methods,
the mythical, and
in seeking a natural explanation
of things,and because
of its aim in attempting to reduce
tiplicity
multo unity and
complexity to simplicity. The spirit
is truly philosophical;for philosophy
of the theory of Thales
of reason
mental
in the discovery of those fundais the employment
which give unity and harmony to thought.
principles
of phenomena
and
It goes back
to their conditions
cause.
Science classifies phenomena,
and defines the classes,
names

and

discovers

phenomena
2.

verifies the

and

laws

according to

which

the

occur.

lived

^Anaximander

(610-547.)

Anaximander

"

at

letus,
Mi-

Thales, though younger.

influential thinker, pre-eminent for
was
a
profound
his geographical,mathematical, and astronomical
knowledge.
minate,
is
of
that
the
too deterBelieving
principle Thales,
water,
and

with

contemporary

was

He

and

since any

definite

conceiving

that

mander
requires explanation, Anaxiitself
ground of all things must

form

the

be without

form, yet boundless, and

from
itself of any
form, or

ri
to

be

TO

dpxy, the
aTreipav,

indeterminate.
unbounded

even

permittingthe
opposite forms,

origin,first principle,or
the

The

space,

thus

essence

of

aration
sepsumed
as-

things

unbounded,
or
be
however,
pure

infinite, unlimited,
r6

which

aweipov
cannot

cannot,
be the originof any

thing; it

substance, analogous to ether,

must, therefore, be unbounded
from which
opposite elements, as hot and cold, moist and dry,
are
separated in the work of creation.
The

held

apxVy

to

be

or

original

formless

essence,

matter,

as

Anaximander

distinct

from

probably
particular

11

indeterminate, unbounded

be

It must

of matter.

kinds

SCHOOL

MILESIAN

THE

stance,
sub-

and
eternal, not
original,uncreated
hausted
exTo assume
it
in the production of the universe.
would
be to assume
the
produced by something back of itself,
is a contradiction.
not the first,which
first principle
this first principle to be
that if we
It is evident
assume
with intelligence
and endowed
and
instead of matter,
spirit,
a7r"ipov,

TO

have

will,we

God

the

of Theism.

held that

Anaximander

after the universe

collapse and return to its former

will develop, as in the past, and
which
again,an eternal repetend.
of the

thousand

t6

one

of

Spinoza,

Milesian

Philosophers.

was

He

on,

which

the

of Kant
most

for

sought

condition,
and

over

is the
he

over

alent
equiv-

called Deus

anticipated,by

apxv

hypothesis

thinker, Anaximander

so

Anaximander,

of the

evolution
the nebular

years,

of

airtipov,

substance

The

vel Natura.
As

or

apxVf

its course,

run

nebular

it will

The

has

the

and

two

La

Place.

profound

of the

foundation

of

itself without
foundation, and therefore
was
things, which
and eternal.
It is evident that something, other than
original
be originaland eternal, otherwise
and time, must
there
space
would have been any other reality,
and time
save
never
space
themselves.
3.

(588-524.) Anaximines

Anaximines

rejectedwater, the

"

determinate, also to
principle of Thales, as too
aTrupav,
the principleof Anaximander
too
indeterminate, and asas
sumed
air as the first principle. His system may,
therefore,
be regarded as
the
compromise between
a
philosophy of
Thales

and

that

Anaximines

by

condensation

of Anaximander.

held

that

by rarification air became

wind, clouds, water,

air to be the substance

by
be

such
a

air.

words

as

^vxv^

great circle,having thickness

The

thesis of Thales

thus

combined

and

rocks, metals.

of mind

irvevfrn.

the

fire, and

The
or

or

He

sidered
con-

indicated
spirit,
as

earth

he

believed

depth, floatingon

antitheses

in the

to

the

of Anaximander

If water
synthesisof Anaximines.
is too definite,air is so too, only perhaps, in a less degree.
4.
lesian,
Diogenes of Apollonia (478-428.) Though not a Mito residence, Diogenes accepted Air, the principle
as
of Anaximines, as the first principle,
and held it to be intelligent;
but this is implicitin the view of Anaximines, that air
were

"

PHILOSOPHICAL

12

is

the

of

substance

air,

to

of

theory

of

continued

Remarks

its

be

can

regarded

as

need

it

was

did.
Mind

The

to

Its

of

point

principle
beginning

which

no

reason

4.

It

it

well

have

would

best
is

to

has

and

great

principle,

material,

explain
truly

suppose

interest

which

it

did,

afterwards
to

the

it

as

the

left

or

later,

phenomena.

philosophical
that

NoOs,

decided

be

to

ground,

assumed

spirit

minate,
deter-

too

are

higher

assume

as

Neither

Anaximines,'

of

The

on

Anaxagoras

one

physical,
2.

they

for.

to

matter

phenomena

was

that

for

rests

philosophy
is

air,

accounted

as

Milesian

of

departure

principle;

might

The

philosophers.
nor

necessary

He

Milesian

principle.

philosophy.

explanation

first
be

between

there

though
first

later

ism
Spiritual-

1.

mythical

Thales,

the

Spirit,

or

alternative

according

of

to

not

Anaximander

8.

the

see

School,

Anaximander,

airupav,

though

the

first

between

day,

natural

were

principle

of

is

the

philosophers

and

that

the

we

present

Milesian

natural.

the

of

the

water,

the

discarded

favor

and

the

to

on

philosophy
in

Here

things.

the

with

is

spirit,

or

gence
intelli-

Materialism.

and
5.

Novs,

other

of

assignment
conflicts

substance,
that

all

of

The

spirit.

or

Anaxagoras,

conflict

mind

material

originator

or

THEORIES

found

in
the

beginning

aim,
real
of

CHAPTER

Eleatic

The

ides, and

Parmen-

Xenophanes,

were

Samos

of

Melissus

Zeno.

School

of this school

philosophers

The

II

was

adherent

an

and

original philosopher.
the founder
1.
(circ.5721-480.) Xenophanes,
Xenophanes
of Colophon,
native
of the Eleatic
city of
a
a
philosophy, was
school, though

of this

supporter

not

an

"

in

Ionia,

Minor.

Asia

In

of

consequence

the

Persian

quest
con-

left Colophon,
and
traveled
Xenophanes
as
a
rhapsodist through the cities of Greece, and finally
Elea
this
Italy. From
Elea, a city in Southern

of Ionia,

poet and

in

settled

derived

philosophy
held
Xenophanes

school

of

and

gods

that

its

is

"there

God

one

mortals

resembling

men,

name.

in

Accordingly he sharply criticised

of the
conception
gods,
anthropomorphic
in the

as

in the

faults, and
ridicule

of

would

make

would

make

likeness

this

view:

other

of their

not

eyes

not

was

gods

black

and

red
for

he

said, in

paint, they

likeness
He

and

hair.

resented
rep-

human

by

like oxen."

gods

were

He

could

in their

Atheist,

an

Hesiod,

lions

oxen

their

blue

prevailing
popular

characterized

and

in

nor

in

who

immoralities.

oxen

make

"Ethiopians
Thracians
give them
Xenophanes
was
he

base

like horses,

them

God;

"If

and

and

men,

of

pictures

the

fact:

supreme

of

guilty

were

of Homer

poetry

form

the

mind."

mythology,

among

supreme

neither

^horses

"

said, in

snub-nosed;

"

speaks

of the

one

Polytheist, for he considered

the

so-called

He
Pantheist, since he
gods, mythical.
was
a
denied
the plurality of gods, and
affirmed
that the universe,
the phenomenal
universe
essential
but the unchangeable,
not

universe,
of

is itself the

exalting the

agility,above
done,
the

when

their
in

boxer, the

above

the

Divine

He
Being.
physical qualities of
intellectual

public assemblies,

and
the

condemned
men,

as

or

public
18

strength

moral

attainments,

victor

in athletic

wrestler, the runner,is assigned the

philosopher

the

benefactor.

seat

tom
cus-

and
as

games,

of honor

is

14

PHILOSOPHICAL

THEORIES

Xenophanes held that philosophy is reasonable

opinion,
rather
than
certain
In
only probability,
knowledge.
common
with all the Eleatic philosophers,his thoughts were
concerned
with
the antitheses, being and
and
the
not-being, the one
and the changeable, the universal and
the permanent
many,
the particular,assigningrealityto being, the one, the permanent,
the universal, and
denying it to not-being, the many,
the changeable, the particular.
Greater
importance was
assigned to the principlesof reason
the Eleatic philhence
than to the deliverances of the senses;
osophy
is dialectical,logical,metaphysical, rather than
sational
senand empirical.
Ex
nihil
held to the truth of the axiom:
Xenophanes
nihil Jit,regarding it as self-evident that nonentity has no
truth.
of generation,which
He
is an incontrovertible
power
of unchangeable substance,
maintained
that being,in the sense
is the principleof the universe, the ultimately real, and that
As
change is not-being, the unreal.
being is unchanging
and
substance, void space is not being, is in fact, inconceivable
impossible.
the
be
also held that whatever
Xenophanes
apparent
the
in
the
the
changes
phenomenal world,
permanent,
one,
the unchangeable unity, is the only real,the essential universe,
the principleof all things,the ultimate and the absolute being,
from everlastingto everlasting. This view, changed
the same
from
the
the pantheisticto the theistic conception, expresses
holds
highest Christian thought of the present day. Theism
that God
is the ground of the universe, though distinguishable
from it,while pantheism maintains
that the universe itself is
in the unity of its essential being.
God
The
ultimate realityis,without
doubt, unchangeable in its
though it is not inactive, since it is the eternal First
essence,
The phenomenal
Cause whose energy
produced the universe.
be regarded as non-existent; for
though changeable, cannot
if non-existent
Eleatic philosophy
it could not change.
The
failed to explainchange, and, therefore, denied its reality,
but
the fact of change is not disproved by its denial.
the most
Parmenides
2.
nowned
re(cir.520-440.) Parmenides,
held in
of the philosophers of the Eleatic school, was
high esteem
by Plato, and greatly venerated by the thinkers
of antiquity. He may
be regarded as
the metaphysician of
"

ELEATIC

THE
School.

the Eleatic
which

the

to

became

to

15

Unchangeable being, the one

only reality
of Xenophanes, was
a
poetic conception,

mind

the

SCHOOL

mind

of Parmenides,

by reason.
Parmenides, therefore, dwelt

on

truth

necessary

the

distinction

hended
appre-

between

not-being, regarding it as self-evident that being

the unchangeable, the immutable,
is the true, the permanent,
the principle,
not simply pictured by the imagination,but apprehended
the necessary
at once,
as
by the reason
reality,
while not-being is apprehended as the false, the transitory,
The
the changeable, the mutable, the unreal.
phenomenal,
It is the business
of
however, is not refuted by its denial.
for the phenomenal, not
to deny its
philosophy to account
reality.
is known
from
his poem
The
philosophy of Parmenides
of
which
has been
"Concerning Nature," a fragment
served.
preand

being

The

Truth/'

consists

poem

of two

parts, the first

"

ing
Concern-

the second

''Relatingto Opinion.''
Parmenides
represents himself as going in pursuit of truth
in a chariot drawn
by impetuous horses, symbols of the passions,
escorted by the nymphs of the sun, symbols of the senses.
At length he reaches
the goddess of justice
two
gates where
and truth stood with keys and opened the gates, the one
the
the other to that of darkness.
to the path of light,
entrance
first path is the way
The
of reason
leading to truth, to being,
the constant, the real;the second
path is the way of the senses
leading to falsehood, to not-being,the variable,the unreal, the
non-existent.
It is

fails.
right here that the philosophy of Parmenides
The
real is not necessarilythe unchangeable; it may
be either
of the three angles of a plane
The
variable.
constant
or
sum
of the
two
triangleis the constant
rightangles,while the sum
sides is a variable that may
its
have
the limlength between
any
and infinity;
of the sides,though variable,
but the sum
zero
is no less real than the sum
of the angles though constant.
According to Parmenides, the changeable, the phenomenal

universe

of the

how

it

can

The
the

change?
truth

does

not

exist;but if it has

no

existence,

It is not

is,the

though
its ground and

senses,

finds

senses

not

able.
being, if being is the unchangephenomenal, the appearance
through

permanent,

explanationin

is real
the truth

as

it

appearance;

of

being^the

un-

PHILOSOPHICAL

16

changeable,which
its explanationin

is

THEORIES

apprehended
the

cause,

by

An

reason.

of substantial

energy

event

has

being.
changeable

Viewing the unchangeable as true being, and the

could not
reconcile the two, and
as
not-being, Parmenides
existence to the changeable. Accordingly
therefore denied
of unity, the essential real world, apprethe world
have
we
hended
and
the phenomenal, the unreal world of
by reason,
the phenomenal
the senses.
Parmenides, however, did not save
world
but annihilated
by callingit the world of appearances,
it by callingit not-being in the sense
of the non-existent; it
exists,if changeable, but is explained by the essentiallyunchangeable.
Being, not the inactive dead-head, but substance,
or
tivity,
energeticreality,involving power
capabilityof casual acis reallythe true eternal first principle.
Zeno
3.
(circ.
500-440.) Zeno was not only a philosopher,
but a patriot,and died a martyr in the defense of the libertyof
Elea, his native city. He is to be distinguished from Zeno,
"

of the Stoic

the founder

philosophy.
menides
logicianof the Eleatic school, as Parmay
its metaphysician. Parmenides
aflBrmed that
was
fore,
apprehended the unchangeable as the real,and, therebe called the

Zeno

reason

since

two

be

must

contradictories
unreal.

ductio ad absurdum
is

undertook

Zeno

of

method

both

cannot

be true, the
to

prove,

reasoning,that

the

able
changeby the rechangeable

impossible.
To

the

prove

of motion,
impossibility

the swift-footed,could never

modern
use
measurements,

To

road, the tortoise is ahead

the

length of

that both

are

Achilles

one

side of

running

he said that

slow-going tortoise.
let us assume
that, on a straight
of Achilles one
furlong,or 40 rods,
and
field containing 10 acres,
square
overtake

the

in the direction from

running

Achilles,

10 times

as

fast

as

Achilles to the tortoise,

When
the tortoise.

Achilles has reached

there, but
reached

is

that

ahead, and
tortoise is

1/10

the first position of the tortoise it is not

Achilles has
of a furlong ahead, and when

second

when

position of the tortoise, it is 1/100 fur.

Achilles

has

reached

that

third

the
position,

fore,
infinitum; therethe tortoise;
in finite time, Achilles never
could overtake
but as he does overtake
it,and could actuallypass it,we have
here a contradiction, on the supposition that motion
is real;

hence

1/1000 fur.

motion

is not

ahead

real.

Let

and

us

so

see:

on

ad

CHAPTER

Heraclitus

III

and

Pythagoras

These

be conveniently
treated
philosophers can
chapter.
They are not directly related, though
as

the

founder

1.

Heraclitus
born

was

son,

descendant

embodiment

and

(circ.535-475.)
Ephesus, and

at

system.
Heraclitus,

each

same

stands

"

of noble

was

founder

the

Androclus,

of

hereditary

of

in the

chief

the

son

of

Bly-

He
family.
was
of Ephesus.
His
resigned in favor

magistracy he
of his
himself
brother
devote
the
that
he might
to
younger
study of philosophy, despairing also of accomplishing
thing
anyof the corruptions of the people.
for the state
account
on
Heraclitus
for the opposition to the Eleatic
stands
School,
and

right

therefore
and
The

and

affirmed

the

could

therefore

the

and

the

and

took
we

day

on

reconcile

denied

the

is the

to

attempt

in the

vicissitudes

the

denied

the
the

unceasing
of

as

rocks,

internal

able,
changefor

able.
unchangepermanent
permanent,

change,
and

summer

denied.

non-existent.

the

reconcile

firmed,
af-

took

They

night, growth and decay.

Unceasing
in everything, though
different
rates.
at
have

and

permanent

not-heing,

He
changeable.
for his principle Becoming,
in nature,

Eleatics

the

permanent,

changeable

Eleatics

the

changeable.

the

that

Heraclitus

permanent,
never

which

therefore

see

and

did

which

permanent,

changeable,

not

principle Being,
They called the

Neither

as

the

denied

Eleatics

their

to

such

winter,

change is
Things

activities

ing
goparently
ap-

which

cease.

therefore
Becoming, the principle of Heraclitus, seems
more
than
to
perfectly to represent the universe, as it appears
us,
is
however,
Being, the principle of the Eleatics.
Becoming,

known

ness,
and
by consciousempirically, through the senses,
is not
and
of all
Back
therefore
principle of reason.
a
the First
be something
change there must
Cause,
permanent,
the
First
The
Cause,
origin of the changing.
though essentially
to

us

immutable,

in its

is not

essence,
18

therefore

dormant,

but

ceaseless

by

PYTHAGORAS

AND

HERACLITUS

is carrying forward

energy

19

the universe

to its final

be the first principle.

Change, however, cannot

Motion
be as
Every change requires a cause.
may
natural to a body as rest, and therefore needs no explanation;
in velocityor direction,
but every
change in motion, whether
The
explanationof every change is found
requiresa cause.
of substantial
the essential energy
in cause,
being. Change,
and
known
therefore, being phenomenal
by experience,needs
be the first principle,
the true
to be accounted
for, and cannot
universal.
As
an
evient, any
change needs
explanation.
first principleis,therefore, not change, but cause,
which
The
and manifests
is apprehended by reason
or
as
efficiency,
energy
itself in every
movement
as
energeticbeing. The principle
which
of being itself,is the energy
of change, and even
tains
mainits own
the
existence and the stability,the order, and
of the universe.
Cause
is,therefore, a deeper first
harmony
principlethan the material sensibles of the Milesians, or the
In
being of the Eleatics, or the becoming of Heraclitus.
reach the true
cause
we
explanation of change.
His principleof incessant
change and his love of paradox
led Heraclitus
of the same
to affirm contraries
object,as that
Thus, to test this
a
instant,is not.
thing is and at the same
hypothesis,let water at the freezingpoint be subjected to heat
consummation.

and

call the states

would

Let

so

so

If A

not-B

is not- A

is C, then

tillthe water

on

on.

subject this

us

logic:
and

say:

is (7,and

not-B

of temperature. A, B, C, etc., then Heraclitus

A is not- A, and not- A is B; B is not-B, and

and

at

the

and
B

of

process
not- A

is C, and

boils.

Then

thought

is jB,then
since A

little

vigorous

is B; if B

is 5, then

is not-B
is C, and

is freezingand

the water

instant, has

same

to

all intermediate

ing,
boil-

tures
tempera-

The

law

object, at
A, but

of

thought

the

time,

same

conflictives
forbids

and

no

of

thought

forbids

the

cannot

exist in the

affirmation

that

same

is

saying that not- A is B,

Diverse attributes may
exist in the same
object at the same
time, but not conflictive attributes,since they would destroy
each
other.
A body may
be both
spherical and red at the
same
time, but can not be at the same
instant, both spherical
not-

law

that

us

cubical.

Heraclitus

uttered

many

profound truths,

as:

"A

man's

PHILOSOPHICAL

20

"

"Wisdom

is his fate."

character

should

of wisdom

Lovers

THEORIES
is the

foremost

virtue."

"

know

things.
Many
mythical stories

many

Pythagoras (circ.580-500.)
reliable
clingabout the life of Pythagoras, but from the most
accounts, those given by Philolaus, a Pythagorean and a contemporary
of Socrates, and by Aristotle,and later by Sextus
2.

"

that

learn

Empiricus, we

he

the

was

of

son

Mnesarchus,

in Samos, one
of the
was
engraver.
fertile of the islands of the Aegean Sea.
most
He

born

for twelve

he traveled

an

principaland
At

the age

of

Ionia, Phoenicia,
visiting
settled at Crotona, in Magna
and probably Egypt, and finally
Graecia, or Southern
Italy,where he founded a school of philosophy
He taught mathematics, physics,astronomy,
and
twenty

years,

morals.

According

to

Heraclitus, Pythagoras

of his time.

man

but

stillknown

theorem,

hypotenuse of a
squares of the other
he offered

Gods.

In

it to the rank

discoveries

mathematical

many

introduced

Thales

Pythagoras raised

among

the most

was

geometry
of

into Ionia,

science.

which

learned
He

the

The square
Pythagorean:
righttriangleis equivalentto the sum
as

sides.

hecatomb

In honor

of

oxen

as

of this
a

made

is the celebrated

of the
of the

discovery,it is said,

sacrifice to the

immortal

Pythagoras, or more
probably his
which
taught the theory of a central fire around
successors,
the heavenly bodies includingthe sun
revolved
and the earth.
In his school at Crotona, Pythagoras not only taught mathematics
and astronomy
and philosophy, but inculcated the
importance of seeking for physicaland mental perfection,and
of cultivatingthe art of self-control,
and upgood manners,
right
moral
Silence

meetings
all the
terms

astronomy,

character.
for

one

of the

year

societyand

members.
of

was

Women

equality with

men,

requiredof the novitiate in the

was
a rigiddiscipline
imposed on
were
a

admitted

remarkably

to

his school

advanced

on

step for

that

early age.
Pythagoras

therefore,a social,moral

and

reformer,
political
but the aristocratic character of his society,its secret
methods
and
wide-spread influence, excited suspicion,and
aroused the hostility
of the common
people. The societywas
broken up by a mob, and its members
dispersed. Pythagoras
he
where
went
to Metapontum
spent the rest of his life in

was,

comparative quiet.

HERACLITUS

AND

PYTHAGORAS

21

Pythagoras have been obscured by legends;

still derive, from
the most
disregardingthe myths, we may
reliable sources,
a
fairlycorrect
knowledge of his doctrines.
for the order of the universe, Pythagoras assumed
To account
relations
the first principle. Mathematical
number
are
as
to afford explanation of the order
found everywhere, and seem
of the universe, which
is, therefore, a cosmos
abounding in
harmony and proportion. Even morals were
represented by
Thus
stood
for justice which
a
geometric symbols.
square
throw
expression, 'I will do it on
light on the modern
may
his mathematical
and
the square,
principlesstood for moral
arithmetical
His
first principles were,
truths.
however,
the properties,even
rather than geometrical,perhaps because
of geometric forms, were
tially
expressed by ratio, which is essennumber.
is
number, which
Pythagoras thus conceived
present in all things,to be a truer first principlethan water, or
indeterminate
air,the principlesof the Milesians.
matter,
or
of reason,
instead of a material
A principle
principle,was
sumed
asof the universe.
the explanation of the phenomena
as
of

doctrines

The

''

"

that

It is evident, however,
of

essence

is the

number

ought

groups

If the

same.

be

to

take

Thus

things.

for the

peculiarityof
of

ten

does

horses

number

not

and

is the

anything whatever;

the

The

the

essence

is not

the

two
case.

difference,nor

it affords

nation
expla-

no

essence.

as
Pythagoras regarded number
consistingof two
the one
and the many,
elements, unity and plurality,

and

the

trees.

ten

for the

account

constitute

not

essentiallyalike, which

therefore, does

Number,

number

Take

indefinite.

the

number

Now

ten.

parts

or

the limit
ten

is

one

three tens, nor

of tens,
tens, nor
any other number
consists of ten units, and
but one
this
ten
ten, yet this one
is true of five or two; but
constitutes
its plurality. The
same
when
the element
down
to one,
come
we
usuallypluralreaches

ten, not

two

into its limit

Take
1

as

one.

numbers

standing for

surface
that

the

or

1, 2, 3, 4.

point

triad, 4 for

or

the

monad,

solid

or

decad.

The

Pythagoreans regarded

2 for

tetrad.

Unity

line

or

They
in

duad,

8 for

also

noticed

multiplicity is,
therefore, the key to the Pythagorean philosophy.
The
remarkable
Pythagoreans discovered
properties
many
of numbers.
the strikingrelations subsistingbetween
Thus
14-2+3+4

=10

PHILOSOPHICAL

22

the

three

the

second

of

series
the

1, 2,

discovered

4,

6,

5,

7,

1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11,

odd

Any
natural
and

16,

9,

by

square

number,

by

or

also

minds,

As

What
first
If

have

bers
num-

the

of

square

corresponding

from

corresponding

the

the

product;

natural

any

odd

which

souls,

ber,
num-

number

the

to

word

could

found

taken
in

say,

has

thus

remarkable

as

received.

he

of

that

so,

to

far, worthy

and

when

opinion,

his

the

closed

Ipse

versy.
contro-

taken

be

to

and

man,

authority,

support

said

the

fascinating

veneration

the

from

adopted

evidence.

was

was

metempsychosis,

though

valid

by

worthy

his

he

doctrine,

supported

well

of

doctrine

Pythagoras

we

.n^

100..

as

the

principle.^
we

add

First

Cause
be
of

intelligence,

energy,
to

or

cannot

number

81,

is the

this

is, Pythagoras

Anaximander,
the

of

followers

that

dixit,

these

.n

subtracting

accepted

disciples

his

of

numbers,

Write

multiplying

by

the

but

was

his

Among

square

number.

is not

he

morally

64,

that

philosopher,

any

2,

mysteries;

many

numbers,

19...2n-l

17,

49,

and

transmigration

Orphic

natural

the

them.

10..

9,

15,

36,

square

Pythagoras

8,

13,

adding

preceding

the

third

by

is found

number

is found
next

25,

number

any

the

3,

1, 4,

first

the

numbers,

first

follows

as

the

numbers,

odd

probably

were

THEORIES

or

the

Being

principle

found

Pythagoras.

in

the

of

of
all

change

and

will

the

Eleatics,

things;
of

to

but

the
we

the

Heraclitus,

Infinite

find

may

first
nor

of

ple
princiin

the

IV

CHAPTER

the Atomists

Empedocles, Anaxagoras,

native
of
Empedocles,
a
Empedocles (circ.490-430.)
descendant
of a noble
a
family,
Agrigentum, in Sicily, was
attainments
of imposing personality and varied
and
man
a
a
physician, a philosopher, a prophet, a magician.
1.

"

"

He

won

chariot

as

race,

his

had

father, Meton,

done

before

gained great popularity by his liberality and

All eyes
of the rights of the people.
turned
were
wherever
the Olympic
him
he appeared, as
at
games,
and
Delphic crown.
a
priestly robes, a golden girdle,
him.

He

His

love

human,

of distinction
be

to

worshipped

worker, and
a

banquet

the

desire
a

god,
to

currency

that

he

be

to

led

accounted
him

age,

with

cle
mira-

story that

he cast

that

as

on

than

more

to pose

mythical

the

in his old

in order

Etna,

believe

of

as

in his honor,

of Mt.

end, might
blaze

gave

given

crater

and

vocacy
ad-

himself

after
into

knowing his
the gods in a
said, betrayed

people, not
transported to

was

it is
however,
glory.
his secret
sandals.
the fact
But
by casting forth his brazen
that such
human
that he was
and
a
reported shows
story was
he
notoriously vain.
possessed great talents
Undoubtedly
and in moral
be ranked
his vanity, he may
with
character, save
Heraclitus
and
Pythagoras.
The
schools
to the
classing of Empedocles, with reference
of philosophy has given rise to considerable
discussion.
His
"On
in an
Nature"
intermediate
to
seems
place him
poem
He
the
Milesians
and
the Eleatics.
held,
position between
opinions resembling certain other schools, though,
moreover,
shall
he had
as
we
original views of his own.
see,
Instead
of a singleprinciple,as water
air of the Milesians,
or
he assumed
four elements
To
account
fire,air, water, earth.
for change, the four elements
be
moved
supposed to
by
were
the two
love
which
and
forces,
hatred,
Empedocles
probably
The

volcano,

"

regarded

as

attributes

elements.

of the

Love

union, organization; hatred

four

is exhibited
in

elements,

and

not

in attraction,

as

ditional
ad-

concord,
discord,
repulsion,
separation,

dissolution.
23

PHILOSOPHICAL

24

With

THEORIES

Empedocles placed a low estimate on the

alone gives true
holding that reason
senses,
differed from them
in admitting the reality

the Eleatics,

deliverances

knowledge,
of change,

of the
but

he

elements

in the

not

separation, and

and

themselves, but
in the

in their

bination
com-

of bodies.

movement

Empedocles held that the knowing subject, and the known

be of like nature
object must
an
assumption that has exerted
a powerful influence
on
speculation from his time to the present.
Like, according to Empedocles, is perceived by like.
We
know
of an
external
internal cognate
an
object by means
nature, as external fire by internal fire,and so on for the other
"

elements,

things
a

hot

and

act

cold

powerfully

more

fact, however,

The

mixtures.

on

body affecteach other

each

other

more

than

is that
than

like
un-

like, as

hot bodies

two

cold.

two

or

their

or

explained perception by

Empedocles

little

images coming

the objects perceived through the senses.

effluxes, from
as
efflux takes place, one
of vision, a two-fold
In case
from the

object to the eye, the

perceived image is the
The

from

other

result of the

of smell

and

the

eye

meeting
result

the

to

object, the

of the two

from

streams.

the

penetration
of the senses.
His exinto the organs
planation
particlesof matter
the beginning of
of perception, though crude, was
the theory of the knowledge of external objects, and
entitles
Empedocles to be called the first psychologist.
His
most
interestingspeculation, however, relates to the
love combining the fit elements,
originof plants and animals
and
hate separating the unfit unions, leaving the rare
binations
comsensations

taste

of

"

of parts suitable

to

of Darwin's

in illustration

other, somewhat

each

of the

of the

survival
fittest.
theory
of
the transheld
the
migration
Pythagoras, Empedocles
theory
of souls, and with Xenophanes,
he objected to the
anthropomorphic conception of the gods, as presented in the
to be a
popular mythology of the poets. He declared God
without
body or members; but he did not develop
spirit,
pure
With

the

theistic view
of the

cause

of all
it is to

be

an

the Noi)?,or

as

universe,

things by

admitted

philosophy

of God

impulse,

did

Anaxagoras,

of his power.
Empedocles, by his

the

that

as

reason,

and

word

hastened

or

as

or

as

the

cient
effi-

the upholder

Nevertheless,

originality,
gave

its evolution.

THEORIES

PHILOSOPHICAL

26
To

for the

account

gent
Anaxagoras postulatedan intelli-

cosmos,

principle,
vovs, mind,
The

the

mixed

and

future, reduced

mass.

or

vov^

separate from the fuyfjua

knowing all things,past, present
reason,

the chaos

to cosmos,

arrangingeverything
originalelements were

The
design according to reason.
tillthe solid earth,
thus separatedand rearranged with fitness,
collected together,
the water, the air,and the fieryether were
all in their proper
places;and organic beings of the vegetable
with life
and animal
produced and endowed
kingdoms were
and mind
According to the Atomaccording to their rank.
of unlike elements,
formed by the combination
was
ists,the cosmos
but according to Anaxagoras by the separation of unlike
of the like,brought about
elements, and the combination
by the action of the vov":.
off from the earth by its rapid rotation,
thrown
Stars were
The
is
and
sun
ignitedby passing through the fieryether.
than
the
and
the
much
stars,
larger
a fiery
shining
moon,
mass,
is
habitable
the
from
borrowed
with light
a
world, having,
sun,
bodies
and
and
of water.
mountains
like the earth,
valleys,
the vovs
transcendent
a
being who
Anaxagoras makes
with

formed

the

from

cosmos

plan, but
mechanical
this he

hypothesis of

and

design in

with

acted

as

to have

and

natural

says:

order

laws; and

nevertheless

predecessors.

openly

maintained

of

the

Now

these

man

said that

which
intelligence

an

preserved his

of his

When

is

universe, this

reason,

know

we

man

in the midst
that

tional
ra-

physicaland
for

praises

an

"

in animals,

arrangement

it to

originalintelligent
cause,
the
and
cosmos
forming
giving to

Aristotle

order.

in nature,

seems

abandon

by Aristotle,who

censured

was

to

design,accordingto

acting according to

causes,

for the

him

then

who

with

chaos

which
it law

there

cause

was

of the

alone

peared
ap-

of the follies

Anaxagoras

first

views."

Anaxagoras regard the vovs as material or as spiritual?

Probably he regarded it as the finest and purest kind of matter
stance
as
certainlydid Archelaus, his disciple. But by making subthe genus
of which
and spiritare
the species,
matter
Did

we

are

saved

confusion.

from

Matter

is substance, mechanically

inert and

with
impenetrable; spiritis substance endowed
a
nd
manifested
in thought, feeling
intellect, sensibility
will,
and
No

volition.

system
cause

of
as

philosophy
an

efficient

explain change
principle.

can

without

tulating
pos-

ANAXAGORAS,

EMPEDOCLES,
In the
inherent

Ionic

school

of matter

property

condensation.

vital

In the

THE

ATOMISTS

force, or life,was
to

assumed

as

for its rarification

account

Eleatic

27

far

school, so

an
or

being, or unas
changeableness, was
only reality,no cause,
active
for its actuality;
account
to
was
principle,
or
required
for apparent changbut even
the Eleatics admitted
some
cause
es.
Becoming, or the continued
change of the Heraclitean
for its explanation. Number
of the
system, requires cause
Pythagorean system, though expressing the proportion of
for change, which,
things, did not account
they admitted,
Earth, air,fire and water, the four elements
requirescause.
acted on by love and hatred, causgiven by Empedocles, were
ing
union
and
Atomists
supposed their
separation. The
and
endowed
with the forces of attraction
atoms
repulsion.
of
mony
the harthe efficient cause
Anaxagoras assumed
vovs
as
and the changes in the universe.
Really, according to
all the schools, cause
is the first principle;it is their common
considered

as

the

essential element.
The

system

it does,

Anaxagoras is reallydualistic, assuming, as

principles the fuyfjia and the vov"s, the vovs
the /Aty/^a, and
it
operating on
apart from

of

two

"

transcendent,
from

without.

more

tenable

in

view

of

immanence

The
and

is consistent

sustainingand controlingthe

the
with

cosmos.

of energy
exerted by the vovs, we
have
2.
The
Atomists.
Leucippus and
"

principalphilosophers of
founder, and

the
the

Democritus,

490(1) lucucippus(circ.
and
atoms.
principles space
"

Atomic

parts.

is

indivisable

an

The

atomic

that bodies
that

of

The

are

made

half

into

into eighths,and
atomic

that

on

points

Monism.

Theistic

Democritus

the

were

Leucippus,

"

or

ad

conceives

the

first
from

out
in all directions, withthe

by
that

can

is the

of atoms.

halves
so

Calling atoms

"

of matter

up

continuity, asserts

halves, each
fourth

theory

action

expositor.
two
) Leucippus assumed
Space by itself,apart

solid, one

its continued

school

atoms, is an infinite void, or extension

limit. An
atom
as
seen
[ara/xos],
its name,

is, however,

vovs

body
fourths

The

derivation

not

be

theory

which

serts
as-

theory,

be

divided

of the

whole,

can

into

cut

counter

of

into
each

infinitum.

whatever
the atom,
theory
without
magnitude, as a perfect solid, entirelyfilling,
the volume
enclosed
vacant
or
by its surface.
spaces,

be

its

pores,

This

PHILOSOPHICAL

28

THEORIES

without
regards atoms
as
qualitative diflferences
but as possessingquantitativedifferences of magnitude, form,
These
theories correspond to the
two
order, position,motion.
the arithmetical
of regarding quantity
and
the
two
ways
discontinuous, and the passage
are
geometrical. Numbers
is jper saltum, but a geometrical
number
from one
to another
The
is,
magnitude, as a line, is continuous.
question now
of these conceptions will best explain the constitution
which
also

theory

"

of bodies?

consider four:
we
regard to the limits of divisibility,
may
is
reached
when
limit
have
we
^practical
pulverized a body,
fine
into
it
as
by grinding
parts as possible by any mechanical
The physicallimit is the molecule,
within our
means
power.
In

The

which

chemical

The

body.

divided

be

cannot

limit is zero.

To

without

atom, two
of the molecule.
this take

understand

pores,

changing

limit is the

elements

the ultimate

are

without

which,

however

The
it is nothing.
atom,
is divisible in thought however

otherwise

have

the

the
or

metaphysical

atom

solid matter

as

small, has
small

of which

more

The

though

of the

nature

not

magnitude,
sible,
actuallydivi-

it may

be, since it

Its half, therefore, has magnimagnitude.

tude,
and is divisible in thought, likewise its fourth, its eighth,
of division
and so on ad infinitum. The parts, as the process
is continued, continually decreasing and
approaching zero
which
their
finitesi
reach, are therefore inlimit,
as
they can never
since an
infinitesimal is a decreasing variable
must

whose

some

limit is

zero.

is that its ultimate

latest theory of matter
electrical points thus displacingthe solid atom

The
are

"

positive and

negative,

the

probable constituent

elements

electrons,

elements

of

matter.

of Abdera, the
(2) Democritus
(circ.
470-380) Democritus
extensive traveler, a
discipleand friend of Leucippus was
an
"

voluminous
time.

writer, and

of the

one

most

learned

of his

men

applied it in
theory
explaining both physical and mental phenomena.
According
ultimate
of
all things
the
to this theory, atoms
are
components
and
themselves
eternal.
uncaused, and therefore
are
They
are

in

He

motion;

necessary
on

elaborated

account

and

hence
eternal.

the

atomic

space,

Atoms

of their minuteness

as

and

the
are

condition
infinite

of

motion,

in number,

being infinitesimal

in

is

but

size,do

ANAXAGORAS,

EMPEDOCLES,

THE

ATOMISTS

29

completely fillall space, as proved by the fact of their motion.

their
the
various
bodies
interactions,
they produce
By
formed
Solids are
of the universe.
which,
by rough atoms
held
in
their
are
clingingtogether,
firmly
places. Liquids are
which
composed of smooth, round atoms
freelymove
among
not

themselves.

In

rather

than

atoms.

The

earth

meeting

of two

action

the

gases,

attractive.

between

The

the

soul is

atoms

composed

is

pellent
re-

of finer

supposed to be round, not like a ball,

the air.
but flat like a great wheel, floatingon
the structure
of the human
To
Democritus
body was
an
object of great admiration, yet he assigned a higher value to
the soul, which
nute
consisted of smooth, round, exceedingly miparticlesof fire, distributed through the whole body,
and is replenished by the act of breathing. The
particular
activities of the soul have their location in specialorgans
of
He
did
the body.
Empedocles, by the
explained sight, as
was

of

streams

from

effluxes,one

the

eye

towards

In the other
the object,the other from the object to the eye.
perception arises through the sensations caused by the
senses,
of the effluxes with

contact

The

the organs.

brain

is the seat

of thought, the heart of affection,and the liver of desire.

Democritus
discriminated
sharply between perception and

thought,ascribingto thought

knowledge of the nature

the definition:
Philosophy is
applicationof firstprinciples.
us

true

knowledge

higher value, as alone giving

of things. This accords
with
the rational apprehension and

the

is the chief occasion

The

sensible

for all

gins
knowledge bewith sensation, and there is nothing, according to Democritus,
to be found in thought, that has not been
ever
acquired
through the senses
by the experience of sensation.
held that the soul is conscious
Democritus
long as the
as
within
soul-atoms
properly combine, in sufficient numbers,
the body, and that sleepfollows as a consequence
of the escape
of many
when
of the soul-atoms
Death
from the body.
occurs
all these atoms
have left the body, and though they still exist,
the personality is broken
up by their separation; that is, the

soul does
drawn
at

not

from

survive

hypothesis of
death, which is by no means

that

the

soul-atoms

equallytenable,

can

in which

the

leave
case

error;

This

death.

the

of

imperfectionof

is

conclusion, however,

separation of

the soul-atoms

certain; for the supposition

the

body

in

the soul would

organic

union

survive, and

is

the

THEORIES

PHILOSOPHICAL

30

personality be preserved;
soul is not disproved, even

and
if we

hence

the

grant the

immortahty of the
material hypothesis

of Democritus.
did not accept,
popular gods of mythology, Democritus
lar
yet he supposed that there are beings in the atmosphere simiin knowledge and
but superior to them
to men,
power,
hostile, and that they can
some
cause
friendly and some
left in the body
dreams
by sending effluxes to the soul-atoms
of the sleeper. These
beings,though longer lived than man,
still not immortal, as they gradually lose their soul-atoms;
are
did not know
but that these beings may
but Democritus
quire,
acin being and
well as lose,soul-atoms, and so continue
as
The

be immortal.

hence

necessity,or fate, is above all gods,

happiness consists in a serenityof mind which is best
eration
by cheerfullysubmitting to the inevitable, by mod-

Democritus
and

that

secured

held

of desire and
The

doctrines

that

well-ordered

of the

their

Atomists

Metrodorus

life.
transmitted

were

of

who

drew

through
from

the
Chios,
disciples: by
Atomic
philosophy, certain skeptical inferences bearing on
the possibilityof knowledge; by Protagoras, the sophist;by
in his victorious
Anaxarchus, who
accompanied Alexander
osophy
by Nausiphanus who instructed Epicurus in the philcareer;
of Democritus; by Lucretius, the Latin poet, who
cepted
acand forciblypromulgated the doctrines of Democritus
and
Epicurus, and who
rejoiced in deliverance from superstitions
induced through belief in the existence of the gods.
In regard to void
Democritus
disagreed with the
space,
Eleatics,who called it not-being,and asserted its impossibility,
while Democritus
and
affirmed
two
originalrealities,atoms
void space,
of atoms
assertingthat the motion
implied void
between
Of course
them
into which
they could move.
space
void
all subhas
substantial
stances,
no
being, but were
space
whether
finite
matter
spirit,swept from existence, inor
space,

Democritus
of

or

pure

extension, would

advanced

the

theory

remain.
of

perception

and

hence

In
to that of touch.
knowledge by reducing all the senses
sight,the distant object perceived is not in touch with the eye,
but lightfrom
the object,by its vibrations, comes
in contact
with the retina.
In hearing,vibrations
of the air,coming from
distant
strike
of the ear.
the drum
a
object,as a ringing bell,

ANAXAGORAS,

EMPEDOCLES,

In

getting

The

of

the

loss

waves,

to

poetry

the
An

explanation.

sound

of

and
was

not

others,

the

of

by
gain

was

the
to

produced
mocking
science.

31

is

same

true

as

the

nature,

by
voice

of

means

of

by
the

of

seized

were

intervention

phenomena
echo

the
Atomists

the

and
of

superstition
of

and

contact,

Lucretius

explanation

the

natural
of

rid

is

doctrines

The

Epicurus,

by

upon

there

course,

smell.

and

taste

as

of

touch,

ATOMISTS

THE

the

gods,

giving

reflection
of

spirit.

CHAPTER

The

Sophists

according to the literal signification

Sophists, wise men
took
of the name,
for giving
superior teachers, who
were
pay
life a success.
in the art of making
instruction
They claimed
their claim
to be practical, and
was
generally acknowledged
be just.
In a dialogue called
after his name,
to
Protagoras,
the chief of the Sophists, is represented by Plato, who
not
was
"The
undue
inclined
lesson
to give him
credit, as saying:
and
is prudence
which
I have
in
to teach
good counsel, both
The

to

respect

domestic

that

matters,

in respect

be

aright, and
thoroughly qualified to take

in

the

household

business

of

the

state."

the

man

may

his

manage

public affairs, that he may

by deed and word
part, both
This
the claim
fairly states
to

by the Sophists.
subjects taught by the Sophists, though varying somewhat
different
the
included
with
teachers,
philosophy, the
lectics,
technical
points of legal practice, and oratory, including dia-

made

The

elocution.

rhetoric, and

things, the Sophists,

popularity.
Wealthy

for

In

giving

considerable

men

young

instruction

in these

period, gained

flocked

to

their

great
lecture

of their instruction.
advantages
class or
As
teachers, the Sophists constituted
profession,
a
what
not
sect
school, as each one
taught, in his own
a
or
way,
he deemed
but as philosophers, they held to a common
proper;
in the details
of their
principle, though
diflFeringsomewhat
speculations.
A person
steps
overcallinghimself a Sophist, that is,a wise man,
the line of modesty,
and
by claiming too much, naturally
the
Thus
himself
criticism.
to
Sophist, was
name
exposes
and came
to signify a conceited
fellow,
brought into contempt,
unsound
that preferred victory to truth.
an
one
reasoner,
The
been
often
Sophists have
charged with a laxity of morals
rooms

and

to

receive

accused

of

the

corrupting

philosopher Lewes,

and

the

Grote,
32

young

the

men

of

Athens;

historian, have

but

the

vindicated

PHILOSOPHICAL

34

THEORIES

according to Democritus, this flux is phenomenal,

and there is nothing
only through the senses,
subjective,known
is known
in thought not found in sensation; but sensation
experience;no one
only to the individual himself; it is his own
else is conscious of it;but sensation is known
by mind, the real
principle.
his maxim:
is the
Man
When
Protagoras announced
the class man^
by man
measure
of the universe^he did not mean
his
and he knows
sensations.
but the individual man,
own
only
But

real.

sensation

Whatever
he

alone

as

good

seems

or

bad

the bad

to shun

judge
good
is right,but to

to him

fact

for him

is true,

and

of

experience. Each
own
good or evil. What
bad, and to seek the good

of his

is,therefore, the sole

man,

or

its truth,

know

can

has, that

man

any

is

or

seek

the bad

or

shun

to

the

This is the ethics of nature, as opposed to the

good is wrong.
ethics of society;it is egoism, not altruism.
this sensational
how
Let us
see
philosophy becomes
now
in its tendency.
critical,skepticaland immoral
Milesians

The

assumed

water,

their first principleand

air, as

by

all

indeterminate
its

things are produced; but to account

thinning,which as a change, required a
life.
who

Here,

as

or

thickening or thinning,
for this

thickeningor
they postulated

cause,

in the criticism of

believe,comes

we

to the lonians

matter,

Protagoras

The

changing phenomena you know

not
know, by the senses, the
through
senses;
you
of the changing phenomena.
You
life,but this
assume
cause
is mere
on
hypothesis, and your philosophy, founded
an
sumption,
assays

the

do

but

has

no

solid basis, and

is therefore

invalid.

You
Eleatics, Protagoras would
say:
existence,and deny change; but
being, permanent
this so-called being, which, as
by sensation know
the

To

is

you

and
what

you

cannot

able,
unchange-

explain anything; but sensation,

phenomenal, as continuallychanging, the only thing
as
be known
know, you deny. You affirm what cannot
can
the
the
of
Of
know.
reality
deny
only thing you can
avail, therefore, is your philosophy as an explanation

of the
To

dead-heady and

postulate

uni
the

the

verse.

f^

cannot

It is vain

and

preposterous.

Pythagoreans, Protagoras could say : You call number

of things. Take
three men
and three trees,
essence

the number

three, which

of the collection of

men

call one
you
to one
man,

three, expresses

the

ratio

the unit of the collection

THE
of

men,

ratio of the

the

or

and

men

the trees

the trees

are

but

cases;

which

their

The

men

numerical

are

tree, the

one

is the

The

in

same

Are

the

trees, neither
the number
three

not

does

sameness,

not

express

thing holds, in like cases,

fore,
is not, thereNumber

same

different

number

to

ratio three

It is clear,therefore,that

men.

expresses

the

To

of trees

collections the same?

identical?

their essential difference.

where

The

the two

are

35

collection

of trees.

unit of the collection

the two

SOPHISTS

things are compared.

of things, and the Pythagorean
utterly fails to explain the phenomena
essence

Heraclitus, Protagoras would

say:

of

principleof
of the

verse.
uni-

I accept your
ciple
princhange in sensations,

change, if by change you mean

only change we know
anything about; but as a
to hold to a principleof life,symbolized
Hylozoist, you seem
of change; but cause
is not known
sation,
by fire,as the cause
by senand is,therefore,not known
at all.
To
Your
elements,
Empedocles, Protagoras would
say:
earth, water, air, fire,you suppose
to be actuated
by love or
hatred in combining or separating. You
tred,
love and haknow
as
subjectivephenomena; but you do not know them, as
causing the union or separation of your supposed elements,
for causes
not known
are
by sensation.
To
the Atomists, Protagoras would
I accept your
say:
principlethat all knowledge is derived through sensation; and
which
first clearlystated, I criticize all
by this principle,
you
the systems of philosophy,
not
excepted; for what do
yours
which

know

you
or

is the

taste,

atoms?
do

not

about

atoms?

or

smell

You

do

know

an

at

ever

you

atom?
know

not

them

Did

How
them

all.

Your

do

see,

or

you

by the senses,
philosophy

hear,

touch,

there

know
and
has

or

no

are

therefore
basis

in

knowledge.
To

Anaxagoras, Protagoras

chaos

of matter

with

all the

would

say:

You

assume

but

intimately mixed;
nothing
objectivething; all you
you
as
an
know
is phenomenal, subjectiveexperiencegained through the
You
senses.
assume
as
an
organizer of your
supposed
vov^,
mixed
the
rendered
which
matter, as the principle or cause
chaos of matter
the cosmos,
do
universe
of order; but what
or
know
of the
you
objective to yourself,as the cause
vovs,
of the cosmos?
I grant
for I am
subjective intelligences;
know

elements

of this matter

PHILOSOPHICAL

36

conscious

which

changing sensations

of

known.

THEORIES
all that

are

be

can

is,therefore, hypothetical,and your philosophy

it lacks a known
and
will
basis,
satisfyno one

Your

vov";

void, as

seeking for truth.

philosophy of Protagoras is both critical and skeptical.
that
all
is
rived
dethe
Granting
assumption
knowledge
crumble
through sensation, all the systems considered
into dust, leaving nothing but changing elusive sensations,
This conclusion
is
the senses
not
even
objective organs.
as
thorough-going skeptic.
melancholy enough to please the most
Thus

the

edge
subject to criticism the assumption that all knowlis derived
through sensation, and the skepticalopinion
held by the majority of philosophers that sense
knowledge is
The
Greek
delusive.
philosophers generally have exaggerated
of
the physiologicaldifferences in the sense
ent
differorgans
Let

us

individuals.
abnormal

are,

the

report

of

different

image

by

true

material

the reverse,
will correct
of touch
but the sense
of sight. Salt looks like sugar, but when
the

by
guests

is the

only

only

for the

valid

also the

man,

all

detects

soon

of the

mistake

The

blunder.

the

of

source

housekeeper,

individual, has

rational

object, or
on

berries,
straw-

taste

of the

put

the

that

assertion

of truth.

mony
the false testi-

all

knowledge, making

individual,is void

false

"

of another.

report
for

be mistaken

may

cases.

average

mutually corrective

are

is corrected

one

visual

senses

in

great differences

of course,

individuals,but general similarityin

Again
mere

There

knowledge

Man, the

nature,

tion
sensa-

ic
generto

common

depend on the organization of the

is not affected by their imperfection,and is essentially
senses,
the same
in all normally developed human
tion
beings. Its funcis not feeling,
but
is the apprehension of necessary
truth,
relatingto the conditions of the phenomenal, deducing logical
from admitted
premises, or rising,
by induction,
consequences
from particularcases
to generalprinciples.Do
not all rational
minds assent to the principlethat every event
requiresa cause?
Reason

men.

Do
truth

not

all who

of the
been

does

understand

theorems
made

gravitation?
for deductions.

not

These

in

of

the

demonstrations
Have

Geometry?

science, such
inductions

as

furnish

the

not

law

the

know

the

tions
large inducof

major

universal

premise

SOPHISTS

THE

37

tions;
simply a bundle of sensais a sensibility;
the parbe better to say man
it would
ticular
gencies,
continand go, and depend on
sensations come
many
the susceptibilityof sensation,
but the sensibility,
bility;
a sensiabides; yet it does not tell the whole truth to call man
and rational
is also a rational being,he has reason,
man
truth.
Philosophy should not overlook
knowledge of necessary
truth.
either contingent facts or necessary
of the moral
What
tendency of sensational philosophy? If

Protagoras assumed

individual

each

the sole

that

is

man

is, for himself, the

man

judge

of his

truth, will he

own

of the

measure

verse,
uni-

be inclined to

not

That
his own
good is paramount?
ure,
pleasthe
welfare
of society,
his individual
happiness, and not
His
individual pleasures
is the proper
object of his pursuit?
restrictions
of society are
real
the
and pains are
to him;
cial,
artifiand
often
he
tyrannical. Why, then,
arbitrary,
inquires,
should
I not obey the superior ethics of nature, rather than
this choice, he seeks
the inferior ethics of society? Making
for sensational
pleasures,regardless,as is likely,of the rights
or
happiness of his fellow beings. His ethics is Hedonic
in Epifound
Egoism. This tendency, with this result,was
cureanis
his

believe

that

2.

Prodicus

own

"

lulis, a city in the island

a

accredited

the

as

prepare

for

men

young

aim

was

first

as

to

came

of his

of

Athens
he

was

eloquent speaker

an

instruction

in life.

success

native

island, when

known

The

teacher.

He

his native

became

soon

successful

of Ceos.
of

agent

He

man.

young

and

Prodicus

(circ. 465-395.)

He

was

was

to

himself

good illustration of a successful man, as he acquired,by his

His moral
and reteaching, both popularity and affluence.
ligious
teaching did not arouse
opposition,and may, therefore,
be considered
not
as
unacceptable to the Athenian
people.
Prodicus
is a good illustration of the fact that a Sophist
not
the Athenians
was
necessarilyimmoral
or
irreligious,
as
a

understood

these

story called

Xenophon's
to

and

The

Choice

citizens.

The
a

noble

effort to achieve

strenuous

of the

to

men

is the

of Hercules,

Memorabiha.

incite young

by

He

terms.

wise
This

and

and

good,
clearlyshows

author
which

may

of this

purpose

ambition
results

for

be

beautiful
found

production

in
is

life of virtue

worthy of the approbation

low
gratitude of their felthe teaching of a Soph-

of the
that

of

PHILOSOPHICAL

38

ist may
leads.

be

Prodicus

better

than

THEORIES

that to which

considered

the

philosophy logically

their

mythic gods

be

to

personifications

of the forces of nature; hence he did not deny

existence
since he did not
as
personifications,
of the forces of nature.

existence
both

as

writer

and

as

an

He

orator.

was

He

did

or

doubt

their

question the
good rhetorician,
great service by

meaning and proper choice

of words, and
in his suggestions in regard to style. Less
theoretical,but more
practicalthan Plato, he lived a useful
and honorable
life,
highly respectedby all who had the honor
of his acquaintance.
3.
Gorgias (circ.483-375.) Gorgias of Leontini in Sicily
his clear discriminations

as

the

to

"

sent

was

by his fellow citizens,at the head

of the

embassy,

to

of the
protectionfor their cityagainst the encroachments
Syracusans.
Having accomplished the object of his mission,
ask

he chose

Athens

and
removed

he
rest

in

of his

for his residence, at the invitation

engaged in giving instruction in oratory. Finally

he continued
to Thessaly, where
to teach for the
life. As an orator
he was
eloquent,though florid

in
styleand pompous
In philosophy he was
propositions:
(1) Nothing exists.
be known.

of its existence
these

of the citizens,

(3)

If

cannot

manner.
a

skeptic.

He

maintained

(2) If anything
anything exists and
be communicated.

propositions,Gorgias displays unusual

the

lowing
fol-

exist, it cannot
is known, the fact

does

In his support

of

logicalacumen,

and

in this respect he compares

well with the Eleatic Zeno.
His proof of the first proposition,so far as it can
be gathered
and

filled out

from

If
thus :
fragmentary report, runs
anything
being or not-being,or both being
and not-being. It cannot
be both being and not-being, for
be not-being, for not-being
they are contradictory;it cannot
is the negation of existence; if anything exists, it is therefore
being. Now, if being exists, it is either eternal, or it began
from non-entity
to be ; if it began to be, then it either sprang
into being, or
was
entity
nonproduced; it did not spring from
into being,for non-entity being nothing, cannot
spring;
it was
then produced, and if produced, it was
produced either
of proby being or not-being,but not-being has no power
duction;
therefore
it was
is the
produced by being, which
be the explanafor,and cannot
thing to be accounted
very
a

exists,it is either

SOPHISTS

THE
tion of itself.

Being, therefore,did

39

begin to be, and hence

is eternal, and if eternal, then
infinite,a perfect solid, filling
for anything
without
void, which leaves no room
any
space
the phenomenal universe,
else, and therefore excludes
even
it is false that being
the only thing known
to be real;hence
it is true that
exists;therefore
being does not exist;that is,
nothing exists.
that an eternal
Gorgias assumes
thing,the infinite in time
involves
which
is not necessarilytrue;
the infinite in space,
it infinitely
eternal is not to suppose
to suppose
atom
an
large.
Now, something is, for the phenomenal is immediately and
certainlyknown, and is therefore real; hence something is
have
eternal; for if not, non-entity must
jumped into being,
which
is impossible,since non-entity,being nothing, cannot
jump. There is, therefore, not only existence, but eternal
If one
should inquirefor the cause
of eternal existexistence.
ence,
the reply is,such inquiry supposes
eternal existence, not
eternal.
An eternal existence, having no beginning, requires
and

cause,

no

has

in

fact,excludes
and

is not

cause;

not

for whatever

has

cause

eternal.

beginning
regard to the second proposition,If anything exists,it
be known, Gorgias accepts the principleof Empedocles
cannot
that the knowing subject and the known
be of
object must
like nature,
Eleatic signification
of being, as
the
also the
thus:
If being is known
unchangeable. He then argues
be being, and if thought is
by thought, then thought must
is not true,
being, then everything we think exists,which
a

In

for

we

can

think

of the

existent, which

non-existent, which
is

makes

the

existent
non-

contradictory and impossible.

Again, if thought is being, it is unchangeable, but we know
that thought is fleeting,
and is,therefore, not unchangeable,
and
hence
it cannot
the supposition
be being. Therefore
which
knowable
is
since
it
makes
makes
false,
being
able
changehence
is
unknowable;
thoughts unchangeable;
being
that is,if anything exists,it can
be known.
not
The
above
reasoning, instead of proving the proposition
that if anything exists it cannot
know
be known, which
to
we
be false, disproves rather
the principle of Empedocles, on
which
the reasoning is based, that the subject and object of
it also disproves the
be of like nature;
knowledge must
principleof the Eleatics, that existingbeing is unchangeable.
Finite existences are
certainlyvariable.

PHILOSOPHICAL

40

In support of the third

is known,
and
it cannot
the

THEORIES
if

proposition,that
be

communicated,

words, at best, are neither

inadequacy
language,
perfectl
the ideas of things, but symbols expressing imthings nor
the meaning intended
The hearer,
to be conveyed.
therefore, does not get the exact thought of the speaker, and
is true
of the reader, who
the same
does not
get the precise
Words
are
meaning of the writer.
incapable of expressing
exact
thought.
of this sweeping criticism is skepticism;for
The
outcome
if nothing can
what
is called knowledge is
be certainlyknown,
simply opinion, and when
opinions clash, there is no test for
A low estimate
is placed upon
truth,
deciding which is true.
since truth, so-called, is resolvable
into mere
probability.
such views, a sophist would
With
strive,not to establish the
his hearers,
convince
to
truth, but by plausible arguments,
and gain the victory.
led to
Criticism, however,
a
more
thorough study of
thought itself in the analysisof the reasoning process, and in
the

of

anything exists
Gorgias urged

discrimination

which

that

valid

between

of Socrates

in the

philosophy
in the logicof Aristotle.
culminated
4. Isocrates (436-338.) Isocrates
ordinary acceptation of the term; he
and

appeared

invalid

and

not

was

and

arguments,

Plato, and

sophist in

greater, and

was

the

wiser,

better.

Like

the

majority of the sophists, he taught oratory,

though not the pettifogging oratory of the law courts, but
the eloquence of the statesman.
In his teaching, he sought
horizon of his students, in giving them
to enlarge the mental
broader
views, by discoursing,not alone on Athenian
affairs,
but
Hellenic
interests, involving the welfare of all the
on
States
He

of Greece.
the

follyof the petty ambition

cities,Athens, Sparta, and Thebes, to
saw

Greece.

Had
to

the

which

the

States

all should

States

of Greece
be

of the several
be the

formed

admitted

on

their

Grecian

rulingpower
federal

terms

of

in

ment,
Govern-

equality,

local

in
affairs,and
preserving
autonomy
and
moral
to be
cultivatingintelligence
virtue, there seems
Greece
have
no
reason
why
might not
gained supremacy
in the world, and remained
to this day the dominant
power.
It

was

the

desire

of Isocrates

to

see

the

discordant

States

VI

CHAPTER

Socrates

Socrates

1,

are

addition

these

to

Aristophanes,
him

to

sources,

the

made

comic

by

with

for the

sophists,
the

by
The

of

regime

with

whom

Memorabilia

his

the

he

which

reckoned

Xenophon

was

He

Socrates,

he

what

and
we

was

Plato

agree

rely

Socrates

on

was

Phaenarete,
of

concerning

of him

says

is valuable

from

of Socrates

philosopher,
though he intended
a

there

is

no

but

his

in the

historian

to

present

thinker,

and

his

and

advocate

the
those

of

Socrates

distrust

to

reason

Plato

mony.
testiin

his

of

his

who,

teachings of his
the opinion
to
Plato.
Socrates
When
to
to
Xenophon
or
in assigning a certain
to
Socrates,
opinion
their united
testimony as substantially true.
the
of Sophroniscus,
of
and
son
a
statuary,

it is difficult

that
is due

may

ing
recogniz-

not

is

philosopher, a deep
stands, not
dialogues, Socrates
only as
of
opinions, but also the champion
own
in many
advanced
beyond
respects, had
so

Aristophanes
despised

religion, and

really gives nothing

Xenophon

not

was

Plato

advanced

employed

to
apologetic, intended
the unjust reproach
they occurred.
by giving his conversations
as
friend
and
admiring
a
warm
an
disciple of

of

military officer, and

in a favorable
light,

master,

found

was,

he

Clouds.

and

morals

Plato, but

character

enemies,

Socrates.

in

Aristotle
in

of the

he

that

of confirmation.

way

vindicate

no

caricature,

comedy

old

found

not

left

he

artist

for

subject

difference.

Socrates

tion
informa-

writings of his own,

of Plato.
and
the Dialogues
In
also
the
have
cross-lights of
we
the
and
biographical references
poet,
since

consummate

tellingeffect, in the

stood
the

the

fine

of

sources

Aristotle.

Aristophanes,
Socrates

principal

The

(469-399).

respecting Socrates,
MemorabiUa
Xenophon's

Successors

Immediate

and

midwife.
father.

Acropolis

He
A
to

determine

for

draped
the

time
42

the

whether

followed

sometime
group

of

of

the

Pausanius,

the

Graces,
the

fession
proserved
pre-

historian,

A.

D.

160,

considered

was

of their

delivering men

to

latent

be

SUCCESSORS
the

work

thoughts,

43

of Socrates.

he

likened

In

his profession

of his mother.

to that

His

IMMEDIATE

AND

SOCRATES

not

was

appearance

prepossessing. His

low

stature,

corpulent figure,protruding stomach, thick neck, flat turnedattracted

spreading nostrils, projecting eyes, at once
up nose,
of many
attention, and quite likelyincited sarcastic remarks
he daily encountered.
whom
of the
Socrates, no doubt, received the ordinary education
Athenian
tion
youth, and probably, for a time, turned his attenfound
he
to be unsatisfactory,
to physical science, which
and
yielding no valuable
consistingmerely of speculations,
he
of
nature
The
results.
secrets
regarded as beyond the
into them
and
in his
to
reach of human
was
knowledge,
pry
and offensive to the gods.
opinion, presumptuous
He
undoubtedly acquainted with the astronomical
was
his doctrine
of the Novs, also
theories of Anaxagoras, and
of Anaxagwith the physical opinions of Archelaus, a disciple
oras.
the
listened
lectures
had
of
He
to
oras,
Protagprobably
and took lessons in language of Prodicus.
the skill requisite
While
the teaching of the sophists gave
to secure
victory in disputation,and to achieve a successful
career

in

life,it led

to

an

indifference

to

truth

and

laxityof

fore
utterly distasteful to Socrates, who thereturned
his attention to the study of man,
chieflyin his
He
did
intellectual,moral, social and politicalrelations.
for he asserted
call himself a sophist,a wise man,
his
not
ignorance, but a philosopher, a lover of wisdom, a learner
investigator,he sought
seeking after knowledge. As an
it was
truth wherever
to be found, especiallytruth
ing
pertainscribed
to man.
Socrates, therefore, accepted the precept inthe
know
on
temple at Delphi, yvwOi creavrov,
be
thyself,as the injunction most important to
obeyed, and
the
sentiment:
The
the
first to proclaim
was
study
proper
mankind
is
man,
of
The
Pythian oracle had declared him to be the wisest of

morals, which

was

"

"

all

conscious

of his

oracle, and
various

wondered

Socrates

men.

thus

persons

sophists,and

own

how

ignorance.
confirm

this could
To

test

be, when
the

truth

he

was

of the

his

faith, Socrates
questioned
for
wisdom,
as
reputed
statesmen,
poets,

found

to

them

ignorant respecting the

very

things

PHILOSOPHICAL

44

of which

they professed to have knowledge; yet he failed

of their ignorance, though in attempting
them

convince
do
the

made

he

so,

He

then

concluded

was

for he

He

his enemies.

them

right in declaring him to be

his own
alone knew
ignorance.

oracle

men,

THEORIES

was

this

great humorist, and

gave

the

to
to

that

wisest

relish

of

his

to

delightof his friends; but he made

many
enemies,by occasionallyresortingto irony,or biting sarcasm.
that is by a genius,
He professedto be guided by a Daemon,
voice he implicitlyobeyed.
What
this
was
or
spirit,whose
genius? This is a question which has occasioned not a little
it a guardian angel, his conscience, or the
Was
controversy.
reflex of his own
said that Socrates
thoughts? It is sometimes
in
this voice
heard
prohibition,restraining him from
only
that
best to be done; but that he
not
was
doing anything
received
certain line of conduct
a
positiveinstructions to pursue
conversation

the

to

from

is evident

what

he

said

the

to

judges,at

his

trial,

as
Apology: "I should tell you, with
reported by
all respect and affection,that I will obey the god rather than

in the

Plato

and

you,

I will

that

persist,until my
exposing your want

questioning you,
and

reproaching

Socrates

opinions

own

he

minds

if

as

in the

teacher

you

not

was

till the
a

defect

they

skillful questions,he drew

out

what

the

learner.

The

thing

to

be

true,

neither
into

that he poured knowledge

sense

was

the

cross-

virtue,

and

is remedied."

known

were

he

his

of wisdom

in

dogmatic philosopher,proclaiming his

pupils,but

of

dying day,

that

was

an
was

was

the

educator, in that, by
latent in the mind

latent, however,

was

of
not

abilityto know, or the act of knowing.

his
to
First, however, he led him, by cross-questions,
see
him
of holding erroneous
ignorance, or convinced
opinions,
so

knowledge,

that

his

but

the

mind, free from

error,

was

in condition

to

be

led,

The
apprehend the truth for himself.
then
did not
learner
passively receive the truth, but made
the discovery by his own
thought.
with
the sophists, the principle that
Socrates
accepted,
is the measure
man
of the universe, but differed from them in
to the word
man.
regard to the meaning attached
By man
who
knew
ately
immedithe sophists meant
the individual
man,
his
which
sensations,
are
fleeting,and differ
own
only
in different
Socrates
the generic
but by man,
meant
men;

step

by

step,

to

all

or

man,

men

which

reason,

IMMEDIATE

AND

SOCRATES

is

and

man,

with

therefore, to

other
reach

of the

measure

each

normal

individuals

of the

conclusions

that

As

changing sensations.
common

is the essential characteristic of

reason,

far better

45

having, not only fleetingsensations, but

in all, and
that this
is essentiallythe same

endowment,

common

SUCCESSORS

universe
has

man

genus,

than

the
in

reason,

it is possible,

will command

general

assent.

is the end to be sought .^^ The

sophists answered
quired
pleasure,sensational enjoyment, but pleasure is best acby securing wealth, attaining
by a successful career,
influence.
These
or
to a high social position,political
power
What

things, according to
value

The

the

sophists,are

of these benefits
other

the

benefits

of virtue.

did not deny, but contended

of a higher order
from conduct that accords

Socrates

benefits, and

there are
rational
satisfactions
that come
the
with the dictates of reason.
Though Socrates makes
the ultimate end of right conduct, yet it is not
that

"

happiness
chiefly
properly

is not
pleasure, which
objectionable,if
restricted to what
is morally lawful, but chiefly the pure
satisfaction resulting
from the discovery or apprehension of
hedonic

truth, from the consciousness

of

ment
rectitude,from noble achieve-

heroic

it
effort. Virtue is to be pursued, because
alone gives rational satisfaction,which is the highest happiness,
the ultimate good. To be worthy of happiness is happiness
itself.
or

Since

virtuous lifeyieldsthe best results,why do not men

of
virtue.^ Socrates answered, they do not, because
pursue
seek happiness; but
ignorance. He reasoned thus: All men
virtue is the only means
to true happiness; therefore, all men
be virtuous, or do right,if they only knew
would
is
what
a

right;hence
knowledge.

virtue

taught, and is identical with true

This reasoning would hold good, if all men
were
like Socrates, who was
and
had
conscientious,
trol
complete conof himself; but he seemed
not
to realize the strength of
of desire for
the pressure
appetite in the average
nor
man,
immediate
less
while the rewards of virtue are
gratification,
intense, and
true

of

very

that assured

be

can

often

high

somewhat

moral

conduct

remote.

It

is, however,

requiresthe

supremacy

reason.

Socrates

drew
around
him
a
throng of enthusiastic
of the better class of the young
of Athens.
men

ciples
dis-

He

PHILOSOPHICAL

46

frequented the gymnasia

with
A

one

any

crowd

and

the

willingto

hear

gathered

soon

enjoy the confusion

to

drawn

by

on,

in

entangled

market
him

or

jungle

of

places, and
to

listen to

to

versed
con-

in argument.

engage

the

dispute, or
antagonist, who was

of his defeated

skillful

one

THEORIES

question after another,

contradictions; but

till he

was

after

exposing
truth.
Socrates
showed
the
positive
error,
importance of the classification of objects into genera, species
definitions
and individuals, and taught how
to frame
correct
and
to its genus,
by referringthe object defined
giving its
reasoned
from
characteristic
differential quality. He
or
analogy, also by induction; but he differed from Bacon, a
a

led

Socrates

leader in modern

science, in
and

nature

from

service

The

make

said

of inestimable

method

inductions

your

said interrogate

Bacon
from

study thoughts.

external

make

your

said

study
performed

Both

value.

of Socrates

such

was

as

to

make

enemies; and

law-abiding citizen,and had been a brave

of not
accused
soldier,he was
worshipping the gods, whom
the city worships, of introducing new
divinities of his own,
He
and of corrupting the youth of Athens.
was
brought
these
and
found
to trial on
no
charges,
guilty. Making
effort to conciliate his judges, but rather to exasperate them,
he was
The
condemned
to suffer death.
part of his speech
he made
in the Apolafter his sentence, as reported by Plato
ogy
is a masterly and noble effort,and in passages
rises even
to the grandeur of sublimity.
Socrates could not be put to death, according to law, till
the day
that had sailed to Delos
after the ship should return
in prison
before, for the festival of Apollo. He remained
during the interval,which was
thirtydays, calmly conversing
with his friends, as reported by Plato in the Phaedo
and the
He
the poison hemlock
without
Crito.
drank
change of
walked
then
about
till his legs became
countenance,
weary,
and
died Socrates, the
lay down
calmly fell asleep. Thus
first of the Ethical Philosophers.

though

It
not
common

he

and
said interrogate man,
internal phenomena.
Bacon

Socrates

things.

respects

some

Socrates

phenomena.
inductions

to

on

now

only

was

remains
a

to

summarize:

with
sensibility,

rational

nature,

Socrates

held

that

varying sensations,
and

can

apprehend

man

but

has
also

universal,

SOCRATES

AND

IMMEDIATE

truth; that with

be truthfullyheld that

SUCCESSORS

this view

47

of the

it
generic man,
is the measure
of the universe;
can
man
that it is important to
classifythings into genera, species,
and
individuals, to form true concepts of things,and to embody
these
concepts in true definitions;that reasoning by
and analogy reveals the truth; that the
induction, deduction
its ignorance, and
false
mind
relieve itself from
must
see
opinions,before it can form true opinions;that self knowledge
is the most
important knowledge; that vice is the consequence
end
of ignorance, and virtue of knowledge; that the ultimate
is rational happiness; that happiness is secured
by knowing
is
the wrong
and avoiding it,and by knowing and doing what
right; that the right is the rational pursuit of the Ultimate
end; that Ethics is the most
important of all the sciences,
necessary

and

that

the

virtues

to

are

be

exhibited

in the

of life.

practicalconduct
Immediate

2,

it inculcates

Successors

of

Socrates,

These

are

Euclid,

Aristippus and Antisthenes.

er
(1) Euclid (circ.445.) Euclid, of Megara, was the foundof the Megaric school.
He
is not to be confounded
with
Euclid,
was

works

the

zealous

famous

discipleof

of Parmenides

versed

in Eleatic

of Socrates, that
on
a

woman,

to

pain
came

of

and

of

Alexandria.

Euclid

By diligentstudy of the
well
Zeno, the Eleatic, he became

Socrates.

ardent a disciple
so
philosophy. He was
of
den,
forbidcitizens
the
Megara were
though
death, to visit Athens, Euclid, disguisedas
to Athens
by night and listened with delight

the conversations

his

mathematician

of Socrates.

After

the death

of Socrates,

the Athenians,
disciples,
through fear of violence from
took refuge with Euclid, for a time, at Megara.
The
foundation
the comof the Megaric philosophy was
bination
of Being, the metaphysical principle
of the Eleatics
with the Good, the moral
Being, the
principleof Socrates.
immutable, identical with the Noi;s of Anaxagoras, or with
"f"p6vrj(TL^,
Good,
wisdom,
Oeos, of Socrates, the
or
one
is
Evil
dyadov, is with Euclid, the only existent.
The
not-being, the non-existent.
Good, then, is identical
with
the God
of Theism,
with
the ultimate
reality whose
existence,as Spencer declares,is of all things the most
certain,
with
that
in
the
of
or
ourselves, which
universe, not
power
works
for righteousness,according to Matthew
Arnold.
"v

TO

PHILOSOPHICAL

48

of

combination

THEORIES

Being with the Socratic

be effected only by attributinggoodness to being;
Good
can
but
this Being, vovs,
mate
0eos, is objective,while the ultior
good, according to Socrates, is subjective, that is,
The
two
principles can
happiness or rational enjoyment.
The

identified,but

not

be

Let

the

by
who

the

vous,

reason,

the

Oeos, the
and

this mystic

union

related

be

can

as

effect.

and

cause

objective goodness,
by the affections of

loved

vice and

renounces

Eleatic

be

hended
appreman,

any

cherishes

divine

of the

virtue, and the result of

the human,
and
is religious

good, the highest enjoyment of

rational
which
a
as
being, is susceptible. This view,
man,
if fullycomprehended, is likelyto be acceptable to all Theists.
The good is genuine religious
experience,
Euclid's dialectic, or science of thought, differs from that
of Socrates, in that he repudiated analogical reasoning as
the reductio ad absurdum
of
while he employed
unsound,
Socrates
Zeno, which
regarded as sophistical,
yet it is powerful
experience,

the

used

when

ultimate

in refutation.

be advantageously employed,
Analogy and induction may
if regarded as giving only probable conclusions, to be tested
reductio
ad
absurdum
by experience or experiment. The
of reasoning, based
the prinmethod
is a powerful form
on
ciple
that
all truths

no

two

truths

conflict with

can

exist in harmony.

This

is

each

other,

necessary

or

that

principleof

reason.

The

chief followers

of several

the

Eubulides, the inventor

were

instructor

of Demosthenes

and

the

of

Chronus, who
Aristotle; Diodorus
attempted to
the impossibilityof motion; and Stilpo,famous
for his

opponent
prove

paradoxes,

of Euclid

lectures.
The

of the

character

Megaric philosophers
them
the
fastened
name
wranglers, and
cpwrrtKot,
upon
for
their speculationsdegenerated into trivial sophisms, as
thus : Is one
example the Sorites, or heap, which runs
grain of
three
corn
a
heap.^ No; are two grains? No; are
grains? and
till
the
there
is
is, yes,
so
now
answer
a
heap. Then
on,
the difference between
one
a
grain makes
heap and no heap
at

disputatious

all, which

number

of

is

ridiculous, if

grains will make

not
a

absurd; but

heap,

that

if it is said,

is still more

no

lous.
ridicu-

PHILOSOPHICAL

50

not

THEORIES

for it incites retaliation, and

pay;

awakens

in the wrongdoer

of
danger; therefore to secure
peace
to obey the laws.
mind, it is advisable
The
philosophy of Aristippus is, therefore, a combination
of the sophistic and
Socratic
teaching; but considered
as
a
of
Socratic
it
is
the
development
philosophy,
partial,or onesided.

apprehension

The

of

the

the
Cyrenaic philosophy advocated
pursuit of pleasure, is found in Aristippus himself, who did
take happiness as embracing both
sensational
not
pleasure
and rational enjoyment.
inclined
Aristippus was
by nature
the habit of luxurious
he had formed
gence;
indulto pleasure,and
he would, therefore, interjjret
sational
senhappiness to mean
pleasure rather than rational enjoyment; hence the
drift of the Cyrenaic philosophy to seek present momentary
pleasure; for the past is gone, and the future is uncertain.
Aristippus taught philosophy to his daughter. Arete, who
in turn
The
taught it to her son, Aristippus, the younger.
of the Epicurean
the fore-runner
Cyrenaic philosophy was
philosophy.
(3) Antisthenes
(444-371). Antisthenes, the founder of
of the same
the Cynic philosophy, was
the son
of an Athenian
and

name,

why

reason

Thracian

of

Gorgias, and afterwards

whom
he greatly admired
and

stern

After

moral
the

death

He

mother.

became
for

his

took

lessons

in Rhetoric

discipleof Socrates,
independence in thought
a

character.
of Socrates, he

opened

school

to

which

in the gymnasium
admitted
foreignersand half-breeds
were
which
of the sect is supcalled Cynosarges, from
the name
posed
it from
derive
be
to
derived, though some
a
Kuwy,
of the snappish dispositionof the Cynics.
dog, on account
Instead
of making pleasure the object of pursuit, as did
regarded virtue as the only thing
Aristippus,Antisthenes
faction.
effort, since it alone gives rational satisworthy of human
Pleasure
he regarded as something to be despised
is the opposite of the
and avoided.
Hence
the Cynic School
Cyrenaic, though both claimed to be based on the teaching
of Socrates.
made
The
ness
happiexplantion is this: Socrates
the ultimate
end
of action; but happiness is a genus
into two
resolvable
species,sensational pleasure and rational
satisfaction.
pleasure.
Aristippus took the first,sensational

as

IMMEDIATE

AND

SOCRATES

representing

conception

second,

the

took

Antisthenes

Socratic

the

SUCCESSORS

the

of

51

happiness,

rational

and

satisfaction

of

virtue.

despised effeminacy, luxury, and even

beauty,
considered
it virtuous
all pleasure, to
to deny himself
and
endure
food, and for
pain and hardship, to live on coarse
dress, to wear
a
singlerough cloak, ragged and dirty; yet he
that Socrates
said to him :
so
was
haughty and vain, so much
*'I see
thy vanity, Antisthenes, peering through the holes of
No
doubt, Socrates, by his ow^n
thy cloak."
example, gave
Antisthenes

yet in him

it

was

be

asceticism

extreme

claimed

Socrates

Though

the

to

countenance

some

no

merit

merit, since he

of Antisthenes.

for his

practised

dress,

that

economy

he

to teach

able
gratuitously.
might
for
virtue
its own
sake, and
Admiring
Antisthenes
had
strength of will and energy
his

carry

of

manner

into

purpose

He

execution.

despising vice,
of character

had

to

literary

some

commended

his

ability, as
writings were
by competent
the
When
asked
state
to
advantage of Philosophy,
judges.
he replied:"Philosophy enables
for
to be company
a
man
himself."

objected to definitions, as expressing mere

of
subjective impressions, and not the objective attributes
things, and for this Aristotle called him
an
ignoramus.
The
truth
is, a definition
our
knowledge of an
expresses
object,and not simply our sensations or impressions; at least,
definition
a
our
understanding of an object, our
expresses
there is liability
conception, opinion, or belief. Of course,
in our
to error,
ability
judgment; that is possible;but there is a probAntisthenes

carried

of correctness; it is the best

the view
of Socrates, that

rational
as

satisfaction,

pernicious,as
between
in

matter

the

and

of

debasing
fled

to

The

Sinope.
coinage,

the

Athens.

attracted

by

Diogenes

offered

proper

pleasures

sets

tion
discriminathe

whole

light.

{Ji) Diogenes (circ.412-328).

banker

Antisthenes

pleasure is inferior to
of regarding pleasure

extreme

unlawful

do.

can

evil to be avoided.

an

lawful
true

to

we

father

the

son,

the son
Diogenes was
convicted
having been
implicated in the same

from

Reduced

the life of Antisthenes,

himself

to

affluence
and

Antisthenes,

to

his
as

of

of
act,
and

poverty,
praise of poverty,
a

pupil.

Antis-

PHILOSOPHICAL

52

thenes

repelled

strike.

to

hard

to

up

seemed

Cynics

The

the

gained

as

in

which

tub,

never

and

long

for

when

as

won

and

served

happy

so

not

day,
As

him,

with

is

reply

disciple.

remained

living

staff

your

and

Diogenes

himself,

for

but

The

Diogenes

threatened

staff,

perseverance."

Antisthenes,

lived,

Antisthenes
set

my

received

knotted

"Strike,

replied:

of

Antisthenes

his

raising

conquer

admiration

the

and

him,

Diogenes

enough

THEORIES

as

then
house.

they

were

miserable.

Diogenes

serve

daytime,
he

those
a

going
"What

do

for

sun-shine."

my

what
to

can

do,

liberty,

and

made
he

Sometimes
entered

rich

carpets,

*'Yes/'

said

Plato,

the

greater

him,

me

thian,
Corinhim

his

when

he

gave

match,

Plato,

of
with

trample

sell

children.
his

parlors

stamped,

"Thus

bought

than

more

into

''with

to

asked

was

wealthy

of

out

therefore,

Xeniades,

his

inquired:

"Get
he

pirates,
men,

"

der
Alexan-

and

tub,

of

repeated

was

walking.

his

in

faces

for, replied

replied:

by

"Govern

tutor

and

saying,

in

Athens

the

motion

Diogenes

reply,

found

company,

him

master.

him

unbidden

up

of
into

and

will

following

looking

was

against

captive

this

with

struck

he

reputation

streets

peering

what

you?"

replied:

needs

who

man

torch,

found

Taken

could

he

the

getting

by

him,

visit

to

The

phy.
philoso-

to

gained

sarcasm.

argument
it

nothing
he

through

asked

being

answered

he

him,

his

lighted

Zeno's

When

man.

to

and

met,

of

Going

with

contributed

disgusting,

keenness

specimens:

as

the

the

and

wit,

and

filthy

Though
for

and

ignorant,

was

his
on

pride,''

as

who

dirty
the

pride

taining
enter-

was

feet,
of

on

Plato.

the
"

VII

CHAPTER

Plato

(427-347.)

Plato
of
of

Solon, and

Athens.

changed

shoulders,
at

Having

received

the

of twenty,

age
ten

with

Egypt,
impressed
himself

found

he

years,

opened

their

in

he

of
went

with

for his

of

grove

retired

he
not

was

tinued
con-

he
went

ably
favor-

visited

also

of
of

absence

waiting

he

Cyrene

philosophy

an

became,

where

Cyrene,

to

from

He

the

after

the

was

of his

he

Socrates,

priests, but

the

wisdom.

men

young

school

which

breadth

said, of the

Theodorus;

Athens,

to

thirty tyrants

Aristocles,

death

with

acquainted

Returning

ant
descend-

forehead.

thence

with

with

was

of the

one

was

it is

the

conversed

and

made

After

Megara;

to

Ariston,

education, he
good elementary
of
whom
Socrates
with
disciple
a

mathematics

studied
to

years.

Euclid

Critias,

first,

of his

of

son

account,

on

perhaps

or

of
at

name,

Plato,

to

relative

His

the

Plato,

Italy and
Pythagoras.
about
eight

instruction, and

Acadedemus,

he

beautiful

with
and
trees,
containing a temple suitable
park, adorned
presented to him
place for giving instruction, which
as
a
was
his friends.
Here
he lived, and
gift from
taught, and
as
a
for the greater part of forty years,
in this delightand
wrote,
ful
friends
gathered for instruction
retreat, his disciples and

and

conversation.
In

see

fortieth

the

Mt.

Etna,

and

his

age,

Syracuse at
taking offense

who,

Sicily, chiefly

visited

he

to

went

Dionysius,

tyrant

of

year

the

invitation
the

at

of

to

the

plainness

of

Anniceris
him
sold as a slave.
to be
speech, ordered
him
of Cyrene
his liberty.
bought him, and immediately
gave
Plato
visited
Syracuse in the reign of Dionysius II, hoping to
from
obtain
for a colony in which
he
him
territory sufficient
could
to
practical test, but the
a
put his political theories
Plato's

land
he

was

might

become

not

secured.

reconcile

enemies,

He

visited

Dionysius
but

this

and

mission
53

Syracuse
his
also

third

uncle, Dion,

proved

time

that

who

had

fruitless.

PHILOSOPHICAL

54

Plato

THEORIES

amply equipped for his work, having a mind of

of language,
command
and depth, a wonderful
great breadth
extensive
an
knowledge of all the systems of philosophy, and
of the learning and literature of the age.
Parmenides
With
of
the immutable
truth
the Eleatic, he accepted being as
with
with
and
mathematics,
Pythagoras, number
reason,
Heraclitus, becoming, ceaseless change, the knowledge gained
with
with
the
Socrates,
Anaxagoras
by the senses,
vovs,
Plato is equal to the sum
Ethics and the dialectic method.
was

of all of them,
Plato

that

so

we

Parmenides

write

may

-f

Pythagoras

Heraclitus

-f

oras
Anaxag-

+ Socrates.

dialogues which are generally accepted as genuine,

discussed
the leading doctrines of Parmenides,
oras,
PythagHeraclitus, Anaxagoras, the sophists, and
subjected
method.
the
to
searching criticism of the Socratic

the

In
Plato

them
When

is introduced,

Socrates
in

may,

The

general, be

taken

form

as

of the

one

represent the

to

largelyobviates

interlocutors, he
views

of Plato.

the

objection raised by
himself
Plato
of giving instruction
against the method
through books, that books can not talkynor answer
questions,
silence
but
in
nor
a
satisfydoubts, nor
objections,
dialogue,
be
and
and
answered,
anticipated
objectionscan
phase
every
of
of the subject presented and discussed.
fertile mind
The
could
do this, so that the dialogue, in his hands, is a
Plato
discussion.
vivid representationof an actual, earnest
into
All of value
in preceding systems
introduced
were
these
of their errors,
and
jected
subdialogues, as well as many
and
to a searching criticism,by arguments,
con,
pro
in the
This is well shown
presented by selected champions.
of the Republic, where
first book
the view
of the sophist,
that justiceis the will of the strongest, or that might makes
right,is presented, with great assurance
by Thrasymachus,
and

dialogue

ably criticised and

We

shall

Plato
been

make

present

with

doctrines

critic,who

conclusion,

their

to

can

takes
or

classifythe dialogues of
often
has
subject-matter, which
to

to
results, but shall endeavor
far
the leading doctrines, so
as
positive

accordant

no

method

the

by Socrates.

attempt

no

according
tried

refuted

and
be
more

leaves

found

in the

interest

writings of

in the

it without

discussion

consummate

than

explicit statement.

in the

Our

PLATO
doctrines

deal

with

the

Plato's, rather

than

with

criticisms

56

dates

or

generally accepted as
the
genuineness and

authenticityof documents.
To

to the

return

Republic, whatever
his

of civil government,
presented in the Laws,

theories
are

designed

rather

been

Republic presents
teach

Plato's

politicalviews

mature

more

the

have

may

ethics

an

ideal

than

politics.
are
rulingclasses;
a
and
the health
and
prosperity of the state depends on the
harmonious
co-operation of these classes according to the
functions,
principlesof justice,each class performing its own
and
refrainingfrom encroaching on the rights of the other
of the
virtues
The
classes.
working class are
industry,
and
obedience; the virtue of the soldiers is
temperance,
assist the rulers
and prompt
action, so that they may
courage
and
in maintaining order
repelling invasion; the virtue of
that they may
the rulers is wisdom,
laws,
so
pass wholesome
and justly govern
the state.
According to this analogy, Plato treats of the individual,
liken him
who
has sensations, appetites and
desires, which
government,

civil state

In

the

to

individual

The

corresponding
above

these, he

rulers in the

the

soldiers,and

workmen,

there

workmen.

to

has

to

reason,

the

courage

has

combative

of the

represented by
should

state, who

also

pensities,
pro-

soldiers; and

the

be characterized

wisdom

by

of
tical
prac-

sagacity.
be regarded as
a
polemic against the
Republic may
of virtue.
The
sophistic view
sophist regarded man
as
and
his
and
individual, as sensational,
good as pleasure,
hence
their ethical precept: Get as much
pleasure out of life
"possible;but this precept naturally leads to lawless gratias
fication,
and this was
the tendency of their teaching,though
of the wisest of the sophists recommended
obedience
some
of avoiding trouble; but as the law
to the laws, for the sake
is conventional, be unjust if it will bring you wealth
honor,
or
bility
liaconceal
provided you can
injustice,and so escape
your
the punishment consequent
tion.
detecto the law, and
on
The

On

the

of the

state

other

hand,

is secured

the

subordination

the

rights of

the

Plato

taught that,
through the wisdom

of the
other

other

as

the

of the

prosperity
rulers, and

classes, each class respecting

classes, according to justice,so the

PHILOSOPHICAL

56
welfare

of the

THEORIES

individual

should direct,
requires that reason
the will enforce, the appetitesand desires submit, all working
together in the healthful harmony of the complete virtues of
and wisdom; and
this organic virtue
temperance,
courage
of justice constitutes
the health
and
the happiness, and

greatest welfare
The

of every
sophist held that

man,

and

the

welfare

of the

state.

when
concealed, would be
injustice,
if
individual, preferableto justice, it brought greater
worldly prosperity;but Plato denies this by affirming that
of the soul, introduces discord,
the symmetry
injusticemars
engenders disease, and destroys its peace; hence no external
for the loss of the
advantage can be a sufficient recompense
virtue of justice. Thus, while injusticecorrupts, disorganizes,
of
degrades, condemns,
destroys, justice gives peace
of rectitude, which
alone
is satismind, the consciousness
factory
rational being. Therefore, justice should
to
be
a
practiced and injusticeavoided by every right-minded man.
It should, however,
that justice is not
be remembered
an
abstraction, but is fair dealing;it has for its end the good of
all concerned.
Not
but to seek
to be satisfied with justice,
masks
to do injustice,
A
is just
a corrupt nature.
just man
because
and
conscience,
justice alone satisfies his reason
him
and
the
the
affording
highest
purest enjoyment, and
because it promotes the welfare of society.
The
doctrine
truly distinctive in the philosophy of Plato
The
science of ideas he
is, however, his theory of ideas.
is a particularfeeling;it is what
calls dialectic. A sensation
it is felt to be, and nothing else; but an
idea is general; it
Meeting with any object
represents any object of a class.
of a known
class, we
instantlyrecognize it, as belonging to
that class,because
it corresponds to our
idea or concept of
that class. In thinking,we go beyond a particularobject,and
think
of other objects like it. These
objects,though each
has individual qualitiesdifferingfrom
qualitiesof the
any
other objectsof the class,have also common
like qualities
or
which
entitle them, and all like them, to be taken
together
characterized
class
the
as
common
a
constituting
by
qualities.
The
of
taken
these
common
qualities,
conception
together,
which
in modern
philosophy is called the concept of the class,
Plato called an idea, and Aristotle the form, as we
shall hereafter
tions.
more
fullyexplain. The idea is expressed in the definito

the

PHILOSOPHICAL

58
The

THEORIES

universal

element, however, cannot,

by itself
the particularelement, be represented by the imagination;
for
it can
illustration,
only be thought. Thus, take,

idea,

without

or

triangle,a polygon having three sides and three angles.

three
three
sides and
The
angles, as a combination, constitute
of
idea
this
Platonic
the
triangle. Now,
can
pure
sides
of
the
and
from
combination
the
the
angles,apart
idea,
particularelements, be represented by the imagination? If
be exhibited
by a diagram drawn
on
or
on
so, it can
paper
the diagram is drawn, a figure
the black-board; but when
universal
having particular, as well
as
always appears
obtuse
one
right angle, or one
elements; it will have
angle,
also
will
sides
be
will
be
the
all
two
no
acute;
angles
equal,
or
sides will be equal, or all three sides will be equal; again
two
small
be conceived
to be invisible to
so
as
triangle may
a
reach
the
the naked
so
or
large that its sides would
eye,
that the conceivable
It is therefore, evident
stars.
particular
to the
trianglesare infinite in number, while they all conform
sides and
three
idea, triangle having three
angles. The
be erased, as having no
particular
particulartriangle may
idea
triangleabides.
importance, but the
idea
is
the essential thing; a particular
With
Plato, the
is non-essential and unimportant, and may
instance
disappear
from
existence
from
or
drop
thought as readilyas a particular
from
the black-board.
be
erased
This
is perdiagram can
haps
certain
called
the reason
philosophers
why
particular
ihsit
A
not
instances
tree
^is,
not-being,'^
unchangeable.
seed
which
for
from
and
a
starting
sprouts, may
grow,
years
the towering monarch
of the
for centuries, till it becomes
forest, then decline, and die and disappear.
of the transPlato
held, with
migration
Pythagoras, the doctrine
of souls, and
for our
by it attempted to account
innate
reminiscences
or
knowledge of ideas, calling them
brought from a previous state of existence; but the theory of
in
transmigration is purely mythical, having no foundation
with
the idea of a triangle or
fact.
Is a child born
of a
the

He

crocodile?

has, of

course,

the

innate

power,

in

germ,

developed, will give him these ideas, not however,

by intuition or direct contemplation, but as derived from
of generalizathe objects of a class by the logicalprocesses
tion
which

when

and

induction.

PLATO

doctrine

Plato's
is not

to

59

is called realism, which,

with realism in art, or with

of ideas

be confounded

however,
realism,

immediate
have
doctrine that we
knowledge of external
have
material objects. In opposition to Plato's realism, we
a

theories of nominalism

the

holds

that

the

existence; but
of the words
in

and

that

the

concept, exist in
Idea

of the

name

holds

the

common

every

idea

concept

or

may,

nominalism

conceptualism
"

class is the

idea

or

only universal; conceptualism

concept has only a mental

qualities,corresponding
object of the class. The very
concept is that of a mental
without error, be regarded

thought, though they

different ways.
In modern

and

have

been

conceived

as

to

the

ing
mean-

existence.
as

identical

formed

in

mental
a
signifies
picture or
while
formed
the
of
act
a
by
image
imagination
concept is a
logicalconstruction, formed by thought, and has an objective
correlate, a corresponding realityindependent of the
mind.
That the sum
of the three angles of a triangleis equal
to two
mind;
rightanglesis a truth independent of any human
but a knowledge of this truth, when
jective
discovered, is a subfact, the mind's
own
possession.
thought, a mental
The
truth of a triangle,a polygon having three sides and
three angles,is objectiveand is the common
universal, or
or
element
of every
constant
ever
actual or possibletriangle,whatbe the particularor accidental values
of the sides and
angles. The conception or thought of this truth is subjective,
and is the idea or concept of the class triangle. These
illustrations make
the meaning of concept clear.
Though the Platonic idea of concept of the class triangle,
be
involvingonly the essential or universal elements, cannot
represented by the imagination as an image or mental picture,
involving elements, both
yet the idea of a particulartriangle,
the essential and individual,can be represented as an image,
mental
or
think, but cannot
picture. I can
represent, as
idea or mental
the
but
I can
both
an
picture,
man;
genus
think and represent the idea or image of a particular man
whom
The

I have
truth

necessary,
the
the class is
of the

usage,

an

idea

seen.

involved

in ideas

or

concepts is real, objective,

constant, universal, and is the nexus

individuals of the class;but the idea

holding
or

gether
to-

concept of

subjective,but not innate, since it is the product

mental
activityof comparison and generalization.

BO

PHILOSOPHICAL
If the

idea

also held

the

is innate,
idea

to

be

as

THEORIES
Plato held, it is subjective;but

objective.

How

can

it be

both

he

jective
sub-

eternal truth is objecobjective? The necessary

tive;
the apprehension of this truth is subjective,though not
innate, but the product of thought.
is the relation
of necessary
What
reality to the Divine
and

mind?

As

it is eternal

necessary,

and

therefore

coeval

with

knowledge of it is an eternal idea or concept,

the divine pattern of objectivethings stripped of their particular
qualities. As a divine idea, it is objective to the human
God,

whose

mind.

interestingpoints are brought out in the various

Many
is
difficultyof framing good definitions
dialogues. The
in the Laches,
illustrated in the attempt to define courage
modesty in the Charmides, and friendshipin the Lysis.
the question is raised.
the Meno,
In the Protagoras and
Can
virtue be taught?
The conclusion
to be reached
seems
that there is a natural
unconscious
virtue, which springs up
but
spontaneously as by inspiration;
Protagoras claims that
but many,
he can,
virtue is not
as
one
by his instruction,
in the practiceof those virtues which
Providence
improve men
has

bestowed

Is

virtue

upon

them.

That
knowledge?
they are not
of little
strictlyidentical is shown
by the fact that men
of great
virtuous, and that men
knowledge are sometimes
often vicious.
are
knowledge
frequently do
Again men
with
their eyes
fully open to the evil consequences;
wrong
and here is ample knowledge but a lack of wisdom.
Rational
of the
morality, however,
highest type, requires rational
The
science of virtue
knowledge of the Science of Ethics.
be taught.
The
can
subjective virtue, which chooses always
himself.
The
covery
disto do right,is freelysettled by the person
of objective virtue, or what
is right in conduct, is an
be taught.
art that can
Plato
gives the Socratic view that all knowledge is latent
in the mind, and requiresonly to be brought out, which
may
be done
is
The
view
skillful
better
that
the
by
questions.
of discovering truth
is innate, though this power,
power
at first weak, may
be developed and strengthened by exercise.
When
the right steps are
taken
in due order, so as to bring
out

the

identical

evidence.

with

PLATO
the

Euthyphro,

In the

61

raised

questionsare

Does

God

love

it is

holy, or is it holy because God loves it?

will righteousnessbecause
it is righteous,or is it
God
Does
no
righteous because God wills it? God has a good reason,
doubt, for loving holiness and for willingrighteousness. His
love is not
arbitrary,neither is his will. He loves what is
good because it is good, and wills what is right because it is
right. Hence, as God loves the good, and wills the right;
knowing his love or will,we know the good or the right.
of art.
It has three parts:
The Apology is a great work
Socrates
said before conviction.
he
(2) What
(1) What
said after conviction, and before the sentence.
(3) What
because

holiness

said after the

he

did

Socrates
for his

sentence.

seek

not

of life.

manner

charge, he had

the

mitigation
milder punishment,
maintained

After

the

unjust

an

for

the

good

there

are

In the Meno
are

beliefs

referred

no

the
to

they
man,

no

sentence,
instead

of

that he
his

entitled

was

public

have

accusers

eternal

of
pre-existence

go

to

the soul, and

to

benefactor.

will pay
the penalty; but
evil can
befall him, and

sleep,or
unjust judges.
an

reasons

capital
pleading for
proposing a

was

of

as

declares that

he

he will either fall into

where

prytaneum,

for which
a

the

give

to

it

conviction, as

penalty;
boldly claimed

the

at

himself, as

After

but

he

sentence,
act

gain acquittal,but

right,before

of

the
be

to

better

done
that
that
world

its immortality

for these
traditional beliefs;but reasons
in the Phaedo
which, with elaborate
art,
as

given
exhibits profound faith in a future life.
its deep
The
Symposium discourses of love, and shows
significationby the consequences,
as
offspring in natural
love, goodness in moral
love, great deeds in love of fame,
perfectionof character in love of excellence.
The
the discourse
Phaedrus
continues
love, explains
on
the psychology of the soul, asserts
the superiorityof oral
discourse over
written and explainsthe relation of universals
to particulars.
In the Gorgias,the antagonism between
the Socratic and
that
Sophistic views of virtue is elucidated; it is shown
the will of the strongest; that
justiceis not the same
as
pleasure is not identical with the good; that only a life of
philosophicvirtue, not the art taught by sophisticrhetoric,
will avail before the righteousjudge.
are

PHILOSOPHICAL

62

The

continues

Republic

and

character

the

state

justice in the
higher education

discourse

on

and

individual, speaks of the

of the rulers, and
of
describes
the declension
of individuals, through descending stages of

corruption, to that
Plato's
writings
The

the

in the

and

state

THEORIES

fact is Plato

of tyranny, the stage of final injustice.

with
all consistent
another.
not
are
one
an

was

inquirer after truth,

investigator,an

in the

he continued
make
to
acquisition of which
progress
of justice,
life. As
lover
a
a
philosopher, he was
goodness, truth and beauty, and recognized the idea of each
as
an
objective reality,the object of rational knowledge;
but whether
ful,
particularthing is just good, true or beautiany
is a matter
of opinion.
In certain dialogues as Euthydemus,
Philebus, Theatetus,
all manner
of questions
and Parmenides,
Sophist, Statesman
concerning virtue and knowledge, being and not-being, are
need
raised and discussed, the details of which
be given,
not
but they mark
lic
a transition
stage of thought from the Repuball his

to

the Laws.

Plato

shows

that he is

only

not

speculative but

philosopher, when in the Laws, he describes

which
he hopes will be adopted by some
states, and
progress

In

thus

the

of truth

cause

be

practical

of government

form

Grecian

of the
and

advanced,

human

promoted.

Ethics, Plato

accepted the
the Cynics.

of the

views, neither

extreme

of
Hedonism
is refuted
by the
Cyrenaics nor
of sensational
unsatisfactory nature
pleasure, and Cynicism
virtue and the higher
between
by the inseparable connection
form
of rational enjoyment.

Plato

held

with

Socrates

knowledge, that Ethics

that

different

The

rulers

need

classes

is

virtue

science

that

of

wisdom;

the

virtue of temperance;
soldiers
virtue of justice,which
unites and
the

individual

He

refuted

proper

the

nature

highest good
nature.

soul

as

well

as

the

different

classes

sophists,by showing

is

sensational, but
come

the

from

to

people
all the
of

powers

of the
that

rational, and

conformity

but

virtues.

of the

mass

harmonizes

of the

must

different

of valor; and

that

ethics
not

taught;

be

can

the

with

is identical

people require

of the

virtue

the

that

his

state.

man's

that

his

proper

VIII

CHAPTER

Aristotle

Greek

City

of his

the

on

the

Pella,

near

is often

birth, he

works

on

physician

the

care

of

the

sciences
went

death

his

costly books

Stagira, a
gulf, and
the
place

Strymonic
From

the
Stagirite. He was
learning and authorship
honored
History, and

his

Aristotle

parents,

instructed

After

the

and

studied

which

his

Athens,

of

son

of
as

of Macedon.

who

time.

the

Macedonia.

Natural

King

of

Proxenus,

of the
to

the

and

native

of

the

for

Amyntas,

to

After

of

called

eminent

Medicine

was

side

western

capital city

Nicomachus,

of

Aristotle

(384-322).

Aristotle

death

in

of

all the

and

from

science
enabled

means

to

known

Aristotle

Proxenus,

philosophy
abundant

assigned

was

him

him

to

purchase.
On

the

in search
and

of

with

for

student,

and

After

death

with

Philip,

King

Plato

attentive

an

of

Plato

years.

soon

when

years,

his

son,

and

fifteen

mained
re-

by
of

years

had

antiquity

of

of his

court

appointed

was

then

Alexander,

conqueror

the

his

students.

Minor,

Asia
he

of

Mind

fellow

to

went

in

profound
recognized

and

the

East

Academia,

the

at

listener

Atarneus

greatest

Alexander

When

the

to

school

the

to

the

instructor.

greatest

opened
temple

tutor

his

Plato, Aristotle

three

the

Thus

age.

he

ruler

him

long journey

pupil and called him

was
recognized by his

eager

of

Hermias,

his

joined

twenty

such

as

the

friend

from

him,

about

of his

powers

School,

Plato

light, Aristotle

remained

the

of

return

of

school

at

Lycean

Lyceum.
in

started

on

Athens

Apollo,

Aristotle

his
in

from

career

the

not

was

the

shady

which

his

around

walks
school

appointed

account
Academy,
probably
on
of opinion; but
in his
school,
own
philosophy in his own
develop his own
way.
his pupils in the
shady paths, he conversed
63

Aristotle

of conquest,

the
called

was

to

successor

of
he

gencies
diver-

some

free

v/as

Walking
with

them

to

with
on

THEORIES

PHILOSOPHICAL

64

Thence
he was
philosophy and science.
his
school
of
called the peripatetic
and
philosopher,
philosophy
the PeripateticSchool.
thirteen years, ardently engaged
Here, iVristotle remained
in writing those
in teaching and
which, for
great works
the

of

truths

deep

world

stood
of years,
to the
scientific
truth.
and
philosophic

hundreds

the

as

standards

of

works,
bequeathed his library,including his own
and
chief
his
w
ho
to Theophrastus,
ceeded
sucnephew
disciple,
in the Lyceum,
and
him
who, in turn, bequeathed
Neleus
took
them
to
the
Neleus, a peripatetic scholar.
in Scepsis,Asia Minor, and concealed
collection to his home
from
these writings in a vault to prevent them
being seized
books
of
who
the
for his
was
collecting
King
by
Pergamus,
for 187 years.
lost to the world
royal library,and they were
About
B. C., they were
100
bought by Apellicon, a
years
Aristotle

wealthy collector of books, and

B.

C,

Sulla,

Roman

taken

Apellicon and
Tyrannion, a friend

Athens.

About
86
Athens, seized the

taking

general,on

libraryof

to

it to Rome.

sent

Cicero, collected the manuscripts

of Aristotle,and Andonicus
of Rhodes, arranging the scattered
under
fragments
appropriate heads, published the authorized
and

henceforth
the

vault, many
but

with

of Aristotle

genuine works
forgerieswere
we

the

philosophic

and

true

known,

while

even

in the

published claiming to be genuine,

Notwithstanding the
of

doctrines
his

concealed

were

concerned.

not

are

forgeries,the

books

Aristotle
were

quite

were

concealed.

well-

Some

know

of
the

are
only by
by early writers.
tics,
followingare regarded genuine: Topics, Prior AnalyPosterior
Art
of
Refutations,
Analytics, Sophistical

works

quotations made
The

of

of Aristotle.

these

Aristotle's

edition

accepted

scientific works
While

of

have

from

been

lost and

them

Rhetoric, Nichomachean
Physical Discourse, The

Ethics, Politics,Art
Heavens,

Meteorologies,Researches

Generation
about

Animals.

of

Poetry, A

and

tion,
DestrucThe

Soul,

and Recollection, Sleep and

Memory
Waking, Dreaming and Prophecy ing in Sleep,Longevity and
and Old Age, Life and Death, RespiraShortlivedness, Youth
Sense

and

the Sensible,

tion.Parts of Animals, Organizationof Animals, The

The

genuineness.

Categories and

are
Interpretation

physics.
Meta-

of doubtful

'

PHILOSOPHICAL

66

philosophers

and

skillful and

cogent

his

Under

to

seems

ad

ah-

also

ployed
em-

mathematicians
and

Plato

were

the

was

systematic

science.

Syllogism, the type and test

brought to such perfection that

thousand

the test of two

the

and

exact

an

reasoning, was

stood

reductio

Aristotle, however,

the

treatment,

deductive

All

Socrates

reasoners.

logic

reduce

first to

he

afterwards

was

reasoners.

are

the

employ

but this method

method;
by Euclid, the Megarian.

surdum

has

systematically to

first

the

be

to

is, of logic,as

of dialectic, that

inventor

self,the

THEORIES

of
it

years.

minds
to many
not
question will,no doubt, occur
: Has
the
Mill
that
John
Stuart
syllogism always involves
proved
t
he
called
the fallacy
principii,
petitio
begging ot the question.f^
With
all due respect to the abilityof Mr.
be
Mill, it may
said, unhesitatingly,that he has proved no such thing. He
takes the followingfor criticism: All men
mortal; Socrates
are
The

is

not

man;

therefore

know

that

men

mortal; and

are

premise. All
is

Socrates
Mill
where
this

is

Socrates

men

that

the

major premise

induction,

do

we

must

is

assume

the

the

for

case

to

examine

class, but

Now

we

suppose

angel; nothing
mortal.

No

say:

follows; but

Gabriel

mortal;

All

is

the

probable induction.

not

conclusion
chance

even

is

have

to

say.

think
All

objects of
conclusion
and

example
is said

to

be

Gabriel.

was

Gabriel
are

is

of Gabriel, when

men

are

stronger than

even

men

reach

is

an

probably
probably

the

we

probably mortal.
major premise,

reached
The
for the

of failure is less.

In many
but

Geometry,

cases,
a

the

major premise

demonstrated
that

the

Now

suppose

truth.

square

triangleis equivalent to
sides.

us

All

to

urged against this argument.

be

objection can

did

let

major

criticism,

but

the

mortal;

are

all

conclusion,

his

therefore, Gabriel

man;

We

men

the

all the

will make
as
only such a number
the
highly probable. Let us slightly vary
mortal.^
raise the question, is Gabriel
There
and
knew
whose
I
name
an
a man
angel Gabriel,
the

do

question.

probable induction;

have

not

not

affirm

beg

must

If you
know
that

says:

to

able

favorable

most

do

you

be

to

mortal; that is,you

selected
the

mortal,

mortal, you

are

Mill

is mortal.

Socrates

the

I wish

of
sum

to

the

is not

tion,
probable inducit is proved by
Thus,
hypotenuse of a right

of the
know

squares

the

of the

length

other

of the

hy-

ARISTOTLE
sides

potenuse, if the other

67
3 and

are

required hypotenuse A, I
is equivalent to
hypotenuse

the
the

the other

sides; but

the other

/?2

therefore

3^ -f 4^

thus:

reason

the

sides

respectively.

4,
sum

3 and

are

The

of the

any

boat

see

violent

storm;

drowned;

are

I learn
Jones

boat

was

aboard

was

drowned.
I did

know

at

that
have

not

that

all

boat

at

know

to

board

on

that John

John

certain

Jones

was

shore

of

alive.

5.

did

is 5, to
without

as

it left

Jones

not

know
any

fact of

Now

time,

day,

next

he

John

saw

neighboring port;

aboard, is confirmed

was

that

boat

The

friend, that

when

before

half -hour

certain

know

boat

another

on

passenger

wrecked

of

the

testimony
that

this fact, that

suppose

by

the

board

on

reached

none

from
on

squares

hill,by the side of a lake,

about a mile from the shore, strugglingwith a
finallythe boat is wrecked, and all on board
I stand

Thus,

observation.
and

of

begging of the
that this particularhypotenuse
have
to know
demonstrated
the major premise, which
was
reference to this particularcase.
be established
Again, the major premise may
there

Is

square

respectively,

^5; therefore
question here?

16

ing
Call-

the

met
can

say

boat
all

drowned;

that

was

board

on

John

Jones

that

time; therefore, John

Jones

that

John

were

were

Jones

drowned;

aboard.

drowned,

was

for I did
is no

There

not

begging

to

even

of the

question here.
To

vindicate

of the

Aristotle, it is necessary

syllogism,that

Others

learn

it involves

no

to

prove

the

validity

fallacy.
by the syllogism;but the
falsityof this assertion.

nothing new
the
examples
given prove
In fact, we
discoveries, that is, learn new
repeatedly,make
One principlewill often give an indefinite
facts,by deduction.
of deductions, as
in the case
of finding the
number
sides are
the other
hypotenuse of a right triangle,when
for offering a
be blamed
not
given. Pythagoras should
hecatomb
in view of his great discovery.
of oxen
Induction
and deduction
are
complementary divisions of
logic. It was
glory enough for Aristotle that he perfected
the theory of deduction.
left
The
was
theory of induction
say

we

above

for the
Aristotle

theory.

moderns,

as

employed

Bacon, Galileo, Whewell

induction, though he did

and
not

Mill; yet,

perfect its

PHILOSOPHICAL

68

of

Aristotle's distinction

efficient,and
of

course

matter

or

formal
that

THEORIES

final, has
out

of

corresponding

cause,

no

which
to

of attributes

combination

little influence

material

speculation. The
substance

four, material, formal,

as

causes

exerted

the

cause

is the

thing

is

idea, form,

in the

which

thing

of

kind

formed;

or

the

on

the

concept, is
identifies

is the
belonging to a certain class; the efficient cause
which
is the purproduces an event; the final cause
energy
pose
which
exists
These
for
end
made.
a
or
was
thing
or
the main
points in Aristotle's Metaphysics.
are
of propositions as
conditional
and
distinction
The
gorical,
catetive
affirmaand particular,
and of categoricalas universal
and
tradictory,
negative, and their opposition as contrary or conit

as

of distribution

of terms, the conversion

doctrine of figureand mood,

laws

the

propositions,the dictum, the

all valuable
and permanent
the detection of fallacyare
tributions
conmade
by Aristotle to the science of logic.
be
The
categoriesare those distinct predicates which may
affirmed
named
of a
ten:
substance,
subject. Aristotle
quantity, quality, relation, action, passion, place, time,
of no
are
position, possession. These
great importance,
the
be
increased
number
as
by adding degree,necessity,
may
actuality,probability,possibilityand so on or diminished,
another.
into one
It is evident
as
place and position run
that the topics are
heads
of
discourse, or
commonplaces,
for
rhetoric
for
suitable
than
more
logic.
In
Aristotle
fallacy in
Sophistical refutations,
exposes
such
and
that scarcely an
exhaustive
an
thorough manner,
is not
that
be found
example of unsound
reasoning can
of the specific
Aristotle calls eristic,
reducible to one
classes.
arguing for victory; and sophistry,arguing for gain.
the views
In regard to Ethics, it is instructive
to compare
of

of

Socrates, Plato

with
which

knowledge
can

be

and

and

held

Aristotle.
that

as

man

Socrates
seeks

identified virtue
his

own

happiness,

only by doing right,therefore a

what
is right.
right,if he only knew

secured

man

The
always do
instances, persons
objection to this view is that in many
knowing the right,refuse to do it;under the stress of appetite,
to be
passion or desire, they deliberatelydo what they know
action
It is, however,
true
that the highest moral
wrong.
also be
accord
with
must
must
moral
insight; but there
would

ARISTOTLE

conduct

into

out

could

be made

Solomon:

wise.

be

essential

by right will.
Plato's
analysis of
combative
he

with

reason.

This

wisdom;

but

function

of the

not,

however,
his

will, though

Plato's; it is

to

the fact that

an

which

reason

he

characteristic
"We

alone

virtue, which

of

happiness

form,

be

is best

man,

in the

hands

of virtue

of
with

recognize the
suflSciently
theory is a noble view of

not

to

be

regarded

life,which
is
his

possesses,
must

is

insight

excellence.

sensation, which

vegetable, nor

virtuous,

determined

that

extension; he

is not

man

be

the

being, sensitive,

did

ought to rule, but showed

What
is the chief good or ultimate end
unhesitatingly answers
happiness. As
of

know

clear

felt

not

why

reason

characteristic

or

goes

did

to

far in the identification

perfectionof moral
theory of Ethics is

the

as

view
he

Aristotle's

rule.

and

objection
saying of

To

right conduct

his view

to

health

the

of

three-fold

little

of the

us

by placing the reins of government

secured

virtue

as

rational, lead

and

identified

man

carried

of wisdom.

wisdom,

virtue
of

practicalvirtue

the

to

with

intellectual

The

the elements

are

principalthing."
to do the right is

right,and

will the

right,to
is to

is the

be

must

edge,
requires knowlknowledge, a willingness

this reminds

it;and

to

"Wisdom

right
Virtue

accurate

virtue

identified

had

the

act.

skill in execution

right,and

If Socrates

executive

by

conduct, but

will and
to do

right,and

the

do

willingnessto

69

question
it should

of man?

totle
Aris-

the

distinguishing
possessed by a

is

by

an

animal,

happiness, in its

rational

gonistic
anta-

as

but

highest
totle
Aris-

satisfaction.

one
as
safelythen define a happy man
whose
accords
with
is
quately
adewho
and
virtue,
activity
perfect
furnished with external goods, not for a casual period
of time, but for a complete or perfectlifetime.
Aristotle attaches
importance to the will as well as to the
Virtue requiresthat the will freelychoose
reason.
according
to the light of reason;
and
in this choice, the mean
is to be

says:

may

"

followed

rather

than

either extreme.

the

extremes,

the

other; generosity

Aristotle

virtue.
means

rashness

makes

By

the

on

is neither

moderation

moderation

self-control,that

one

Thus

true

courage

hand, and

prodigal

avoids

cowardice

on

stingy; hence,

nor

of all
the essence
temperance
Aristotle
evidently
temperance,
or

or

rational

will power

by

which

man

PHILOSOPHICAL

10

keeps himself
the practice

of

this

formed

be

is to

be

taught,

and

in

in the

this

by

only

*'

child

but

Train

be

is

child

that

trained
in

again

in

insists

moral

education;

proper

know,

Aristotle

duty.
is without

Aristotle

respect,

Solomon;

to

of

path

true

virtue.

not

THEORIES

should

is, he
do

to

the

right,
with

agreement

the

on

character;

he

should

a
go."
up
way
he
forms
should
and
habits
Training in the way
right
go
habits
into
and
ter
characcrystallize
good
right
good character,

tends
As

to

attained
be
not
good can
isolation, but only in society, under

of

state

Aristotle

of

animal.

In

already
proceeds
The

chief

from

been
to

his

state

work,

Ethics

government,

Politics.

in

him

by
He

emphasizes
describes
friendship and
man
as
a
political
what
has
treating of politics, he first reviews
done
writers
this
and
other
then
on
subject,
by

passes

value

the

permanence.

man's

to

views.

own

is full of interest, and

unfinished,

though

throws

book
Grecian
light on
displays great
history. The
of
individual
and
human
it
the
knowledge
gives to
nature;
the
resists
the
family their due importance, and
tendency
communism
found
in Plato's
to
Republic.
institution
of slavery,
Aristotle
the
as
upheld
wrongly
based
denounced
the
and
nature,
narrowly
taking of
on

great

interest

for

use

of

money.

favorably

with

that

the

%-^

compares

Aristotle

wrote

branches
Natural

of

science.

For

and

other

History

of Alexander
After

rule, and
scholar,
After
continued

death

the
of

Aristotle,
retired

furnished

to

Chalcis

the

in

closed

most

death

with

ample

of

and

Aristotle,

by Theophrastus,

works

was

of
under

learned

most

accused

Macedonian
and

Strato,

Peripatetic
and

others.

He

Atheism.

accurate

original philosopher
the

on

patronage

Athenians

and

which

life of the

profound

his

means.

the

tendencies

Euboea,

of

various

the

on

of science, the

Alexander,

the

however,

state,

and

illustrations

the

Macedonian

there
the

of

Poetry,

branches

him

ideal

of Plato.
and

Rhetoric

on

His

of

School

tiquity.
An-

was

CHAPTER

The

Epicurus

1.

and

the
When

things
He

of

Democritus

atoms;
At

the

of

age
one

here

asked:

eighteen,
Thence

year.

the

Samos,

and

atoms,

that

but

.^^
the

To

answer.

void

all

Chaos

came

himself,

applied

Democritus

of

of

told

being

Whence

for

he
of

native

on

age,

philosophy

chaos

was

of grammar.

of
he

Chaos,

to

for

Epicurus

years

Schools

Stoic

teacher

referred

philosophy
nothing back
the

of

out

arose

was

Neocles,
thirteen

only

and

Epicurean

(342-270.)

of

son

IX

found
between

spaces

began.
visited

he
he

went

where

Athens,
to

he

mained
re-

Mitylene,

Colophon,

he
when
to
Athens,
Lampsacus,
finally
school
in a
of age,
where
he
thirty-six years
opened
was
a
of his life.
there
the rest
quiet garden, and remained
The
of Plato
of Aristotle
too
deeply
philosophy
was
or
and

and

reasoned,

returned

difficult

too

understand,

to

popular,

become

to

easily to be
Something
more
called
for, which
understood,
something
practical was
more
would
serve
comprehensible
guide to life.
as
a
the
from
The
so-called
School
of philosophy,
Epicurean
of its founder,
be
out-growth,
name
an
regarded
as
may
School
and
of
the
modification,
Cyrenaic
improvement
founded
of the atomistic
It is a combination
by Aristippus.
tippus.
of Democritus
with
the Hedonic
philosophy
theory of Aristhe
end
considered
Happiness
as
was
by Epicurus
of human
restrict
He
did
happiness,
pursuit.
not, however,
and

as

reaction

inevitable.

was

it to
Aristippus, to sensational
pleasure, but extended
He
of friendship.
and
higher pleasures of the intellect
in moderation,
taught that
pleasure is to be enjoyed

did

the
also
since

Epicurus was
with
plain fare,
peaceful

banishing

in disaster.

results

excess

and
from

himself
and

happy
the

temperate

with

his

life.
mind

all

trusted

He

taught

care

71

He

man.

and

passed
importance
he

friends,
the
worry,

satisfied

was

as

the

fear

of
of

PHILOSOPHICAL

72

death

of the

or

absent, and
fear the
affairs

gods?

death

They

trouble

to

He

gods.

when

THEORIES

are

said

too

much

into

taken
the

up

exist.

their

with

affairs

of

is

Why
own

mortals.

superstition.

By happiness Epicurus
anxiety or trouble, and not
of intellectual,social
free will and

longer

no

with

alive, death

are

we

we

comes,

themselves

Religion is resolvable

when

freedom

meant

only
or

so,

but

sensational

prudential wisdom

from

pain, fear,
ment
positiveenjoyHe
sidered
conpleasure.
the

the

essence

of virtue.

obey the laws, and

of society,for thus
comply with the accepted moral customs
and
the danger of detection
he would
punishment for
escape
and
the
reward
crime,
attending a good reputation,
gain
avoids
crime
that is, one
of fear of detection
only because
and punishment.
No
estimate
is made
of the approval or
of conscience.
condemnation
Then
morality proceeds from
of advantage.
This is not high rational ethics;
a calculation
Thus,

virtue

it is not

even

leads

to

one

avoid

crime,

to

utilitarianism;it is hedonism,

or

the

placingof

happiness in sensational enjoyments.

The Epicureans have fallen into bad repute, partlythrough
their own
fault,and partlythrough the misrepresentationsof
the rival schools.
the devotees of
In fact, they are too much
pleasure,which is quite likelyto degenerate into sensational
word
The
to
pleasure of the lowest sort.
Epicure has come
signifyone given to the pleasuresof the table. The Epicureans
have been stigmatizedby their opponents as sensualists.
the higher virtues,
Epicurus himself, however, recommended
and

lived

moral

life.

pleasures,as those of the table,

be
lawful and
restricted
innocently enjoyed, when
may
within
and
reasonable
limits; but the purer
higher enjoyments
from intellectual pursuits and a life of good will
come
and righteousconduct.
voluminous
writer, but his works, except
Epicurus was
a
fragments and quotations,have been lost,enough, however,
be gathered from
the fragments to reveal his system.
can
He regarded philosophy as the art of life,
and not the Science
of truth, as it was
considered
The
by Plato and Aristotle.
conception of Epicurus is that of practicallife,that of Plato
and
Aristotle
is the conception of theoretical
philosophy.
The
of
much
Plato
and
Aristotle
thinking
on
a
was
higher
than
of
that
plane
Epicurus.
The

truth

is, the

lower

THEORIES

PHILOSOPHICAL

n
After

twenty

of

years

schools, he

opened

school

at

oriental
after the
The

time

still existed, but

of the

these

were

of

and

school

of the Stoics

Epicurus
practical.

The

the old stoa,

middle

His

porch.
interaction

the
which

took

of

place

directed

carried

the

these

as

or

the

Rufus, Epictetus, and

more

were

Lyceum
intelligible
regarded the

into three

periods,

by Zeno, Cleanthes, and

transition period, directed

the

of

doctrine

chief

the

of the

that

be divided

may

stoa,

of which

stoa

Musonius

Zeno,

of Seleucia, Boethius
who

Panaetius,
Roman

or

product of
thought,

and
Academy
eclipsedby

and

developed

Chrysippus; the
by Diogenes
and

in the

own

various

these

at

of Alexander.

philosophy

doctrines

study,

of his

school

least in part, the

speculation and Greek

was,

more

laborious

Sidon, Posidonius,
to

Rome;

ornaments

the

the

Seneca,

were

Marcus

Emperor

later

Aure-

lius.

began, as a Cynic, in discarding pleasure, avoiding

the guide of life. He
perturbation, and in making reason
of life
declared
indiflference to the joys or sorrows
or
a^a^/ii/
for a philosopher. A sage is
of mind
to be the proper
state
in
characterized
wisdom,
by magnanimity,
serenity and
with
the ordinary affairs of
dealing with his fellow men,
or
life. In regard to pleasure or pain, wealth
or
poverty, honor
or
circumstances, he is to
obscurity, or other accidental
manifest
the apathy of entire indifference.
It is, however,
that the Stoics cultivated
the friendshipof those of their
true
own
persuasion; but for people in geneml, their attitude
neither
that
of sympathy
was
nor
antipathy, but apathy,
the coldness
of entire disregard.
suicide?
Pain
is not to be
Why did the Stoics encourage
Zeno

all

desired, but
is to

be

rather

borne

without

the loss of health

of
of

act

or

Certain

murmuring.
he

is

no

suicide, he proved that

longer

on

life itself

it

disabilities,
as

limb, the Stoic considered

that

providence

unavoidable,

avoided; yet when

be

to

as

an

tion
indica-

duty, and by the

was
regarded with

indifference.
In
Stoics
Socrates

said:
that

philosophers of other schools, the

according to nature; but they held with

with

common

Live
the

feeling;hence,

the

characteristic
rational

nature

life,not

of

man

life of

is

reason,

pleasure, is

not

the

life of

true

the

For

man.

STOIC

SCHOOLS

Stoics, the ideal end

the

Epicureans, pleasure.

said:

Both

Follow

75

is

virtue; for

nature;

but

in

is reason,
Stoics, the true nature
leading to
of the Epicureans, the true nature
life;while in case

of the

case

virtuous
is

AND

EPICUREAN

THE

sensibility,leading to
Both

systems

life of

one-sided.

are

pleasure.
Man

has

both

and

reason

enjoy pleasure. Why

nature?
of man's
Evidently this should
is right. The
be done, if the precept. Follow
not
nature,
question is, which shall have sway.^ Shall appetite, or passion,
has sensibilityin common
with
desire .f^ Man
the
or
of himself, and as the higher
is characteristic
brute; his reason
is distinctively
it is entitled
human,
attribute, as that which

he can
sensibility;
ignore either part

control.

to

pursue

It may,

virtue,

or

therefore, be concluded

that

under

the

properly enjoy the satisfaction

from
of his sensibility,
the lawful gratification
that comes
or
of his powers.
from
the exercise of any
be
Banquets may
carried
of dissipation;feasting may
be
the means
to excess;
modern
reasonable
take
what
but to
illustration,
a
objection
be
can
urged against a family Thanksgiving dinner, or to the
Christmas
turkey .^^
Zeno, though a one-sided
philosopher,was
highly esteemed
with the keys of their
him
by the Athenians, who entrusted
his monument
the
they carved
inscription:
city, and on
His life was
in accord
with his teaching.
in Troas, originallya boxer, first
Cleanthes of Assos
3,
attended
the lectures of Crates, the Cynic, and
afterwards
those
of Zeno.
at
Being poor, he worked
night that he
might support himself while attending by day the lectures of
His
Zeno.
suspicion, and he was
apparent idleness awoke
brought before the Areopagus, but the facts becoming known,
guide

he

of

oftered

was

slow

was

attended

man

reason,

to

the

present of ten
learn, but held
a

lectures

and
for

on

the

may

death

high

of Zeno
moral

of Zeno, he

minae, which
fast

what

nineteen

he
years,

qualitieswere
was

chosen

he refused.

acquired.
his

but

amply
to

He
He
severance
per-

rewarded;

be the head

of the

Stoic School.
His

the
to
original contribution
philosophy was
enunciation
of the principlethat the varying tension
of the
substance, a purely physical fact, produced, by its stress,
one
all the changes of the universe.
This
fertile principle was
most

PHILOSOPHICAL

76

with

employed
with

ultimate

realityof Spencer,
believed

Cleanthes
wrote

said

hymn
quoted in
God.

offspring of

and

fortified it, so

Cynic

be

to

the

Logic

of

were

not

satisfyan

idle

life,and

on

from

the

that,

it

make

had

do

not

the

as

for

to

be

system

cultivated

curiosity,but

for

is the

therefore. Ethics

Stoics do
that

assert

is

Epicureans;

not

of

but

the

is acted

upon

Stoic

he

that

posed,
sup-

grammar

that

saw

which

this

aspired

that

sake,

bearing

crowning science.

is
as

or

fact

theism.
pan-

of the

assertingthat

agreement

tension

change in nature
by matter, and

is the

matter

is monism

In
in

are

the

as

question the

it is material.

idea

own

of their

subordinate.

call in

corporal, the Stoics

of the ceaseless

Matter

are

of the

the
as

their

because

to be held

The

leader

Chrysippus

as
Physics were
is dynamic
materialism, and
only existence, according to the Stoics, it

cause

usually

poet Aratus:

secure,

declared

Stoicism

substance

sun.

philosophy, and, therefore, set himself

of learning. He held, however, that

and

soul, but

it is

systematized

to

as

Zeno

would

all branches

sciences
to

nor

view

and

useless; but

were

great school

improve

to

attacks.

mathematics

narrow

which

at

Cleanthes

elaborated

againstall
and

no

was,

in the

Athens, that we
doubt, the sentiment

speech

quoted exactly

He

School.

doctrine

his throne

Zeus, from

his

succeeded

phrysippus

Stoic

it

Spinoza, the
spiritual,with

yivos icrfiiv,

kol

yap

^.

of

by making

or

identified

be

may

substance

one

to

It

Paul

Cleanthes; but
Tou

It

Jupiter had

that

sublime

Paul

that

the

Stoics.

of Theism.

God

He

the

by

of science, the

ether

the

the

effect

THEORIES

of matter

peculiarto

with

all
the

is the
stoicism.

the Stoics held

by

only.

matter

categoriesof Aristotle, the Stoics offered

four: Substance, essence,
mode, relation. They were
adepts
noted
for their skill in hair-splitting.Along
at analysis,and
with
and
lectic,
DiaRhetoric,
logic,they cultivated Grammar,
of their distinctions
the art of disputation. Many
or
Instead

of the ten

still in vogue.

are

the Stoics to
growing influence of skepticism awoke
criterion for truth, which
importance of finding some

The
the

would

enable
and

them

to

discern

the

difference

opinion. They rejectedthe

between

ideas of Plato,

edge
knowl-

adopting

with

Aristotle, that

our

by finding their
are

we

The

notions

Stoics endeavored
does

the mind

sense

and

the object?
the

do

How

we

forms, as taught by
things are derived
the objects of a class,
and by this principle

classes.

queriesof

the

skeptics:

is the relation between

What

reality?

of

the

answer

perceive?

How

corresponds to

to

77

of

cause;

objects into

to form

enabled

formal

or

essence

SCHOOLS

of

concepts

or

comparison

and

examination

an

STOIC

modifications, the doctrine

some

from

AND

EPICUREAN

THE

know

square

that the appearance

tower, at a distance,
that perception does
that it gives a picture

it appears
not
apprehend the object as it is,but
Stoics insisted on
of our
conception of the object. The
clearness and distinctness, qualitieswhich
Descartes, long

round,

appears

after, employed
The

whose
for
if

we

we

known
we

from

as

which

tests

of truth.

hypothesis of Empedocles

that

there

tached
images defrom
the objects, and
representing them, through
is not satisfactory
the objects are
intervention
seen,
might as well perceive the objectsas their images; but
perceive the images and not the objects, how do we
that the images fairly represent the objects? This

could

not

know,

unless

have

we

antecedent

are

and

separate

the images are

gether
altoknowledge of the objects,in which case
superfluous.
three kinds of opinions, the
The
theory that there are
probable, the improbable, atid the neither probable nor
improbable, proposed by the Stoics, gave no certain criteria
the false. As
to
distinguish the true from
no
by which
of universal
criterion sufficientlycertain and
application,
could be foimd, the Stoics fell back on common
the
as
sense,

best that could

be done.

this

convenient

of
point, study the process
perception begins as a psychical act,
perception. Of course,
with sensation.
If external objects did not, in some
way,
of
be aware
aflfect us, giving us sensations, we
should
not
their existence; but before sensation, if perception be a fact,
must
we
postulate the physical object to be known, and the
and
subject which knows with its physiologicalsense
organs
of perception. There
mental
then
be
the
must
powers
of
and
synthesis
object, not their identity, but a
subject
relation allowing the mechanical
action of the object and
Let

us,

at

the reaction of the organ,

as

when

radiated
light^is

or

reflected

PHILOSOPHICAL

78

the

object to the eye,

vibrating body reach

from

by

THEORIES

the

with

of

excitement

the

organ,

by the sensation
Reason

now

foreign cause,
necessity of

the

of touch, and

organ

intervenes
since

the

when

or

so

ear,
on

caused

of air

waves
or

an

propagated
object in contact

for taste

by

the

and

smell.

object, is

The

panied
accom-

feelingof which we are conscious.

or
and
apprehends the necessity of a
soul is passive in sensation, a'so the

subject of the sensation, which it identifies

when
with
I.
itself,the Ego or what
one
means
one
says
The
judgment, then, guided by experience, infers what the
is which
produces the sensation; and now
particular cause
the imagination ideates or pictures the cause,
according to
inferential
the
judgment, and thus completes the act of
perception. All this is done, so readily and spontaneously,
from
the habit of continual
practice,that the complex act
like
immediate
seems
apprehension.
mistake
lies in the judgment
The
the
to
liabilityto
as
which
objective cause,
approaches certainty only in familiar
cases,

or

the

when

one

sense

re-enforces

another,

as

the

report of

If there is a mistake
supported by that of touch.
in the judgment, the ideated
picture is incorrect.
idea is not
The
something perceived; it has no existence
previous to the perception, but is the result of the act of
perception,and is constructed
by the imagination to embody
discoveries, knowledge, or belief respecting the object
our
rather than
perceived; the idea is conceived
perceived; it is
constructed
mental
as
a
picture representing what we know
believe we
of the
know.
In the judgment, as to the cause
or
sensation, is found, as before said, the element of uncertainty;
for the judgment
in general, gives only the more
less
or
limits
the
probable; but the probability varies between
impossibilityand certainty,and the degree of probability is
be
known
estimated
to
by experience. Some
images are
of well known
mere
phantasms; others, as the appearance
of
held
be
actual
decisive as to the
to
objects,are
presence
the objects,as when
we
speak to a friend and receive a reply.
The
from
idea, but is proof of the
reply 'does not come
our
the

eye

actual

is

existence

of the

person

addressed.

Perception is to be taken for what it is worth; we have in

it probabilityapproaching impossibilityon
the one
hand, or
certainty on the other; but universal absolute skepticism

AND

EPICUREAN

THE

STOIC

SCHOOLS

79

mind; for to accept it is

accepted by the human
If it is cerit, paradoxical as that may
to overthrow
seem.
tain
that nothing is certain, one
thing, at least, is certain,
whether
that nothing is certain; if it is really uncertain
any
thing is certain or not, then it is certain that it is uncertain
kind
whether
Reality of some
anything is certain or not.
if all is illusion,for then illusion is the
there must
be, even
be realityof
reality;it is, therefore, certain that there must
is
certain.
Then
kind.
one
thing, at least,
some
be

not

can

It

it must

reality is; and

attained,

been

the

nor

in

Reason

depends

reason

physics
We

whether

but

nature,

knowing

but

in certain

his conduct
has

detection;
We

an

can,

an

the

the

character

in

if he

of this hereafter.

more

displayed

the
the

universal

thinks

law

or

honest;
dis-

predict

can

thief will steal, if he

A
he

of

Ethics.

of

we

man,

in

of

determinism

stranger is honest
of

the

to

Pyr-

indeterminism

entire

has

success

faith of mankind

reason

here

circumstances.

opportunity, and
honest

the
to

and

with

tell whether

not

can

himself

confronted

is

with

conforms

man

upon

the

the

of

theorems; but

harmonizes

man

what

Empiricus
skepticism

the

shaken

has

great

Sextus

Neither

of mathematical

truth

that

Geometry,

of Sextus

that

ascertain

to

admitted

be

in

as

mind

human

notwithstanding.

contrary

rho,

for the

remains

now

probably

can

escape

will respect the rights of his neighbor.

conduct.
of
the
predict
consequences

man

however,

is the

rightful guide, and wisdom,

of theoretical
the union
knowledge, good will, and practical
"Wisdom
skill in executive
conduct, is the crowning virtue.
is the principalthing, therefore
get wisdom."
is often willed and
Irrational
action
deliberatelyentered
Reason,

from

upon

sudden
decision.
up

not

bad

ethical

impulse,

free

impulse

choice.
takes

place

It is,however,

habits, and
education

of

Sometimes
the

confirm
self

action

without

reflection

business
those

is, to

or

to

are

act,

good;
when

or

deliberate

of education

that

learn

habit

from

to

break

and

the

stances
circum-

permit, from reflection instead of impulse. Sudden

when
instantaneous, or
emergencies, however, may
occur,
alone
is
impulsive action,
possible.
To
the
doctrine
of the unity of the soul, the
out
carry
ailStoics taught the necessity of suppressing the chronic

PHILOSOPHICAL

80

such

ments

avarice

as

strengthen the

to

and

to

cultivate

the

of

is,to the Hght

weak

THEORIES

ambition,

and

to

powers,

correct

opinions,

erroneous

conform

dispositionto

infirmities,

avoid

to

that

nature,

to

reason.

perfectionof man,
according to the Stoics,is the inner
of
sovil.
Make
the soul right and the life will
perfection the
be right. *'Out of the heart are
the issues of life." Pleasures
need not be sought. Virtue is its own
reward.
Future
and
rewards
punishments, according to the Stoics, are moral
of will, or
and
firmness
bugbears. Virtue or right reason,
of wisdom, courage,
the combination
temperance and justice,
is the only good for man,
and
vice, the opposite of these
virtues, is the only evil. Other things are indifferent,though
be classified according to a certain scale of values
they may
health, wealth, social position and
as
politicalpreferment;
the
if
not
essential
attainable,
well-beingof the soul is not
yet
The

disturbed.
The
Stoics

social,among

were

themselves, and

ous
desir-

were

cosmopolitan citizenship,
embracing all the
of minds, actuated
good in one brotherhood
by the principles
of the Stoic philosophy, regardless of nationalityor
race.
In reality,such a society is a church
with
Zeno
fellowship,
the
The
Greek
founder,
as
or
high priest.
mythic divinities,
the Stoics explained allegorically,
of the
as
personifications
of

forming

of

powers

of

means

Divination

nature.

communication

and

between

oracles
God

and

afforded
man.

the

When

the objection was

urged that if all things are foreordained,
divination is superfluous,
Chrysippus repliedthat divination
and

our

The

conduct

middle

under

Stoa

was

it

were

one

also foreordained.

of inaction, or

at best

of defensive

action

againstthe Skeptics,or a continuation of the discussion

of psychological or cosmological problems, as the universal
of all things in an
ever
confligationand renewal
recurring
cycle.
ing,
Ordinary actions, according to r^ture, as eating and drinkthough not of themselves morally good, were
yet the
conditions
The

of the

possessor

of

good; for the end of the natural is the moral.

one

virtue

is the

possessor

of virtue

in its

virtue is
completeness. A person
morally lacking in one
wanting in all; that is,he is morally unsound, and can not, in
He
that offends
in one
respect, be depended upon.
any
is
point guiltyof all.

CHAPTER

in

Skepticism
Ancient

philosophic
and

Pyrrhonic

"

of the

laus

second

the

was

into

is, into

that

Pyrrho
third

and

divides

skepticism

Academic;

of which

school

that

Philosophy

the

head,

skepticism of
the skepticism

and

heads

whose

Academies,

branches

two

Arcesi-

were

Carneades.

and

chief

The

Timon,

Pyrrho,

of

philosophers

the

School

Pyrrhonian
Agrippa, and

Aenesidemus,

were

Empiri-

Sextus

cus.

Pyrrho.

1.

(circ.360-270).

in the

tus,

native

city;

known

he

home,

only

but

Pyrrho criticized
and
believing that
the

proper

and

his

of Democriand

conquest;

Elis, his

in

own

his

doctrines

are

those

especially

others,

structed
in-

Schools

Empiricus.
teaching of the other
be certainly known,

dogmatic
nothing
can
to

of

works,

of

been

Sextus

the

course

School

of

written

no

writings

the

through

Aenesidemus

Timon,

that

left

had

Megaric

career

school

and

Atomic

in his

opened
he

as

Eleatic

of the

Alexander

accompanied

returning

of

Anaxarchus

he, with

when

of the

doctrines

Elis

of

Pyrrho

is to

take

held

he
and

laws,

the

obey

schools,

to

the rules of
of society and
comply with the accepted customs
lived a long and
He
peaceful life,highly respected
morality.
by his fellow citizens.
Thales
had
had
Pyrrho
ground for his skepticism.
some
Anaxithe
principle of the universe;
taught that water
was

indeterminate

mander,

becoming,
change
or
bolized
symassumed
number;
Empedocles
by fire; Pythagoras,
assumed
Anaxagoras
elements, earth, air, fire, water;

being
for
vovs

for
the

Eleatics,

air; the

Anaximenes,

matter;

or

or

Heraclitus,

permanence;

the

reason;

himself,

judge

is

of his

the
own

Socrates

universe,

but

that

Sophists
of

measure

and

good,
that
taught
reason

is the
82

that

taught

each

man,

the

universe,

that

man

is

man

is

the

characteristic

that
a

man

each

bundle

measure

of man;

was

of

sations;
sen-

of

the

Plato

this

Aristotle, in

and

in

him

from

somewhat

PHILOSOPHY

IN

SKEPTICISM

agreed with

but

Socrates,

differed

respects; the Epicureans pursued

other

Stoics followed

pleasure;the

83

duty.

that Pyrrho was

wonder
Is it any
skeptic in philosophy,
a
that nothing could, with certainty,be
and that he concluded

out

fundamental

the

multiplicityof
Timon

2,
or

of

the secret

find

to

"

ing
philosophers did not succeed in finda philosophicaim
nature, yet they all had

these

Though

known?

truth

universe

the

to

(circ 330-240).

Timon

in prose

works

and

except Xenophanes
said

He

ought
related

that

to know
to

to

happily
things the

three

them,

author

"

and

what

we

numerous

philosophers

actual

from
nature
can

of

all the

poetry, and satirized

and
Pyrrho.
live

the

least to

at

philosophy, first
the
Pyrrho. He was

with

reduce

harmony.
of Phlius, a Sillograph,
under
Stilpo,the Megar-

unity, or

Satirist,studied

ian, then

would

which

knowledge,
things,how we

of

gain

from

them;

but

we
are
as

relations to
to us, also our
things is unknown
towards
is that
of indifference
things, our
right attitude
things,maintaining good temper, cultivatingvirtue, and so
and
find happiness in tranquillity. Live according to nature
the

nature

of

custom.

3,

Aenesidemus

collected, about

of Cnossus,

whose

exact

date

is unknown,

beginning of the Christian era, the results

of the teaching of Pyrrho and
Timon, which
together with
his own
speculations,he published in systematic form, as
of thought, which
led to ^ttoxi;,
the ten tropes, or turns
held
He
or
suspension of judgment with respect to truth.
that
shadow
drapa^La^or tranquillityfollowed
a
tTrox^y, as
follows a body.
The
Pyrrhonians did not deny sensations, or feelings,but
with
them
thing was
phenomenal, and phenomena
every
which
implied nothing with regard to their causes,
were
attain
To
to
wholly unknown.
or
suspension
^ttoxt/,
of opinion, argument
was
placed in opposition to argument,
phenomena to phenomena, argument to phenomena, and phenomena
result
and
the
to
uncertainty, and
was
argument,
followed
hence
the tranquillityof indifference.
The
which
ten tropes of Aenesidemus,
led to suspension of
based on
the following considerations:
The
judgment, were
the difference
in
variety of animals; the difference in men;
the

PHILOSOPHICAL

84

constitution

the

of the

THEORIES

sense

circumstances; position,

organs;

place; mixtures; quantities

objects; relation; frequency or rarity of
distance,

also gave
founded
on

Aenesidemus
of causation,

The

causes.

and

that

the

same

is that

one

cause

systems,

occurrence;

manifest

not

denying
change, as

Though
of

any

Aetiology, or theory
reveal
phenomena
objection to the reasoning
is hypothetical,
the method
that

be

may

also

phenomenon;

effects, do
fact

of

on

denial

the

causes

than

more

eight tropes

fundamental

effects to their

from

constitution

laws, myths, dogmas.

customs,

their

and

that

manifest

to

to

of

the

to

of

any

he

cause,

and

senses,

for

account

apart

causes,

themselves

knowledge

offered

from
the

their
senses.

accepted
thus

the

favored

of Heraclitus.

the doctrine

Agrippa

Aenesidemus,

later than

though his exact

is mentioned
He
date is not known.
by Diogenes Laertius,
though not by Sextus Empiricus, as the originator of five
in logicalpower
of the skeptical
tropes. They show an advance
have
bases
and
the
school,
following
: Discord
; regressus
in infinitum,Relation, hypotheses; circulus in probando.
Sextus Empiricus flourished about
200
A. D.
He
5.
was
the
learned
of
writer
on
physician,a
history philosophy, and
a
the head of the Pyrrhonean School, in his time, located probably
in Rome.
Sextus
was
an
agnostic.
4.

In

his work

was

entitled

which
HvppwveioL {'TrorvTrwcreis,

may

be

Pyrrhonean expositions,Sextus sharply criticized

various
the
of
held
dogmatic schools
philosophy, and
the
of
that
of
attitude, the
true
one
Pyrrhonism,
and
the only true
balancing arguments
was
con,
pro
one,
since
it led
to
^Trox^y,the
suspension of
judgment,
that
this resulted
in
neither affirming nor
denying, and
of soul.
treatise
Sextus
also wrote
arapa^ia,or repose
a
entitled adversus matJiematicos,against the mathematicians.
translated

takes

Sextus
We

up

the ten

give the substance

On

the differences

(1)
their preferencesfor
Some

animals

sightis keen
cows

land,

some

are

tropes and

of what
of

different

discusses

them

in order.

he says.

animals,

as

to

food, Sextus

carnivorous,

some

origin,their senses,
substantially:
says

herbivorous; the

sense

of

hound;
of smell in the bloodgreyhound, the sense
animals
Some
live on
eat cabbage, pigs do not.
animals
in water, and birds fly in the air.
Some
in the

SKEPTICISM

IN

PHILOSOPHY

animals,

gregarious,others solitary. Many

are

for food; the vulture

class of animals
one

seek the fresh grass

things pleasant to
.f^ Does

another

nature

.f^ It is true

them;

ideas

that

are

judgment.
The reply to

animals,

Objects are

truth.
such

as

from

animals

animals

affect

to

as

us

they

us

in that he seeks

as

for

that
of

causes

is

relative,
relative

have

man,

Man,

pond
corres-

is susf tension of

knowledge

appear;

ways.

ideas

our

of

but

them;

that

Have

ideas

experience
do they

we

as

attitude

well

as

in certain

is, objectsare

however,

differs

phenomena,

while

do not.

probably

question:Have

raises the

Sextus

are

sense

Are

it is?

correct

of

is that

carrion.

as

conscious

only proper

horse,

all classes of animals.

to

same

prove

the

as

always pleasant to

sensations

not

can

the above

different

the

are

we

the
reality,

to the

and

we

as

reveal the truth .^ As

our

seeks

it appear
Has
man

does

of nature.^

ideas

correct

our

appear

of them

which

To
animals

nature

the

85

so-called

the

irrational

discussingthis question, Sextus selects

and reaches the conclusion
the dog for comparison with man,
from
illustrations,that the dog is equal, if not
numerous
of his perceptions,and
in the accuracy
superior,to man
'Tt is for this reason,
it appears
to me,
facetiouslyremarks:
selves
themthat some
philosophers,(the Cynics) have honored
animals

.^^ In

reason

with

comparison

the
of

of this animal."

name

animals

and

man

with

Sextus

concludes

the statement:

the

*T shall

each object appears

able to say how
but in regard
to me,
it is by nature,
I shall be obliged to suspend my
to what
such as to affect me
in a certain
judgment." It is by nature
be

manner.

(2)

In

regard

differences

in

unanimity

among

external

men,

objects.

in different
and

to

the

Sextus
men

Men

things. The
men

in intellectual and

second

of the
moral

regard

differ in
races
same

to

body

the
and

of mankind
race

differ in

endowments,

in

the

upon

substantially:There

says,

in

founded

trope

is

characteristics

no

of

mind, and

delight
have their peculiarities,
their preferences,
their philosophy

beliefs.
religious
They place different values on the
is the truth
then
concerning these
same
things. What
Platonist
would
with
A
Plato; an
things?
say,
agree
Epicurean, agree with Epicurus; but Sextus says: Suspend
judgment.

in their

PHILOSOPHICAL

m
The

this trope
truth, what

to

answer

relative

to

THEORIES
ing
accord-

generally choose

is, men

good

seems

It is true,

them.

to

Knowledge
things are not all of equal worth.
wisdom
Those
folly;character, money.
outweighs ignorance,
things are to be preferred that tend to the perfectionof man
physical,intellectual, and moral being, and satisfaction
a
as
varies with perfection.
(3) In regard to the third trope that different senses
give
Sextus
different reports concerning the same
object,
says:
*'To the different
smooth,
an
apple may
senses,
appear
with
A
to the eye
sweet,
painting
fragrant,
yellow.
appears
of water,
with
fields and
trees, and
buildings,and streams
tain
bridges,and cattle grazing in the fields, and a distant mounthat

however,

To

range.

lying sense?

is the

than

senses

What

world.

of the

regard

reply

to

appears

should

us

absurd.

dogmatism?

escape
sense

He

reports the

the

has

molecules,
action
the
the

Does

apple.
as

in the

that

the

to

their forms, to

on

the

organs

that
and
of science.

dogmatists

claim

of the

dogmatists

the

even

modified

statement

of

sensation

salt

or

is due

their motions,

the

same,

is, each
can

of the

the
to

enabled

to

predict,and

we

size of the

their chemical

positivelythat
some

the

in

cause

taste

of sugar.
Nature
and
man
are
so
certain uniformities
in results follow
their
are

tion
sensa-

and

that

we

and

conflict, and
sugar,

to
or

say

smell, taste

qualitiesdo not
The objectivecause

being

tized,
dogma-

of the

The

taste

lows
fol-

the claim

of taste, yet we
know
sensation
is due
to

peculiarity of the
object,since, the organ

differs from

part

judgment

himself

Sextus

affect the touch,

These

ways

surmise

of

let this pass.

The
answer
related
that
to
it, so
we
quality

be occult,

only

said

ferred
pre-

know

form

But

all exist in the

may

can

that

qualitieswhich

apple
sight in certain

may

have

that

be

things, we

suspension
objects.

the

tists
dogma-

they should
of

of

of

.^^ *The

they themselves

for

know

he said, we

is absurd.

judgment

this, it is evident

to

when

of the world
that

idea
*

Hence,

external

less number

or

different

think

to

is absurd,

to

greater

Which

flat surface.

one

have

in their

men

disagreement."

in
In

enough

claim

their

would

is the nature

then

other

to

with

person

have,

conceited

are

that

we

it is all

touch,

the

this is the

of salt
lated
corre-

action,
intermark

fourth

The

(4)

The

useful things:
or

persons,

or

Sextus

trope,
says
many
in different
reports differently

sense

same

87

circumstances

upon

this

to

same

in the

is based

trope

regard

In

conditions.

PHILOSOPHY

IN

SKEPTICISM

in the

person

different

circumstances

sleeping or waking, in
hunger or satiety. Actions of others are reported according
Our
of love or hatred, joy or
state
to our
opinion of them.
fear, affect our
opinions and our conduct.
or
sorrow,
courage
Our
subjectivestates which modify our judgments, whether
conditions, are
continually
produced by physical or mental
the
Disease
such
affects
or
as
jaundice
changing.
mumps
of health

or

sickness, youth

Children

relish for food.

our

the

as

hoop

cross-bow

or

or

age,

their toys, and

for boys, and dolls for

their toys, and

pursuit of baubles, miss the true

and

have

women

love

have

love

them

riches

girls.

moral

Men

in their

too, and

of

them,

character

thing to another,
righteous hfe. He who prefersone
does
criterion,test or proof; but the criterion
so
by some
itself needs
criterion, the test needs to be tested, the proof
a
needs to be proved.
Hence, again, the result,suspension of
opinion.
is entitled to
have
due weight, and Sextus
All this should
beset
for such an
of the dangers which
thanks
ample expose
apply only to sense
our
opinions;but these liabilities to error
A rational intuition,
knowledge or inferences from phenomena.
have
such
must
event
a
or
a logical
cause,
as, Every
in
is
found
effected.
not
demonstration,
as
Geometry,
Moral
truth is not affected, as: It is right to seek the highest
good for all within our influence.
position,distance
(5) As to the fifth trope based upon
The
small and
and
same
place, Sextus says:
ship appears
motionless
in motion
when
at a distance, but large and
near,
and

and

the

when

tower

same

we

are

near

round

appears
to

it.

The

thrust

oar

from

distance

but

square

straightin the

seems

air,
color

obliquely
neck changes its shade as it walks
on
a
be so painted that the eyes will follow
A portraitcan
by us.
walk
the room.
Here
also we
round
should suspend
as
we
us
judgment as to the objectivefacts.

but

bent, when

of the feathers

The

true

the

water.

The

dove's

to

this trope is. Observe

but the skeptic will

judgments;
still liability
to error
your

not

answer

into

.^

Yes, that

caution, and

reply.

is true; but

rect
cor-

Is there
the

error

reduced, if

be

can

round

at

facts

from

wide

be

may

of

errors

of the

as

experiencesthe

that

from

the

to

of the sensation;

judgment,

the

necessityof

ideate

that
fact of

cause

subject or

be mistaken

may

is

inference

or

to

as

necessityof

sensation; we

is

cause

observe

to

us

to the

as

the

has

hear

particularcause

mistaken

not

are

mistaken

not

are

we

We

sensation, nor

of the

the

We

error.

noise

leads

This

mark.

perception arise

sensation;

the

inference, what

sensation.

the

from

the

but

error;

parently
ap-

Will the
be square.
it is not known
to be

liable to

are

noise; the rational intuition that

not

tower

to

that

or

square,

The

altogether.

is found

distance

.f^ Inferences

square

avoided

not

it is not

skeptic say
a

THEORIES

PHILOSOPHICAL

88

as

ego

to the

picturethe object
according to our judgment as to the caiise; the idea or picture
will be correct
incorrect, according as the judgment is true
or
Our
false.
or
ordinary perceptions,tested as they have so
in general correct, and can
be
often been by experience,are
in perception,rational
relied on; but whatever
be the errors
be
A wolf at a distance
knowledge is not affected.
may
specialcause

for

mistaken
of

in the
the

to

tions
demonstra-

the

and

is affected
smell

cases,

are

mixtures, Sextus

on
as

in the air,

air may

The

organs.
eye

Hearing
in such

affect

not

the sixth trope based

either outward,
mixtures
are

These

fog,

dog, but that does

or

Geometry.
As

(6)
as

we

by

both

be transparent
jaundice, the taste

affected

by

report falsely;hence

catarrh.
them

trust

or

or

says,

inward

filled with

by
The

mumps.
senses,

not; suspend

judgment.
The

proper

thing

mixtures, allow

do, is
for them,

to

to

ascertain
be

the

presence

of

guard against
entertainingopinions,but in
rational knowledge is not disturbed.
all such cases,
tion;
(7) The seventh trope is based on quantity and composiand
Sextus, our
perceptions are changed with
says
be
the quantity and composition. A few grains of salt may
is
tasted with pleasure,but a spoonful put into the mouth
of a good thing. The
much
too
seasoning put into food
relish for it,and we
affects our
judge of it accordingly. The
of a drug
window
in a show
in a vase
color of the liquidseen
when
looks dark
store
through the large part, but as
seen
down
the vase
to a slender stem, the liquidlooks light,
runs
like water
slightlytinged. Food taken in different quantior
these

deception, and

be

cautious

in

and

on

our

PHILOSOPHICAL

90

tenth

The

(10)

trope

influence

THEORIES
relates

Laws,

to

opinions, belief,

judgments
regard to other
Sextus
nations, or classes of men.
proceeds to invalidate
opinion with regard to these things by opposing law to
any
belief to belief, opinion to opinion,
to custom,
law, custom
which

customs,

to

practice disfiguresthem.
their sisters;we

marry

The

forbid

the

tribes

Some

to

tattoo

the

our

belief to law, and

so
on.
custom,
their children to add to their beauty; we

law

or

with

consider

Egyptians
practice.

that

allowed

were

The

standard

nation, party, church, or

opinions and practice in one
society,is opposed to those of another nation, party, church
society. The morals on one side of a range of mountains
or
are
opposed to those on the other side. One church permits
its members
church
forbids
to dance
or
play cards, another
and right is uncertain; hence,
is true
such practices. What
suspend judgment.
form
judgment that is
a
Suspend judgment till you can
to correction; but be
at least probably true, and leave it open
not hasty in forming an
opinion or in modifying an opinion

of

formed.

once

The

tenth

charity;but
that

or

trope tends
it does

not
custom

one

to

show
may

broaden

views

and

give us
that all laws are
ficial,
equally benebe preferable to another.
not
long run, by their consequences,
have
now
accordingly. We
our

things are tested, in the

and
we
can
judge of them
reached
action and
action
reperiod in the world's history when
a
are
powerful, and the probabilityis that in the course
of time, all nations
and
people will accept the best form of
beneficial laws, adopt the most
the most
enact
government,
of
useful customs,
and
comply with the highest standards
morality.
The
eight tropes of Aetiology formulated
by Aenesidemus
against the theory of causality are chronologically anterior
the
the five tropes of Agrippa, though Sextus
to
reverses

These

order

and

treats

the

five tropes first,and

then

to

returns

the

eight.
The
ten

five tropes of

of Aenesidemus,
school.

The

Agrippa
and

relation

show

are
a

of the

of

higher
logicaladvance
ten

tropes

to

order

than

in the
the

the

cal
skepti-

five is that

empirical to the rational; the ten are derived from

the five from subjectivelogicalprinciples.
objectiverelativity,
of the

SKEPTICISM

originalityof Agrippa,

The
relates
and
in
in

their

to

in

not

Of

IN

the

formulation

regard

regard
use

91

the

to

for

five tropes,

skepticalpurpose,

their substance.

to

on

first and

only

third

the

contradiction, on
the

relation, on

discussed, then

in

and

five tropes based

infinitum^on
probando; the

PHILOSOPHY

are

the

regressus

the circulus

on
hypothetical,

in the list of the ten

(2, (4) and

(5) need

be

already

considered

present discussion.

in the

The
regard to the regressus in infinitum, Sextus says:
proof brought forward for the thing set before us calls for
and
another
to infinity,
so
on
proof, and that for another
that
from
which
not
to begin the reasonso
ing,
having anything
of
follows.
suspension
judgment
The
this is that in tracing the reasoning in a
to
answer
order, we
ultimately reach axioms, or self-evident
regress
of opinion
propositionsthat need no proof. The consensus
In

of

the

best

minds

demonstration

the

world

establishes

establishes
infinite series, and
axiomistic bases for the reasoning,which

the

an

in the

fact

the

that

only possiblebut actual, as in Geometry,

back
the hypothesis that reasoning runs

is not

this overthrows

and
in

of

are

fact

of

ultimate

Ihe

startingpoints

on

the

direct order.

(4)

In

the fourth

regard to

Sextus

asserts

that

we

can

trope, based
escape

the

regressus

hypothetical,
in infiniother hypothese

only by the hypothetical,but in this case,

are
possible,and we are thrown into a state of doubt,
to which
as
hypothesis is the true one, and suspension of
judgment follows.
In regard to this it may
be said that though several hypothese
tenable.
all
be
equally
possible,they are not
may
tion.
refutaIn fact,hypotheses sometimes
of
verification
admit
or
For
eighteen hypotheses in
example, Kepler made
of the planets
of the distances
regard to the connection
turn,

from

the

found

with

sun,

the true

one,

revolution, before he
admitting of verification,that the squares

of the

periodictimes

mean

distances

refuted
Sextus
the

by

the

are

from

time

of their

proportional

the

The

sun.

to

the

other

cubes

of their

hypotheses

were

the facts.

held

regressus

hug-hear,as
and

that

to

prove

the

hypothesis

is to

go

back

to

infinitum. The regressus in infinitum is a

have
we
pothes
already shown, Kepler verified his hyeither.
did not go back to infinity
in

PHILOSOPHICAL

92

(5)

in

circulus

The

THEORIES

probanda,

or

reasoning in a circle,
the
thing which
ought
to be sustained
by the

correctlysays, arises when

the thing sought for, needs
to prove
thing sought for, and ^s we are unable to take
the proof of the other, we
suspend our judgment
Sextus

the
in

one

for

regard to

both.

fallacywhich ought to be avoided,

and is avoided
by all sound logicians. It is a favorite objection
hence
to all deductive
to the syllogism,and
reasoning,
the
form.
which
be
reduced
to
can
syllogistic
always
Even
so
good a logicianas John Stuart Mill maintained
that the syllogisminvolves the fallacyof begging the question,
that is, reasoningin a circle,that to know
the major premise,
in

Reasoning

circle is

first know

must

we

the

is,the major premise

of the

conclusion; but the fact

be established,without
ence
referany

truth

can

to the conclusion.

drawn

in

wish

Suppose

know

chiliagon,or

formula,

establiish the
the

to

of

number

how

of

polygon

which

diagonals that

diagonals

many

is the
be

can

can

be

sides, I first

thousand

major premise, giving

drawn
in a polygon of

sides.

be drawn
to all the
vertex, a diagonal can
itself and the two
^the vertex
vertices except three
adjacent
vertices,and since there are n vertices, I can draw, from any
From

one

any

"

diagonals;hence from the n vertices I can draw

the
n(n-3) diagonals; but this by going round
polygon,
each diagonal twice, that is,from the two
counts
ends; hence,
the whole
of diagonals in a polygon of n sides is
number
is the major premise. In a chiliagon,
}/2 ^ C^-^)? which
in a chiliagon,
then
n
=1000;
=500, and n-S =997;
Jx^ti
I can
draw
500 x 997
498,500 diagonals. I did not have to
know
the major premise. Hence, also
this number
to know
the syllogismreveals truth before unknown,
without
begging
the question.
vertex, n-3

...

Sextus

held

whether
the five tropes includes all cases,
of the understanding, or of both.
Protagoras
that

of sense,
or
and
are
true; Plato
Epicurus say that only things of sense
says that only things of thought, or ideas; Aristotle and the
Stoics

say

arises,and
regressus

Hence,

that
the
in

these

both

are

proof must
infinitum,or

true,
rest

so
on

that, in any

hypothesis,or

involve

five tropes lead

to

the
a

circulus

suspension

case,

discord

run

into the

in
of

probanda.
judgment,

that

is, to

SKEPTICISM

IN

the

whether

uncertainty

PHILOSOPHY

93

anything is proved or
proved
nothing can be proved,
that
he has, at least,proved one
thing
nothing can he proved;
if he has only proved the uncertainty of proof of anything,
then he has proved that uncertainty.
into dogmatism, and in spiteof itself,
eats
Skepticism runs
itself up;
but this dogmatism, Sextus
failed to see.
Give
suicide.
enough, and it will always commit
skepticism rope
if Sextus

Now,

not.

has

that

"

An

attempt

Menodotus.

made

was

reduce

to

that

Everything
either through

itself

the tropes to two, due to

is comprehended
is comprehended

through something else.

That
be understood
nothing can
through itself is evident,
Sextus
through the disagreement of physicistsin
says,
it
is
that a thing is not the
evident, moreover,
regard to it;
of
itself.
understood
It can
be
not
cause
through anything
that
for
would
need
else
to be accounted
else;
for,
something
and so on, which
into
throws
the
in
us
infinitum or
regressus
the circuius in probanda.
These
objections,we have already answered.
At this point of the discussion,Sextus returns
to the eight
by Aenesidemus, and directed
tropes of Aetiology,formulated
These
against the theory of causes.
tropes are based, as
Photius says, on the fact that : There
visible signs of
are
no
the unknown,

themselves, and
Sextus

those

and

states

who

believe

victims

the

are

or

of

in their existence
a

vain

illusion.

eight tropes separately,and

these

delude

concludes

sufficient
by saying: Perhaps the five tropes of cttox^; are
to refute aetiology. He
also says, ''that one
who
accepts the
into the regressus
will be thrown
in infinitum
theory of cause
the circulus in probanda.
or
times was
The
who
ablest skeptic of Modern
held
Hume,
for inferringthe relation of cause
that we
have
warrant
no
and effect,in the sense
is efficient in producthat the cause
ing
"

the

into
showed

that

of

do

we

If

have
cause

producing

the

idea

effect is resolvable

consequence.

Locke's

philosophy
of

cause,

as

Locke's

Hume
which

he

efficiency

ive.
Philosophy is defectantecedent, having no influence in
might as well be absent; but when
take place; hence
has
not
a
cause

idea; hence

is

mere

and

cause

and

this

event, it
does
event

the

to

have

not

can

of

antecedence

that, according

accepted, we
but

the relation

effect;hence

absent, the
influence,or is efficient,and

not

mere

antecedent.

PHILOSOPHICAL

94

get the idea of

We

whenever
know
for

that
an

The

11.

Second

Academy,
and

Academy,

Carneades,

under

it

leader

the

of the

its seed

having

Arcesilaus,

under

arose

Middle

or

in

cause

before

of the

skepticism

himself,

Plato

requires a

existence

no

eflSciencyby experience,
raising a weight; we
by rational intuition;
and non-entity
occurs,

or

energy

effort, as

into existence.

jump

not

can

has

as
an

event

every

event

cause

make

we

THEORIES

the

leader

further

was

third

New

or

of

in
the

developed
Academy.

(316-241). Arcesilaus of Pitane in Aeolia,

received careful training under
ian.
Autolychus, the mathematicHe then studied under
Theophrastus of the Peripatetic
to the Academy
for
School, but was
gained over
by Grantor
he had
He
whom
also
studied
with
a
strong friendship.
Arcesilaus

1.

Polemo

with

and

Crates

whom

he

succeeded

leader

as

of the

Academy.
of

Arcesilaus

changed the method

he
discussions, returning, as

to

he

doctrine

could

but

claimed,

from

lectures

the

Socratic

to

of conversation.

niethod
His

teaching

know

not

this is

he could

that

is, he knew

not,
medicines

purge;

but
of

refute

that

includes

the

this

whether

uncertainty,

and

he

is uncertain

in like

he

manner

and

or

not

know.

Academic

the

like

are

uncertainty,
this uncertainty, which
gives one

knew

skepticalformulae
the

is uncertain

he

he

ignorance;

own

says

that

ignorance;
that

could

he

off with

themselves
says,

own

and

themselves,

Sextus

his

his

Sextus

moment,

conclusion

even

dogmatic basis, but

carry

when
he

the

saying

to

anything, not
thing, he knew

for
a

which

uncertain
this

on

they

as

everything,
certain

one

back

rest

do

know

not

to go

formulae

for it amounts

dogmatic;

that

But

skeptical;he reached
anything, not even

was

so

cathartic

humors
with

that

they
regard to
is either

he

certainty,or

not,

which

is

he is
new

regard
infinitum. Ah!
yourself are thrown

is uncertain
ad

with

uncertainty,
so
on,
all
Sextus,
reject
certainty, you
into the regressus
fond of
in infinitum,into which
were
so
you
it only by the
throwing the dogmatist, and you can
escape
hypothetic,or by the circulus in probanda, both of which you
have
the dogmatists are
fallacies of which
amply shown
are
often guilty.
so

to

new

if you

SKEPTICISM

Carneades

2.

first with

became

(213-129.)
Stoic

the

had

Chrysippus
the

that

School,

he

PHILOSOPHY

Carneades
is

and

been, I had

not

of

95

of

reported

not

Cyrene
have

to

either.

been

studied

"

said:

"If

Finally

and
carried
Academy,
so
negatively and positively, with such
is justly called the founder
of the New

head

principles,both
power,

IN

the

he
his

out

skill and
emy.
Acad-

he was
in his life occurred
when
interesting incident
oration
He
sent
eloquent
on
an
an
embassy to Rome.
gave
the
Roman
which
charmed
youth;
eulogizing virtue,
greatly
his
the next
he
astonished
them
by refuting
day
arguments
of the
wrath
of the
wonder
that
the
No
preceding day.
An

old

stern

Cato

philosophers
Roman

be

was

roused

so

expelled

from

moved

he

that

that

lest

Rome,

the

Greek
the

they corrupt

youth.

is a
negative side of the philosophy of Carneades
He
held
polemic against the Stoic theory of knowledge.
the
that it is impossible to distinguish between
the false and
There
of truth.
The
is no
criterion
true.
positive side of
his doctrine
of Arcesilaus.
resembles
that
being
Knowledge
but
the
will suspend
impossible, a wise man
judgment;
which
is impossible is a
statement:
can
dogma
knowledge
The

not

be

be

considered

traced

it may

be

regressus

back

certain, unless
till it is found

logically derived;
in infinitum, or the

Carneades

criticized

the

Providence,

by showing

the

but

world,

finallyhe

rest

an

on

their

of

Final

inconsistency

criticism

reveals

intellectual

control.

This

in

which
into

run

can

the

probanda.

in

doctrines

from

it will

for otherwise
cir cuius

axiom

or

cause

with

the

and

of

evil

in

ignorances and
of God, by pointing
personality. He has
his

question the existence

the
out
inconsistency of infinity with
with
that
not
personality.
proved
infinity is inconsistent
activities
He
the
consists
in
that
virtue
directing
taught
In truth,
towards
the satisfaction
of the natural
impulses.
the lawful
virtue
consists
towards
in directing the activities
satisfaction
of all our
desires and to the good of others, giving
the

called

this

to

it is itself axiomatic,

and

dogma

moral

powers

will stand

their
fire.

due

supremacy

and

CHAPTER

XI

Gnosticism

Eclecticism, Neo-Pldtonism,

thorough-going

it is contrary

mind;
laws

the

human

and

to

the

of

In
he

skepticism is impossible to
laws
both
to
psychological

language.
saying that

affirmed

he

nothing,

affirmed

Sextus

affirmed

that

in condemning
tism.
dogmadogmatized
included
In
everything is uncertain, Sextus
it is uncertain
that
this statement
itself; then
everything is
this new
is a new
uncertain, which
uncertainty; then
tainty
unceris uncertain,
and
ad
the
infinitum; hence,
so
on,
in
with
such
ive
destructSextus
used
infinitum, which
regressus
becomes
effect
against the
dogmatists,
boomerang
a
himself.
against

Another

nothing;
saying that

view

can

he

be

everything

is uncertain,

everything

is

uncertain;

taken:

Sextus

unless

but

as

had

no

business

held

he

said, this statement,

that

to

it is certain

he

say:

that
that

it is uncertain
itself; then
everything is uncertain, includes
is uncertain;
It is
the contradiction:
that
hence
everything
certain
that
that
everything is uncertain; and it is uncertain
is uncertain.
This
contradiction
justifies the
everything
statement

of

Aenesidemus,

skepticism
predicates

led

to

which

Sextus

condemns,

that

philosophy of Heraclitus, that contrary

It is true
that
applicable to the same
object.
are
diverse
attributes
object, as the
belong to the same
may
be
both
red, but
same
body
spherical and
contrary
may
attributes
the
time
not
to
same
belong at the same
can
both
instant, be
object, as a body can
cal
spherinot, at the same
and

the

cubical.

Pyrrhonean
destroying dogmatism,
skepticism, whether
mind
human
The
cannot
itself.
Academic,
destroys
or
in negations; after criticism, comes
The
reconstruction.
rest
by the facts of
progressive order of human
thought, as shown
be: Construction,
to
criticism, reconstruction,
history, seems
In

and

the

same

repeated.
96

PHILOSOPHICAL

98

THEORIES

happiness, yet for

bodily pleasuresand external
for

cient

is the
The

doctrine

highest degree of happiness,

which
goods are also requisite,

of Aristotle.

discovery and publicationby Andronicus

of Aristotle

works

the

his

but

Academic,

and

the

works;
tendency of the

impulse
PeripateticSchool
an

gave

to

the

of the
earnest

genuine
study of

yielded to the eclectic

times, though to a less degree than the
admitted
into the body of
foreign elements

teaching.
Cicero is good

its

historical

authority for the fact of the prevailing

eclecticism.
he
Though
opposed the Epicurean
theory of morality,he admired the Stoic view, and practically
adopted the Academic-Peripatetic doctrines.
of the Christian
the various
In the early centuries
era,
their
continued
schools of philosophy
separate organizations,
the
renewed
stimulated
which
were
activityin the study
by
of Plato and Aristotle,and maintained
of the works
by the
of philosophy for the
four principal
of chairs
endowment
schools at Athens, made
Aurelius.
by the Emperor Marcus
also revivals of Pythagoreanism and
There
were
Cynicism,
the
of
and
the
called out
times.
corruption
justifiedby
maintaining their separate existence, the various
Though
schools, by interchange of thought, approximated towards
mutual understanding, and the inculcation of common
views,
and ethical conduct.
especiallyin regard to practicalmatters
The precursors
of Neo-Platonism
present several items of
historic interest. Jewish religionand Greek philosophy have
several important points of contact
the being of God, his
relations to the world, the belief in revelation and prophecy,
is also a resemThere
the doctrine of angels and demons.
blance
in
between
the Essenes
and
the Pythagoreans,
their
of
life.
doctrines
and
seclusion, mythical
purity
Alexandria
suitable
of
The
mingling
was
a
city
place for the interand Greek
of Jewish
of the streams
thought; and
aided by the Septuagint translation
into Greek
of
this was
sacred scriptures.
the Hebrew
"

Philo

holding

{SO B.
Moses

C.-50
and

A.

the

Philo, of Alexandria, while

scripturesin

the

highest veneration,
philosophers,Par-

great Greek
menides, Pythagoras, Empedocles, Plato, Zeno

was

The
its

also

truth

an

admirer

p.).

held

purity,only

of the

by these in
in the

common,

Hebrew

and

he believed

scriptures.

Cleanthes.
is

found, in

ECLECTICISM,
The

NEO-PLATONISM,

idea of God

of Philo.

is the

The

GNOSTICISM

point of departure
find the

in the

relation

99

philosophy

problem was
God, the
the
ineffable
the
the
infinite,
holy,
perfect,
high,
being,
of finite beings, and
to the material
to the world
universe,
inferior.
Philo
assumed
intermediate
so
infinitely
beings,
to

of

the

Svva/x"ts,
powers,

the
ideas
described,
hand,
on
one
as
or
thoughts of God, and on the other, as beings, angels, or
forth to do his will.
of God, sent
To
identify
messengers
with
the ideas of God
difficult,if not
personal beings was
in his doctrine
the attempt
of
impossible; yet Philo made
the Logos, the embodiment
of reason,
the collective wisdom
of God, the power
the viceroy of God,
comprising all powers,
the highest of the angels,the image of the invisible God, by
whom
all things were
all things concreated, and by whom
sist.
How
of
identical
is
Philo
the
with
the
Logos
nearly
of the
Logos of the Apostle John, or with the Son of God
be seen
by referringto the first chapters
Apostle Paul, may
of John's gospel and to the Epistleto the Colossians.
Is the Logos of Philo, a personal being distinct from
God,
and
wisdom
of divine power,
or
an
impersonal manifestation
this may
be answered, Philo held that
goodness .f^ However
of the Logos, God, who
is infinitely
above
by the mediation
the world out of the chaotic mixture.
nature, formed
Philo held to the doctrine of the fall of souls, the incorporeal
life of

purifiedsouls after death, the transmigration of those

needing purification,the kinship of the human
spiritwith
the divine, the freedom
of the will, the tendency to sin while
the soul inhabits the body, and hence
the need of extirpating
the passions by the help of God, who
all good
alone works
in us through our
in Him.
trust
We
attain to the highest good when
ate
we
pass the intermedistages of consciousness
the

of ecstacy, and
God
ourselves, and see

iiito that

receive

in his
into
higher illumination
unity, and in the ineffable perfectionsof his being.
2,
Neo-Platonism.
The
distinguished in this
names
school
of philosophy are
Plotinus, Porphyry,
Ammonius,

Jamblicus

and

Proclus.

Sacsurnamed
was
241). Ammonius
(
in early life he supported himself as a porter, in
cas, because
carrying sacks in the market
place of the city of Alexandria.
According to Porphyry, he was originallya Christian.
1.

Ammonius

PHILOSOPHICAL

100

After

THEORIES

philosophy in
where
he
his pupils
Alexandria
Among
years.
became
who
afterwards
were
some
distinguished, as Longinus, the rhetorician and philosophical critic, and Plotinus,
the most
celebrated
of the Neo-Platonic
philosophers.
Ammonius
wrote
secret,
nothing, keeping his doctrines
after the example of Pythagoras.
As we
learn from
of
notes
eclectic,
Hierocles, preserved by Photius, his method
was
combining the doctrines of Plato and Aristotle.
He claimed
that a system of philosophy, higher than
either
that of Plato or of Aristotle, might be deduced
doctrines
from
to them, thus reconcilingtheir views, and
common
putting an
end to the controversies
and
the Academic
between
tetic
Peripalong study,

he

opened
taught many

school

of

Schools.
As
be

Ammonius

can
writings, his peculiar doctrines
the
of
his
works
chiefly
only through
successors,
and
elements.
and
added
Proclus,
new
they
many

known

Plotinus
The

chief

was

the

no

in Ammonius
of

the

centers

in the

mystical doctrines

fact
of

that

the

he

Neo-

School.

(205-270). Plotinus, a native of Lycopolis

when
in search
Egypt, having been directed to Ammonius,
I was
is the man
a teacher, said: "This
seeking.
Plotinus

2,

of

interest

originator

Platonic
in

left

"

He

remained

with

joined the army

against Persia.

Ammonius

eleven

years,

and

then

he

in
its march
Gordianus
Emperor
of age,
about
Plotinus
When
forty years
to Rome,
and
went
opened a school of philosophy, in which
he taught by conversation, rather
than
By his
by lectures.
disciples,and it is said also by the oracle of Apollo, he was
called "good and gentle,and benignant, in a very high degree,
and
pleasant in his intercourse."

Neither

the

Pyrrhonism,
of

the

method

nor

times.
was

of

the

contentions
Eclectic
Another

of

the

schools, the

Syncretism satisfied
system

seemed

called

criticisms
the

of

demands

for, another

inevitable.

of age.
about
fifty years
began to write when
left fifty-fourtreatises,which
He
afterwards
were
arranged
by his disciplePorphyry in six Enneads, each consisting of

Plotinus

nine

books.

Neo-Platonism

is dialectic,

so

far

as

it follows

the

method

GNOSTICISM

NEO-PLATONISM,

ECLECTICISM,

of
of Plato; it is mystic in its methods
It has two
in its results.
is pantheistic
and

fall,or
state

The

it

ical
divisions,the theoret-

begins

with

and

the

emanation,

forth, by

gods,

God

the

Nov?, the

The

universe.

the

transcendent

soul

is

its high origin;and in its

the Novs; hence
lapse into sin, it is associated with the body, and is in
from

departure from God.

practicalpart points out
of

return

may

part
came

inferior

or

emanation

an

whom

from

\6yoL

apprehending God;

practical.
theoretical

The
One

101

to

God,

the

the

eternal

by which

way

of

source

the

soul

all blessedness.

perception,reasoning, and mystical intuitions.

Through perception, we see in the order and harmony of the
of its divine origin;reasoning brings us
world, an indication
of mystic intuition
the soul in
the threshold
to
by which
divine
contemplation and ecstatic emotion, experiences the
ineffable One with whom,
for the time, its own
identityseems
The

to

steps

are

be lost.
Plotinus

is evil? Whence
comes
questions: What
it.f^ Is it positive,the doing of wrong,
is it negative, the
or
failure to do right.^^ Is it in matter
in the soul?
Is there
or
is the real conflict of life?
What
an
archetypicalevil? What
is victory? What
is final defeat?
Plotinus gives us his thoughts about
these things, and
an
insight into his earnest
matic
struggleswith evil,rather than dogthis is far more
and
satisfactory. The fall
answers,
of the soul is found
in its subjection to the body, yet the
fall
is found, not
in the body, but in the soul
tendency to
in
its
desire
for pleasure.
itself,perhaps
The
is perfect,divine, eternal; and the
order of the world
of nature, which
to the ignorterror
great movements
ant,
are
a
the
to
mind.
Evil
is
discord, good
bring joy
enlightened
is harmony.
Plotinus
besought the Emperor
Gallienus, with whom
he was
of intimacy, to rebuild
terms
on
a
city in Campania,
former
of philosophers,to be
resort
called Platonopolis
a
and to permit its citizens to be governed by the laws of Plato,
but the plan was
frustrated by the envy
of the courtiers.
The

raises the

labors

of Ammonius

and

Plotinus

carried

Neo-Platon-

ism through its first period.

S,

Porphijry (233-303.)

Porphyry,

native

of

Tyre,

PHILOSOPHICAL

10^

philosophy for

studied
He

two

spent

five years
Plotinus
under
at Rome.
in Sicilywhere
tianity.
he wrote
against Chris-

years

Returning
the

edited
his

THEORIES

works

of

Rome

to

he

in

engaged

Plotinus, and

teaching;he

treatises

several

wrote

also
of

own.

He

fine

was

He

writer, and

had

great talent

for

literary

writings,and
of the Christian
a bitter opponent
was
religion.
of
The
more
Porphyry was
system
popular, practicaland
a
religiousthan that of Plotinus, though his religionwas
refined Polytheism.
The
origin of evil and the guilt of sin are, according to
Porphyry, not found in the body, but in the desires of the
aim
soul for pleasure. The
of philosophy is the salvation
of the soul; and to accomplish this salvation, not only philosophy,
but the strictest morality is required.
He did not share in the gross popular views of Polytheism,
the pure
worship of the many
gods, and
3^et he advocated
made
Neo-Platonism
to
Polytheism,
entirely subservient
which
defended
of the
he
assaults
the
against
vigorous
lost except the
Christian
Theologians. His writings are
research.

studied
critically

quotationsfrom

his works

the

found

Christian

in the

books

of Christian

authors.

-4. Jamblichus
cis in
school

-332.) Jamblichus, a native of Chal(

Caele-Syria,studied under Porphyry. He opened a
from
in Chalcis, and drew
of disciples
a large number
nations.

various
He

wrote

treatise

on

commentaries
Chaldean

on

Theology,
of

and

Plato
and

which

Aristotle, and

another

on

lost.

Books

it out

in

Pythagorean

on
Egyptian
are
philosophy, most
ascribed
in
his
to him,
school, were
mysteries, originating
of difference
though there is doubt of its truth, on account
in style. He
often called the
much
esteemed, and was
was
inferior to
divine.
The
him
not
Emperor Julian esteemed
Plato, and said he would
give all the gold in Lydia for one
epistleof Jamblichus.
settled by
The
was
speculativecharacter of Neo-Platonism

Plotinus, but Jamblichus

carried

more

minute

Oriental

divisions
sub-

elements,
assimilatingmore
Mystic and
of
and
more
even
a
magical character,
Polytheistic
till in his hands
philosophy degenerated into superstitious
theurgy.

giving it

head

the

At

One,
the

first

GNOSTICISM

NEO-PLATONISM,

ECLECTICISM,

of his system, Plotinus

emanated
from
whom
of

begotten

in

soul, which,

from

God;

placed God,
the

the

the

No{?s, or
emanated

Novs

birth

103

cendent
trans-

intellect,
^i^x^*

"^i;o-ts,
or
nature;
Jamblichus
One,
immediately
placed a
of
between
the
second
intellect,
super-existentunity,
producer
made
the many,
and
and
the Absolute
intellect, soul and
nature,
undergo various modifications, as intellectual,supermundane
the

turn,

gave

after the

but

and

mundane

in triads

Jamblichus
the

which

repudiate

which

divided

were

to

Plotinus

the
that

and

minute

till lost in the

hebdomads,
attained

never

Deity

absolute

gods,
and

marvel

we

with

and

to

divided
sub-

divisions,
sub-

superstition.
ecstatic

communion

four

enjoyed

times, and

In recognizing God, the deepest truth, by

Porphyry once.
mystic intuition, rather than by rational intuition, that is,
by the intuition of the heart rather than that of the head,
in human
made
the Neo-Platonists
feeling a deeper element
than
and
nature
intimately related to self.
more
reason,
5.

Proclus

(410-485.)

Proclus

As
it

on

unlike

in

born

in

nople
Constanti-

to the
Chrysippus was
to the Neo-Platonists.
Stoics, Proclus
was
By his industry,
he
logical power,
learning and
brought the Neo-Platonic
From
philosophy to its formal completeness and conclusion.
his knowledge of the history of the school, and
by his great
the system
to a cohering mass,
supplying
ability,he reduced
defects
and
reconciling contradictions.
of his school, he was
others
With
religiousenthusiast,
a
sharing in their faith, in their superstition,in their love for
and
Chaldean
oracles.
Orphic poems
Seeking perfection
led to high ethics; despising facts, to low science.
His system
is constructed
according to the laws of triadic
for since
The
effect is like the
the
development.
cause;
into
is
the
the
like
that
effect,
cause
thing produced
goes
which
and
the
produced it;
thing produced is also unlike the
is different from
thing which
produced it, since the derived
the original,not identical with it.

and

died

was

Athens.

the effect is like the

a

lower

exists in its

cause,

scale, and

itself,and
cause,

so

on,

What

it returns

to

it,that is imitates

produces something
in

departs

an

from

endless

it,and

series.
returns

both
A
to

like

and

thing then
it by imita-

PHILOSOPHICAL

104

THEORIES

by producing something else both like and unlike itself,

and by the repetitionof these three movements,
everything
is produced.
and
the intelligible,
the
Proelus
Between
Original One
interposes,with Jamblichus, an intermediary unity. Then
which
the highest Gods,
have avToreXeTs and the cvaSes,
are
we
is
the
that
the
and
after them
voOs, the jA^x^*^^d
"^vo-t9,
Proelus
divides
the province of
soul and nature.
reason,
the
into
three
the
vov^
intelligible,
spheres, vorqrov the
and
the
the
intellectual;
intellectual-intelligible,
voepov
Of the three spheres,
that is, into being, life,and thought.
tion

the

first and

triad

into

nations.

second

and

demoniac

divine,

soul

yp^x^or

His
virtues
with

the

to

the

morals

be created

to

the

of souls,

again
so

by

divided,
sub-

are

on.

the

soul, Proelus

aireLpov of Anaximander.

requires the ascent

supersensible,leading to
this turns

Divine, and

his ethics

through the five

the
mystic union
into theology, and

religion

into

With

law, and

same

each

gods of

classes

these

of Ethics

system

triads, and
the

three

and

human,

the unlimited, the

it from

three
are

comprises

according to the
Plotinus
supposed matter
derives

into
which

hebdomads,

seven

The

divided

are

Proelus

Neo-Platonism

was

finished, and

no

further

method
possible. The
throughout is
development seemed
deductive, beginning with the highest abstraction, and
so
for imagination, wild
descending, giving at every step, room
of
conjecture and superstition. Can the gods and demons
Such
a system,
Mythology be verified by appealing to facts?
understood
which
can
by superior minds, was
scarcely be
defeat
in
doomed
inevitable
to
contending with Christianity
which brought salvation
to the masses.
The
did well, when
forty-four years
Emperor Justinian
after

the

death

of

at

Athens

to

School

Gnosticism,

3,

truth

ordered

the

Neo-Platonic

The

term

from
Gnosticism,
who
knows,
applies

yvwct?,
to

the

the
philosophic school that claimed to know
phy
by combining Oriental speculationswith Greek philoso-

and
The

he

closed.

be

yvcoo-ri/cds,
one

knowledge,
system

Proelus,

of

Christian
Gnostics
in

doctrine.
were

Rational

gations
originators of systematic investiTheology and Comparative Religion,
the

PHILOSOPHICAL

106

vindicated

by

of

chief

the

signifying

wise

does

who
solve

by

fact

thought;
Greek,

philosophy
doctrine.

the

of

the
with

the

the

though
was

of
of

combination

Oriental
of

of

at

hopeless.

differ

in

of

was

and

more

the

mysticism;
with

in

related

are

mysticism

mysticism

drian
Alexan-

the

consisted

philosophy
with

has

as

up

They

oriental

to

attempt

God.

Gnosticism

Philo

one

one

speculation,

section

mystical.

are

Neo-Platonic

tinged

not

ing
denot-

meaning
the

given

Jewish
and

envelope

an

Agnostic,

by

been

primarily

signifying

that

universe,

knows

philosophy

of

of

centers

philosopher,

Gnostic,

indicating

Philo,

all

they

of

that

that

wisdom

by

that

affinities;
nucleus

thus

first

Sophist,

name

name

to

way

Neo-Platonism

School,
the

the

philosophers,

world

Philosophy

The

to

the

Alexandria,

and
the

the

way

so

of

mystery

the

Truly

gave

know,

these

As

be

to

not

stimulated

thus

became

Schools.

shown

Antioch

Gnosticism,

given

not

the

least

Theology.

wisdom,

has

knows,

who

Christian

man,

of

lover

philosophy

Theologic

Christian

be

must

Gnostic

of

seats

least

at

reason,

unreasonable.

development

THEORIES

their
Jewish

Greek

purely
Gnostic

Christian

XII

CHAPTER

Patristic

Philosophy

Patristic

By

we

Church

of the

Philosophy

Philosophy
understand

to

are

Fathers

of the

the

period

Christian

between

the

Apostles and the rise of Scholasticism.

the Christian
By the attacks, especially of Neo-Platonism,
the
defensive; they must
Theologians were
justify
put on
show, at least, that it is
or
theology in the light of reason,
of the

times

unreasonable.

not

Gnosticism

As
least

outside

an

hostile

somewhat

was

for which

matter

the

church

could

Christian

Theologians
solution of theological problems, but
Christian
point of view, in harmony
the

the

to

not
must

church,

ble,
responsi-

not

was

at

or

accept

the

Gnostic

solve

them

from

with

the

principles

of

reason.

If any
principle
because
to be valid,

intuition, it is the
No

truth

If

falsity
hypothesis,
of

truth
the

the

and

the

not

does

time,

in

however

and

truth

can

contradic.
if

the

can

Philosophy
be
kept

mysteries,

be

therefore

great,

another

of

have

this

by

has

both

same

we

truth.

involves

each
both

by

true

logical consequence

taken

doctrines

to

the

and

in fact, absurdities,

object
not

as

truth

shall

we

other,

Hence

are,
one

then

false,

absurd

falsity of

is, if the

would

authority,

Theological

the

each

absurdities.

that

other,

and

truth;

then

same

which

another

involve

can

both

self -destructive,
No

with

conflict, thai

of

the

at

truth

no

truths

two

and
held
accepted as fundamental,
at once
true
apprehended
as
by rational
principle that all truths exist in harmony.

conflict

can

that

mean

be

can

of the
and

true

false

which

sense,

is

impossible.
to accept
compel reason
that
right to demand
a

free

from

contradictions,

since

it is absurd

another

truth,

to

suppose

though

it does

if it
supported by evidence, even
that
the contradictory,
simply demands

It
accept them.
the
the
irrational, be
absurd,

eliminated

from

the

in making
this
doctrine; and
demand,
body of received
philosophy does, for theology, a very
moving
great service, by reof
the insuperable objections
rational
minds.
107

THEORIES

PHILOSOPHICAL

108

theory of rehgion, is for the sake of reUsacred

and
is the thing most
which
precious to the
gion,
As
human
heart
the deepest necessity of man's
nature,
and
is
the
of
the
in
it
world
is
to
high
caUing
reUgion
stay;
it with the fundamental
principlesof
theology to harmonize
vindicated
set forth and
by the deepest philosophical
reason,
the affections
thought, thus removing all discord between
of humanity.
and the reason
is no
There
declaring,as did Jacobi :
necessity for any one
Theology,

"With

the

the

as

head

is not

faith in God
that

be

to

with

be

the

is

past, and

philosophy

may

What

system.

philosophy

that
to show
Philosophy
philosophicalprinciple
any

true.

obligation to
Philosophy.

no

of

phase

new

every

task, if

needless

and

tian."
chris-

is able

under

Theology is,however,
doctrines

heart

in conflict with

affirms

reason

the

with

irrational

be

not

irreverent.

be

not

but

heathen,

should

Religion
should

am

endless; for, as

not

likelyto

be

flourish

for

system

can

true
a

in the

it has

future,

time, then

reconcile
This

would
true

in

system

of

been
a

give way
both
be regarded as

its

another

to

true

and

Plato, or Aristotle, or Zeno, or

or
Pyrrho, or Philo, or Plotinus, or Valentinus, or
Bacon,
Descartes, or Spinoza, or Leibnitz, or Locke, or
or
Ficte,
Kant, or Reid, or Hamilton,
or
or
Berkley, or Hume
Hartor
or
Hegel, or Schleiermacher,
Schopenhauer, or
Lotze, or Mill, or Spencer?
or
mann,

complete?
Epicurus,

No
true

it that

Is

doubt

all these

of

have

systems

more

less truth.

or

Eclecticism, seizing on the central truth, as

vital,organizing principle,might collect and

mental,
fundaarrange

different systems,
through
symmetrical system, practically
organize
a
Till
is
this
done, so that the principlesof philosophy
complete.
need
make
haste
not
are
generally accepted, theology
endeavor
to
so
long as it
adjust itself to philosophy, nor
them
keeps its doctrines free from absurdities, to harmonize
with the passing novelties of the successive systems of philosophy.

the

various

truths

and

To

require that
that

faith

is to

basis

of

should

demand

it be transformed

requires a

the

into

them

demonstrated,
but

scattered

accept
that

into

knowledge;

only

faith

what

be

knowledge.
but

when

the

no

reason

has

longer faith,

Faith, however,

veracity of

the

PHILOSOPHY

PATRISTIC
claims

authority which
verifiable

cases,

instances

not

many

But

yet verified.
true

all

our

assent,

for

is not

to

be

cepted
ac-

self-contradictory; for

not

self-contradictory,but

not

are

in

proved

doctrine

because

simply

been

to withhold

it is unreasonable

by faith
things not

has

faith

our

109

because

authority that has given satisfactory

be positive and
proof of its veracity; that is, there must
the
to
suflScient grounds for faith, in addition
negative
it has

for its basis

truth.
the

or

Has

The

instincts

does

doctrine

ground

be

may

the

the

on

with

nature,

or

testimony

past shown

in the
influence

any

conflict

not

revelation,

of the soul, or

philosophy

exerted

has

the

that

condition

an

any
or

known

history,

of reliable

nesses.
wit-

by its history that it

of theology.?
doctrines

believe it has.

We

styled Apologists,
early defenders of Christianity were
aim
of these
writers
and
their works
was
Apologies, The
of
misapprehensions from the minds
conciliatory,to remove
their opponents, and
to
place the doctrines of Christianity
in a favorable
light before the eye of reason.
Justin
1,
(103-167). Justin Martyr, so-called because
for his religion,
instructed in the
he suffered martyrdom
was
Platonic
and
Schools.
Impressed
philosophy of the Stoic
Christians
under
of
the
with
steadfastness
the
persecution,
of
he
the
embraced
human
and distrusting
reliability
reason,
it against heretics, Jews and pagans.
Christianityand defended
The

His

principalworks

are

his

two

Apologies

addressed

to

Marcus
Pius and
Aurelius, and
Emperors Antoninus
his dialogue with Typho
Justin held that Christ
the Jew.
the Logos incarnate, in whom
the entire human
was
race
lived in communion
have
has an
interest,and that all who
and
Socrates.
He
with him
Christians, as Heraclitus
are
that
the early Greek
believed
philosophers, as Plato and
Aristotle, were
acquainted with the writings of Moses, but of
The
later Greek
this there is no
evidence.
philosophers, as
the Neo-Platonists, had access
to the sacred
writings.
the

The

Apologies of
who

Justin
made

were

admitted
them

maintained

Justin

denounced
that

atheists,not
that

they

were
as

the
to
were

written

in defence

atheists,rebels

Christians

were

worship the heathen

atheists, since
no

and

tians
of Chrisevil-doers.

Atheists,

if it

gods; but he
they worship

110

PHILOSOPHICAL

the God

THEORIES

of truth and

righteousness. To acknowledge Christ

their spiritualKing did not
from
as
being
prevent them
their
the
he
maintained
to
loyal
Emperor,
temporal prince;
citizens.
that they were
law-abiding
In his dialogue with
Typho, Justin shows, from the Old
Testament
scriptures,that Jesus is the Christ, the promised
the
of moral
and
Messiah.
religiouslife
norm
Though
under

existed

form

of law, yet the ceremonial

law was
substituted the moral law in its place.

in Christ, who

abolished
his

In

the

writings Justin

employs philosophy

to

enforce

his

views.
Irenaeus

2.

discipleof

St.

antinomian
that
the

doctrine,

that

that the moral

or

outward

Divine

law

law

was

the

also
to

Men

in the

for their
future

doctrines

against the
held
He
immorality.
of

Creator

one

the

world; that
with the Father;

for the

the intentions

as

freely decide

for

decision

against

wrote

preparation

appliesto

conduct.

law, and

punished
Among

with

pupil of Polycarp, the

Son, and the Holy Spiritare

or

Mosaic

the

He

tending

as

Christian

the

Gnostics.

is identical

God

Logos

John, defends

of the

theories

the

(160-202). Irenaeus,

and

life

well
or

are

Gospel;
as

to

and

works,

against
rewarded

the
or

life.

Apologists of Christianity, in the second

be
Irenaeus, may
century, perhaps a little earlier than
mentioned
the Assyrian, Theophilus of Antioch,
Tatianus,
and
over-estimated
the
Tatianus
Athenagoras of Athens.
value o
Oriental ideas, despised Hellenic
culture, and tended
toward
the subjectascetic practices. Theophilus discussed
ive
conditions
of faith, and
the dependence of religiousexperience
tian
Chrison
purity of heart, Athenagoras combines
in
see
thought with Attic elegance of expression. We
these

three

the

writers

the

eddies

in

the

current

of

Christian

thought.
thage,
(160-220). Tertullian, a presbyter of Carwas
tion.
opposed to Gnosticism, and in fact, to all speculaHe considered
the
of
mother
heresies, and
philosophy
far in opposition to it as to say : Credo
went
so
quia ahsurdum.
He stands for the reaction against philosophy; but an absurdity
is no
be accepted by reason.
groimd for faith; it cannot
of Alexandria, a presbyJf. Clement {
-217). Clement
ter,
of great learning,and
well
man
a
especially
acquainted
3.

Tertullian

PATRISTIC

all

draw, from

was

the
on

knowledge;

when

may

do

many

why, only
chief

that God

under

power

in the
is to

movement

in that

which

is to

of Christian

accounted

by
Logos,

Divine

Father.

Faith

is

as

Faith

them.
old

the

Christian

towards

continue,

leads

dispensation,to

new.

advance

evil, and

ineffable

the

commands

motive

attractive

illustrations

to

knowledge is imperfect, faith,

go beyond knowledge, and in simple
things without knowing the reason

but

well founded,

obedience, may
the

of

hesitate

not

philosophy was
Christianity. Christ, the

manifestation

based

and

did

Greek

The

preparationfor

111

philosophy,

arguments

sources,

doctrine.
him

and

literature

Greek

with

PHILOSOPHY

not

must

from

fear,
love, the

needs

perfection,and this
only in this world,

nounce
re-

ward
up-

but

come.

Origen (185-254). Origen, a pupil of Clement, and

of the NeoSaccas, the founder
probably also of Ammonias
of
Platonic School, is chieflydistinguishedby his method
able
to Celsus, an
interpretingScripture,and by his answer
of Christianity.
and bitter opponent
moral
In addition
to the historical and
interpretationof
Scripture,Origen resorted to the speculative or allegorical
but this led to fanciful conjectures,or to any
interpretation;
His work
meaning the imagination might invent.
against
Celsus
ability. In fact the
displays great learning and
of the criticisms of Celsus are now
nature
known
only through
of Origen. He
the works
regards the genesis of the Son as
and
the Holy Spiritas raised far above
all creatures.
eternal,
He
teaches
of many
the existence
other worlds
previous to
the present; but this view
leads
to an
logically
infinityof
worlds before the present; for granting one
world before the
5.

have come
end to make
for the
to an
present, which must
way
whatever
present, there would be needed for the same
reason,
that might be, another
world
before
that, and so on, ad

infinitum.
of the

ence

Arius

6,

This

Alexandria, is noted
Father

and

Alexander,
His
one

other

Son, and
and

views

addressed
to

do

speculation,like the pre-existsoul, but we have no knowledge of its truth.

of
330). Arius, a presbyter of the Church
(
may

with
be

can

to

as

for his doctrine

of the

for his controversies

relation

with

of the

his bishop,

Athanasius, the Theologian.

best

understood

Eusebius, the

Bishop Alexander.

from
church

two

of his letters,

historian, and

the

THEORIES

PHILOSOPHICAL

He

writes

"What

Eusebius:

to

do

That

maintain?

we

unoriginate,nor a part of the Unoriginate,nor

made
of any
previouslyexistingsubstance, but that by the
in being with the perfect
He was
of God.
will and purpose
before time, the only begotten; that before this generaGod
tion,
the Son

is not

he
In

not."

was

'*We believe in one

Alexander, Arius says:
alone unoriginate
without
birth, alone everlasting,

letter to

alone

God

believe

We
.

this

that

God

birth

gave

the

to

he made

begotten Son, before eternal periods,through whom

periods,and

these

three

are

doctrines

The

before Christ
have

of Arius

time

they were
church, though never
present day, they are
one

is alone

the

while

that

so

there

of all

things,
originate,begotten by the
son
all things,as singleand the principle

The

therefore

all,and

cause

is

is before

God

Father.

things else

yet God

persons,

unoriginate.

and
of

all

only

also."
various

had

fortunes, and

orthodox

considered

the

by

the

accepted by
the central principlesof

at

eastern

the

At

western.

Unitarian

the

creed.
Eusebius

7.

tine,and

(265-340). Eusebius, a friend of Constanwriter of Ecclesiastic History, befriended Arius in

his controversies

with

neither

nor

Arian

an

with

Arius, that

Athanasius.

and

Athanasian, but

an

position in
hold

Alexander

the

Arian

there

occupied
He

controversy.

was

time

He

when

the

an

was

mediate
inter-

did
Son

not
was

not, neither

did he say that he was

co-eternal with the Father.
relation of the Father
he likened to that of a
to the Son

The

its

perfume.
Athanasius
became
8.
(298-373). Athanasius
Bishop of
Alexandria when
He was
five times sent
thirtyyears of age.
into exile,and altogether,was
separated twenty years from

flower

his

to

diocese.

Bishop

and

labored

He
as

an

author.

with

zeal

and

both

success

formulated

He

as

Trinitarian

the

creed.
In

opposition to Arius,
of the Trinity which

the various

branches

Athanasius
has

Trinity, as a part of the

adopted by the Council of Nice,
Athanasius
must

be

refuted

assumed

the

between

trine
doc-

practicallyaccepted by
Christianity. The doctrine
Nicene
creed, was
formally
A. D.

doctrine
the

the

been

of orthodox

of the

formulated

325.

that

eternal

God

an

intermediate
and

temporal

PHILOSOPHICAL

114

THEORIES
well

Augustine was
a
philosopher as
so-called
modern
certain
anticipated
took,

He
fact

the

of

as

consciousness

volitions

other

mental

fact, but

be

can

To

of

of all

thoughts, feelings,and
thoughts, feelings,

be conscious

who

one

Cogito,ergo
in the fact
in

known

of sensation

is,since

is conscious.

This

The

of

sum.

fact

of the consciousness
other

no

knowledge,

is real, and

fact, is proof of the existence, not

of the

Descartes'
involved

real.

are

theologian,and
in psychology.

foundation

consciousness

the

volitions, then
and

the immovable

as

discoveries

way.

of

or

only

of any
of that

reminds
our

of

us

existence

phenomena,

is

and

Reality, therefore, is, and

know

reality,and God is who is truth itself.

Thorough-going skepticism,as that of Pyrrho, is thus refuted.
the Manichaean
Augustine combatted
heresy, a system of
doctrine which explained the mysteries of the world by means
of two
originalprinciples,the one
good and the other evil,
in conflict.
He
the better prepared to do this,
ever
was
because, at one time, he had been enthralled by this doctrine,
and understood
it perfectly.
Accepting the doctrine of total depravity, confirmed, as
he believed
by his own
experience in his vain attempts to
self
himto save
reform, Augustine inferred the inabilityof man
from sin, and concluded
that salvation is solelyby the
of God.
Since only a part of the human
race
are
grace
truth

saved,

God

we

elects

those

who

are

saved

to

eternal

life,and

consequently the rest are reprobated; but Augustine dwells

lightlyon this feature, though it logicallyfollows, since they
themselves.
As salvation is
cannot
by any possibilitysave
solelyby the sovereign grace of God, and as he is able to save
whom
he will,it would
that benevolence
requires that
seem
God
should save
all. This would
glorifyhim in the light of
reason.

If it is said

reprobate are sinners and deserve

also sinners,
their fate, it may
be replied that the elect are
and
why should they be saved in preference to the others .^^
is sovereign and
do as he
The
would
be God
can
answer
The
reprobate
pleases,and does no injustice. Let us see.
do
and
cannot
to
are
Augustine,
totallydepraved, according
right, and are, therefore, not responsible for doing wrong.
is certainly not
To
is unavoidable
for what
punish them
justice;and will not the judge of all the earth do right?
that

the

PHILOSOPHY

PATRISTIC
it is

Ah,

admitted

be

it may

in Adam.

that

they

question will be asked, shall we then

gianism? Not altogether. The natural man
''The

one

not

not

are

determining

the

the

by

will, as

back

go

and

might

he

will

the
of

which

condemnation,
he

that

he

under

acted
acted

under

conscience

therefore

in human
the

that

man

truthful

honest
could

not

be

sinner

The

could

he

not

necessity; hence
necessity,but that
him.

condemns

it does not
nature;
he is guilty,when

life.

or

No;
volition,
The

without; it is the

not

volition, is produced, is

thing.

same

God's

reasons.

has

is not

bear

he

does

he

acted

he

false

of

sense

if he

Conscience

in the

Conscience

have,

man

effect, and

an

free; it is the ego that is free; the freedom

that is in the person.
effect, but in the cause,
the

hath

have

by motives?

and

reasons,

ego

by

cause
lost, it is be-

is

not

testifies to

Pela-

to

is assisted

one

itself,in view

is within

power

if any
God
that

will determined

but

causes,

The

that

Adam

bringeth salvation
this grace, that is,by

with

unto

come

is not

is determined

and

fiction,

from

be left out, in this discussion.

not

saved; and

be

can

one,

himself.

and

all men,"

to

But, says
motives

scious
con-

which

God

of

grace

would

he

should

which

of God,

appeared
help, any

is

inherited

The

grace

no

to sin.

tendency

the

had

They

their sin in Adam

hence

in Adam;

existence

though

sinned

replied,they

115

guilt

believed

not

believe

freely,and
is

no

aly
anom-

witness, telling

is not

guilty; it is the
witness, bearing testimony of guilt,which
sinner's
is free.
The
guilt unless the man

him
condemn
as
guilty.
deepest convictions
Augustine rejects the theory of a succession of worlds,
which
been
and
have
created
destroyed; he held that the
present universe is the only one, and that it had a beginning,
time began.
Plato he held
and that with the universe
With
that

time

does

not

measures

motion,

measures

time.

exist

apart from

reversing
Duration

the

is

movement,
relation
true

eternal, and

and
that

movement

that

it

motion
is in

duration.
What

"Eternity and
in
in eternity or
movement
God;" and since there was
no
God
before the act of creation, there was
time.
In reply,
no
ask: Was
God
we
asleep in eternity? Do the changes that
take place constitute
time?
If so, what
changes? The sum
was

before

time?

Augustine

answers

PHILOSOPHICAL

116

total
be

of

take

not

still

would

there

blank

held
Did

creation.

creation?
then

the

creation

of

the

bodies

world.
held

blank

the
bodies

are

No;

that

God

was

in

of

time.
to

of
as

has

but

bodies

motion

God.

But

is

poetic,

space

Word,

and

but
does

is:
the

On

The
the

Reason,

the

Space

they

have

not

time

is

is

the

Wisdom

bodies,
in

that

which

eternal,

and
and

power,

work

change?

Forces

work

mathematicians
of

important
in

from

for

no

of

most

Trinity,

tion
founda-

apart

room

it

learn

may

son,
Rea-

the
the

philosophic.

not

time.

Word,

motion;

place.

take

before

asleep

asleep.

is

and

of

act

existence.

existence

space

of

act

the

before

nor

no

time.

into

the

the

might

the

nor

God

idle

not

Philosophers

x\ugustine
the

with

space

of

dead

is

infinite

with

Logos,

omnipresent;

language

regard

Son

existed

that

or

time

rivals

not

works
the

exist

present

changes
in

God

possibility

may

The

It

before

spring

cannot

for
and

things

is

existence

neither

was

relation;

their

and

he

world.

the
of

Augustine

into

non-entity

eternal;

Wisdom

the

no

No,

time?

time

there

change,

which

Eternity

was

come

for

of

place.
there

God

No;
is

God

that

that

out

still

left,
time?

is

in

these

Strike

other

then

or

but

be.
is

some

What

events,
take

succession

or

Augustine

the

of

still

before

out

change

occur,

constitute

change

cannot

particular

change

one

time.

be

possibility

persist

that

struck

been

have

might

that

would

but

It

change?

might

time

till

Does

if

changes

and

time,

time.

be

would

for

other

change,

after

change

particular

some

change;

place,

require

changes

it

or

particular

some

did

changes,

the

THEORIES

which
of

he
God.

the

regards

CHAPTER

Scholastic

is the

Scholasticism
of the
Seven
rivium

middle

XIII

Philosophy
system

"

First

elaborated

Period

by

the

theologians

ages.

liberal
were

Rhetoric, and
and
Astronomy

arts

sciences

and

"

the

trivium

and

trivium
embraced
The
taught.
Logic; the quadrivium, Arithmetic,

thequadGrammar,

Geometry,

Music.

The
philosophy to theology?
the following:
to this question are
only possible answers
circles.
(1) They are co-extensive,like two equal coincident
exclusive
mutually
(2) They
having
common
no
are
subject-matter.
to theology.
(3) Philosophy is subordinate
to Philosophy.
(4) Theology is subordinate
(5) Philosophy intersects theology.
The
(5) is the true relation; for they have common
matter,
and
itself.
each
and
Both
matter
peculiar to
agreement
difference
relate to their subject-matter.
Have
and
Philosophy
Theology
subjectcommon
any
for
consider
matter?
fundamental
both
the
Yes;
problems
universe
of
the
of
the
the
to
relating
origin
nature,
destiny
ity,
realand
of man,
and
their dependence
God, the ultimate
on
represented by the common
part of the circles.
Theology is the theory of religion,or the philosophy of the
relations
of
doctrines
God.
to
Its
concerning sin,
man
final
pardon, regeneration, justification,and
repentance,
salvation, are peculiar to itself,and are not held in common
with
Scholasticism
made
philosophy.
Philosophia Ancilla
Theologiae,
truth, which, if
Philosophy is the theory of fundamental
be represented by the common
relating to God, may
part of
of
two
truth
intersecting circles; if relating to the necessary
the sciences, by the part of the circle Philosophy without
the
circle Theology.
What

is

relation

the

the
Hence,
others, is the

relation
true

of

of

relation

intersection, which
of

Philosophy
117

to

excludes

Theology.

the

PHILOSOPHICAL

118

THEORIES

philosophy is wiUing to aid the church

development of her theology, yet philosophy is not

in

Though

ecclesiae the

truth,

necessary
not

related.

so

doctrines
aid

the

are

of

of

hand-maid

the

church,

us

now

When

rational,or

philosophy,

at

least not

which

consider

irrational, she calls for

is

cheerfully rendered; but

by faith,which philosophy
are

different.

theologians:
ably
Erigena, prob-

of the scholastic

the work

Erigena (cir.805-877).

1,

with

only that relatingto theology, but that

theology strives to show that certain

not

Theology accepts certain dogmas

their methods
investigatesby reason;
Let

it deals

since

the

ancilla

Johannes

Scotus

the
Ireland, was
a fine scholar, familiar with
writingsof Aristotle,the Neo-Platonists, and the early church
He was
fathers.
invited to France by Charles, the Bald, and
a

native

of

placed at the head of the court school.

Erigena is the transition to scholastic philosophy rather
of a
than
its accepted exponent.
He
was
perhaps more
Neo-Platonist

by

arbiter,and

supreme
or

than

of the
its

own

the

not

With

him

reason

authority of Plato, or

was

the

of Aristotle

Scripturesor of the church; but he held that reason

revelainsight,evolves a system in harmony with tion.

Erigena considered
He
the will

scholastic.

the

defended

eucharist
the

symbolical

doctrine

of the

and
freedom

memorative.
com-

of

predestinationismof Gottschalk.
In his treatise on
Divine
predestination,Erigena argues
He
asserts
entirely from the speculative point of view.
that
true
religionand true philosophy are fundamentally
the same.
true
They are, however, not the same,
as
religion
is practical a life of faith in God, reverence
for his character,
and obedience
to his laws; philosophy, on
the other hand, is
for its instrument
ity.
and its authorspeculativeand takes reason
If Scotus had said that theology and philosophy occupy
the same
the truth, yet not
ground, it would have been nearer
above
that they hold
exactly the truth; for we have showed
in part common
ground, and each ground not held by the
against the

extreme

"

other.
At

the

request of the King, Erigena translated

Dionysius,
the Areopagite, and
published it without
submitting it to
the church
for approval, for which
he incurred the displeasure
of Pope Nicholas
I.

PHILOSOPHY"

SCHOLASTIC

of

great work

The

FIRST

De

Erigena, entitled
after

PERIOD

Divisione

the

reasoned

out

which

is

neither

is created

of all

goal

does

non-being,
but

is not

(3) That

(4) That

create.

not

ture,
Na-

which

creates.

nor

first is God

The
the

but

created

Naturae^

of Plato.

dialogue
manner
both
the
being and
universe, containing
which
consists of four divisions: (1) That
creates
created
and
is
That
which
created.
creates.
(2)
is

119

origin of

the

last is God

things; the
third

and

second

The

things.

all

constitute

the

in time.
God
of God
alone, the
universe, the manifestation
uncreated
Creator, has true being, and is a trinity,the Father
the Spirit as Life.
Wisdom
Being, the Son as Wisdom,
as
the first emanation
the Son of the Father, corresponds to the
Platonic
realm
of ideas.
Goodness, the highest idea, participates

participatesin goodness, and hence

and wisdom
in being, and life is a speciesof essence,
a species
of life. God
is, therefore, the trinity.Being, Wisdom, Life.
is also a trinity.
Man
created in the image of God
Will, Intelled, Sensibility,
As

in

being.

God

was

influence

This

eternal.

is created

leaves

it

only

God,

to

of the

creation

fore,
is, there-

the

possibleconception; for

(4) that

which

actual, and

as

if all things return

though uncreated, does no longer create, his

ly
Life,having no sphere of activity,would virtual-

and

be, and

to

Wisdom

should

we

or

had

time
never

it will

beginning, and

is eternal, and

God,

never

is identical

for creation

ceases;

simply being without

become
non-being. As
manifestation
of Being,

left

have

would
life;that is, God
God
is eternal, so the universe, the
and
Wisdom,
Life, or of the triune
never

has eternally

rules it out

and

creates,

nor

as

conflict with

to

seems

and

ing
mov-

God

livingSpirit,so
power,

ideas

eternal

or

who,

Wisdom
cease

Wisdom,

his creative

manifested

neither

without

never

the

under

Essence

never

is also

have

an

eternal; it
fore,
end; there-

with

eternity.
began, nor will

ment
Moveit

ever

end.
Sin

results

represents
which

evil

is not

sinner.

from

The

and

salvation

and

saved.

as

the

good

local

result
of the

will
and

of

individual

who

is

simply

in the

punishment

is the

final

sinner; even

the

devils

are

to

falsely
is

it; wickedness

pursues

place, but
of

the

hell,

soul of the

purification
be

purified

PHILOSOPHICAL

120

is

Erigena

remarkably interestingphilosopher; he was

him
With
by theological shackles.
reason
was
and
authority,
philosophy superior to theology.

held

not

ultimate
did

He

THEORIES

accept the dogmas

not

com^plete, and

then

of the

endeavor

and

only

defend

church

ultimate

as

elucidate

to

them

and

by

he
logicalexposition
by argument,
and
philosophized to discover the truth by his own
reason,
thorough originalinvestigation,and the result was
a system
of rational
is philosophicallybetter
than
Theology, which
dogmatic Theology.
the
flourished
latter half of the
(^.) Roscellinus, who
the first to give definite
eleventh
expression
century, was
the doctrines
of Nominalism
in opposition to those
to
of
Realism.
devised
Conceptualism, a later theory, was
as
a
older theories.
the two
It is important
compromise between
have

to

Realism

is the

species,has
the

that

it is the

individuals

they

doctrine

must

but

theories.

universal, a genus
or
a
real objective existence, independent both
of
objects of a class,and of the act of conception;

individual

and

of these

clear view

them

that

the
according to which
in comparison with
and
which
imperfect and inferior. This is

perfect pattern

fashioned,

are

the

forever

remain

doctrine

of ideas

The
for
formula
taught by Plato.
realism is: Universalia
be
ante rem.
Universals, however, may
regarded as God's ideas, and not as absolutely independent.
Nominalism

is the

the

real

as

all

existence; that

universals
formula

only

are

in the

mind
those

is the

of the

our

names

for nominalism

Conceptualism

have
a
only individuals
ideas are
particular;and that
The
of resembling individuals.

doctrine

that

is : Universalia

theory

that

post

thinking subject, as

elements

which

rem.

universal has
a

pure

an

existence

concept

to the

bracing
em-

qualities
class;
by
their
arities,
peculicomparing resembling individuals, disregarding
and
their
common
noting, abstracting
combining
individual
individual
from
and
in
to
that,
qualities;
passing
of the same
class, the peculiaritiesof the individuals are
dropped, while the common
qualitiesare retained, the notion
the
qualities constitutes
corresponding to these common
found

in all the

only

individuals

correspond

of the

that

it is found

concept.
The

formula

for

conceptualism

is: Universalia

in

re.

PHILOSOPHICAL

122

THEORIES

the
(1033-1108). Anselm,
Archbishop of
the
tritheistic theory, as
Canterbury, so far from endorsing
his
RoseeUinus
treatise,D^A'd^
Trinitatis^
supposed, composed
the
sacred dogmas, as they were
He accepted
in refutation.
the
church, and
by philosophy
given by the authority of
Anselm

3.

endeavored

He

endeavored
of the

only

the

incarnation.

posterioriand

priori.

The

From

truth

existence

if God

only

of the

conception

has

absolute

no

human

God

of

both

was

in

posterioriproof
knowing and in willing,and

principleof things and thought.

the proslogium, is ontological.
Now

inielli-

ui

is found

in

God, the

to

Credo

was:

give philosophic demonstration,

but also of the trinityand

the

Monologium.

motto

of God,

of

things, he rises

in

His

to

demonstration

His

this is the

reasonable^ and

appear

existence

not

the

them

of Scholasticism.

keynote
gam.

make

to

The

ultimate

truth, the

prioriproof, found in
God
is the greatest being conceivable.
is
but
existence,
objective
a

he would

mind,

be

not

lutely
abso-

render
greatest, for real objective existence would
God, the greatest being has objective
greater; hence
the

him

existence.

demonstration

Descartes'

of

existence

the

of

perfectbeing is similar; but conceptiondoes not

existence.
involve objective
From
the existence
of God, the greatest being, Anselm
the rational
proceeds to adduce
grounds for the Christian
doctrines
of Creation
and the Trinity.
God

the

most

strate
In his great work:
Cur Deus
to demonhomo, he undertakes
the necessityof the atonement.
Sin, the transgression
of God's
infinite

law, wounds

satisfaction,which
the

Assuming
rendered
can

mercy

The

this

wages

claims

be

form

of

the

man,

to

finite

man,

satisfaction,by
extended

of God,

infinite honor

the

man,

of sin is death.

The

while
death

son,

the
the

as

the

render.

God-Man,

penalty,
law

of Christ

in

free will of

William

succession

two

an

ethical

man,

his

way.

duty

of Champeaux
diflferent

With

it should

of repentance

(1070-1121).
opinions in regard to

and

that

the

showed

of

than

so

is vindicated.

justice,though it did not satisfythem.

between
goodness and justiceis thus settled

rather

requires

being, cannot

sinless

paying

and

be

The
in

test
con-

legal

considered

life of obedience.

William
realism.

held
From

in

PHILOSOPHY"

SCHOLASTIC
his first

FIRST

opinion, he

PERIOD

US

dislodged by Abelard, his

former
this effect:
extreme
to
opinion was
pupil. The
of the same
class were
All the individuals
the same,
essentially
definitelyhe taught that
differingonly in accidents; or more
of a class existed, in its entirety,in each
dividual
inthe substance
extreme

or

class.

of that

was

criticism

The

modify this position: If the

essentiallypresent in Socrates,
to

Socrates, it

be where

cannot

of Abelard
homo

essence

that

is

forced

him

wholly

and
in

is, wholly absorbed

Socrates

is not, and

is not

hence

in Plato.
his

In
view

of his realism, William

modification
the

that

universal

identical,in all the

essential

similar

reasonable

no

in

would

be

nothing

which

William

held

together.
to

that

in Paul,

Father, Son

and

of

that

this

them

humanity

there
classed

be

to

is similar

of Peter

Divinity in
identical.
They

the

qualitiesis

the

the

identical; but
and

one

view

something

class, otherwise

the

is,
its

asserted

is

there

are

their manifestations.
of

of the

common

similar

or

class,and

of this combination

the notion

only a mental
understanding

is
qualities

existence,

that

same,

class, and

entitle

the

Holy Spiritis

combination

characteristic

of

would

not

yet

distinguishedby
This

of the

objection, since

individuals

all the

the

numerically

is, its similarity. To

that

sameness,

is

there

is

individuals

the

retracted

the concept of the class, and has

in the imagination, but in the
not

of the

subject who thinks of the class. The characteristic of a

other
species is that which
distinguishesthe species from
speciesof a genus, and is used in the definition of the species.
When

we

Plato

say

of the

is

class

man,

that

mean

we

man,

similar to that found

attributes
other
The

dividual
in-

he also has individual

in every
man;
which
himself

distinguish him from

from
Ari totle, who
also has his peculiarities.
as
men,
tion
theory of indifference
naturally followed the modificapeculiar

of that

of

to

William's; it may

consists of the attributes in any

to

an

of attributes

combination

the

having

is

Plato

those

in the
alone

attention

to

peculiar

to

becomes

the

other

having

these
the

individuals
a

similar

individual

genus

or

the

be thus

stated:

individual
of the

substantial

of the class similar

same

of

species.

class, the

existence.

attributes, throwing
out

universal

The

dividual
in-

Restricting
the

the
account,
This
became

elements

individual
a

favorite

PHILOSOPHICAL

124

this

but
which

of Realism,

core

similar

attributes

correct

view

The

Gilbert de la Porree

5.

the

between

This

is a

of attributes is not

the

regarded, but

so

the

is the

counterpart

class

genera

the

is

itself,which

of

numerically, the

is

same

distinguishes

did

not

and

of genera
the class

mean

attributes, essentiallythough
individuals

in all of the

is thus

universal

Gilbert

of individuals

species,he

or

combination

the

(1075-1154^).

of existence

manner

species. By

but

of

view.

better

or

was

speciesis

or

genus

bundle

its mental

class, and

of the

it to

Abelard;
universal,

of the class.

bundle
it

of

of the

reduces

individuals

species,though

characteristic

concept.

and

except in this: This

the

or

in all the

criticism

existence

substantial

the

gives up

is the

genus

after the

Realistic camp,

of the

theory

THEORIES

native

of the

not

class.

form,

essentiallythe same,
The
inherent
a
particular is
every
what
is peculiar to the
and
individual
distinguishes him
from
the other individuals
and
gives him his special value.
The
individual is the universal plus the particular.
exist in God
the perfect
Gilbert held that universals
as
or
archetypes or patterns after which they exist as more
Gilbert
less imperfect copies,in the individuals
of a class.

The

thus

was

at

individual

in

both

once

of

Platonist

class.

and

Aristotelian.

divided
by Gilbert into
categoriesof Aristotle were
classes
two
ity,
formae inhaerentes,as substance, quantity, qualand potential relation, and formae assistantes,as action,
passion, place, time, position,belonging to objects only in
relation to other objects. This
distinction
was
adopted by
all the schools, and held its place about
four hundred
years.
Abelard
Abelard
have
how
6.
seen
(1079-1142). We
The

"

refuted

he

realism, but

extreme

nominalism.

not

go

to

over

extreme

principle: Res de re non

and
are
predicatur,he inferred that genera
species, which
admitted
be things or substances.
to be pr dicated, cannot
He also saw,
from
that by separating the universal
substance
the

form

these

Laying

which

forms,
The
as

view

only

core

the

of

the

individual, renders

identifies

theory
the

it

makes

and

substance
that

down

did

all

in

beings
which
indifference,

of the

universal

one

exists

substantial

by

to

stance.
sub-

recognizesa generic

individual, is cond

individual

universal,however, is not

it indifferent

its

core

mned

own

of the

by the

right

The

individual;

SCHOLASTIC
combination

it is that
of

PHILOSOPHY"

class to

found

that
notion

The

class.

of

FIRST

PERIOD

qualitiessimilar

in

125

individual

one

in any
other individual
of the same
this combination
of qualities is the

of

concept.
What

then
is

man,

is

Plato
and

is

of the class.
one
a

man

as

is

class

class

is

man

Plato;

than

more

Plato

not

can
we

mean

Plato

say

that

mean

The

subject

is Plato.

man

ing
Say-

without

man

from

other

fully

individuals

of himself, since

predicate Plato

we

we

man.

class

in the

do

man,

certain

classes, not

are
we

man,

discriminatinghim

or

means

of the

puts him

Here

of the

Plato

say

identical;for

man,

is

humanity, though

individual

predicate are

identifyinghim

him

we

certain

is

species? They

Plato

say

Plato

When

Plato

is

we

or

is human.

and

genera

When

universals.
Plato

are

the

but

tain
cer-

proposition Plato

is Plato;

it also

classifies

man.

In the definition,Plato

is the

man

founded

who

ic
the Academ-

Philosophy, we have not only classed Plato, but

other individuals
identified him and distinguishedhim from
It is the particularin Plato that identifies
of the class man.
and gives him
him
importance.
The
subject and predicate are identical, not in form, but
in fact, only what
is implicitin the subject is explicitin the
not
only define the man
predicate. The peculiar qualities
but give him his value.
said:
He
in testing dogma.
Abelard
employed reason
of

School

"A

doctrine

because

he

doctrine

at Soissons

convinced

are

we

Though
own

is believed

combatted
of the

and

at

by
the

Trinity

that

reason

was

has

God

because

not

Tritheism

said

it, but

it is so."
of Roscellinus,

condemned

his

by the councils

Sens.

regarded as the originatorof the theory called

Conceptualism,
7.
Hugo of St. Victor (1097-1141). Hugo declared that
be discovered
by reasoning; yet
uncorrupted truth cannot
he attempted to give, in his Summa
Sententiarum, a rational
the first
He
was
presentation of the Christian doctrines.
of theology.
of the Summists,
those giving abridged views
or
in his Metalogicus
John
John
8.
1180)
of Salisbury (
defends logicagainst those who
despised scholastic training;
Abelard

is

yet he adds

that

dialectic

is like the

sword

of Hercules

in

PHILOSOPHICAL

126

law.

In

his

scholastics

and

Latin,

or

giving,

logical
was

Academician;
the

supremacy

be

as

he

they
of

admirer
but
of

with

Plato,

of

him

the

his

fulfillment

an

the

period.

of

of

account

Cicero,

He

period

first
an

the
wrote

considered

and

end.

of

of

the

of

the
the

what
His

time.

own

do,

to

knowledge

inventory

an

to

the

comes

is

gave
up

discussions

great

added

logic,

not

accomplished

had

the

love,

Polycraticus,

valuable,

are

an

that

and

Sciences;

there

unless

hand,

pigmy's

THEORIES

works

schools,

elegant
himself

Scholasticism

XIV

CHAPTER

Scholastic

Philosophy

Second

"

Period

the second
In order
to understand
Philosophy,
consider
to
philosophy, it is necessary
period of Scholastic
Arabic
and
revival
of
Aristotle.
the
philosophy,
Arabic
is
Greek
and
philosophy
thought, with modifications
additions, expressed in the Arabic
shaped by
language, and
oriental
The
Mahometan
speculation.
theologians inquired
with
his manihow
the
absolute
of
is
consistent
fold
God
unity
the sovereignty of God
consists with
attributes, and how
free
will
in man.
They
pervaded
regarded
by
as
space
Arabic

1,

inextended

owing

Each

conduct.

sole

divided

as

the

of God,

act

is the

God

is, according

atoms

and

the

in the

cause

infinitesimal

into

is true

same

Alkendi,
the

century,

and

which

only
the

was

native

century,

universe, if the

of

Bosra,

part

variously styled,
of his

one

of

author

was

of

the

Christian
his

more

excellent

the

the

philosopher

than

hundred

age,

books

two

exerted

(3) Avicenna
regarded
treatise

Bacon,

and
as

on

by them

often

was

as

greatest

as

De

127

bians,
Ara-

books

of
tention
at-

great
foundation

by

Roger

logic,
other

in

jects,
sub-

Aristotle.
referred

demonstratione;

of

the

Oriental

Oriental

Averroes.

of his

of the

and

great.
Avicenna,
a native

the

the

very

philosophy
was
highly prized by him.
was
somewhat
pantheistic by
on

in

one

on

him

quote

Aristotle

(980-1037).
the

commentaries

were

Aristotelians

commentaries

influence

His

Arabic

flourished

who

He
thirty are
philosophy.
on
gave
the
to logic, and
regarded mathematics
as
His
of all science.
works
highly esteemed
were
Alkendi
Bacon.
also
was
an
astrologer.
Alfarabi
wrote
(2) Alfarabi (
950).
on
which
he
followed
he
wrote
Alkendi;
on
many

to

of human

about

The

them,

to

is true.

theory
(1)
ninth

in

change

direct

the

to

time

and

atoms,

instants.

known
Avicenna
the

more

of Bokhara',

philosophers.
to
Roger
was

sidered
con-

orthodox

PHILOSOPHICAL

128

Only

divine

the

the

Porphyry;

to the

is

name

that

treating of
settle the dispute

"

to

seems

Universalia

multitudinem,

ante

this

is realism.
the

to

common

Universalia

nominalism,

this is

is extant
it

understanding;

in multitudine;
is

his works

of

universals, thus:

about
in

of

portion

five universals

the

THEORIES

individuals;this

post multitudinem,

conceptualism. Thus
dispute are right;they

in
are

certain

concepts;

as

all

sense,

only

wrong

as

Universalia

parties

in their extreme

views.

1111).

Algazel drew crowds, as a popular

lecturer on
philosophy, at Bagdad, Jerusalem, Damascus
and Alexandria; but believingthat philosophy resulted
in an
he wrote
works:
indifference to religion,
Tendencies
two
of the
and
Destruction
the
of
philosophers. In the
philosophers,
the state of the speculative sciences, and
in the
first he gave
he pointed out
their errors
and contradictions, and
second
Algazel (

(4)

divergenciesfrom

their

towards

tendencies

Moslem

the

Mysticism;

faith.
died

he

He

in

had

strong

seclusion

as

monk.

early life was

His

Spain.

Averroes

(1126-1198).

Averroes

(5)
in

was

in

born

at Cordova

study, under

the best

spent
great progress

in mathematics,
He made
teachers of the age.
and jurisprudence^
theology, medicine
astronomy,
in Spain were
The
times were
the
Saracens
what
somestormy;

divided, and
closely pressed by the Christian
were
armies on the north, but with the influx of fresh tribes from
the forces of their enethe desert, they rallied and defeated
mies,
and
m

Schools

established

and

the

of Moslem

sway

collegesabounded

under

the

in greater

splendor.

patronage

of liberal

rulers.
Averroes

but

Cordova,

at

and

suffered

that

of

Kadi

through

insults from

philosophy

however,

was,

made

was

restored

to

held

intrigues,he

court

was

ignorant multitude

the

was

Seville,and

to

the

which

he

dangerous
honor,

true

like oflSce

banished,
who

ined
imag-

faith.

enjoyed

the

He
rest

of his life.
The
the
a

Christian

more

who

fame

historic

schoolmen,

complete
at that

of Averroes

time

who

knowledge
was

of

held in the

chiefly through
from
his writings, acquired
the
philosophy of Aristotle,
highest honor.
has

come

PHILOSOPHICAL

130

Albertus

(1)
Great,

abilityas
and

(1193-1280). Albert was

of his extensive
learning and
He was
of Lauingen
a native

teacher.

educated

was

called

Magnus

account

on

THEORIES

Padua

at

and

his
in

the

great

Swabia,

Paris.

of the
reproduced, in Systematic order, the whole
philosophy of Aristotle, and adapted it to the requirements
The
Latin translations
of Aristotle
of ecclesiastical dogmas.
from the Arabic, as well as some
translations from the Greek,
He

accessible

were

Albert

To

threefold

form:

according

Avicenna,

to

as

universale

as

and

Plato

to

Neo-Platonism

and

Aristotle

influence, but

without

not

Platonism

him.

to

the

ante

his great authority.

universal
in a
existed
was

in the

rem,

Plotinus;

were

mind

universale

as

of God,
in

re,

the

qualitiesfound in every individual of

class, according to Aristotle;as universale post rem, in the
a
of man
mind
a
as
bination
concept, having its counterpart, or comin every
of qualities,
ing
individual of the class,accordand the conceptualistsgenerally. Hence
and
to Abelard
is a subjective concept formed
the universale post rem
finally,
tion
corresponding to the universale in re, the colleca
posteriori,
of the common
individuals
of
the
qualitiesof all the
of the
universale ante
class, and
an
imperfect copy
rem,
mind
of
the
divine
formed
in
the
God, as
a
priori
pattern
of

collection

after which
Albert
deduce

common

individuals

the
defines

the

logic as

unknown

of Aristotle
whom
with

from

the

which

and

known;

Avicenna

created.

were

teaches
in his

rather

though

virtues

of the

the

equal rank.
In psychology,
with
in the

the

combined

with

to

Averroes

occasionally quotes

rests, very
properly, on the
virtues
he enjoins consist of the

ancients

how

tion
interpreta-

than

ethics of Albert

will,and

only

follows

he

class

science

frequently combats,
approval.

of the

united

the

he

The

of

of the

the

Christian

freedom
cardinal
virtues

he

taught that the lower faculties were

spirit,the bodily organs
being necessary

present life.

theology, Albert separated the dogmas of the church

from
philosophicalspeculations. The doctrines of creation,
incarnation, redemption, forgivenessof sin, and immortality
he accepted on the authority of revelation
phy,
apart from philosoin support of
though he sought for rational arguments
In

SCHOLASTIC

PHILOSOPHY"

doctrines, for

these

that

discovered

read.

of
in

articles

the

light of

the

are

illustrated, but

Albert

reason.

well

as

of his life

the

defence

the

was

perhaps the
most
widely

was

as

not

of the

former

pupil, Thomas
Aquinas.
Thomas
Aquinas
of Aquino (l^'^5-l'^74f)Thomas
of a noble family and allied to several of the monarchs
of Aquino,
of Landulf, Count
He
the Son
was
Europe.
the territoryof Naples.
of
He received
his elementary education
at the monastery

Monte

of his friend

131

of

of faith

last act

PERIOD

structio
beUevers, the inthe refutation
of unbelievers,

time

of his

man

Almost

orthodoxy
(2) St,
was

these

by

learned

most

confirmation

the

ignorant, and

of the

holding

SECOND

and

Cassino, after which

of

Naples.

He

he spent six years

at
joined the order of the

the

sity
Univer-

Dominicans,

against the will of his family. He then studied under Albertus Magnus
at Cologne and at Paris.
Receiving his degree,
he engaged in the controversy between
the Begging Friars and
the University,concerning the libertyof teaching, and taking
sides against the University, he won
his case.
He

did

active

service

for

his

for

and

order

the

church,

frequently taking long journeys. He

the Chair
of Theology, in the University
he was
actively engaged in writing and in
He
refused
the archbishopric of Naples,

writing,lecturing,and
appointed to
of Naples, where
giving instruction.
and the Abbacy Monte
was

He

summoned

was

Council

Cassino.

Lyons,

at

the

Greek

by
to

and

aid
Latin

Pope Gregory
in adjusting the

sufferingfrom illness,he at
Council, but his strength failinghim
he

to

died, after
Thomas

Summa
to

the

Cistercian
a

wrote

was

the

attend

controversies

tween
be-

set

once
on

the

of Fossa

monastery

out

way,

Nuova,

for the
he

was

where

lingeringsickness.
many

Theologiae.

this which

to

Churches.

Though

carried

books,
His

intended

the

other
to

is the
greatest of which
books
were
preparatory

give

summary

edge,
of all knowl-

especiallythe doctrines of the church, arranged in

systematic form, and explained according to the logic

of

Aristotle.
of
distinct sources
there
two
are
According to Thomas,
Revelation
is
and
Reason, of which
knowledge. Revelation
of knowledge.
the superior. Revelation, the divine
source

THEORIES

PHILOSOPHICAL

132

Reason, the
Scripture and the Church.
of natural
fountain
the
knowledge, has for its channels
various systems of philosophy, especiallythose of Plato and
Aristotle
Plato for thought, Aristotle for method.
Modern
has

channels

two

"

"

science

natural

for

foundation
the

the

virtues

intellectual

into

natural

chief

the

if not

the

sole

knowledge.

divided

Thomas

observation

makes

natural

into

and

and

moral; the

theological;

intellectual

or

of reason;
and
the
speculative,dealing with the right use
or
ethical,dealing with others, as justice,
practical,moral
with ourselves, as
or
prudence, temperance, and fortitude.
The
Free
will,
theologicalvirtues are faith,hope and love.
Divine
the condition
of duty, is supplemented by
Grace.
As

with Albert.
in agreement
The
Summa
treatTheologiaeis divided into three parts, ing,
of
of
of
and
the
the
God-Man;
Man,
respectively God,
universals

to

Thomas

first and

second

last

finished

was

he died before
this work

who

by

other

was

sneer

this great work

(3)

were

of Thomas

work

himself, the

hands, according
It is not

completed.

details,suflSce it to

say

his

to

plan,

that

it

as

follow

possibleto

ated
elabor-

was

great logicalskill,and

those

With

the

parts

in all its

with
Let

it

was

the

pains-taking thoroughness.
read
ignorance of the schoolmen

of St. Thomas.

Thomas,
Duns

at

Scholasticism

ScotMS

birth of Duns

Scotus

are

ability as

boy,

culminated.

both

place and

The

-1308).

He

uncertain.

date

showed

of the
marked

can
joined the FrancisHe studied at Merton
Order.
College,Oxford, of which
he was
made
and philosophy, he
fellow.
In mathematics
a
Varron
vacated
the
was
especiallyproficient,and when
chair of philosophy, he was
His
appointed his successor.

lectures

on

and

in

early

philosophyattracted

the

of

crowds

to

skill that

Scotus
assist in

he

won

from

the title of Doctor

sent

he

He

received

Subtilis,

by the general of
founding a University, and
was

which

students.

his
University
doctor's, degree, and was
shortly after appointed regent of
the Theological School.
He
gained great reputation, as a
his
defence
of the doctrine
of the
able
controversialist,by
Immaculate
hundred
Conception, refuting two
objections
the
the
and
doctrine
Dominicans,
against
by
establishing
it by a cloud
of arguments;
and
such
his dialectical
was
went

of Paris

life

his order
to

engage

to

Cologne

in

to

contro-

PHILOSOPHY"

SCHOLASTIC
with

versy

and

the

women

the

to

not

vows

of

he

was

Scotus

Franciscan

and

Thomas

life.

He

Thomas

between

and

elaborate

and
strict

received

was

with

short residence

Franciscans

the

men

Kfe

by

by the
Dominican,

of

reUgious

influenced

his system is an
also of his
hence

hence

133

themselves

binding

were

and

existed

antagonism
Thomas,

to

but after
by the cityofficials,

apoplexy.
opinions of

The

themselves
secular

to

return

PERIOD

Beguines, companies

sick, without

great ceremony
died

devoted

of the

care

and

Beghards

who

SECOND

and

fact

that

and

that

the

inicans;
Dom-

of that

criticism

of

partisans.

differed in their views

Scotus

regarding the
relation of philosophy to theology. With
Thomas
philosophy
in agreement
with
be found
must
ever
theology, when both
both
understood, as
truths,
are
are
expressionsof the same
while

with

truths

which

from

creation

universe.

of

cause

revealed
the

ultimate

philosophy,

to

the

as

universe, but

of the

cause

that

not

attributes
are
almighty and Divine, which
He
of
based
the
doctrines
by theology.
Christianity
It
rules of morality on
the arbitrary will of God.
reasonable

more

infinite

Scotus

always

with

reference
and

essence

correspond

form

are

is, the

genus

species

adds

the

as

has
to

Albert

for the

well

as

of

specific

reason.

in

Thomas

but

regard

to

do

universal

the

so

that

for

the

the

content,
the

or

genus

adds

to

truth

genus;

the

peculiar
the species
ties
quali-

the

genus,

is universal

of
species the content
the species;the individual

the

not

teristics
charac-

The

essence.

universal
of

individual

that

the universal

attributes

the

determinations
individualizing

matter,

genus,

established

were

by human

and

characteristic of the species,which

of the

they

of God

laws

the

universe, though

and

the

that

universals, though he differed from

versal
individuation, holding that the uni-

to

form

to

that

be discovered
of

existence

and

of the

agreed with

three-fold

believe

to

wisdom,

highest welfare

design cannot

not

diverged, theology

is

with

for the

but

absolute

were

soul, and
immortality of the human
of the
the Almighty, the Divine
cause
the
that philosophy can
demonstrate

admits

an

is,however,

them

accessible

not

of God,

He

existence

accord

church

of the world, the

the existence

this

of the

dogmas

philosophy sometimes

revealing truth

also

and

the

Scotus

for
common

the

the

teristic
charac-

contents

of

PHILOSOPHICAL

134

the

species its

individual
of the

species-f

the

the hand, which

regard

absolute
Scotus

important

of which

the

the

characteristic

individual.

between
the

of the

content

the

accidents,

tinction,
Dis-

permanent
as

wart

go.

held to its freedom

in

more

did Thomas.

the author

was

and

come

will,Scotus

than

sense

made

individual, and
may

the

to

be

the

genus

peculiaritiesof

should

of the
peculiarities
In

of the

content

however,
on

that

so
peculiarities,

own

the

THEORIES

are

of

works, among

numerous

those

commenting

on

the

the

most

writings of

Aristotle.
In

showing

Scotus

them, which

the

took

divergence
the

gy,
philosophy and theolocausing opposition between

between

first step in
led to the decline of Scholasticism.

in
born
was
1347). William
oj Occam
{Ji) William
(
in the county of Surrey, and educated
the villageof Ockham
he was
at the Merton
College, Oxford, and at Paris where
the
Scotus.
He
first the pupil, then
the rival of Duns
was
provincialof England at the assembly of the Franciscan
Order
headed
the revolt of that order against
at Perugia, and
the
XXIL
He
tried for heresy before
was
Pope John
bishops of Ferrara and Bologna, and imprisoned four months
in the dungeon of the papal palace at Avignon. Managing
to
Michael
with
his companions,
of Cesena, general of the
escape
and
their
found
to Munich
to
order,
Bonogratia, they
way
of Louis, who
elected
the Court
had been
legally
Emperor
of Germany, and whose
refused
the
to ratify.
election,
Pope
The
he
with
made
Louis
"Defend
the
to
me
proposal
was:
sword, and I will defend you with the pen." The proposal
accepted, he sent forth
pamphlets in refutation of the
claims of the Pope, showing that the oflBce of
extravagant
King was
independent of that of the Pope, and no less of
divine authority.
his logicalability,William
From
called the Invincible
was
Doctor,
In regard to
universals, he strongly objected to
the
of
abstractions.
He
took
the
extreme
hypostetizing
view of Nominalism,
that the name
is the only universal,
and though he added
to the doctrine, he made
nothing new
it more
in speech were
intelligible
by showing that words
used like figuresin Arithmetic
letters in Algebra, as when
or
let X stand
for the unknown
we
quantity required, or when

PHILOSOPHY"

SCHOLASTIC

trianglefor

word

the

use

we

number

infinite

stand

words

135

of
thought of any one
it
objects to which
may
and
thoughts,
thoughts

the

individual

of

PERIOD

SECOND

for

the
be
for

applied. As
things,each being inadequate, there is a double inadequacy,
is skepticism.
and the outcome
ual,
that everything that reallyexists is individHe contended
of individualityis to seek the
the cause
that to seek
of the individual, and that it is not the individual that
cause
his
the
For
universal.
needs
extreme
explanation, but
the authority of Aristotle, though
he claimed
nominalism,
he held that the universal is not
strictlynot justly. Thus
or
reallyexistingthing, but is merely a term
predicable
any
universal by its application to any
made
individual of the
noun.
class,and hence a common
is no
that
real thing
the universal
It is of course
true
existingby itself apart from the class;apart from the pattern
in the Divine
mind, after which the objects of the class were
formed

apart also from

which

mind,

the

are

the concept of the class in the human

of Realism; but the universal
errors

really exist, as a combination

of a class, similar to that

does

of the

class.

The

name

is of

course

of

qualitiesin

in any

other

universal, as

any

dividual
in-

individual
the

name

is

applicable to every elephant, and why? because

elephant
certain
entitle them
to be
qualities which
they all have
and
classed together
called by the common
elephant.
name
call a certain class of animals vertebrate, not because
We
one
identical skeleton will do for all, but that the skeleton of
in its essential features, is similar to that of any
other
one,
animal

of the class.

William
than

more

completely

did Scotus, and

which

consisted

severed

this meant

philosophy

the dissolution

in their union.

from

theology

of Scholasticism,

theology is
related
to
practical religion,philosophy to speculative
thought; theology is based on revelation and accepted by
faith, philosophy deals with universal truth apprehended by
The
rules of morality are
trary
reason.
expressions of the arbiwill of God, according to Occam
and are
based on
not
rational
commands
principles. God's
however,
we
may,
believe to be reasonable, though the human
mind
times
somemay
fail to discover their reasons,
God's
or
quiring
design in reobedience.

With

Occam,

THEORIES

PHILOSOPHICAL

136

of thought and
feeUng, of
Mysticism is a compound
philosophy and religion. On its philosophicside, it is an
ultimate
to
reality of things by
apprehend the
attempt
immediate
intuition,and on its religiousside, it is an effort
the Divine
and to enjoy the blessedness of
to grasp
essence,
Its seed miay
with the most
actual communion
high God.
3,

ideas, which
minated
gerin Philo, developed in Gnosticism, expanded in full
and
bore fruit in the period of
in Neo-Platonism,

found

be

bloom

in Plato's

system, and

than

with

various

schools.

Mysticism
intuition

finds

innate

phase of religiousphilosophy,
possibilityof development along

It is rather

Scholasticism.

of

doctrine

and

is based
as

feelingrather than

on

both

movement,

in the

on

intellectual

philosophic and

altogether without justification.

human
has the faculty of rational intuition
The
mind
which
immediately apprehends the necessityof the conditions
of phenomena;
and
the system
of philosophy which
ignores
this fact is without
rational basis.
For
example, it is
a
for every
event, that
intuitivelycertain that there is a cause
succession
implies time, that body and motion
imply space,
religiousdirection, is

in the

as

ultimate

an

must

rational

bounds;

while

have

event;

cause,

that

that
possibility,

the

universe

plies
im-

hence
beginning, and
its
be
must
kept within
a
priori that every event

reality, without

But

eternal.
proper

of their

conditions

the

not

intuition
it declares

it does
must

be

not

tell

us

the

determined,

cause

of any

if determined

lar
particuat

all

posteriori,
by investigationguided by experience. While,
rational
intuition
apprehends the necessity of an ultimate
of the universe, the character
of
reality,the eternal cause
that
be
must
known,
determined, if ever
by the
cause,
of
be
the
known
made
nature
universe, or
by revelation.
On
its religiousside, Mysticism is justified
by the fact of
Christian
experience. The Spirit itself,through the feeling
of love, beareth
witness
with
the
our
are
spiritsthat we
children of God; and this is done
shed
by the love of God
abroad
in our
hearts by the Holy Spiritwhich
is given unto
us.
Mysticism rightly held to this religiousexperience.
that
are
Mysticism does not hold with Pantheism
we
with
of
in
naturally at one
God, but that we
state
are
a
be brought back, by the new
alienation, and must
birth, to
a

instead

conditions
conditions
the

that
hold
to
conditioned, and
apart from the condition, leads, on

of

the

be known

can

hand,

one

the

to

wild

in general,which

wild

the

opens

fanaticism.

Ideas,
from

priori,apart
of

combination
the

objects, but
by

objection

no

universal

existed

to

in the

Divine

apprehended
Aristotle's

taught.
Certain
of

qualities,
but
class;,

that

mind

the

posteriori,
There
is,
the
of
pattern

before

the

objects of the class,and that the objects of

formed
according to this pattern.

of the
were

It is easy
conditioned:

to

show

Since
be

there

must

there

is succession

duration
events

in
there

space

which
must

how

body

we

and

in which
of

be

reach
motion
bodies

cause,

the

condition

are

facts

exist and
there

phenomena,

succession

and

itself apart from

the
of this combination
has a

view

the

cause

claims

not

object

of

and

mind, but formed

induction.
generalization, and

examination,

however,

Plato

in every
exist by

notion

or

are

correct.

more

not

pre-existingstate, or

in the human

existence

mental

universals,

found

idea

of the absolute

objects,as

does

of

for extravagant

way

as

is much

form
essentiallysimilar, are
doctrine
this

hypotheses

present empirical intuition

to the

THEORIES

PHILOSOPHICAL

138

must

of

existence
the

class

from

the

experience,
move;

be

since
time

or

place; since there are

jump
non-entity cannot

takes
for

be the eternal
being; since the universe is, there must
which
the universe
realitywe call God, as the condition
on
depends.
shall best understand
We
Mysticism by knowing what the
of
which
shall find in a review
we
Mystics actually taught

into

their

doctrines.

what
be called the principle
(1) Erigena laid down
may
of Mysticism: Out
of the eternal incomprehensible essence,
world
of ideas
is eternally created, constituting the
the
Son of God, in whom
all things exist.
All existence
Word
or
God
is the beginning of all things, and all
is a Theophany.
realize
with
God, we
things return to God, and in Oneness
such
The
to have
highest blessedness.
our
Mystic assumed
union
with
intimate
the Divine
an
Being, both in thought
and
in affection,that he can
or
apprehend God by reason,
realize Him
In this is
by the deeper intuitions of love.
be its
found the first principleof Mysticism, whatever
may
form
manifestation.
specialoutward
or

SECOND

PHILOSOPHY"

SCHOLASTIC

(1091-115S) Bernard

(2) Bernard of Clariveaux

eloquent divine, and exerted

experiencesof

inner

the

held that

He

who

dead

are

state

can

to

he

when

had

St. Paul

This

the

an

the world

to

through

Divine
Being.
sometimes
'granted to

God, such

those

as

third heavens.

the

to

up

only by

these

of the

alive unto

and

caught

was

reUgion related

stages, and

contemplation

reached

be

was

soul.
three

exalted is the ecstatic vision

Still more
those

the
has

reason

rises to

mind

the

faith, maintaining that

of the

doctrines

139

great influence in the church.

distinctions as externalizingthe

Abelard's

condemned

He

PERIOD

who

practice extreme

their love of self in the love

self-denial,and who merge
be all in all only when
all selfishness is
of God; for God
can

extirpatedfrom the soul.

(3) The Victorines, Hugo,
monastery

of St.

Victor,

Richard

necessary

of ecstacy in communion

(4)
born

at

books

with

calculated

These

books

in order

observed

to be

Walter, of

the

Paris, further developed Mysticism

near

by publishing popular
and
to inspiredevotion.
piety
conditions

and

to

awaken

explained
to

reach

state

God.

of Fidanza
(1221-1274). John
destined
Bagnarea in the Papal states, and was

Bonaventura

his mother

for the

Bonaventura

from

church.
St. Francis

the

He
of

received

the

Assisi,who

cognomen

is said to

was

by
of

have

Distinguished for the

performed on him a miraculous cure.
and
the
his
intellect
purity of his character he
brilliancyof
He introduced
Order.
elected general of the Franciscan
was
into his Society, and advocated
asceticism
stricter discipline
of Grace.
dicted
interBy his order, Roger Bacon
a means
was
as
He threw the weight of his
from lecturingat Oxford.
influence in favor of the election of Gregory X to the Papal
this he was
rewarded
For
chair.
ferred
conby the Pope, who
him the titles of Cardinal and
on
Bishop of Abano.
in 1255, and on account
of
He received the degree of Doctor
Doctor
the purity of his life,he was
styled
Seraphicus. He
of
council
of
which
the
he
died at
was
a member.
Lyons
great
In cultivatingmystical piety,Bonaventura
differed widely
from Roger Bacon, who was
Science, and
a pioneer in Natural
from St. Thomas, who
brought the Aristotelian Scholasticism
to the height of perfection.
Bonaventura
accepted realism, the theory that universal
ideas do not exist in the objects of a class,but in the Divine

PHILOSOPHICAL

140

mind
which

patterns after which

the

as

THEORIES
these
but

be

objects were

if universals

formed,

do

accepted as true;
in the objects of a class, as ideas^ they do exist
of similar attributes; and
objects as combinations
may

is

of attributes

of this combination

in

these
nation

in the

concept

exist

not

human

mind.
held

Bonaventura

steps in knowledge

three

to

giving empirical knowledge,

soul itselfthe image of God, and
the Divine
which grasps
Being
Reason
but

discover

can

truths,

other

that

attributes

senses

examines

transcendent

mystic

truths
of

basal

as

God,

it

of

rise to an
here which

virtue.

every

with

ecstatic union

these

By

act

principles;
apprehend

can

only by divine illumination, for which the proper means

be employed, as fasting,prayer,
meditation, and the
practice

the

enjoys his love.

and

certain moral
the

as

which

reason

the

"

the

means,

God.

is

There

soul

great

must

strict
can

truth

accepted, if the depth of feelingis guarded

and
the danger of running into extravagance
from
excess,
be avoided
by sobriety of judgment.
(1260-1329). Eckhart's
(5) Meister Eckhart
mysticism
was

of

more

be

may

mystics in

theoretical character

general.

freely from

pure

evolved

He

reason,

than

that

of the

philosophy
basing it

without

tic
Scholas-

of

ism
mystic-

upon

the

dogmas of the church; but through his system, these dogmas,

often acquired a new
meaning.
In the fusion of feelingand knowing, the mystics generally
left the control with the feeling. Not
with Eckhart; for
so
the controllingelement, and the speculawith him reason
was
tive
of peculiar interest.
view, the matter
the Absolute to be the primal indeterEckhart
considered
minate
of
all
the
the potentiality
Godhead,
things,
essence,
triadic
is
whose
to consciousness,
to come,
nature
by a
process,
the
Son
and
the Holy Spirit.
triune
the
the
God,
Father,
as
How
to

can

God.

The

decease, and
his Son

in us,

by
(6)
Heinrich

know

man

God?

renunciation

when
and

To

be dead

self is to be

alive

of

called
selfhood, Eckhart
reveals
that is completely effected, God
with God, which
is recogbecome
one
we
nized

rational act called Funklein

Other

to

distinguished mystics

or

flash of light.

may

be

mentioned:

distinguishedfor his austerity,

(1295-1266) was
Tauter
poetic fancy, and fervency of feeling. John
of StrasSuso

PHILOSOPHY"

SCHOLASTIC

(1300-61)

burg
emotional
withal

remained

he

(1293-1381)

Ruysbroeck

the

on

Boehme

of

grund

Thomas

Fox,

the

mystic

to

such

course,

Other

truth

God,

to

in

John

the

and

lands.
Nether-

and

error,

union

mystical

pious
a

William

claimed

heart

of

of

feeling,

with

God

Kempis,
Law,

Madam

St.

all

Martin.

things,

the

is

being

mysteries
not

tendencies

Henry

nation,
illumithe

of

became

nature

can

Guyon,

direct

all

things,

things,

mystic

of

root

claims
of

have

to

all

and

extravagant
writers

the

see

origin

the

into

reason,

could

he

events,

looking

Of

sisting
in-

shackles.

mystic

leading

the

(1575-1624)

that

so

to

which

mysticism,

attained.

John

By

to

Strasburg

relationship

between

by

means

type

and

terror-stricken

of

ecclesiastical

the

was

preacher,

his

personal

discriminated

He

be

morals,

less

and

visited

plague

purest

141

Eckhart,

encouraged

the

bondage

from

freedom

to

is

of

purity

on

post,

theology

His

dwelt

his

than

the

When
and

PERIOD

distinguished

was

man.

at

people.

and

He

Suso.

benevolent

practical

more

was

than

SECOND

God

unveiled

became
be

Un-

clear.

justified.

may

More,

be

noted:

George

CHAPTER

Transition

Cardanus

XV

to Modern

Philosophy

Cardanus

(1501-76).

explained nature
by
the
the
world
passive principle, and
two
principles: matter,
and
soul, the active
principle which
by pervading
matter,
and
Attraction
bringing it into order
causes
light and heat.
of motion,
become
in
higher beings,
repulsion, the causes
1,

teaching
pursuit

The

hatred.

and

love

of the
of

church,

truth.

it is true,

masses,

but

the

Cardanus

thinker

was

should

should

in

engage

the
the

mathematician;

good

accept

he

Cardanus'

formula
for the
solution
He
the author
of interesting
of cubic equations.
was
he wrote
works
mathematics,
physics, astrology; and
an
on
His
thinker, is to be
independence,
autobiography.
as
a
of thought.
noted, as indicating the current
Telesius
Telesius
in much
^.
(1508-88).
explained nature
Cardanus
heat
of which
the
passive matter,
as
same
way
cold
is
the
the
from
the
of repulsion, and
cause
sun
source,
of attraction, and
the
all change
these
earth, the cause
on
He
doctrines
Aristotle's
and
that
life depend.
maintained
tion
be replaced by facts derived
from
must
empirical examinaan
of nature
that
all knowledge
itself, and
begins with
He
the
admits, however,
experience.
spirituality
sensuous
of
the
and
he
soul.
The
different
virtues
immortality
garded
rediscovered

known

formula,

as

"

revived

He
senses

of the

manifestation

the

as

doctrine

the

taught

modifications

are

of

they all involve

with
object in contact

contact

of air in contact

the

that

3.

Nola,
While

with

the

Order,
intolerable

young

but
to

man

he

his

of

case

and

in

case

that

all the

It

is true,

sight, light from

of hearing, waves

an

ear.

(1548-1600).
village in Italy near

yet

self-preservation.

touch.

of

sense

in

"

of

Democritus,

by

the

eye,

Bruno
a

instinct

he

Giordano

Bruno

Naples,
became

where
member

was

he

was

of the

born

at

educated.
can
Domini-

from
the
society, as
shortly withdrew
of imheadstrong
disposition. Accused
142

TO

TRANSITION

MODERN

PHILOSOPHY

143

to different cities,intent on
knowing for
piety, he wandered
himself the mysteries of the universe, free from the shackles
of authority. He
was
greatly influenced by the scientific
of his time, and accepted the heliocentric theory
movement
of the planets of
of Copernicus, regarding the earth as one

and

solar system,
solar systems.

the

life.

and
the

universe

being, without
omnipresent; the world
and
of

form

will have

cosmic

be

an

life,has

is the

of

greater system

immanent
and

distinguished between

eternal

the

to

as

its substance

cause,

He
The

world.

beUeved

he

its infinite

as

and

God

eternal

The

universe

the

in the

verse,
uni-

soul, its

holder
up-

the

universe
of God,

manifestation

beginning or end, omnipotent and

of beings, the
ginning,
creation, had a beend.
The
human
soul, the highest
its origin in the infinite soul of the

universe.
Bruno

well

was

received

in

Paris, where

he

delivered

lighted
England, and though dewith
Queen Elizabeth, he was
disgusted with the
He
brutality of the English masses.
engaged as a disputant
the comparative merits of the Copernican and
at Oxford
on
the Aristotelian theories of the heavens, and gained an
easy
victory.
Bruno
preferring
regarded Aristotle with antipathy, much
the older philosophers, as HeracKtus
and Democritus, and

lectures.

He

two

spent

in this respect he
the
Bruno
was

was

in

years

like Telesius

and

Bacon.

important works: On
the Copernican theory, on
metaphysics, and a dialogue on
morals.
He
attacked
the established religion,
jeered at the
monks
the
records on
as
pedants, and placed the Jewish
level as
the myths
of Greece.
He
same
sought for unity,
and found
it in Sod, the eternal source
of the
and substance
of

author

several

universe.
He
and

He
accepted an invitation to visit Venice.
and thrown
into prison.
brought to Rome
of

at

the

seven

years,

he

was

excommunicated

After

and

finement
con-

burnt

stake.

Jf. Campanella (1568-1639). Tommaso

He
in Calabria
and died at Paris.

born
of

arrested

was

knowledge
^perception
the
but what
through
senses;
"

and

Campanella
held to two

was

sources

reasoning. Perception is
is it that we
immediately know?

PHILOSOPHICAL

144

It is the

sensation,
better

or

that

prove

replies,by
existence
is

The

and

my

do

report relative
to affect

us

in

the

truth.
a

knowledge;
We
judge from
picture them.

true.

then

us

look

sensation

may

sense

since I

the

me

existence

both

is

my

there

gained

of external

correctly.^^ They
of such

objects are

nature

as

this

and

manner,

if not

the

can

limited,

am

ceive
per-

Campanella

to

Something

me.

we

then

How

myself?

report them

senses

self,that

reveals

non-ego,

The

certain

of human

of

of
of.

from

limits

that

fact

establishingthe
things; but

apart
inner

limitations; and

objective world

an

by

exist

reason.

conscious

are

we

objects

modification

mere

say,

THEORIES

complete,
sensations

the purpose
answers
it is at least relatively
what

the

objects

are,

ent
differknowledge in a somewhat
light:Strictlywe do not perceive sensation; for to perceive
do not take
sensation
to take through. We
means
through
do
anything, but are immediately conscious of it; but we
of
perceive the external objects through the senses
by means
in us.
the sensations
We
they cause
judge what kind of an
is
which gives us certain sensations, and ideate the
object it
judgment, that is, picture the object by the imagination,in
conformity with the judgment.
The
that there is
questions again arise,how do we know
external
mental
an
object, and that it corresponds to our
picture.f^ If the object is wholly internal, it is incredible
that several persons
should perceive the same
thing. The
be explained otily by a common
perception can
common
external
object,giving the spectators like sensations leading
to the perception of the same
object. But do we perceive
the object as
it is?
It is more
perceive it
likely that we
approximately as it is,than that we perceive it as it is not.
Our perceptions are tested by the several senses
converging on
the same
object, and by long experience, so that, except in
can
rare
rely on them as giving us, if not complete
we
cases,
We call our
friends by
truth, at least reliable relative truth.
and they respond, signifyingthat our
perceptions were
name,
that our
judgments from
correct; but it is well to remember
Let

at the

fact of

sometimes

incorrect, and

be

lead

us

into

error.

Bacon

5.
son

of

(1561-1626). Francis

Sir Nicholas

Bacon,

Bacon

celebrated

was

the

lawyer

youngest
who

for

PHILOSOPHICAL

146

THEORIES

in his works, the whole

of
planned to cover,
range
science and
outline sketch
of the
an
philosophy. He made
entire field, but completed only a small portion of his projected
His Essays are
his most
work.
popular productions;
they have been very generally read and greatly admired,
and are well worthy of the perusal of every
thoughtful mind.
Bacon

this

Take

from

sentence

his

'*

essays:

Reading

maketh

full man;
conference, a ready man;
how
concise is his
We
at once,
see,
The

Novum

Organum,

the New

writing, an exact man."

style.
Organ, as the name
signifies,

method
of discoveringtruth,
attempt to unfold a new
in
the
of
science, by
induction, and thus
especially
process
in the
it stands opposed to the Organon of Aristotle, which
was

an

hands

of

the

schooln^en,had

become

chiefly a

deductive

of

reaching conclusions, and as Bacon averred, from

barren
Inestablished.
general principles,not sufficiently
stauratio magna,
the great renovation, was
the name
given by
method

Bacon
In

to his entire

his

system.

induction. Bacon
theory
distinguishedbetween
he meant
anticipationand interpretation. By anticipation,
of a
hasty induction, such as passing from an examination
few individuals
of a species to a general principleapplied to
the genus
embracing that speciestogether with other species;
whereas
should
first,by interpretation of prerogative
we
instances, carefullyestablish the principlefor the species in
question, then for another
speciesof the genus, and so on for
all the species of the genus,
at least for a considerable
or
number
for the

of

of

them, and

thus

establish
legitimately

the

principle

the few
Anticipation, however, jumps,
individuals
of one
the other
species to the
species, over
instead
of ascending legitimatelythrough the other
genus,
down
reasons
species; it then by deduction
illegitimately
To illustrate: Having before
to other species of the genus.
is equal
several rectangles,we
of each
find that the area
us
to the product of two
we
adjacent sides. Now
pass
suppose
of which
the rectangle is a
to the parallelogram, the genus
of every
species,and say the area
parallelogram is the product
of two adjacent sides; but this is a hasty, and in fact,
incorrect induction
an
by anticipation. Suppose then we
descend
to the rhombus,
a
species of parallelogram, by the
from

genus.

deductive

syllogism,and

say:

The

area

of every

parallelo-

TRANSITION

is

product

is the

gram

MODERN

TO

the

sides.

adjacent

of two

area

of the

rhombus

is the

The

major

premise

is

is, in fact,

induction, and
only unwarranted, but false.

unwarranted
is not

Bacon

calls the chief

of

sources

an

false;the conclusion

idola, idols,cherished

error

tribus, idola

idola

opinions:

false

147

adjacent sides; but the rhombus

of two

therefore,
parallelogram;

product

PHILOSOPHY

idola

specus,

fori, idola

theatri.

tribus, idols of the

Idola

(1)

in human

inherent

corresponds to
circle is the

our

the
as
nature,
ideas of order or

assumed

was

is tendency to

in circles. There

to

assumption that
perfection. Thus,
it

perfect curve,

most

planets moved

tribe, tendencies

error

nature
as

that

the
the

hasty generalization,

signs,and charms, to
of facts with
the agreement
note
proverbs, and overlook
exceptions. Thus, you will have good or bad luck in a month
first over
moon
right
according as you see the new
your
be
which
to
left
seems
shoulder,
always verified,as we
or
month.
We
notice the
both good and bad luck every
have
to

Idola

ourselves,
bent

of

myths,

overlook

fulfillment and

(2)

in

believe

specus,

the

mind,

exceptions.

idols of the

companions,

our

omens,

inherited

or
or

den, the pecuHar nature

environment.

of

The

special
acquired, aflFects its opinions,
passing sound
judgments on

our

disqualify it from
matters
concerning which it has received a bias. Some minds
ences.
readily perceive resemblances; others quickly detect differfirst are
The
hasty generalizations;
likelyto make

and

may

the

others

apt to make
conservative, and
are

needless

distinctions.
the

Some

past; others

are
cling to
little
changes, as they see
in
the
Some
no
delightin abstract speculaor
good
tions,
present.
o
thers
interested
in conare
or
crete
great generalizations;
facts,and take no satisfaction in comprehensive theories.
incident
to
(3) Idola fori,idols of the forum, the errors
of language, or to the meaning attributed
the use
to certain
words, epithets,shiboleths,mottoes, party catch-words, and
the like.
People often wrangle because they attach different
shades
of meaning to the same
word.
Thus, to the word
attaches
the meaning of volition, or decision; anwill, one
other
the meaning of the power
of choice.
One
the
uses

people

are

and
progressive,

word
soul

mind
or

in the

seek

for radical

in the sense
intellect;another
and
will.
spirit,
including intellect,sensibility,
sense

of

of

PHILOSOPHICAL

148

(4)

Idola

theatri,idols of the

THEORIES

theater,

or

errors

springing

opinion, or imperfect philosophical theories.

various
Thus,
philosophers, especially the ancient, have
found the principleof things in water, or air,or fire, in being
in the
Some
or
vov^.
or
becoming, in number
philosophers
held to the certainty of knowledge; others to the impossibility
hold
Some
of knowing
that the senses
anything whatever.
are
wholly unreliable; others that they are the only sources
hold
that universals
exist only in the
Some
of knowledge.
mind
of God; others that they exist only in the human
mind;
mind
that they exist apart from
from
some
or
object;
any
any
exist
in
others
that they
only
objects; and still others that
hold
Some
deduction
be the
to
merely names.
they are
others
of
discount
true
deduction, and
reasoning;
type
assign the chief value to induction.
laid down
Bacon
the following rules for induction
:
be
in
the
all their
to
(1) Study
explained,
phenomena
varieties and combinations, not only by simple observation,
also by experiment, when
but
practicable. This gives the
natural
history of the facts.
of the phenomena,
whether
(2) Seek for the conditions
antecedents, or causes
mere
producing changes, or forms
forms
latent
include
giving permanent
qualities. The
resulting in slow changes of structure, or latent
processes,
structure.
properties,supporting the permanent
of the
be conditions
to
(3) Exclude
things not found
phenomena.
of the property
(4) Negative instances, or the absence
certain
to be explained, from
objects of the class, are to be
for.
noted, and, if possible,accounted
Bacon
called
attention
to the
importance of examining
the same
feature
exists in two
solitary instances, as when
differs
certain
feature
different, or when
a
objects otherwise
in two
the same;
also to the case
of a varyobjects otherwise
ing
tions
property, either increasing or decreasing; to the condiof the highest perfection of an
or
faculty; to
organ
parallelor analogous instances in different objects;to qualities
and
varying directly or inversely with one
accompanying
in deciding between
another; to the search for crucial instances
of
the
same
phenomenon.
competing explanations
from

current

TO

TRANSITION

MODERN

PHILOSOPHY

149

all that had

hitherto
placed a light estimate
upon
in Philosophy or
been
done
Science, whether
by Empirics
said:
He
''The
like
the ant,
are
Empirics
or
Dogmatists.
like
are
they only bring together and use; the Rationalists
bowels; but the
spin webs out of their own
spiders,which
bee (the true philosopher like Bacon) follows a middle
course,
from
the flowers
of the garden
for she draws
her materials
of her
and field,and yet changes and digeststhem
by a power
Bacon

own."
words
form the key of the Baconian
Macaulay says: "Two
It was
nishing
not
doctrine, Utilityand Progress,
by furphilsophers with rules for performing the inductive
with
motive for perwell, but by furnishing them
a
process
forming
it well, that he conferred
benefit
vast
so
a
on
society.
insisted on four things; the secularization
In Ethics, Bacon
of Ethics, or
the separation of morals
from
religion;the
disuse
of metaphysical presuppositions, and
the search
for
...

"

the

motives

of the welfare
of
conduct; the exaltation
identification
that of the individual; and
the
society,over
of the good with the useful, the moral
with the beneficial.
Bacon

of

attached

only a slightvalue, entirelytoo slight,to

the
ethical
speculations of the ancient
philosophers. It
would
attention
have been well had he given more
to his own
ethical practice.
and
In logic, he habitually exalts induction
disparages
the
of
branches
two
deduction,
logic now
regarded as coordinate
and of equal importance.
He
attempts to belittle Aristotle especially,and to some
illustrious of the Greek
extent
Plato, the most
philosophers,
who

in

were

not

powers

of

mind,

inferior to Bacon

and

in

intellectual

achievement,

himself.

of deduction
good work in exposing the barrenness
when
the complementary
method
of
separated from
induction, and by insistingon the importance of interrogating
inductions, step by step,
nature, and rising,by cautious
through intermediate
principles,to the highest and broadest
erable
generalizations,thus supplying principlesfor safe and innumHis
oft repeated advice, "Interrogate
deductions.
fruitful
in good
results.
The
has
been
nature,"
rapid
Bacon

advance

did

in

largely,of

science, since

the

incentive

Bacon's

he gave

to

time, is the

thorough

result

research.

very

PHILOSOPHICAL

150

of Bacon's

value

The

his

of

details

in its aim

but

THEORIES
doctrine
which

method,

does

consist

not

somewhat

were

and

tendency; yet it is worthy

he gave
of heat
is the one

in

the

cumbrous,
of remark

that

explanation
accepted at the
For
after Bacon's
time, heat was
present day.
many
years
called phlogiston; but two
attributed
to a special substance
one-half
centuries
after Bacon's
and
time, Prof. Tyndall,
by a series of brilliant experiments, proved Bacon's
theory

the

be

to

that

correct

did

Bacon

is

mode

of motion.

"

whether
called
justiceto the Greek
sages,
sophists. He says "the sophists were
grant
va-

scant

philosophers or
and

"heat

and

wisdom,
parading
more
philosophers were
fixed residences, and

the

perambulating

mercenary,

their

exacting

staid

opened

price

different
for

it,while

liberal,in that

and
schools

and

states,
the

they had

taught philosophy

nothing."

for

Bacon

from

quotes

Dionysius,

an

obscure

writer:

"The

to inexperienced
dialogues of Plato are words of idle old men
He
that
do justice to Plato?
Does
youth."
quotes from
Greeks
were
Egyptian priest: "The
always children, and
an
knowledge of
possessed neither antiquity of knowledge nor

has not
is, however, the world
duced
prothenes,
orator
an
a poet superior to Homer,
superiorto Demoswriter superior
a sculptor superior to Phidias, a prose
Plato, a thinker
superior to Aristotle, an architect superior

antiquity."

to

builder

the

The

fact

of the

Parthenon.

What

has

Egypt to show
The
in their
ruins of temples, gloomy even
against these?
in magnitude,
but
rude
and
best
days; pyramids massive
of old pharaohs; a succession
of
clumsy in structure; mummies
of
dynasties
despotic sovereigns; but nothing that will redeem
from
the
of
"the
basest
of
Egypt
opprobrium
being
Kingdoms.
Bacon
lost
Aristotle, while he never
pretended to honor
Bacon
Yet
did the
an
opportunity of giving him a thrust.
world
a very
great service; he incited the best minds to study
of ingenthe attention
ious
nature, to investigate facts; he turned
for the alleviation
to the investigation of machines
men

to

"

of human

vast

have

century,

would

labor; and if he could witness the

followed, especially in the nineteenth
be

more

astonished

than

himself.

results
no

that
one

stands

Bacon

the

as

difference

between

for

example,

the

say.

Nature

the

in the

the

water

rushes

but

modern
the

on

science

mediaeval

and

to

vacuum

which

pump

the

air

is

of the water,

abhors;

nature

of the
the

would

atmosphere

water

up

within

is removed.

the pressure
where
said, first study the

the pump,
Bacon

when

pressure

show

thought, take,

the surface

forces

To

schoolmen

above

fillthe

of the

The

therefore

vacuum,

151

science.

modern

of water:

declares, the

outside

water

modern

pump-stock,
up

PHILOSOPHY

pioneer in

pumping

abhors

exhausted

MODERN

TO

TRANSITION

history of objects,then
their natural
philosophy, or physics, and after that their
metaphysics; he taught that physics deals with their material
and efficient causes,
and
metaphysics with their formal and
natural

of these

final causes;
but the distinction
borrowed
from Aristotle.

four

Bacon

causes,

directlyrelated to science than

science they have produced the greater
to philosophy, and on
effect on
effect;yet they have not been without
philosophy,
in
be
seen
Hobbes, Locke, Hume,
can
as
Hartley and Mill.
Science
it carefully observes,
begins with facts, which
determines
and
their conditions, causes,
analyzes, classifies,
laws
and
its own
Within
sphere, science is
consequences.
but science is not all of knowledge; it leaves many
supreme;
science.
things unexplained. Philosophy is deeper than
It seeks for the root
of the matter,
and though sometimes
in finding fundamental
baffled, yet it often succeeds
truths,
far reaching in their consequences,
mony
that give unity and harto knowledge.
the son
of
Hobbes
was
(6) Hohhes
(1588-1679). Thomas
the vicar of Charlton
He had good preparaand Westport.
tory
fifteen.
the
of
and
Oxford
at
sent
to
training,
was
age
He
remained
five years
at the
University, but pursued his
studies
in pretty much
interest
his own
taking more
way,
theories

Bacon's

in the discoveries
than

After

were

more

of Drake,

and

logic and metaphysics

leaving the University, he

soon

sent

and

Cavendish,
became
abroad

very

became

attached

much

Italy. Wherever
philosophy spoken of with

schools.

of the

tutor

in

tour

to

to

each

the

and

other,

and

through France,

he went, he heard
and found
scorn,

son

tutor

The

of Hardwick.

Baron

together

of the heavens

in the wonders

in the

of William

pupil

are

the
that

many
Ger-

scholastic
the

little

PHILOSOPHICAL

152

THEORIES

of no
avail
learning he had acquired at the University was
of science
to give him
standing in comparison with such men
and Galileo, or with a man
like MonBruno
of the world
taigne.
as
He
fell back
the Latin
which
and Greek, upon
on
he

bestowed

Historian

Greek
He

of labor.

years

and

wrote

which

Thucydides,

in Latin

wrote

He

read

the

he
best

translation

of the

afterwards
Latin

published.
authors, till he

acquired a good Latin style.

Through his relation with Young Cavendish, an important
social and
politicalfigure,he became
acquainted with the
of
the
noted
literarymen
day, as Bacon, Lord Herbert, and
He
intuitional
Ben
Jonson.
did not
ciples
prinaccept Herbert's
in philosophy, but like him, he was
an
independent,
with
thinker.
He
somewhat
intimate
Bacon.
was
original
of
notes
They frequently walked
together, and he made
of Bacon's
some
employed him to make
apt sayings. Bacon
Latin
translations
of some
of his essays.
these facts,
From
he has been called a discipleof the great philosopher; but the
fact is, Hobbs
He
was
an
disagreed
independent thinker.
with
Bacon
in assigning a greater value to deduction
from
of
of the value
general propositionsand in his estimate
and in both
these respects, Hobbes
Mathematics;
was
right,
while

Bacon

His

friend

dying,

Hobbes

and

took

was

wrong.

and

patron, the

became
with

him

tutor

to

Earl
the

of
son

Devonshire,
of

suddenly

Sir Gervase

ton,
Clif-

journey to the continent, but spent

his attention
he directed
the time
chiefly at Paris, where
principally to mathematics, which he had neglected in his
University course.
recalled to England to take charge of the
In 1631, he was
of the young
Earl of Devonshire, and in 1634, he
education
He
abroad
with his pupil for a companion.
went
was
now
of the physical
much
interested
in searching out the secrets
He
world.
visited Galileo, then quite aged, and conversed
with
the members
of the scientific circle in Paris, and
was
accounted
of
the
one
philosophers.
Hobbes
held that all philosophicaltruth could be treated
he proposed
under
three heads
and State, which
Body, Man
in three separate treatises, entitled, respectively,
to work
out
of body
De Corpore, De Homines
interactions
De Cive,
The
of matheof motion, by means
to be explained in terms
were
"

THEORIES

PHILOSOPHICAL

154

philosophicalnecessity. Hobbes
answered
the objection to punishment, that if free will be
not
fact, then punishment is unjust to the criminal, by
a
by its good consequences
saying that punishment is justified
in

determinism,

of

advocate

criminal

preventing the

inclined

lays

who

those

upon

This

conduct.

lawless

to

and

repeatinghis crime,

from
it

restraint

wholesome

the

or

might
weight

has

answer

in
be
in

utilityof punishment in checking crime, but

the charge of injusticeto the criminal, if
it does not answer
he acted under
showed, that
necessity. It is true, as Hobbes
aversions are
neither desires nor
free, since they are caused
choice
decision free, as an
act
or
by motives, nor is volition,
caused
by the ego, which alone is free;
or
product, since it is
of
in
motives
view
it is not
and though it acts
as
reasons,
of
compelled thus to act by motives, which though causes
aversions
not
desires and
are
causes
coercing the ego to
regard

All

decide.
not

the

to

have

events

and

event,
the choice

an

makes

volition,is

as

caused

not

itself

ego
to

the

it is free.

person,

is the

but

causes;

source
a train of consequences.
asserted
that
It is sometimes

The

person,

that

energy

which, though causing the

it.

cause

is

ego

The

is

ego

original

an

of

ethics

be

cannot
to

determinist
Let

him

one

who

is not

the

to

not

true,
possible
will is lawless, it is imCan
will take.
a
person

because

course

will find that

fact

will fail

he

of freedom.

freedom.

free.

The
A

relative strength of his

as

often

is not

sarily
neces-

character

the

as

of prevision

power

person

Knowing

will take?

person

of

passions,and
that will probably hold good,
environment, a prediction,
be made
in regard to his course
stances.
of action In given circumA thief will steal if he has opportunity, and if he

person,

can

he

destroyed by

lawless
his

a
predictwhat course
what
predictinfallibly

holds

be

science; for if the

try it,and

believes

the

if determinism

that

he

can

escape

and

reason

detection;

an

honest

man

will

not
always be able to
Again, though we
may
will take yet we
can
a given individual
predict what course
sequences
predict,with approximate certainty,what will be the conof a right or
of conduct.
It
course
a
wrong
not

steal.

follow that freedom

therefore,does

not

prevision and

subverts

subverts

ethical

impossible.

ethical

science, since

excludes

science; it is
it renders

the power

of

necessity that

merit

or

demerit

TO

TRANSITION

that

contended

Hobbes

MODERN

PHILOSOPHY
freedom

true

155

consisted

in

the

Uberty to carry out one's decisions; but this is evidently the

from
restraint or
Uberty of execution; that is, it is freedom
in

constraint
external
to do.

to

best

It is not

ambiguous, and
choice; the choice

is

is

act

an

or

decision

of the

but

will is free; for the

itself or

product,

freedom

not

to will

freedom

the choice

mean

may

do, and

to

the

out

carry

act, is not
to say the

executive

or

decided

has

one

as

Freedom

decide.

to

doing

will,in
freedom

word

the

power

is caused,

and

will
of
and

will, as a power,
employed by the
is the servant
but
is,therefore, not free,
ego
is the hand; but the ego itself,
and
that
of the ego as much
as
alone is free, since though it may
act, as it usually does, in
it is not forced
it does
view of motives, as reasons,
to act
as
In
from
fact, to act
compelling
by compelling causes.
therefore

not

is

free; the

in choosing, and

is not

causes
a

to

act

at

foot-ball, making

of the
ego

mark.

The

all,but

to

be moved,

to

be

passive as

the

altogether inert, which

ego
the dynamic of the act,
energy,

is wide
is in the

itself.
that

freedom

consists

in

liberty to do as one
cated
advopleases,in realizingthe choice in external action, was
afterwards
to show
by Edwards, who also undertook
does
his
that the person
not
cause
volitions;for to cause
own
he
his own
in order
to
volitions, says Edwards,
must
act
in
order
and
and
that
act
to cause
them,
act,
cause
again
that
order
which
and
in
to
act
cause
previous act,
so
on,
series
of
infinite
involves
acts, an
impossibility in finite
an
does not
his volitions.
The
time; therefore, a person
cause
in order to
act
must
reasoning will show that a person
same
external
act to
an
act, and
perform any act whatever, even
involves
an
perform that previous act, and so on, which
infinite series of acts, an
fore,
impossibilityin finite time; therein
in an external
not act at all,even
can
a person
way.
both
Edwards
Hobbes
and
executing his volitions, which
allow, in the libertyhe has of doing as he pleases. Edward's
nothing at all. The
argument, in proving too much, proves
have
first
does not
fact is,a person
to act in order
to decide,
and
he simply decides;
having decided to act, he does not have
order
in
to act
to act, he simply acts.
The

view

Hobbes

attempted

was

to

much
square

interested
the

in mathematical

circle,and

studies.

actuallyboasted

that

He
he

PHILOSOPHICAL

156

had
a

that

performed

the

feat.

extraordinary

with

Ward,

the

mathematician,

in

controversy

celebrated

THEORIES

of it, though

This

and

astronomer,

which

he

drew

him

WaUis,
Hobbes

contest,

into
the

got

displayed
vigor of
thought. This ought to be a warning to all circle squarers,
extinct.
not
likelyto become
a tribe which
seems
of perception, Hobbes
From
the phenomena
inferred that
is the cause
of all things. Though
motion
change of motion
is just as natural
is an
to body as
rest, yet change of motion
that
event
which, though not
visible, is
requires a cause,
apprehended by rational intuition a"s force or energy.
Hobbes
view in philosophy, that all
adopted the narrow
and
our
knowledge is derived from sensation
reasoning; but
rational
intuition, not
or
reasoning, adds
original
reason,
elements
of its own;
it apprehends, for example, that every
have
since non-entity cannot
event
must
a
spring into
cause,
being.
of man,
The
natural state
according to Hobbes, is that of
worst

war,

which

would

catastrophe,

result
which

government,
the
present

moral

In

absence

of

in

government,

of

extermination.

entered

men

selfishness

of the

account

on

and
originality

into

checked

violence

condition

To

compact,

if not

men,

and

prevent
and

strained,
re-

this

formed

preserved

life.

of

mankind,
anarchy, the
result in violence, disorder,

would

robbery and murder; it would be permissible only if mankind

were
morally perfect.
is a strong
is preferable to anarchy, so
As
government
hence
according to
preferable to a weak
government
one;
and
is the
of government,
form
best
Hobbes,
monarchy
The
absolute
state,
monarchy the best form of monarchy.
therefore, as represented by the sovereign, is absolute in all
matters
pertaining to law, morals, or religion;yet Hobbes
law of nature,
accepted the golden rule as the immutable
which
he stated in the negative form : do not to others as you
would

hat

not

the

have

them

will

of

to

but

this conflicts

is the

standard

with

individual.

the

the

view

of

right and
might conflict

arbitrary will of the monarch

golden rule, as in fact, it often has done,
does not
rest
obey, and the responsibility

as
wrong,
with
the

duty

do to you;
the monarch

still it is
upon

the

idea

Every
relates

and

and

if

that

Whatever

the

cause.

and

along

eternal

an

the

Does

the

absurdities,

enough,

far

reach

of

eternal

injBnite
he

eternal

in

he

yet

line

that

is,

declares,

inj5nite;
the

cause

word

limited

of

cause

turn

did

imply

here

an

.f^

absurdity

strong

shall

expect

may

157

Hobbes,

to

knowledge

words

back

go

we

we

have

We
the

according

and

iSnite,

hear

we

effect,

not

the

PHILOSOPHY

is,

form

can

to

whenever
holds

we

excluded.

therefore

MODERN

TO

TRANSITION

writer,
Leviathan,

be

may

and
is

well

said
master

worth

of

his
of

doctrine,

English
the

Hobbes

style.

reading.

was

His

great

clear,
work,

CHAPTER

Modern

Descartes

1.
La

Philosophy

Cartesian

"

Rene

(1596-1650).

in Touraine,

Haye

XVI

died

and

France,

Descartes

born

was

Sweden.

Stockholm,

at

at

inquiring mind, his father called him his

At the age of eight, he was
'littlephilosopher."
sent
to the
in Angou,
where
Jesuit
he remained
College at La Fleche
Rene

having

an

eight

years.

His

health, while

feeble

in

college, excused
morning duties, and he thus acquired the habit
and
this he kept
of thinking while in bed, and
called

Sweden,

to

morning

to

lessons

give

while

Even

when

in

he

College,

was

the

to

summoned

he

possible
The

him

for

his

after

year

to

proved

faithful

acquaintance
of

of

rising,

till he

up

the

in

five

was

the

Queen.

began

distrust

to

the

his

scholastic

investigations,
which

true,

as

it

doubt.
he

graduation,

enjoyed the pleasures of

and
acquired a passion
with

from

of late

at

led to begin
philosophy, and finallyhe was
by not accepting anything in philosophy,
was

him

the
for

Mersenne,
friend

life.

of the

one

renewed

fellow

former

Paris,

ablest

his

student,
also

He

and

companions,

gay

He

gaming.

through

Mydorge,

with

Capital
a

in

spent

formed

quaintance
ac-

who
the

mathematicians

France.
Descartes

now

it best

thought
himself

to

his

abandon

frivolous

serious

he
Accordingly
study.
for
and
withdrew
two
to
city,
a
part
years
of
which
himself
devoted
to a profound
study
Geometry,
by
method
the
which
led
he
fruitful
to
finally
developed a
of Analytic Geometry.
science
drawn
he was
His retreat
out
again into
being discovered,
frivolities by taking service
these
society. He escaped from
Maurice
of Orange, a general of great
in the army
of Prince

life

and

devote

to

secluded

ability.
Walking
drawn

to

through
a

placard

of

of

street

in the

Dutch
158

the

Breda,

his

language,

attention

which

he

did

was

not

MODERN

PHILOSOPHY"
The

understand.
a

challenge

asked
into

the
his
was

own,

French

Latin.

The

was

translate

to

posted,

able.

as

Descartes

it for him

either

stranger, who

happened to be
College of Dort, oflFered to
if Descartes
would
it into Latin
bring him a solution
next
fulfilled
promised to do so, and
day. Descartes
between
promise. A friendship sprang
them, which
up
afterwards
Beekman
broken, because
published,as his
which
Descartes
had
originalessay on Music
an
trusted
en-

After
a

or

spending

soldier

began

would

be

two

in

years

Bohemian

in the

Holland, Descartes

army,

went

to

enlisted
many.
Ger-

upper

his

of 1619

concluded

that

consistent

more

the results into

formed

system

than

that

formed

found

therefore, of studying truth

combining

and

he sp.ent in comfortable
quarters,
led
which
his
discourse
to
meditations,
on

winter

He

Method.

of the

him.

The
and

head

the

Beekman,

to

as

standing by

159

difficult problem

solve, if he

to

one

any

stranger

Isaac
turn

to

writing was

CARTESIAN

by
by

thinker

one

stead,
In-

many.

in many

books, and

conglomerate system, he resolved

of his own,
to form
original and
self-consistent,
a
system
evolved
his own
from
the importance
thoughts; but he saw
of admitting nothing
of getting rid of all prejudices and
foundation.
He
doubtful, and beginning anew,
on
sure
a
did not, however,
to religion
apply the principle of doubt
but separated them
to politics,
entirelyfrom science and
or
strict conservative
philosophy. While, therefore, he was
a
in religionand
politics,yet in science and philosophy, he
was

radical

Hearing

reformer.

of

invisibles, who

order

secret

were

supposed

in science, Descartes

secrets

though

he

was

called Rosicrucians,

afterwards

to

be

possessed

sought for them, but

suspected of being one

self-styled
of

certain
in

vain,

of their

number.

logic,though useful in proving propositions,

little
in communicating
of
and
knowledge, was
four logical
in the discovery of truth.
He laid down
account
admit
is so perfectlyclear and
rules: To
true
as
only what
of no doubt; to divide
ties
distinct as to admit
complex difficulthe easy to the difficult;
into simpler parts; to pass from
Descartes

to

found

that

nothing essential.
returned
to Paris, and with his old friends,Mersenne

omit
He

and

PHILOSOPHICAL

160

THEORIES

Mydorge, engaged deeply in the study of Optics, especially

the theory of lenses, and their proper
preparation, though he
of phidid not lose sightof his ultimate object,the renovation
losophy
He

discovered

was

twice

on

brief
from

Cardinal

de

royal

visit

The

and

second

He
fiftyyears of age.
again visited France

time, he

royal bounty, which

BeruUe,
order

was

in consideration

him

summoned

awarded

was

obtained

was

of his services

again

Paris

to

the

by
to

for

kind.
man-

new

additional

at
Paris, he
pension. Arrived
civil
He
war.
by
paid for his
country
additional
royal parchment, but receiving no
pension, he
He changed his
in Holland.
left immediately for his home
abode
twenty-four times, while in Holland, chiefly to avoid
the intrusion of visitors,or for the sake of pleasant surroundings,
to be in the neighborhood of some
or
University.
with
for
Descartes
kept up a correspondence,
years,
many
the
Princess
Elizabeth, daughter of the ejected Elector
Palatine, and to her he dedicated his "Principlesof Philoso-

honors

and

the

comrades, and to avoid

he lived the
Holland, where

England,

to

business.

pension

to

time, till he

greater part of the

made

of his old

one

forthwith

returned

he

them,

by

an

distracted

the

found

His

favorite

science

physics in all its branches, especially

in its relation to physiology, in which
he made
original
investigations. A friend asking to see his library,Descartes
and
opened the door into his dissecting room
pointing to
books."
animal
bodies partly dissected, said: "These
are
my
He
he
the
of a long life,and
had
found
secret
supposed
of
boasted
that
he expected to live to be a hundred
years
was

age.

Descartes

compared

the

trunk,

and

morals, the

the

science

metaphysics

the

to

baisis of mechanics.

In

but

fact, one

of which

mechanics,

and

root,

chief branches;

tree

he

made

of the

physics

is

medicine

mathematics

greatest services

invention
of
the
mankind
to
was
by Descartes
Analytic Geometry, the application of Algebra, especially
the indeterminate
quantities
equation, in which the unknown
variable, to Geometrical
investigations. This fruitful
are
rendered

PHILOSOPHICAL

162

investigationshould
simple

the

from

begin; that
complex;

to the

investigation should
pass
that all the objects of a

and

in their interconnections.

be known

should

group

THEORIES

therefore, that whatever

it is

possible to doubt
be called knowledge.
Descartes, consequently, began
cannot
it
possiblefor him to doubt; but
by doubting every thing was
for the sake
of doubting.
doubt
He
he did not
not
was
but
His
to
an
investigator.
object was
essentiallya skeptic,
in
order
find
firm
to
tion
foundadoubtful,
a
everything
remove
of truth; but he found
one
thing he could not doubt
It follows,

"

therefore

I think,

explained,that

but

doubted;
I

sum,

to

fact he thus

be, which

is to

think

he

that

fact

the

did

not

is to be understood

am,

think, and

expressed : Cogito^ergo

Descartes

am.

is to

doubt

mean,
as

to

sum,
as

he

deduction

cogito,I think, as the word ergo, therefore, would seem

Since ego understood, the subject of sum,
to imply.
or
I,
is already assumed
the subject underthe subject of am,
stood
as
of cogito,or as I, the subject of think.
Descartes
What
the
his
revealed
existence was
to himself,
that
meant
factof
was
his
is
consciousness of thinking,which
indubitable.
through
well
have
said Volo, ergo sum,
He might just as
sentio,ergo
or
all
mental action was
but with Descartes,
thought.
sum;
of
Descartes
certain
therefore,
thing the fact of
one
was,
from

"

his

existence.

own

passing from
of

the

world

The

step
of his

knowledge
He

says:

was
own

to

'*When

the

in it,it discovers

different ideas that

are

chief among

that

of

find

existence

this warrant

without, and

of God.

existence

next

to

edge
knowl-

in the

found

he

for

warrant

reviews

mind

the

is by far the

what

Being omniscient,

all

powerful,
that, in this idea,
absolutely perfect; and it observes
there is contained
not
only possibleand contingent existence,
in the ideas of all other things it clearlyperceives,but
as
So from
existence absolutely necessary
and
external.
them

"

and

its

idea

in the

manifestly
Of
as

and

perceivingnecessary

course

there

it true
Because
that

an

can

that
we

all

to

it has

conclude

that

all

this all

existence

an

we

idea

perfectbeing

to

be

prised
com-

perfect Being, it ought

perfect Being exists."
all perfect being;
to
an

all perfectbeing without

no

whatever
have

an

is necessary

existence
be

of

external

existence; but

is

imagine, has an objective existence .f^

of an all perfectbeing, does it follow
exists .^^

PHILOSOPHY"

MODERN
Descartes

the

helped

that

hence

and

163

that

the

idea

of

great for us to form, and therefore

in us by the all perfect being himself;

formed

been

have

it must

objection by saying

is too

perfect being

all

an

this

met

CARTESIAN

the

God,

all

exists.

perfect being

This

somewhat.

matter

not, however, form the idea of a more

perfectbeing
limit to the perfection of the
Is there any
ourselves?

Can

we

than

proof of the existence of God

is scarcelysatisfactory. A satisfactory
proof of the existence
follows from the truth that something is eternal; for if
of God
idea

form.^

can

we

there

ever

there
from

was

would

never

Descartes'

time
have

been

nothing nothing

himself

when

assented.

absolutely nothing,
anything, since ex nihil nihil fit,

comes,

The

there

everything else, must

perfections.
The
fact being established
as

and

he did
"'God

within

the

would

God,

authorized

be

to

the
say,

the

idea

question, deserve
directly and of Himself

of this extended

presented to us by some
extension, figurenor motion.
deceive

of

existence

cause

all actual

himself

would, without

to be

us,

for this

"

been
there

of

Perfect, Descartes

deceiver, if He

mind

Descartes

existence, the adequate

contain

Infinite

which

principleto

eternal

of

was

remarked,

matter, or
object which
But

must

God

since

cannot

is repugnant
we

be

regarded as
presented to our
merely caused it
possessed neither

to

to

his nature,

ready
al-

has

as

that

unhesitatinglyconclude

exist certain

in length, breadth, and

objects,extended
thickness, and
are
possessing all those properties which
this
and
what
is extended,
clearlyapprehended to belong to
extended
substance
call
matter
we
body."
or
tained
mainWhat
did Descartes
He
matter
mean
body?
by
or
that

sole essential property of body is extension,

of a
and motion; but the extent
involving form, divisibility,
body, as Descartes conceived it,is not a void; for he held that
a

is

vacuum

void, it

must

extension

called

the

impossible;hence if the extent of

be filled with something extended

itself,extension, and

matter

or

body.

that

which

It is better

to

which

fillsthe
say

is not

body

that

is not
is

extent

body

has.

What

then

seemed

tween
hold, or composed of atoms, with void spaces bethem, as maintained
by Democritus, it is certainlymore
to

is matter?

Whether

it is

continuous,

as

Descartes

PHILOSOPHICAL

164

the extension

than

THEORIES
which

it is,at least,energy
itself;

certain attributes.

manifests

objected to atoms, as a body,

however
small, is divisible in thought, in infinitum; but an
located at a mathematical
be simply energy
atom
point.
may
of
between
the
the soul
Descartes
reciprocalaction
speaks
if
is
is
such
how
action
and body; but
possible, body
simply
is
and
mind
extension
without
dynamic powers,
simply
in
such
The
idea
finds
of
cause
a system.
place
thought?
no
in
the
of
the
soul
and
The
body,
pineal
place
meeting for
their
Descartes
does
not
held,
reciprocal
gland, as
explain
of the
If sensation
the
action
is really caused
action.
by
the soul, and voluntary motion
by the action of
body upon
both
and
exert
the soul upon
the body can
the body, then
and
receive energy,
it has dynamic
in which
case,
powers,
stance,
subis something more
than
extension; it is extended
mere
if it be true, as
but
Descartes
believed, that the
the soul, in sensation, is
apparent action of the body upon
the body,,
not
real,nor the apparent action of the soul upon
for him to speak
in voluntary motion, then it was
not
proper
of the reciprocalaction between
the soul and body.
of the
Hearing that Galileo, who had asserted the motion
earth, was
compelled to retract, Descartes, desirous of
he was
of which
with the church
a
keeping on good terms
loyal member, though accepting the Copernican hypothesis,
maintained

that

Descartes

the

is at

earth

with

rest

to

respect

the

of ether

that sweeps
round the sun, just as a passenger,
sittingon the deck of a ship, is at rest with respect to that
the sea.
This, however, does not prove
ship, as it sails over

vortex

that

the

with

the

earth

is at

rest; for just

as

the

with

moves
passenger
the whirling ether.

ship, so the earth moves

superseded by Newton's
theory of vortices was
for
law of gravitation;but Newton's
law
does not
account
the force of gravity, it only gives the law of its action, while
Descartes'

Descartes'

vortex

lead

may

to

an

explanation of

the

force

itself.
The

and
of
the

Descartes
existence
sidered
conrealities,
then, whose
certain,are God, the infinite substance, self-dependent

three

which

everything
psychical phenomena
on

external

world.

thinks, is active and

The

free.

else
of

depends,
which

soul

not

Body

the

soul the

subject

conscious, and
only feels sensations, but
we

is

more

are

than

extension; it

PHILOSOPHY"

MODERN

it is not

extended;

something

is

it is not, in
admitted
in allowing motion.
and
what

In

By
thinking and

our

of

facts

hence

demonstration

Descartes'

our

of

it

guarantee

own

gives us confidence

believe

to

of all

truth

the

Modern

facts

we

of

are

of

Though

God
the

as

is not
ultimate

Admitting

the

faculties,yet

our

think

we

sciousness.
con-

assured

existence.

question, yet the existence of God,

is certainly known.
reality,the first cause,
being of God, and the fact that he gave us
not

vacuum,

of

the

existence

the

founder

beyond

if this does

of

possibihty
the

Descartes

as

consciousness,

of

165

vacuum,

taking for its foundation

In

the

of

denying

the

is Descartes

respect

Philosophy?

CARTESIAN

we

know,

conditions,
especially by

that, under

proper

of logical laws, and

by the due observance
arrive at valid certainty,
verifying our conclusions, we may
actual knowledge.
or
in insistingon
did a good work
for science
the
Bacon
importance of the discovery of facts by interrogatingnature.
found
for philosophy in the
the true
foundation
Descartes
of consciousness.

facts

method

Bacon's

too

was

cumbrous

he

follow, though

to

was

right

right in the value

importance he attached

he

was

in the
Both

and

Bacon
service
of the

minds

The

philosophy

mind

to

God.f^

the effect of the

motion

the

men,

and

did

style,as

mable
inesti-

of the

rights of reason,
carrying out its views,

asserted
in

parent
trans-

in his meditations.

revealed

difficulties.

in the

matchless

was

authority; but

great

matter,
It seems

Descartes

of Descartes

its

it encountered

great

were

by excitingthought in the great

Bacon's
literarystyle is masterful, as

world.

maintained

and

cartes
Dessearching
deduction, and
placed upon
mathematical
investigation.

mankind

to

in his essays;
and
clearness of his

seen

to

Descartes

for facts.

in

What

the

is the

relation

of

body, and of the soul to

is
evident, from
experience, that sensation
action of the body upon
tary
the soul, and voluneffect

soul

to

of the

the

action

of the

soul

upon

the

body; but if the mind is nothing but thought, and the body
there
be
interaction
nothing but extension, how
can
any
between
The
is

more

Mind

them?
be avoided
difficulty
can
by admitting that the mind
than
extension.
than
thought, and matter
more
is a thinking substance; it is that which
and
thinks

THEORIES

PHILOSOPHICAL

166
feels and

wills.

be

Thinking may
self-supporting;
thinking doesn't
The

runs.

mind

thinks, the

be

think

boy

the mind

it is not

inextended; but

running
though thinking

and

runs;

than

more

any

soul, for all

know,
inextended,
or
we
extended; at all events, it has energy, or is dynamic.
is more
than extension, it is an extended
substance.
may

is

absurdity in supposing
thinking substance, and matter
have
But
dynamic powers.
we
no

of Descartes

met

Geulincx

2,

where

Lyons
sian, he

he

interaction
an

shall

There

mind,

the

difficulties of his system.

(1623-1669). Geulincx
was

both

substance;

how

see

Matter

between

extended

be

may

successors

the

afterwards

was

student

at

professor. Being aCartehis

driven from
finallywas

lightlyregarded, and
Protestant.
went
to
position.
a
Ley den and became
His life was
continued
not
zealously
though he
prosperous,
teach
when
had
to
he
philosophy
opportunity. He was
finallyappointed a professor in the University at Pesth, but
he died shortly after his appointment.
Geulincx
held that self-examination
taught him, that only
his thoughts and
his body,
his will were
but not
his own,
is a part of the material world.
which
The mind, he thought,
the body.
cannot
act on
A person
might just as well believe
that he wrote
the lUiad, or placed the sun
in the heavens,
was

He

that

as

he could

raise his

hand; but

own

he wills to raise his

hand, God

for

can

him.

act

Neither

present,
and

but

mind;

the

on

God

the

occasion, when
sensation, to attract
the

on

gives him

material

any

nor

raises his hand

and

intervenes

body,

the occasion, when

on

presents the idea of the

attention,

his

is called

doctrine

This

object.

an

object,
object is

Occasionalism.
Malehranche

S.
son

of

of

official at
He

twenty-two.

Descartes
He

high

that

he

was

Geulincx's

b^ the excitement,

accompanies
object follows

so

to

of Occasionalism,

reaction

or

the

was

at

the

age

writings

of

philosophy.
which

he

theory of perception:A

organ

some

the

his life to

devote

theory

Oratory

with

charmed

Malebranche's
on

the

Paris, entered

resolved

accepted
further developed.
The
following is
material
object acts

the

who

(1638-1715). Malebranche,

of

response

the

excitement;

the

sensation.

the
This

sense;

this is followed

of the

organ;

judgment
is the

most

tion
sensa-

concerning

complete

PHILOSOPHY"

MODERN

analysis of perception we
omitted

the

rational

have

CARTESIAN
far

so

found; but Malebranche

of the

intuition

161

necessityof
necessityof

of the

sensation, also of the

cause
the subject of the sensation, and he also omitted
or

the construction

the

object,

the

ego,

the

as

ideation,

pictureof the objectby the

He called the object an idea presented by the act
human
mind.
of God.
But a complete analysisof perceptionwill reveal the
following elements: In general, an object to be perceived, a
subject, or ego, to perceive; the synthesis of subject and
the object or
of
physical cause
object more
specifically,
the sensation; the subject with its physiologicalorgans
and
of perception; the mechanical
action
of the object
powers
or

the

on

of the

the

organs;

mental

of the

excitement

the

as

to the

or

the
In

of the

cause

the

of the

judgment
judgment,

of the

the

object on

sensation

intuition

inferential

sensation; the ideation

picturingof the cause.

allowing the action of

the

organs;

rational

excitement;
accompanying
of
the
necessity
object and subject;the
the

and

organ,

the

reaction

of the organ, Malebranche

could not deny that matter
could act on
dynamic; but he did not admit that matter

was

mind, and

so

he held

God

intervened

idea

of the

and

that

when

caused

which

the

object excited

sensation

and

the

mind

what

the organ,
his
esented

object
perceived, so
that our
spiritsperceive all things in God, who is the place
of spirits. The
God's
ideas which
fact is,the ideas are
not
we

perceive,but

our

own

was

ideas

which

Do

construct.

we

our

ideas

correctly represent the objects? Not

always. Our
ideas are formed
according to the judgment, and are correct
incorrect, according as our
or
judgments concerning the
objectsare true or false;they embody, as images, or pictures,
our
knowledge, or beliefs,or our mistakes, in regard to the
is found
in the element
of the
to error
objects. The liability
the perceptions
In ordinary cases,
judgment, or inference.
are
reliable,as is verified when we address a person by name,
and
he confirms
the correctness
of our
perception; but in
unusual
liable to mistakes
in our
we
are
perceptions,
cases,
which

indicates

God's

are

yet the
ideas.
4'
at

that

Malebranche's

theory, that

ideas, is false; for God's

mistake

Glanvill

Oxford; and

may

possibly be

in

ideas
our

would

the
be

ideas

correct,

perception of God's

educated
Joseph Glanvill was
discarding the scholastic philosophy, he was

(1636-1680).

PHILOSOPHICAL

168

greatly influenced

the

by

treatise which

THEORIES
of Bacon

systems

and

Descartes.

he called

scientific
ScepsisScientifica,
doubt, or as he meant
understood, Scientific
inquiry
it
dedicated
the
He
and
maintained
the
to
Royal Society.
unrestricted
in
of
freedom
thought.
right
him
ical
to
Nature
a great automaton,
was
operated by mechanaction.
main
Holding that out knowledge must
always remaintained
he
that
should
be
our
imperfect,
hypotheses
obtain
held subject to modification
new
as
we
light from
experience and research.
tion.
His views in regard to causation
are
worthy of consideraHe says
We
know
not by immediate
intuition,
causes,
infer that one
but by their effects only. If we
thing is the
of another, we
are
cause
only depending on the fact that the
former
is
always accompanies the latter;for causalityitself
unsensible; but the inference from accompaniment to a causal
He

wrote

it to be

relation

is not

"

necessary.

saying that causalityitself is "unsensible," and that the

relation is not
causal
inference
from
a
o
accompaniment
Glanvill meant
is not perceptible
that cause
through
necessary,
the senses;
that it is something more
than an accompaniment
antecedent, though immediate
or
invariable; and that
an
or
than
is an
event
an
effect,or more
an
accompaniment or a
To illustrate,suppose
stone
a
supported at an
consequent.
of fifty feet above
the
elevation
the ground.
Removing
falls;but we do not regard the removal
support, the stone
of the fall of the stone, but only as
of the support the cause
is gravitation,
the non-dynamic
condition; the real cause
whatever
that may
be.
Day follows night, but we do not
of day, but day follows the rising
regard night as the cause
A
of the sun,
and here we
recognize a causal connection.
hunter
takes his boy with him and goes out in quest of game.
Whatever
be the windings of the father, his son
follows him;
the
but the course
taken
not
by the father is the reason^
of the course
taken
The
law of accompaniment
by the son.
cause,
In

here
and

cause

that

is that

effect.

of

When

and

reason
we

lift a

not

consequent,

is energy,
or
something more
Cause
then
is energy,
active
or

than
power,

of

discover

heavy weight, we

cause

that

dent.
antece-

mere

that

is it is

force.
5.

Etienne

Pascal

(1623-1662).
Pascal, president of

Blaise
the

Pascal

Court

the

was

of Aids

at

son

Clermont.

of

THEORIES

PHILOSOPHICAL

170

especially
philosophy
received

in

studied
languages. He
later, he
Fesaye. Four
years
of Theology at Avignon, and

mathematics

at

and

Aix, under

degree of Doctor
took
orders
as
a
1617, he was
priest. In the same
year,
he lectured on
called to the chair of philosophy at Aix, where
the philosophy of Aristotle.
While
tinued
occupying the chair of philosophy at Aix, he constudies
of physics and
his favorite
by
astronomy,
which

the

he became

and

dissatisfied,
more

philosophy, against which

more,

with

Aristotle's

published the first book and a

of a treatise designed to be complete in
part of the second
books, but the remaining part of the treatise he never
seven
completed. The first book against Aristotle is in essential
agreement
little

or

with

he

Vives, Ramus,

nothing new.
logic,does not

The

and

second

Bruno, but it contained

totle's
book, a review of Aris-

materiallydiffer

from

the

work

of

Ramus.
He

visited

Holland

where

he

wrote

an

examination

of the

Fleed, also an essay on the

mystical philosophy of Robert
transit of Mercury,
He
published his objections to the
fundamental
propositions of Descartes, in which he shows
his acceptance of the empirical philosophy, the principleof
which
is: ''There
is nothing in the intellect which
has not
been
He

in the

senses."

harmony with Epicurus than with any

the
other
ancient
on
philosopher, and published a work
of Epicurus styled Syntagma PhilosophiaeEpicuri,
system
which
had considerable
influence on the thinking of the time.
The
most
important of Gassendi's works, the Syntagma
Philosophicum,is an eclectic conglomerate of irreconcilable
dogmas from the empirical and rational schools of thought.
It is divided into logic,physics, and ethics.
The
logic,besides a brief history of the science, contains
the theory of rightapprehension,the theory of rightjudgment,
the theory of rightinference,and the theory of right method.
While
is the only
holding that the evidence of the senses
that
convincing evidence, yet he inconsistentlymaintains
the evidence
of reason
is absolutelysatisfactory. The senses
of
individual things, and
give us knowledge
yet only the
of things;that we reach the idea of thing or substance
qualities
by induction; and that induction rests on a general proposition
not
induction.
proved by
was

more

in

PHILOSOPHY"

MODERN

second

The
of

is

merit,

In
which
the

may

third

the

physics,

that

holds

the

though
He

self-consistent.

he
aim
be

of
in

life,
the

soul

is

work
the

approves

immaterial,

free

of

talent
he

is

to

be

of

is

it

that
the

happiness,

soul

and
in

attainable

not

body,
this

life,

come.

possessing

though

constructive

philosopher,

to

maintains

harmony
if

that

and

life

the

be

to

he

ethics,

the

part,

considers

Gassendi,
the

yet

the

syntagma,

171

immortal.

and

it

the

altogether

not

physics,

Epicurean

is

of

part

CARTESIAN

classed

great
system
with

critical
maker.

Hobbes.

ability,
As

an

had

not

empirical

XVII

CHAPTER

Philosophy

Modern

Metaphysical

"

he
Baruch
(1632-1677).
Spinoza, as
Spinoza
was
he
named
his
Benedictus
called
Spinoza,
or
as
by
parents,
of
Jewish
who
born
at
Amsterdam,
himself, was
parents,
fled from
had
Portugal to escape
persecution.
entrusted
the
to
Being a bright boy, his education
was
who
Levi
chief
Saul
to
Morteira,
Rabbi,
was
requested
He
made
for the Synagogue
service.
train him
great progress
troubled
in his studies, and
began to ask questions which
soon
He
ity,
his teacher
to answer.
expected to accept, on authorwas
the doctrines
to
do, and
taught him; but this he refused
1.

demanded

the

his talents

Knowing
of the
if he

conform

but

this

pension

florins,

pension

their

refused
He

bribe.

attempt

an

was

thousand

assist

and

order

indignantly

as

and

rulers

of

him

to

he

required of him.
dreading his influence, the
faith

the

and

offered

Synagogue
would

offered

for

reasons

to

their

in

do, regarding

accordingly

was

made

even

monies;
cere-

the

municated,
excom-

against

his

life

him
with
aimed
at
assassin, who
by an
deadly blow
a
a
home
from
he
the
theater.
gleaming dagger, as
returning
was
for Natural
Latin
and
Spinoza learned
acquired a taste
den
Ende.
Science
from
free-thinking physician. Dr. Van
a
His
but
he
Descartes,
chiefly from
philosophy he learned
also
and
influencd
Hobbes
Bruno,
was
by Maimonides,
and was
affected, to some
philosophy,
extent, by the scholastic
all predecesthough as an original thinker, he cut loose from
sors.

According

to

trade, in his
and
assistance

After
he

was

Ludwig,

case,

this

Jewish
prudent
the
polishing
him

gave

the

of friends, while
his

reputation,

offered
the

the

as

chair

Elector

of

he
a

of

glasses
of

means

his

pursued

thinker,

had

philosophy

Palatine;
172

he

custom,

but

for

had

learned

ments,
optical instru-

support,

with

the

investigations.
become

established,

Heidelberg by Karl
he
this flattering offer
at

PHILOSOPHY"

MODERN

METAPHYSICAL

would

interfere with

not

and

1660

years

his

piorum

1677,

that

the

at

Hague,

more
philosophiaeyPars I et II
and
Tractatus theologico-politicus;
y

stratae;
demonstrata.

Ethica

The

would

promised,

entitled: Renati

were

he

for

he

not

be

one;

and

that it

studies.

own

principalworks, written

His

lucrative

the

a
position was
feared
loved to be independent, and
free in his teaching,though this he was

declined, though

173

between

the

Descartes

princigeometrico demo-

Ethica

more

is his chief work,

and

rico
geometon

it his

philosopher,especiallydepends. He wrote several

letters. Some
of less importance, and numerous
other works
of these works
were
published after his death, under the
One of his works,
supervisionof his friend,Ludwig Meyer.
unknown
de Deo, homine, ejusquefelicitate,
Tractatus
to
was
fame,

the

as

world

until the year

Descartes
and

postulated two substances, matter,

mind, or thought, and supposed them

distinct that neither

interaction, which
for
of

could

of the

or

act

the other.

on

Descartes

to

by Geulincx

occasionalism^

occasion

1852.

the

and

was

or
so

Their

sion,
exten-

radically
apparent

counted
acinexplicable,was
the
hypothesis
by
of God, who
the
on

Malebranche

intervention

object, excited a sensation to

awaken
attention, and presented the idea of the object.
Spinoza went back of the two substances, extension and
them
considered
thought, postulated by Descartes, and
attributes of one
substance, the sole fundamental
reality,
which
he called deus
God
sive natura,
Nature, infinite,
or
nature.
absolute, self-existing
by the necessity of its own
and
Extension
attributes of God,
thought, the two known
the
forms
Finite objects
two
were
expressiveof his essence.
with their movements
and interactions,also specialthoughts,
mental
he
called
or
modes, respectivelyof extension and
acts,
thought.
Causal
relations apparently exist between
the objects of
one
series,whether
matter
mind, with those of the other;
or
this correspondence between
but
the two
series, Spinoza
explained by going back to God, as the sole substance, whose
acts have
two
phases, extension and thought, which always
each other, being, in fact, the same
thing or act
accompany
of God, differing
only phenomenally ,|so^thatthe order^and
connection
of

things.

presence

of ideas is the

of

an

same

as

the

order

and

connection

PHILOSOPHICAL

174
this

THEORIES

interestingquestion arises: Did Spinoza

mind,
regard extension and thought, as having to the human
existence
in
did
he
them
God,
objective
simply
an
or
regard
the
human
mind
made
in
its
endeavor
conceptions
as
of
to
reahty? This question has been the occasion
grasp
At

point, an

dissension.

some

Spinoza

that

from

apart

to

be taken

extended

the

Nature,

other
that
as

the

in which

way

itself is

substance

cognitive,but merely appears

of its cognitions.
understanding as the modes
doubt
No
mind
Spinoza held that the human
neither

nor

infinite sole substance

under

the

forms

of

and

attributes

these
the

or

possesses,

Hegel

hand,

that

God;

properties

real

or

Spinoza to mean
the subjectivesense,
conceives

mind

human

the

in

On

the

held

others,

some

God

substance,

one

observer.

the

understood

Erdmann
were

the

attributes

by

meant

which

essences

Fischer, and

Kuno

so

to

the

conceived
and

extension

tion
thought, though not as wholly subjective. He says, definiintellect
understand
that
which
the
IV: "By attribute I
perceives concerning substance, as constitutingits essence."
order and
He
also says. Book
II, proposition 7: "The
nection
conof ideas

are

the

same

the

as

order

and

connection

of

relation of true
things." Hence
subjective thought
every
in
relation
to
a
corresponds
objective existence, and this
correspondence constitutes its truth.
Finite
of the attributes, extension
things are the modes
able
variand thought of the infinite substance; that is,they are
selves,
of God.
manifestations
nothing of themThey are
should
if God
since nothing exists out
of God,
and
from
fall into nonthem
his support,
withdraw
existence.
they would
modes

The

and
The

and

natiirans;
natura

volitions, with
the

or

but

naturata,

manifesting
natura

God

his

naturata

in nature

finite bodies

and

of consciousness

are

all their

their

and

rest,
the

with

tude
magni-

their

interactions.

ings,
specialcognitions, feel-

modes,

These

relations.

consciousness, are all transitory.

infinite substance, Spinoza called natura

of extension

God,

are

motion

form,

modes

whether

of extension

the

or

sum

of

of

Natura
infinite

naturans

in the

all the
world

modes,

manifested
is God

perfections and

includes
and

the

variable
of

acting,

he

called

God

or

omnipotentjenergy;
manifestations

m?inkin4?

Tb^

of

modes.

MODERN

infinite

into
and

cause

METAPHYSICAL

of extension

modifications

whether
out

PHILOSOPHY"

series

of

of

or

things

175

consciousness,
by the law

run

connected

of

effect.

of Atheism,
but this accusation
Spinoza has been accused
He was
is evidently false.
atheist, but he was
no
a pantheist.
of God,
the
Everything phenomenal is the manifestation
causans,
Spinoza defined substance, attribute,mode,
causa
and

thus:

God,

is that

Substance

which

is in

itself,and

is

conceived

through itself;that is,the conception of which does

need the conception of another
not
thing from which it must
is
Attribute
that which
the intellect perceives
be formed.
Mode
if
its
is the
of substance,
constituting
essence.
as
is in another
affections
of substance, or that which
thing,
conceived.
is
which
is
God
also
it
Being absolutely
through
is
butes,
that
substance
to say,
infinite,
consistingof infinite attrieach
Let
finite

of which

one

examine

us

things

extension

are

and
than

eternal

expresses

of

pantheism

the

only modes
thought, thus

of the

God

modes.

is the

God,

their

and

essence

Spinoza's expression,Deus
all his

finite

is the

of God

"

higher

of

in the

all

sum

things exist only in

the
significanceof
God

is the

of

sum

ejus attributa;or

of all his attributes

sum

all

that

essence

is manifested

omnia

held

attributes

general

sive Natura.

attributes,that is Deus

explicit,God

more

to

hence

source;

He

attributes

two

dignity
finite things; he exists in them, or
of these things; and conversely, all
to

Spinoza:

giving

infinite essence.

and

to

with

be
all

their modes.

Substance,
Is

is to

however,

body

extension?

extended, else it would

space

it

remains.
cease

Is

to

the

ego

think, and

be

not

the

identical

begin

to

its attributes.

body is
body. But is the body the
body, the space it occupied
its thought?
with
It may
has

It

Move

occupies?

distinguishedfrom

be

feel.

extension;

Is the

ego

identical with

its

to feel and
cease
feeling? It may
begin to will. Is the
its willing? To these questions, we
must
ego identical with
But
with
the
the
be
identical
not
answer
no.
sum
ego
mxay

of these
be

phenomena?
sometimes

It may,

for all

we

know

the

trary,
con-

sleep. But
intellect
the ego
not
again, may
sensibility+ will?
+
No.
The
and sensibility
and will,and as a
ego has intellect,
be distinguishedfrom
these attributes ; or
substance, it must
quiescent,
=

as

in dreamless

to

THEORIES

PHILOSOPHICAL

176

ness,
employ Spinoza's terms, as an attribute, called consciousits modes,
its special
it is to be distinguished from
or
The
has the power
volitions.
to
or
thoughts, feelings,
ego
to

think, feel
The

will.

or

with

is evident.

God

applicationto

he

though

extension,

is not

point in infinite space; he

thought, though he is an infinite
with

their

"

identified

bodies

and

According
the

to

definitions

existing."
it did

would

his

time

the

ments
move-

countless

finite mode;
of

but

all

relations, constitute

Malebranche,

God

"

extension

work,

essence

of matter

fact

or

and
or

he

is

sum

tion
manifesta-

spiritis

mode

consciousness.

geometrico,Spinoza begins

more

and

that

to

obviating objections.

or

is that

nature

either

exist.

need

not

whose

Self -cause

not

it caused

such

and

theorems, giving
axioms; he enunciates
corollaries,and apdemonstrations; he then deduces
pends
of affording additional light,or of
scholiums, by way

existence; or

which

and

is the

God

avoiding misapprehension,
Spinoza says: ''Self -cause

meant

butes
attri-

things; according
Spinoza
itself
manifested
the
as
necessarily

of his attributes

their

or

these

to

facts

Constructing
with

to

with

of all

which

essence

one

is

Geulincx

Descartes,

of nature, or
of Nature, and every

of

thought, much

forms

infinitude

their

with

free Creator

of the

be

to

infinite mode.

an

is the

is not

variety
thoughts, feelingsand
A finite body,
possible relations.

of consciousness,

minds,

and

or

at

energy

of

all their

single state

If God

various
infinitely

be identified

identified with

is inferior

what

their interactions,

with

volitions, with
or

with

innumerable

and

number

the

modes,

of bodies

thinker.

to

his

be

to

attributes, extension

the

less is he to be

is not

manifest

can

any

identified

He

cause

itself,it could

not

can

existed

If it existed

whose
be

before

before

itself;if it had
not

itself.

cause

nature

conceived

as

it caused

it caused
no

involves
not

itself

itself,it

existence

before

Spinoza probably

of

existencey
sui, or cause
itself,necessary
by causa
eternal
existence
is
caused
which
at all,
not
implies
the
and
forms
in
also
itself
as
geometric
space;
space
itself
.

Spinoza
an

effect

cause."

calls the

depends
This

upon

is true

axiom:

knowledge of
the knowledge
of its
and
involves
if knowledge signifies
complete under-

followingan

''The

PHILOSOPHICAL

178

grant substance, then

THEORIES
is its

logicalconsequent; but
is known
neither substance
essence
nor
as
by reason
absolutely
and so far as we
been.
know, neither might have
necessary,
universe
The
being given, God is conditionallynecessary
as
be absolutely necessary,
its explanation; he may
for all we
of
a;bsolute
the
but
the
know
to
necessityof God,
contrary;
does

reason

essence

inform

not

XL

"Proposition
attributes, each

us.

God,

of

one

exists.
necessarily

essence,

possible,that

If this be

If God

did not

there would

be

which

is not

the

essence

and

it follows that

Then

would

which

from

essence

have

no

hence

infer the

as

First

the

to

to

production

of

this

of

the
first

admitting
know

even

universe, and
must

cause

universe; that

the

with

that

is,
infer his existence,

know

and

Cause;

be endowed

must

We

first fact.

his

fore
There-

essence;

absurdity,as Spinoza supposes

do
We
not
denying substance.

essence

adequate

infinite

"

exist, he

no

God's

first cause

and

denied, conceive, if it be

exist.

not

necessarilyexists.

God

eternal

expresses

involve existence;but this is absurd.

does not

essence

does

God

substance, consistingof infinite

or

which

wisdom

and

power

be

is, the
sufficient

for its

production.
II, Propositions I
"Thought is an attribute of God,
In

Part

Existence

is

of

attribute

an

or

God,

declares

II, Spinoza

and

is

God

or

thinking being.
is

God

extended

an

being."
Then

when

in

as

infinite attributes
and

his extension

of God,

attributes

he may

have, for all we

making

but

know,
an

and

extension

are

the

attributes,and
infinite number
of attributes,

an

attribute

of the

modes

are

of God,

itself,abstractly considered

infinite extension

the

bodies

Thought

is infinite

thought

God; but if he has other

of

extension

extension

mean

his

means

all infinite.

are

In

he

is infinite.

known

they

of the

PropositionXI, Spinoza speaks

of the
of
to

as

pure

be

modes

space,

substance.

God, he considered
of the

not

Finite

of God.

substance

infinitelyextended

making thought an attribute

thoughts, as those of men,

Spinoza did

In

individual

thought

of

God.

By

the

power

of the active

manifestations

of God,

essence

Spinoza understands

of God,

of God

are

natura

natura

naturans.
naturata.

the
The

energizing
modes

or

PHILOSOPHY"

MODERN

found

in

extended;
infinitely

but

of space

idea

only

The

of substance

itself,the

infinite extension

as

and

motion,

were

there

whether

the

final

or

itself,but

is that

apprehends space
limit, for body
which

would

exist

acts

of

conscious

and

time

save

there

space.

thus

Part

to

holds

He

acting.

the

that

in

infinite

and

extent

eternal

of

thoughts
Then

are

constraint

the

would

never

totally unlike those of men

except in name.
meaning can
we
why call them
thoughts, and what
God?
the
the
to
thought of
expression,
therefore,
God,
according to Spinoza, is a necessary
God

be,

all purpose,
I, Spinoza denies
with
believe
respect to God, holding that men
because
view
of
themselves
in
ends,
they
are

cause,

God

that

without

eternal, otherwise

be

must

anything,
appendix

been

In

reason

room,

universe

for the

Spinoza's system

no

he

cause,

have

and

179

body, no motion, no universe.

universe
being given, God, the First Cause, must
transient
and
immanent,
or
as
regarded as

The

first

METAPHYSICAL

attach

stance,
sub-

in

duration, free from

is
external, as there

restraint, by

anything
the modes
nothing external, as the things called external are
of his own
being, and acting, without
according to
purpose,
Such
the necessity of his own
nature.
a
being might excite
infinite machine
could
it inspire love.f^ An
but
admiration,
running, as a perpetual motion, by the necessity of its own
infinite wonder,
but is as impossible
would
be an
mechanism,
contrived
the perpetual motion
crank.
Not
as
a
by a human
machine, but the living God, is running the universe.
of reasoning,
We
give, as a specimen of Spinoza's method
Proposifion XL.
If we imagine that we are hated by another,
without
in
having given him a cause
for it, we shall hate him
or

''

return.

If

Demonstration,
affected
with

with

it; that

accompanied
hypothesis,
the

hatred,

person

is to
with

say,

the

imagine

we

himself

who

imagine

ourselves

sorrow,

accompanied

that is to say,

that

on

we

hated

that

imagine

we

account

idea

of

no

cause

hates

be

external

an

us,

shall hate

the
him.

sorrow,

But,

by
excepting

cause.

this

and

therefore, because

idea
"

with

affected

for

by another,
with

affected

sorrow

shall be

we

of

him

is

person

shall also be

we

shall

we

another

affected

who

hates

we

with
us;

THEORIES

PHILOSOPHICAL

180

Suppose

reached

had

one

his enemies,

would

he

high

that

hate

of grace

state

who

another,

he

of

loving

imagined hated

him?
of

critical examination

A
hne

Spinoza's system is a good disc'pthe mind, and

Spinoza has displayed a constructive
of a very
Only recently, many
high order.
great
back
have
to
the
Spinoza's
system, as
only
gone

for

intellect
thinkers
true

one.

born
at
was
(1646-1716). Leibniz
Leipsic
father
was
professor of Ethics at the university.
the daughter of a distinguished jurist,
and
was
Leibniz
favored
was
by heredity. His
young

Leibniz

2,

his

where
His

mother

thus

the
died

father

education

his

when

the

was

enjoyed
all the

advantages

availed

himself

He

Altdorf

to

with
and

was

His

and
the

became
of that

scholars

mind

exceeding,

superior library left by

University education
a
He

utmost.

studied

his

father, and

of

which

for the

he

doctor's

him
misunderstanding, was
him
conferred
on
was
by the University at
an
adept in languages, and in the scholastic
matics
visitingParis, he studied the higher mathecelebrated
He
also visited EngHuygens.
land,
of the distinguished
acquainted with many

philosophy;

the

for

degree which,
at Leipsic, but

of

his

of

care

aid of the

the

six years
of age,
and
his
so
excellent
mother.
Leibniz

was

son

refused

some

country.
in the

wonderful

was

in

this

He

was,

respect, that

universality of
of

its grasp,
mind
since

other

any

philologist,a historian, a
a
jurist,a physicist, a mathematician,
philosopher; and in
made
all these
an
adept and
important
respects he was
adorned
whatever
he
and
touched.
investigations,
Equally
Aristotle.

once,

he was
Newton,
devised
Calculus, and

with

the

Sir Isaac

of

that
He

career

Newton's,

and

well

be

the

one

he

envy

discoverer

notation

used

counsellor

Financially

great.
may

the

even

the friend

was

the

by

at

was

of

at

of

well

to
a

ential
Differ-

flexible than

more

the

Kings,

many

of the

present day.
and

do,

was
so

honored
that

his

poverty-stricken

of letters.

man

subjects that engaged his attention,

wide the field of his investigations,that time failed him
for
so
exhaustive
treatises; but perhaps the work
writing many
So

numerous

were

the

PHILOSOPHY"

MODERN
his heart

nearest

of God

ways

to

also

of divided

philosophy

of

the

Theodicy, or

his heart

man;

churches

discordant
The

his

was

METAPHYSICAL
vindication
set

was

181

of the

uniting the

on

Christendom.

Leibniz, though

influenced,

more

or

less,by
systems of the past, especiallyby those of Plato
and Spinoza, was
and Aristotle, Descartes
strikinglyoriginal
the

and

of

creation

an

infinitude

created

The

ultimate

The

profound.

realityis God,

monad,

the

of monads.

monads

of

Leibniz

be

distinguished
of Democritus,
which
from
the atoms
were
regarded as
infinitesimal solids,inert and without
qualitativedifferences,
conceived
while the essential monads
to be metaphysical
were
in
littleworlds
of
infinite
number
gence,
activityand intellipoints,
from
each
all
the
thoroughly individual, differing
without
the
whole
the
others,
break, according to
varying
law of continuity,from
the lowest to the highest, each picturing
the universe, according to its degree of intelligence,
not
by passive impressions, but by active reflection and
these is God, the creator
of all,the
representation. Above
to

are

"

monad

of

monads,

actus, the

purus

absolute

the

energy,

infinite intelligence.
There

is

activityof
created
of the

the monads,
and

alike

of

The

absolute

difference

between

each

energy,

forever

break

in the

monad

and

the infinite

activity.

of Leibniz
as

those

one

of monads,

the monad

pure

extension
constitute

differ from

the

one

substance

of

minations
being, excludes all positive deterand thought, while the monads,
as
of substance, making
the essence

realitydynamic.

Instead, therefore,of the

number

of individual

continuity, each

and
Each
law

intelligenceand
the highest of the
Leibniz's principle

individuality. The only

the highest created

monad,
pure

monads

save

of

to

indiscernible, yet

be

its identical

Spinoza which,

of

the lowest

though, according to

may

the
intelligence,

all

from

the

continuity is between

the

active

continuity of

the
identityof indiscernibles,

maintains

God,

in the

gap

monads,

nearest

law

no

the

sum

one

monads,
forever

total of these

substance, there is

graded according
maintaining its own

monads

constitutes

an

to

infinite
the

law

identity;

the universe.

environed
by a multitude
livingbeing is a rulingmonad
subordinate
monads
acting together according to the
of pre-established
harmony.

PHILOSOPHICAL

182

The

world

individual

of

minds

THEORIES

is the

matter

have

imperfect conception

of the

universe

clear and

of monads,

which

the

ceptions
con-

becoming more
as
of
degree
intelligence.
The
lowed
hypothesis of pre-established
harmony naturally folfrom
that of monads.
In the hierarchy of monads,
the higher, or more
active, give law to the lower or more
passive or imperfectly active, as in the soul and body in
their corresponding states.
The
lower
monads
representing
in a confused
the universe
be regarded as material,
way,
may
far as passive; but the higher monads, actively representso
ing
in a clear way,
the universe
to be regarded as spirits.
are
of pre-established harmony
doctrine
The
is, therefore,
in
of
Descartes
and mind
opposed to that
regard to matter
ideal

the minds

advance

in

substances

two

as

unlike

so

that

neither

act

can

the

on

miraculous

of

the

occasionalism, or
leading to
theory
and Malebranche.
Geulincx
proposed by
Leibniz
distinct

did
from

the

arranged, by
but

tha.t the

hold

not

there

that

universe

of

was

monads,

pre-establishedlaw,

monads,

as

world

the
to

of

run

vention,
inter-

matter

worlds

two

their

other,

in
of

so

harmony,
perfection,

according
degree
of the other monfacts
the
ads,
intelligence,
represented by
the law
governing the lower corresponding with the
action,
representationsof the higher. God, by his continued
to

their

moved

the

lower

corresponding

monads,

activities

or

in the

world

of matter,

higher monads,

and
or

incited
world

of

mind.
each

represented correctly,yet not through

sensations
caused
by passive impressions, but by the law
of its own
activity,the facts relatingto the lower monads,
but only imperfectly,so far as it is material
passive, the
or
facts pertaining to the higher. God, the purus
actus, represents,
of monads.
in perfection,
the state of the entire universe
Hence,

The

monads

degrees

monad

ent
all represent the same
universe, but with differof perfection,according to their activity,the

inorganic world representing,as in a confused

dream, the representationsrising in degree of distinctness,
kingdoms, through man,
through the vegetable and animal
and higher beings, up to God
whose
representationsare perfect,
of the

monads

for

he

gives law

to

alone,
the

as

whole

the

absolute

monad,

as

purus

infinite series of activities.

actus,

PHILOSOPHY"

MODERN

of

the

material

analagous
with

of the

combination

The

to

passive and
spiritualin the

and

the

METAPHYSICAL
active

monads

principles

is somewhat

sive natura

substance, Deus

one

the

183

of

and

properties of extension

Spinoza,
but

the

absolute

with
thought;
passive or material principleis wanting in God,
is wholly spirit,or pure
who
monad,
activity,

the

creator

of

its two

Leibniz, the

Al

nature.

the

whose

monads,

lower

sum

ments,
passive and active elethe passive or m^aterial predominating in the lower,
of God,
in the higher, are the creatures
the active or spiritual
subject to order, and
mutually adjusted according to the
law of pre-establishedharmony.
The
principles
logicof Leibniz is based on two fundamental
that of sufficient
the principleof contradiction
and
reason.
The
stated:
of
contradiction
be
thus
That
principle
may
which
is self-contradictoryor which
contradicts
established
an
truth
is false, and
if false its contradictory is true.
The
exist in
otherwise
thus: All truths
be stated
principlemay
The
harmony.
principle is employed in Geometry in the
constitutes

combining

nature,

both

"

indirect
The
To
a

demonstrations,

called

also the

principle or sufficient reason

established
contingent truths,

sufficient
The

Theodicy

government

of

of

God,

his heart.

that

ad absurdum.

thus

be

expressed:
is,the truth of facts,

be found.

must

reason

may

reductio

Leibniz,
was

an

perhaps

attempt
of

vindicate

to

all his

works

God,

the

the

the
one

infinitely
of the world, permit
and
good and holy Creator
governor
evil in the universe
What
which
he has created and governs?
is the. origin of sin, and
what
is its signification? These
The
thoughtful minds.
questions have
perplexed manj^
solution
of Leibniz
is essentiallyto this
is optimistic,and
effect.
That the existing universe is the best possible;
for God,
infinite in power,
would
wisdom
and
the
create
goodness,
best possible world.
But
what
then can
be said of the evil
Leibniz
declares
that the evil
so
abounding in the world?
is rather apparent
than
real; but all partial evil is universal
is,is right. All things are of necessity.
good, and whatever
takes
Every event
place according to pre-established law.
Even
result
events
apparently contingent are the necessary
of remote
and intervening causes,
and could not be different
from
what
This view is virtuallythe
they are found to be.
nearest

The

question how

can

PHILOSOPHICAL

184

denial

of sin, or

guilty of

be

cannot

moral

evil.
moral

of conscience, is

remorse

exist.

not

This

or

not

to

do

to

being acting under

wrong,

and

of

sense

necessity
guilt,or

feelingof blame where blame does

The
certainly not existing harmony.
and
his
free;
causes
though a person
acts,
a

free,yet the person is free to cause

certain acts, and as free,it is possiblefor him

cause

wrong,

is

is
is, man
which, as caused,
fact

THEORIES

not

are

in which

conscience

case,

rightly asserts

his

he was
when
free to do
guilt;he is guilty for doing wrong,
is in harmony
with the fact of
right. The fact of remorse
implies freedom, but is inconsistent with the
guilt which
is not a machine
doctrine of necessity. Man
run
by forces
he has no
which
over
control, according to pre-established
of moral
laws, but he is a free moral
being. A universe
beings is more
worthy of God than a universe of machines,
work
however
perfectly the machines
by necessity under
the control of forces running them
according to invariable
law; yet in a moral universe sin is possible,and is actual in the
present world as found by sad experience. Leibniz, however,
held that the necessityof a person's conduct
was
subjective,

due

to

his nature

and

not

to

an

external

cause.

was
a polemic directed
Theodicy
especially
maintained
the
who
of
that
reason
against
skepticism
Bayle,
he
and theology were
in irreconcilable
cally
ironiconflict,yet as
to be
declared, both
are
accepted. Bayle held that

The

the

of Leibniz

of evil in the

presence

of

existence

is

argument

world

is inconsistent

infinitelypowerful and
essentiallythe following: God

God

as

holy.

with

the

Bayle's

is neither

able

willingto prevent evil,or he is able but not willing,or

he is willingbut not able, or is both able and willing. The
suppositionthat God is both able and willingto prevent evil
consistent
potent
is the only one
with the being of God, as omniand
holy; but evil does exist; therefore God is not
it would
both
able and willingto prevent it, otherwise
not
exist.
If he is willingto prevent evil,but not able, though
he may
be holy, he is not omnipotent; if he is able but not
be omnipotent, he is not holy; if he
willingthough he may
is neither able nor
willing,he is neither omnipotent nor holy.

nor

In

any

God
reason

is

no

as

case,

the

fact

omnipotent
are

God.

contrary

of evil conflicts

and
to

with

the

existence

of

holy; and hence the affirmations of

theologicalconceptions; that is,there

PHILOSOPHICAL

186
suffice for
to

mechanical

that

suppose

divine

the

of free

and

law

it is

unreasonable

not

better
beings would
guidance of the

plish
accom-

kind

moral

continual

the fact of moral

the

by

purpose

The

Governor.
with

universe; but

world

THEORIES

of God

government

true

Moral
accords

while the scheme

religion,
views of morality, religion

necessityconflicts with rational

and responsibility.
Leibniz
philosophical principles to a
applied his own
criticism of the system of Locke, especiallyin regard to the
origin of knowledge, and to his polemic againstthe theory of
of

ideas.

innate

all

knowledge comes
sation
through senhave
and
reflection, and
no
consequently that we
Nihil
He
ideas.
innate
accepted the statement:
est, in
This
Leibniz
intellectu quod non
statment
fuerit in sensu.
nisi ipse intelledus,
also accepted, with this addition:
Leibniz held that there are ideas innate, or originated by
Locke

the

taught

itself.

mind

ideas, it

is

hence

children

As
are

savages

do

they

that

of

that

matter

of

innate

has

deny consciousness

to

they

mind
not

are

in the

mind,
neither

fact, however,

of certain principlescalled

conscious
know

if the

them; for

affirm that

innate.

not

What

innate.

held

Locke

virtuallyto

nor

our

be conscious

must

of them
and

that

about

axioms,

of contradiction.^

or

the

principle

that
causality,or
the mind
is capable of knowing
first principles when
sented,
preof
truth
when
demonstrable
or
understanding
proved,

of

but
or

not

before.

He

born

with

powers

is

What

reallyborn

admits

that

Locke

the mind

has

admits

innate

powers,

us.

with

us

is innate

powers;

and

in

regard

philosophers were
perhaps in agreement.
nisi ipse intellectus,
addition
The
made
by Leibniz, is not an
idea, innate or produced by the intellect,but the capability
of the intellect to produce the idea; yet Leibniz was
correct
in his contention
that fundamental
are
supplied by
principles
and
not
acquired through the senses,
though they
reason,
be called out to give the conditions
of knowledge thus
may
acquired, since rational truth is the possibilityof contingent
this, the

to

two

facts.

Leibniz
from
of

an

time
from
extension, and
distinguished space,
is the largeness
duration, maintaining that extension
object, and is measured
by the space it occupies, and

PHILOSOPHY"

MODERN

the

by

extension

possibiUty of the
duration
giving
and

their

and

time

the

absolute

are

earth

calls space
and revolved

human

between
The

existed

race

time

and

space

of

writings

Letters,of which

the

themselves

Leibniz
is

may

giving

the

time

the

is to

or

cession
suc-

say,

of

bodies

succession,

space

realities.
innate

time
the

around

upon

room

continuance

their

succeeded

and

is measured

objects, and

that

and

however,
existed

the

and

eternal

and

periods continued
the

of events

and

motion,

of

of

conditions,

As

is the

motion

or

187

and

event,

an

space

possibihty

the

events.

Leibniz,

But

it continues.

time

of

persistence of

is the

duration

that

METAPHYSICAL

and

sun,

another

one

earth,
and
be

ideas; but

ideas

our

gic
geolo-

long before
distinguish

must

we

the

as

of them.

briefly mentioned,

as

almost

multiphcity on
ceivable
conevery
Essais
de
Theodicee; Meditationes;
subjects;
variety
Nouveaux
et de
Essais; La monadologie; Principes de la nature
Mathematical
la grace;
and
correspondence,
without
Leibniz was,
versatile genius that
doubt, the most
since Aristotle.
has appeared in the world
born
3.
at BresWolff (1679-1754). Christian Wolff was
lau and died at Halle, where
he was
professor of mathematics,
though he lectured chiefly on philosophy.
In his philosophic opinions, he
influenced
was
by both
He
culled
Descartes
and
Spinoza but especiallyby Leibniz.
the
from
his numerous
writings, and
thoughts of Leibniz
in a systematic form
that
they could be
published them
so
used
in fact they became
of philosophy, and
the
by students
in the German
universities, till after the
prevailing standards
there

of

time

of Kant.

Leibniz

principle of
Wolff
identity,and that of sufficientreason,
attempted to
deduce
the principleof sufficient reason
from
that of identity,
of contradiction, as
it may
be called, and
thus
or
place all
He
held
philosophy and even
theology, on a rational basis.
that God
could, by a miraculous
intervention, change any
cumferenc
fact, but not a necessary
principle, as the ratio of the cirhad

of

Leibniz

and

established

Wolff

circle

two

to

taught
perfectionism.

its
the

principles
"

diameter.
wholesome

the

In

both

Ethics,

doctrine

of

gressive
pro-

CHAPTER

Modern

Cudworth

1.

Philosophy

(1617-1688).
of Hobbes

sensationalism

reaction

of this

XVIII

reaction

against

inevitable, and

was

Cudworth,

were

Cudworth

English

"

the

and

More

the

extreme

tives
representa-

Cumberland.

in his preparatory
carefully instructed
studies
as
a
by his step-father, Dr. Stoughton, and entered
his
of which
College, Cambridge,
pensioner in Emmanuel
fellow.
been
had
father
After
receiving his M. A. degree
a
he was
elected a fellow, and became
capacity
tutor, in which
a

Ralph

was

distinguished himself,

he

learned

men

of the

He

received

the

of

ate

after

He

He

was

works:
the

and
a

Church;

of

in three

published

fourth

A
in

Lord's

and

other

and

"

Free

on

before

the

of

most

author

of

Mss.

Universe,

the

left in

was

left

Eternal

on

and

Liberty

on

were

shortly
College.
following
of Christ

the

Atheism,

Will,

of

and

Union

of

rector-

House

Christ's

Discourse

part,

1838,

parts

to

of Hebrew,

On

the

chosen

Supper;
System

Intellectual

Morality,

Necessity,

which

but

Ms.,
have

not

published.

The

part

deals

heavy

is, with

some

founded

on

that

this

with

reason.

the

writer, the
the

True

work

Immutable

professor
mastership

the

to

Nature

ponderous

been

elected

was

voluminous

True

of the

one

University.

appointed

was

accounted

was

degree B. D. and was

churches, and
preached

several

Commons.

and

idea

fact
In

of

an

the

the
three

suppresses

blows.

His

first

idea

of

Instead,
and

existence

part

on

kinds
not

only

infers

in

absolute

of the

Anselm

of

God

Descartes,

and

idea

and

is in

accord

from
inferring existence
his second
ence
proof, the existthe
perfect being from
or

universe.

fatalism
the

existence

of

however,

Necessity,'' Cudworth

''Liberty and
of

the

contradiction

no

perfection,he
eternal

of

of

against Atheism,

absolutely perfect being, showing

an

involves

proof

that

modification,

idea

System,"

"Intellectual

the

the

of

of

of

the

"

of
188

first

tions
men-

materialistic,

liberty, but

also

the

which

idea

of

PHILOSOPHY"

MODERN

ENGLISH

189

all changes to mechanical

and reduces
spirituality,
fatalism,which makes good
action; the second is a Theological
and evil,rightand wrong
depend on the will of God; the third
which
affirms that all that happens is
is a Stoical necessity,
determined by unavoidable
necessity.
and

God

of

forms

fatalism, Cudworth
opposes
and a spiritual
the existence of God
world; to the second, the
distinctions between
to the third,
immutable
right and wrong;
first of these

the

To

responsibilityof man.
great length in support of

and

freedom

the

at

arguments,

elaborates

He

his

his views.

Cudworth, does not begin with

the individual object,but with the universal, and in this he
with Plato and Leibniz, that the individual is known,
agrees
by bringing it under the universal; he disagrees with Bacon,
according

Knowledge,

is collected from

that the universal

held that these

He

to

universals underlying all knowledge, have

mind.
existed eternallyin the Divine
''Eternal
and
treatise
The
on
second

the

opposes

is such

by

own

reason,

that

case

we

not

can

the

revelation

act

is

act is

it is

certain

know

this

of the

act

by
God

is
our

moral

We

often

right or
own

God,
wills

will

Morality,''

that

but

reason,
we

good

evil

or

know, by
yet even
wrong;

it, but

that

that

in

an

wills it

He

know

our

from

only

still believe

knowing his will,we

is not arbitrary,but

right;and

right. God's

Immutable

of God.

will of

because

right,not

because

of fatalism

form

arbitrarywill

the

of individuals.

multitude

that

is founded

the

upon

his wisdom.

morally indifferent,if enjoined by law, civil or

duce
divine, becomes
obligatory,because not to obey would introdiversityof practice,and involve discord in society,
which is an evil,and therefore to obey is right. Consequences
whether
the quality of conduct,
good or bad, determine
whther
rightor wrong, and the character of the consequences
is apprehended by reason,
human
Divine.
or
More
2.
(1614-1687). Henry More took his preparatory
at Eton, and his University course
at Christ's College,
course
His
Cambridge.
rigid Calvinists, but their
parents were
An

son

act

said he ''could never

swallow
that hard
He
Platonist in philosophy and
was
a
with

of

Neo-Platonism,
He

mystic.
productions the
a

was

charms

and

doctrine."

especiallyenchanted
consequently somewhat
was

prolificwriter, and threw

of a poeticimagination.

into his

PHILOSOPHICAL

190

THEORIES

Opera Theologica and Opera Philosophica contain his

also pubtheological and philosophicalspeculations. He
lished
collection
his
of
In
Manual
philosophical poems.
a
of Jacob
Bcehme
and
of Metaphysics, he discusses the views
the culmination
of
Spinoza; but his Divine Dialogues mark
His

his intellectual efforts.

In his work
the

answers

principlewhen
his

to

ethical

an

doing he acts contrary

the obligation to do right

that

and

reason,

to

More

so

interest.^ by saying that

own

conform

one

in

believes that

he

apprehended by

is

should

question,why

Ethicurn'

''Enchiridion

called

Ethics

on

the

sweetness

flavor

and

of the resultinggood are

and
of right conduct
appreciated
by the boniform faculty,that is,by conscience; that in this
is found the motive
to virtuous
sweetness
conduct; and that
is the

Ethics

Hence

to

do

right

He

interests.

is to

also

differ in

quality as

good

evil,if

well

livinghappily, since

satisfaction

the

in

of

art

from

well

as

happiness

with

of
our

sists
con-

virtue.

highest

practical principles:things
Future
quantity and duration.
probable, is to be regarded as
The
of good varies as
amount

some

in

as

certain, or even
present good or evil.

or

the

in accordance

act

adds

true

consciousness

Hobbes
and
More
benefit.
receiving the same
in making happiness the aim of virtue; but right conduct,
agree
is known
ing
accordbut
law,
according to Hobbes
through
did not make
Cudworth
to More,
by reason.
happiness
the aim of right conduct, but the fulfillment of the obligation
but evidently
to the immutable
to conform
principlesof reason;
of reason
to satisfythe claims
gives the very highest and
science,
disquiet our conpurest enjoyment, and not to do so would
number

the

render

and
3,

Cumberland

educated

Paul's
he

Cambridge, where
fellowship.
He

studied

practice.
and
He

turned

some

his

did

to

not

Science

his

preferment

appointed

was
one

industry, he
the

owed

rectory

of the twelve

was

at

his attention

extent

Cumberland

College,
Magdalene
obtained
a
degrees and

and

to

and

actively engage
Theology and
Philology.

several influential friends, and

had

with

received

medicine, but

He

to

school

ourselves.

with

Richard

(1632-1718).

St.

at

dissatisfied

us

his

success

to

them,

in

in life.

in its
phy,
Philoso-

tion
connec-

His

first

also
Brampton, and he was
preachers to the University.
of

MODERN

PHILOSOPHY"

office,he still found

He

delight.

his

of

the

time

was

preaching

work,

in the

One
as

was

"The

when

laws

regulative of
the

other

of

outward

to

laws, and

from

are

papers,

the

see

item

to the

duties

the

of

this

on

the

new

laws

Jeicish

on

of the

study

work,

of

however,

his
are

actions

evil,and
acts

the

that

besides

one

found

of nature

any

the

prolix

Weights and
Coptic language

of age.

voluntary

avoidance

is

Bishopric of
appointment, with some

works,

was

greatest

Naturae, in which

greatest

of this work

read

to

Cumberland

Dr.

he undertook

Cumberland's

and

greatly surprised to

which

among

''The

his

pursue

zeal.

eighty-threeyears

says:

to

style,which
perspicuity.

accepted this
applied himself to
several

prepared

Measures, and

week,

time

with

besides

in its

He

his usual

nature,

were

entered

merit

coffee-house

he was
his custom,
King has nominated

hesitation, and
He

he

each

The

than

strength and

Peterborough."

of

rather

matter

day entering into

office with

still found

Legihus Naturae,

of

destitute

and

of his

which

Theology and Philosophy.

forty, he published his earliest

entitled De

is found

lecture

one

and

duties

of

of

age

the

important position,

more

191

studies

into this work

gave

sermons,

favorite studies
the

He

abstruse

to

Allhollows, and

two

performing

for the

advanced

rectory
his usual energy.

At

in

zealously engaged

While

ENGLISH

Legihus

philosophical theories.

immutably
the

to

as

which

De

was

choice

of

them

good and

tion
obliga-

an

civil
apart
of compact
constituting

obedience,

considerations

propositions,

true

with

carry

He

from

even

governments."
The

definition,by its prolixityand

above

defects, both
in
nature

some

be

in style and

thought.
form
of language.
proposition.^ Again,

A
How
his

shows

range,

proposition is
then

can

definition

his

ment
state-

law

of

apply

can

said it w^ould be accepted

Cumberland
only to a moral law.
by all parties,forgettingthat it is the very thing that would
he was
not be accepted by Hobbes, agahist whom
contending.
In the discovery of the laws of nature, Cumberland
does not
have
the
intuitions
of
innate
to
ideas, or employ
recourse
he rises by induction
but
from
nature's
nature
to
reason,
descends
to universal
God, and thence
of morals, Cumberland
reduces
to the

laws.

law

All
of

the

laws

benevolence,

PHILOSOPHICAL

192

which

thus

he

law," and
rational
state

good is the
greatest possiblebenevolence

''The

towards

agent

and

of each

''The

states:

again:

THEORIES

common

all the

all

far

so

constitutes

rest

depends

as

of every

the

their

on

supreme

happiest

own

power,

their

for

necessarily required
happiness." Again:
be
called
which
does not, in its
can
morally good
the happiness of men."
to
These
own
nature, contribute
statements
are
propositionsexpressingmoral law, and do not
include physical laws.
Cumberland,
however, did well to
its high rank
the virtues.
An act
give benevolence
among
and

is

"No

action

contributes

which

it has

though

act,

of

no

reference

to

the pleasure of the doer.

to

except

comfort

the

to

Cumberland

shows

his defects in

that

style and

brute

the

is

benevolent

happiness of men,
last quotation from

The

critical thinker, and

ness
thought hindered the general usefulhe

not

was

of his work.

Locke

4.

of

(1623-1704).

Locke

John

enjoyed

the

tages
advan-

father, a

of his
education, afforded
by the wisdom
liberal Puritan, and a lawyer of Pensf ord, Somerset

county,

England.

good

tillhe

continued

for six years,

he

years

when

School, which

and

was

he

placed in the

and

sent,
Puritan

was

under
From

politicalagitation.

College.
pleasedwith the

manifested

religiouslibertyand
he maintained

thorough,

was

of age,

ster
Westmin-

charge

of John

Church

not

was

of

Oxford,

to

of Christ

saw

training

fourteen

was

center

he went
Locke

home

to the Westminster

control, was
Owen

His

at

Oxford, and

freedom

all his life.

in 1656, and
the master's
made
tutor, and lectured

of
He

intolerance
became
and

thought,
received

degree

the

in 1658.

and
firm
these

fanaticism
believer

sentiments

bachelor's
In

in

degree

1660, he

was

Greek, Rhetoric and Philosophy.

on
and
Locke
was
acquainted with the writings of Descartes
of the style of
the clearness
Hobbes, and especiallyadmired
him
Descartes, though he differed from
points;
on
many
but his general philosophicalpoint of view, not
the ethical
with
that of
political,was
nearly in agreement
or
more
Hobbes.

natural

sciences, especiallyphysics, chemistry and

He
studied medicine,
meteorology, engaged his attention.
The

and

though
in the

he did not

take

practice, he

the

degree,nor
acquired some

engage

ally
systematic-

reputation for

his

PHILOSOPHICAL

194

objects our

understandings
It

with.

When
.

to

on

say

that

not, fitted to deal

this should
first
be our
were

I put pen
this matter

have

I should

or

were,

agreed

was

...

inquiry.

THEORIES

to

paper,

would

have

but the farther

I went, the
sheet of paper;
discoveries
led me
still on, and so
I had; new
it now
in."
to the bulk
appears

writing

The

periodof twenty

title: An

the
*

of

language

is

gained

and

kinds of knowledge, and

It is, however,
probable that
written

final make

Locke

of the

whatever

observes

and

with

Locke
criticizes
first,
second, he attempts to

from

the

treats

fourth

the

order

shall

and

second

books

changed

was

in the

inquire into the originalof

please to call them, which a

else you
is conscious
to himself

whereby

ways

bly
insensi-

treatise.

"First,I

says:

ideas,or
the

that

first,and

up

it grew

experience,through
of the bearing
considers
the nature
of generic
the different
distinguishesbetween
discusses the limits of knowledge.

concepts; in the fourth, he

were

larger prospect

the

In

ideas; in the

thought,

on

one

interruptions,for

many

reflection;in the third, he

and

sensation

books:

of four

all knowledge

that

show

in

the great work

appeared with
concerning Human
Understanding. The

of innate

doctrine

been

all

when

years,

Essay

'Essay" consists

the

with

continued,

thought

the

he has

understanding

in his
to

comes

those
man

mind, and
furnished

be

them.

Secondly,I
understanding
and

shall
hath

shall

faith or opinion,

those

by

to

show

what
the

ideas, and

knowledge the
dence,
certainty, evi-

of it.

extent

Thirdly,I

endeavor

make

some

and
.

inquiry
shall have

into

the

occasion

nature
to

of

examine

degrees of assent'''
is the object of
Locke
means
by the word idea, ''whatsoever
is
the understanding when
whatever
thinks;
man
a
meant
by phantasm, notion, species.'"Two things need to be
their origin. It would
of ideas, and
nature
considered: The
of ideas,
first to inquire into the nature
to be necessary
seem
should
raise
and
ascertain
their origin, otherwise
then
we
clear
have
we
no
inquiriesas to the origin of that of which
conception.
ideas come
into the
Locke, however, first inquires how

the

and

reason

mind.

His

contention

is that

there

are

no

innate

ideas, no

PHILOSOPHY"

MODERN

ENGLISH

195

innate

principles. In this Locke is certainlyright;for neither

ideas nor
principlesare born with us, and this Locke shows
and illustrations.
Though ideas are
by abundant
argument
not innate, yet it is true that powers,
susceptibilities,
or faculties
that
themselves
under
tions,
condiassert
innate,
are
they
proper
did not deny.
and this Locke
We have no innate ideas,
but we
have innate powers,
though at first undeveloped.
ideas come
Locke
the proposition that all our
lays down
the mind
from sensation or reflection,**Let us then suppose
void of all characters, without
to be, as we
say, white
paper,
To this
it to be furnished?
ideas; how comes
any
I answer,
in one
word, from experience,''This experience
relates either to external objects or to the internal operations
.

of

minds.

our

''First,Our

particular sensible
distinct perceptions

about

conversant

senses,

objects,do convey into the mind several

of things,
and thus we
come
by those ideas we
of yellow,white, heat, cold, soft,hard, bitter, sweet,
This

great

of most

source

of the

ideas

have, depending

we

I call Sensation,''

wholly upon the senses,

other
''Secondly,The
furnisheth

have

fountain

the

ideas

with

experience
perception

which

from

is the

understanding
mind.
such are
and
own
of the operations of our
ception,
perthinking, doubting, believing,reasoning, knowing,
self,
This source
has in himof ideas every
willing.
man
and might properly enough be called internal
But as I call the other Sensation, so I call this Reflection,"
sense.
.

Locke

As
or

lays down
which
he
reflection,

rather

that

of

an

investigator.He
void of
other
same

thing to

to

know
He
that

that
knew

by
it by

method

of

to

to be.

needs

no

sensation?
reason,

or

knowledge.

Did

on

it is

other

an

thought
on

the

for the
impossible
own

light and

proof: he

that

stands
under-

sake,

else

nothing

own

him

to

he

know

rational

of

reason,

or

be

side, or

one

It carries its

to it for its

prevail with

would

the

why

reason,

not

assents

able

ever

says:

that

intuition,

''He

is

his method

prove,

rational

sensation

from

come

than
controversialist,

who, asked,

it, and

the terms

or

ignores

give

to

attempts

Locke

be and

with

will be

advocate

sense,

side, went

evidence

then

But

common

thesis: All ideas

thus

reasoning.

not

do

or

it."
it

by

Did

Locke

reflection?

intuition,yet he ignored

PHILOSOPHICAL

1"6

be and

not

occurs

be,''is

soon

as

not

mind

the

as

understands

proposition. Experience
has

event

but

cause,

that

not

that

us

event

every

hends
appre-

apprehension
significanceof

the

tell

may

thing to

same

which

innate, yet the reason,

impossibihty,is innate, and the

to

this

the

'^It is impossiblefor the

principle,

the

Though

THEORIES

this

that

or

have

must

cause.

views

Locke's

He

We

is contained
the

space

and

that

from

Can

Can

not

itself.

in space;
yet the body
it, and in which it moves.
*'I

says:

appeal

to

it?

touch

we

space

from

both

space

space?

body
is not
This

man's

every

of space
be not
distinct
as
it is from
the idea of scarlet color.

is not

idea

nor

space

motion; but motion

exist without

of

moves

the

altogether consistent.

not

are

idea

the
see

He

solidity,as

of

space

them, but

admits.

Motion
.

we

touch

whether

thought

own

to

get

in space
and
contains
which

himself

Locke

"We

says:

bodies

see

regard

touch."

and

sight

in

motion;

space

be without

not

can

can

space

space."

of body and
of
condition
fact, space is the necessary
motion; it is that in which bodies are situated and motion
for the entire universe;
takes
place; it is the infinite room
In

in which

it is that

their course;

worlds,
so

ether
would

the stars, with

their ceaseless

pursue

would

not

planets speed on
accompanying

their

The

journeys.

be the annihilation

annihilation

of space.

Ether,

fill all space,

know, may
as
leaving no void, but
we
is not the space
it fills,
and were
there no
ether, space
it
still remain.
the object of power,
and
It is not

implies no
and

its attendant

and

sun

in which

that

of the universe

far

the

of God's

limitation

eternal, it

was

not

to

power

created, neither

that, as

say
can

idea of space
our
might be destroyed.
It implies no
contradiction
to
suppose

it be

necessary

destroyed;

but

any

body

or

all

contingent, and the idea of

body is gained by experience; but body being known, space
is apprehended by reason
existence, not only
a
as
necessary
to the existence of body, but absolutely necessary.
necessary
In the order of acquisition,the idea of body is chronologically
the antecedent
of the idea of space; but in the order of dependence,
is the logicalantecedent
of body, that is,if there
space
bodies

were

non-existent; body

no

space,

body through

there
the

could

senses,

is

be

but

no
we

body.
do

not

We

get the idea

of

get the idea of space

MODERN

PHILOSOPHY"

through any of the senses, nor

acquire through the senses,
as

reason,

condition

necessary

ideas

without

that

from

come

of space
it
is innate, and

of

is, however,

Let

point

light,for

apprehends

though

met,

are

Locke's

in

million

therefore

innate, but

not

when

space

the

we

by
the

all

our

true.

not

itself

reason

tions
condi-

proper

before.

not

move

that

thesis

reflectionis

or

197

by reflectingon the ideas

but
we
apprehend space
could
not
be, as
body

body.

sensation

idea

The

which

ENGLISH

straight line, with

and

years,

the

velocity of

let this line revolve

its

about

circle
origin, in the same
plane, it will generate an immense
and let the generated circle revolve about
diameter, the
any
immense
sphere generated by the revolving circle is to the
to infinity. Experience is no
witness,
outlying space as one
the
the
fail, even
senses
picture the
imagination cannot

immensity, yet
infinityof space.
In

regard

time

to

duration

from

observe

succeed

Locke

their

reflection
another

one

The

constant

and

and

standard

of all other

get their

men

But

and

Locke

is

to

that, I think, which

consideration

say:

*'Time

consideration

from

requires time,

but

is

enough;

experience of

their

by other

series.
is duration

set

of duration,

as

by

out
set

out

of epochs
by certain measures
most
we
properly call time."
of duration, as set out by certain periods,

is not

time

is not

time

itself.

The

innate, ready in the mind

time

measure

is well

marked

give the idea of time, but

but

This

is the

periods, and

is not

own

disappearing,followed

in continued

on
on

goes
.

certain

The
may

so

This

measures.

by

of succession

they
understandings.

of ideas

succession."

appearing then

phenomena
phenomena,

their

succession

regular

notion

in

of

ideas

of ideas

trains

their

on

their

derive

"Men

says:

the

reality of

sublime

the

apprehends

reason

apprehended

by

to
reason

itself.

ever,
of time, how-

idea
account
as

Succession

the

for

sion,
succes-

necessary

things persistand
succession
takes place. In the chronological order succession
is experience before time
this
is apprehended, and
without
be no
call for the apprehension of
experience, there would
but
succession
time;
requires time for its possibility;but
time being apprehended, it is known
eternal reality.
to be an
condition

of

succession; it is that

in which

PHILOSOPHICAL

198
The

function of reason,
fundamental conditions
Locke
ignored.
the condition

could

rational

intuition, is to give the

of phenomenal
reality;but reason
or

identifies time

Locke

THEORIES

with

succession.

Time,

succession; it is that without

of

place; it

is not

is

however,

which

succession

dynamical condition
of succession; but it is the blank continuance, the non-dynamical
condition
of succession, the room,
draw
to
a
figure of
from
in
which
succession
takes
speech
sciousness
place. A conspace,
of succession is the condition
of our
apprehension
of the realityof time, though time itself does not cease
to be
when
we
are
asleep and are no longer conscious of succession.
Time, not in its Theological acceptance, but in its Metaphysical,
is infinite,
and is identical with eternity.
take

not

Without
that

the

of time.

idea
In

is before

the
that

succession, we

of

and

without

the

have

had

of

but

antecedent

would
time, succession
system, however, these obvious

ideas

would

never

acquisition,the idea of succession

in
the
time,
logicalorder, the

order
of

dependence, time itselfis the

order

Locke's

of

cause,

be

of

succession,

impossible.

distinctions

are

In

fused.
con-

body, of succession, external or internal, of

motion, and, in general, of the phenomenal, are
acquired
the
the
ideas of space,
senses
through
or
by consciousness, but
of
the
whenever
time,
or
infinite,are apprehended by reason,
have
the ideas of the phenomenal, of the finite.
The
we
phenomenal, the finite,is known
empirically,through the
the infinite,
senses
or
by consciousness; but the necessary,
is apprehended rationally;yet the idea of the infinite is no
less clear and positive than
the
that of the finite.
Obscure
infinite may
it
be to the senses
is
to the imagination, but
or
clear and positiveto the reason.
calls the idea of the infinite,negative. Of course,
Locke
the infinite is the negative of the finite,and
is the finite
so
the negative of the infinite;the ideas of the finite and infinite
are
equally negative, and also equally positive.
Locke
number
affords the clearest idea of infinity;
says
but every
is definite and
finite,however
specifiednumber
The

great

of

it may
be.
The
succession
of numbers,
be carried, gives the indefinite,a much

it may
than that

of the infinite.

however

far

vaguer

idea

PHILOSOPHY"

MODERN
As

personal identity,Locke

to

consider

must

what

itself

consider

times

and

which

Is

the
itself,

as

since

For

and

reason

think

is

reflection,and

thinking thing in different

only by that consciousness
to me,
thinking and, as it seems
consciousness
always accompanies

inseparable from
.

same

it does

places, which

essential to it.

for, which

has

that

199

begins well by saying: *'We

stands

person

being
thinking intelligent
can

ENGLISH

to be what
one
thinking, and it is that which makes
every
all other
he calls self,
and thereby distinguisheshimself from
thinking things;in this alone consists personal identity,that

is,the
be

can

far

so

of

sameness

extended
reaches

selfnow
present

it

the

identity

that

of that

it is

and

then;

was

one

rational being; and as far as consciousness

backwards
to any
past action or thought,
a

reflects

now

the

by

same

selfwith

same

it that

on

it is the

person,

that

action

this
was

done."

saying:
identity and
In

'*In this

backwards

to

identity of

that

with
be

this

as

essential

the

or

person',Locke
and

backwards;
sameness

backwards

of the

ego

or

but

memory,

does

not

impossible;for
another

extended

consciousness

can

sleep, while

is

consciousness

consciousness, which is a
but
the ego
not
itself,be

Locke

probably meant

memory;

ty,
though affordingthe evidence of personal identiessential
constitute
it. If personal identity,the

of the

sameness

all.

at

personal

is,personal identity is
while
self,and continues

fact

of the ego; nor

phenomenon
can
present psychical phenomenon,
extended

be

can

that

assumes

the

in

consists

thought, so far reaches the

to identify the person
seems

but

is unconscious

ego

consciousness

past action

any

his consciousness,

extended

the

far

as

(consciousness)alone

person,

ego,
a

were

fact, memory

itself would

losinghis identity,and

person

would,

not

as

this second

person,

have

turning
no

be
into

edge
knowl-

of the

his
experience of the first;but since he remembers
former
be the same
that had that
experience,he must
person
it. Memory,
experience, otherwise he could not remember
though the proof of personal identity,is not personal identity
itself. Consciousness, though not the ego, is the recognition
of the activityof the ego.
there
is
"I confess
regard to substance, Locke
says:
another
be of general use
for mankind
to
idea, which would
have, as it is of general talk, as if they had it,and that is the
In

PHILOSOPHICAL

200

idea

of

substance, which

sensation

neither

we

If
reflection.''

or

of substance

the idea

THEORIES
have

neither

we

nor

have

can

nor

have

by
have

can

by reflection,then it is
plain,that, according to Locke's theory, we can not have the
idea of substance
at all,since he derives all our
ideas through
sensation

by

or

reflection.

or

that

fact, however,

The

sensation

is evidence

substance

word

such

common

we

some

form, hardness, elasticity,

etc., of material

as

bodies, known

attach

is in

meaning to it,and what

be inferred from the etymology of the
that meaning is may
word.
Substance, from sub and sto, signifies
an
underlying
dents,
activities,operations,accisupport of attributes, qualities,
use,

that

the

external

phenomenon by perceptionthrough
the source
of cognitions,feeling,volitions,
the senses,
or
known
But
internal phenomena
as
through consciousness.
activities,are not self-supporting;
attributes,qualities,
they
of
attributes
but
of something capable of
not
nothing,
are
their ground or
supporting them; they require substance
as
Thus, hardness is the attribute of a solid body; so
source.
also thinking implies a thinker,
is not
A
vacuum
hard;
neither can
will.
vacuum
think, nor
feel,nor
a
Thinking,
is
the
of
of
but
act
not
actor
an
an
as
act,
nothing,
capable
of thinking.
Again we have, says Locke, "no clear ideas of substance in

general."

as

Of

through sensation
us

this idea.

as

the

essence

or

Locke

condition

of

the fact

attributes

and

of his intellect
are

as

the facts would

Again

says

which

the

eye

of

are

reason,

as

be

can

not

of little use

its
in

of acquiringa knowledge
is,the modes
of substance, reveals to man
the
both empirical and rational; facts,

acquired by experience through

reason

this idea

support of attributes; it is the

consciousness; substance, the

by

obtain

give
is rationally
apprehended
of

the mystery of its existence.

"Substance
and attributes
says:

phenomena,
or

or

is clear to

that

philosophy;"but
nature

idea of substance

substance

to

attempt

we

reflection,neither

or

The

necessary

fact of

if

not

course

their

source

condition, as

sensation

of the facts, is hended

apprethat without
which,

impossible.

Locke:

"All

our

ideas

of the

several

sorts

of

nothing but collections of simple ideas, with a

suppositionof something to which they belong, and in which
have
they subsist, though of this supposed something, we

substances,

are

PHILOSOPHICAL

202

THEORIES

"Good
and
evil are
regard to morals, Locke
says:
occasions
nothing but pleasure and pain, or that which
or
pleasure or pain to us." Again: 'Things are good
procures
to pleasure or
evil only in reference
pain." In Ethics,
or
Locke
utilitarian;but "good''should signifynot only
a
was
sensational pleasure,but happiness,the rational satisfaction
In

of

clear conscience.

three

considers

Locke
measure

kinds

of

law:

law, the

'*Divine

of sin and

of crime

and

and

of virtue

and

innocence;

duty; civil law, the measure

philosophiclaw, the measure

Vice.

divine

'*God
has
law, Locke
says:
should govern
themselves;
given a rule whereby men
the law by rewards
and punishand he has power
to enforce
ments
With

of infinite

This is the

only

the

to

respect

weight

and

duration

touchstone

true

punishes the disobedient.

regard to the philosophic law,

rectitude."

of moral

is another

civil law

the

to

life.

in another

civil law, Locke

''The
says:
refer their actions to
rule to which
men
The
be criminal or no."
commonwealth
As

judge whether

they

ent,
protects the obedi-

and
In

reputation,

Locke

"Virtue

says:

and

the

vice

opinion

of

law

tended
pre-

names

are

or

for actions in
stand
to
supposed everywhere
and as far as they really
their own
nature,
right and wrong;
with the divine
are
so
applied, they are so far coincident
law.
These
virtue and vice, in the particular
names,
instances of their application,through the several notions
in the world, are
and societies of men
constantly attributed
only to such actions, as in each country and society are in
reputation or discredit; but everywhere virtue and praise,
vice and blame
accepted standards may
go together." The

and

differ in different nations.

is not

Locke

the foundation
it is

rewarded; neither is it wrong

It is rewarded

according

wrong

by

what
an

makes

law

authority able

disobedience

.f^

No,

is not

it is punished.

act

law

reward
is

punished
right or
righteous law.

is indeed

obeys or disobeys a
righteous.^ Is it because
to

right

or

cause
be-

right,and

it

as
a

wrong.

An

of virtue

because

it is considered

because

it is considered

because

But

quite clear as to the essence

of moral obligation. An act

obedience

righteous because

it is enacted

and

to

punish

obedience

to

MODERN

PHILOSOPHY"

ENGLISH

203

good and disobedience in evil. The good or the

evil is not chieflythe reward
the punishment, externally,
or
to obedience
ence,
artificially,
or
arbitrarilyannexed
or to disobediis
it
that
be
these
true
considered.
though
properly
may
law
The
obedience
is
secured
to
threefold
by
good
righteous
the ennobling and satisfyingeffect upon
the
red
self,
good conferothers by sympathy, justice,
benevolence, and the
or
upon
external
reward.
The
is likewise
evil following disobedience
threefold
the degradation and
the consequent
tion,
dissatisfacthe wrong
others
to
through antipathy, injustice,or
malevolence, and the external punishment.
Why is a certain
action right or wrong
.^ To say that it is right because
it is
that right and wrong
because it is wrong,
right,or wrong
or
in itself,
wise,
and likeultimate, right finding its justification
are
that in itself,wrong
finds its condemnation,
however
well meant,
is altogether a mistake.
Right finds its basis
in good and wrong
in evil,in general prosperity,or adversity.
Subjective good or the evil is not chieflypleasure or pain, but
in

it results

"

"

satisfaction

the

conduct

from

of

noble

or

of language, and
Locke

proof

the
for

Samuel

several

years,

Having
Clarke

study.
and candid, and

as

can

be

stood
under-

intelligence.
Clarke
was
(1765-1729). Samuel
of
alderman
Norwich,
who,
Clarke, an
of
the
member
that
city as
represented

be

may

against the
dominant

extreme

the

at

the

of which

explanatory

course

University, was
Clarke

notes.

Descartes'

of his works.

doctrines

new

preparatory

at

Norwich,

College, Cambridge, where he soon

of superior ability.
by the manifestation
regarded as the leader of the reaction
empiricism of Locke, as will be apparent

consideration

his

Caius
felt

himself

Clarke

hault

of careful

average

completed

entered

made

were

worthy

of great

are

of Commons.

House

from

well

of God,

Clarke

of Edward

son

existence

of the

ideas, his discussion

of great ability,honest
thoughts in such language

expressed
by people of
Dr,

of

man

his

5.

of conscience

remorse

of the association

certainlyare

was

the

or

distinterested

on

degrading vice.

or

treatment

value, and

bestowed

achievement,

unjust conduct

Locke's

he

conscience

mastered

of Newton,
gave

an

and

accurate

system,

by Clarke,

as

then
also

Physics of Rotranslation, adding

the

PHILOSOPHICAL

204

Whiston,

mathematician

celebrated

THEORIES
and

divine, meeting

with
Clarke, at a coffee house, and enteringinto conversation
well informed
man
so
surprised to find a young
him, was
in regard to the researches of Descartes, Rohault and Newton,

which
were
generally unknown
mathematicians.
his attention
turned
Clarke

to

except

few

leading

Theology, and
taking
holy orders, he became chaplainto Bishop Moore, of Norwich.
In 1699, he published two
one
on
practicalreligion,
essays
of Milton's writings;and
of some
the other a defence
and
in 1701, he published a paraphrase of Matthew's
gospel,
followed by like paraphrasesof the other gospels.
which was
him
the rectory of
About
this time. Bishop Moore
gave
Draton, and secured for him a parish in the city.
In 1704, having been appointed to the Boyle lectureship,
he took for his subject, The Being and Attributes of God, the
Obligationsof Natural Religion,and the Truth and Certainty
of Christianity'' He wrote, in 1706, a refutation of some
to

"

"

opinionsof

Dr.

with

translation
him
He
and

About

this

time,

he

Optics,for which

appointed by Queen Anne,

was

1709

made

was

Divinity, defending,

of

rector

this elevation, he

With

led to

immortality,which

on

wrote

Newton

troversy
con-

Latin

presented

"500.

with
in

of

Dodwell
Collins.
Newton's

as

of her

one

chaplains,

St. James', Westminster.

received
his

as

Degree

the

thesis, the

two

of Doctor

of

propositions:

^^No article

of Christian Faith,delivered in the Holy Scriptures,

is repugnant
''Without
the liberty
to right reason;" and
of
human
same

action,there
year,

can

be

religion," Also, in the

translation of the Apostolic

true

no

he revised Whiston's

Constitutions.
In

171^, Clarke

edition

of

Caesar's

published an

the death
of the
which

of Newton

mint, worth

and

also

illustrated

the
treatise on
livelydiscussion. In 1715-16,

Commentaries,

Trinity which called forth a

he was
engaged in a discussion
he published a volume
of sermons.
On

annotated

with

in 1727, he

"1500

Leibniz, and
was

year;

in 1724,

offered the mastership

but

this offer he

clined,
de-

of
regarded as one
self-denyingact, Whiston
the most
gloriousactions of his life.
he published, in 1729, an
edition,
By royal command,
in quarto form, of the first twelve books
of Homer's
Ihad,

PHILOSOPHY"

MODERN

performed in

he

which

task

of the

perusal of the

ENGLISH

such

manner

be

to

as

for whose

prince

young

205

worthy

it

use

was

tended.
in-

morning, May 17, 1729, on going out to preach

before the judges, he was
suddenly taken with sickness which
caused his death on the following Saturday.
he had, for
An
catechism, which
expositionof the church
months, been giving as lectures,Thursday mornings, at
some
Sunday

St.

published
Dr.

church

James'

after

soon

lived

Clarke

and

volumes

ten

his

death.

his
it

Truly

were

sermons

said

be

can

that

life.

strenuous

of

cheerful

of fine
disposition and was
man
a
and if he is not to be regarded as of the first
social qualities,
in philosophy, he had
rank
great ability as a philologist,
in his controversy
and
mathematician
logician,as shown
had

Clarke

Collins

with

Leibniz.

and

standing, as

Clarke's

of

demonstration

the

his
chieflyupon
his theory of
and

philosopher,rests

existence

of

God

morals.
In his Theistic

maintained

Clarke

argument,

the

following

isted
propositions:That
something is eternal; that there has exand
immutable
from
one
eternity some
independent
stance
being; that the eternal being is self-existent; that the subof the self-existing
being is incomprehensible;
or
essence
demonstrable
that many
of the attributes of that being are
well as his existence; that the self-existent being is infinite
as
and
that
omnipresent; that he is one; that he is intelligent;
has
he
has
is
he
that he
infinite power;
liberty;that
infinitely
wise and good.
present,
is eternal and omniTo establish the proposition that God

Clarke
but

they

not

are

contended

the

of God,

in the

sense

It is true

deny

his

universe.
that

not

exist, time

that

reason

exist

they
and

affirms

space

God,

as

and
that
realities,
attributes of God, than

and

Of

course,

they

power;

attributes

space

only

in him,

would

not

stances,
sub-

and

that

if

realities .^^

be

the

omnipresence; but
no
more
imply that

of

time

Are

not

are

space

attributes of God.
they are
substances; they have no dynamic

create

did

and

that

did not
God

time

that

eternityof God and does not

the eternity and
omnipresence
time

and

are

space

they

can

have

no

that

the

time

of

pendent
inde-

not

existence,
a

man's

save

life,or

PHILOSOPHICAL

206

the

his

space

existence

no

of

man's

body occupied,

save

existed;
in

and

as

regard

the

did

have
in

if tlie

regard
to

to

Should

time,

any

never
or

man,

whatever.

would

space

time

had
other

being

any

and

at

man

any

have

can

actual

body occupied,

beings, or

annihilated.

The

man.

been

exist, time

not

be

not

can

his

is true

same

particular time,

of that

space

would

all human

to

If God

they

the

at

attributes

life and

realities that

are

THEORIES

it be said

still
that

remain;
God

is

existence, and
to
that, therefore, it is absurd
necessary
his non-existence, the reply is,it is true
that God
is
suppose
the necessary
condition of the universe, and since the universe
is conditionally necessary.
must
is, God
be; that is, God
Reason
affirms, not the absolute
necessity of God, but his
conditional
if

cause,

absolute

the

to

event

no

from
space

far

of

existence
be

the

fact

might
as

Clarke

have

eternal

declares
his

based

but

existence

been

that

affirms

the

reason

does

is, of

for; neither

God,

of the

reason

cause,

accounted

necessity of

absolute

so

an

necessity,just as reason
takes
event
place; but

the

theory

only
of

universe.

no

eternal

truths

The
forms

fitness;and

of space,

existingsave

of

would

time

and

is
the

affirm

reason

his conditional
the

affirm

not

if there

cause,

does

necessity,
Time

and

blanks, nothing else existing,

contrary.

of morals

on

things; but the eternal fitness of thingscan

eternal
not
things, and if things were
have

necessity of

herein

morals

the eternal
exist
eternal

fitness

of

only between
they would

differ from

matics.
mathe-

relating,as they do, to the

there
eternal, were
nothing

Geometry,
still be
space.

another,
things, in their relations to one
for the moral
within the moral
laws, as
sphere, affords reasons
divine
and
renders
commandments,
conformity thereto
reasonable
and obligatory. The
moral
laws, therefore, have
ever
relation to the will, and should
regulate its decisions whenmoral
being
principle is involved; and though a human
render
he
violate
is
under
moral
to
these laws,
obligation
can
obedience.
Virtue
is
the
cheerful
them
voluntary conformity
realm.
As
moral
of conduct
to the fitness of things in the
follows obedience
for right conduct, reward
secondary reasons
These
to moral
law, and punishment follows disobedience.
for obeying the law.
are
prudentialreasons
The

fitness

of

MODERN

insisted

Clarke

great
who

in

value

does

yet
in

seen

not

reason

on

philosophy,
ignores

theoretically

knowledge,
as

PHILOSOPHY"

he

uses

his

demonstration

differ

materially

ENGLISH

rational

or

herein

and

differs

the

that

in

existence
of

Clarke's.

as

from

primitive

intuition
of

from

intuition,
he

as

reason,

rational

207

his
of

having
Locke,
of

source

reasonings,
God,

which

XIX

CHAPTER

Berkeley

Hume

and

George
Berkeley, son
Bishop Berkeley (1685-1753).
in a cottage
of William
born
attached
to the
Berkeley, was
of Kilkenny,
castle
of Dysert
Ireland.
in the
He
county
received
his primary
education
at the
Kilkenny School, from
which
he passed to Trinity College, Dublin.
The
of his life at
incidents
revealed
Trinity are
chiefly
The
of the
head
Book.
through his Commonplace
college
and
the
controversialist,
Browne,
antagonist of the
was
a
William
free
Tolland.
that
thinker
At
time,
King, the
of
treatise
of
the
author
the Origin
Dublin,
Archbishop
a
on
of Evil, and well worthy of his reputation as a speculative
thinker, was
important factor in promoting the philosophian
cal
influence
then
the
at
Trinity College.
activity,
prevailing
i:

The

of

works

Hobbes

and

gether
Locke, towith
the Physics of Boyle, the Principia of Newton,
of Leibniz, and
his method
of Fluxions, the Calculus
his

and

controversies

Bacon,

Descartes,

all well
philosophic speculations, were
known
at the
subjected to careful, critical
college and were
formed
A philosophical society was
study.
by Berkeley and
few of his friends for the purpose
of discussing the doctrines
a
of these
of Boyle and
Newton
great thinkers, chiefly those
This
in Physics, and
Locke
in Metaphysics.
was
good
a
atmosphere to develop the philosophic genius of such a mind
Berkeley's.
as
The
conferred
Master's
Lerkeley in 1707,
on
degree was
in the
he was
and
in the same
made
tutor
College and
year
this time, he pubAbout
admitted
to a Junior
Fellowship.
lished
mathematical

some

with
he

the

and

works

received

tracts,

of Descartes,

Deacon's

Newton

which

show
and

his

Leibniz.

familiarity
In

1709,

orders.

such
Book
found
records
Berkeley's Commonplace
are
faith on
the following: "I do not
the sleeve of any
as
pin my
of prejudice or prepossession.
I act not
out
great man.
The
chief thing I do, or pretend to do, is only to remove
the
In

208

PHILOSOPHICAL

210

THEORIES

Berkeley regarded the so-called material objects, with all

their qualities,primary and
He
held
secondary, as ideas.
that things objective to ourselves
ideas of the Divine
are
of
for
mind, which, as objects
our
perceptions,are mistaken
material

bodies.

philosopher finds its originespecially

in Locke's
treatise on the Human
ally
Understanding, and naturdivides into three periods: The first at Trinity College;
the second
in England, France
and America; the third, again
Berkeley's career

as

in Ireland.
In

the

period, he published his Essay towards

first

He maintained
Theory of Vision.
things are
merely phenomenal;
objective,existing in the mind
that

ideas

the

causes

we

that

the

that
of

so-called material

they

God,

New

or

ideas

are

truly

it is God

that

see.

The

is revealed
genesis of Berkeley's Idealism
by
theories of perception made
by Descartes, Malebranche,
Locke.

it has

that

of matter
that
could
of

an

and
he

act

of

by

sense

sensation

says:

''The

mind

ideas

real
and

only

the

organs,

is the

knows

not

object, God
to

so

far

that

it

the

intervenes,
idea

which

thing actually perceived.

things immediately, but

of ideas it has of them.

relation

denied

of the excitation

the occasion

incite attention

which

the intervention

is therefore

sense

external

an

to

presents and

only by

the

on

mind, but that, on

on

organ

then

act

is extension,

of matter

essence

properties,and that the perception

Malebranche
though admitting

miracle.

might

causes

the

that

dynamic

no

is

matter

Locke

our

held

Descartes

the
and

is

as

there

of

things."

Our

knowledge
conformity between

But

what

shall

be

the

it perceives nothing
criterion,how shall the mind, when
but
its own
that
ideas, know
they agree with the things

themselves

.f^ It is evident

that

it knows

the

unless

agreement,

ideas; but then

of the
but

the

ideas

would

things. Either the

as
we
certainlyknows

the material

thing as

and

its existence,

denied

thing and
of Human
do

an

the

mind

can

not

know

things independently

this
of the

edge
be necessary
to a knowlideas or the things are superfluous;
not

the

incumbrance

idea, Berkeley rejected

altogetheruseless,

and

maintaining

that

the

idea

is the

We
thing the idea.
quote from his Principles
selves
Knowledge: "But, say you, though the ideas thembe
the mind, yet there may
exist without
not
things
the

BERKELEY
whereof

like them,

things
I

idea

an

answer,

they

without

exist

AND

mind

be

can

copies

are

the

HUME

in

211

resemblances,

or

like

nothing

but

but

another

color

be like

substance.

unthinking

an

idea,

an

which

color

or

nothing
figure.
easier
for
is
than
to imagine
me
nothing
you,
in a park, or books
existingin a closet,and
trees, for instance
do so,
I answer,
nobody by to perceive them.
you
may
in it;but what
is all this, I beseech
there is no difficulty
you,
certain ideas which
call books
mind
than framing in your
you
the idea of any one
that may
and trees, and omitting to frame
But
do you
not
yourself perceive or think
perceive them.

figurecan

while?

all the

of them

that

anything,

that

it is

strictlyspeaking, to

or

incorporeal active
ideas

in

oft

as

therefore

substance
mind

my

as

over

my

by
in broad
choose
lar

the

fit.

But

sense

thoughts,

have

not

daylight
whether

see

whatever

I find

my

eyes,
or

no,

on

my

it is not
to determine

is

can

an
cite
ex-

shift the
I may

power

ideas

the

dependence

or

and

vary

like

I open

I shall

own

of ideas

cause

I find I

spirit
pleasure and
or

at

I think

will discover

implies passiveness and

impossible for an idea to
of anything.
be the cause

that

have

idea

an

scene

of

being

very

It remains
.

it,insomuch

in

inertness
do

the

little attention

A
.

us

there

But, say

to

or

actually perceived
will.

When

in my
to
power
what
particu

wise
to my
view; and so likeobjects shall present themselves
the other
the ideas imprinted
to the hearing and
as
senses,
them

on

therefore,
Now

the

Mind

we

called

the

some

not

are

other

of

creatures

Will

Spirit

or

of rules, or established
depend on excites in us
laws of Nature.

will.

my

that

produces

methods

set

the

There

them.

wherein

ideas

of

is,

sense,

the
are

ideas

The

imprinted on
the senses
of nature
called real things;and
by the Author
are
those excited in the imagination, being less regular,vivid and
ideas, or images of things.
constant,
are
more
properly termed
I do not argue
against the existence of any thing that we
the
can
apprehend either by sense
or
by reflection. That
things I see with my eyes and touch with my hands, really
the lea"t question. The
not
exist,I make
only thing whose
existence
we
deny is that which philosophers call Matter
after
But
all, you say, it
or
Corporeal substance,
.

sounds

very

harsh

clothed

wdth

ideas.

to

say

we

eat

acknowledge

and

drink

it does

so

"

ideas, and

are

the word

idea

PHILOSOPHICAL

212

used

being

not

in

THEORIES
discourse

common

combinations

of

visible, nor

manifest

signify the

to

several

sensible

qualitieswhich are called things."

In callingthe ideas imprinted on our
by the Author
senses,
the real things,Berkeley is more
of nature,
nearly in agreement
is commonly
with
the popular view
than
supposed;
of what
for the people generallyregard the appearances
they
cattle
the
the
fields,
houses,
trees,
hills,
grazing
on
as
see,
clouds, birds flyingin the air, as the things themselves; he
is in disagreement with the philosophers,who
what
suppose,
or
underlying substratum, not
Berkeley denied, a substance
to

of the

any

but

senses,

as

the

cause

do not see the energy

We
of the
exhibitingthe phenomena.
thing which acts on our senses.
Berkeley differed from the people in this, that they hold
remain
that things would
were
though no mind
present to
that
mind
behold them, or
no
anywhere imagined their existence,
while he, identifyingthe idea with the thing, maintained
that the thing, as idea, ceases
to be when
no
longer
to

present
an

mind; for

any

which

appearance,

True, but

the

to

does

not

is to call that

which

is

thing does

not

appear,

of the

energy

otherwise

suppose

tion.
contradicto be

cease

the idea of the

mind.
thing vanishes from a human
than
There
is,however, in perception,something more
an
that which
idea imprinted on the senses
imprints the idea,
when

"

an

energy,

and

cause;

this

energy,

this

cause,

is not

the

itself;for this idea, as Berkeley himself shows, is not

active but passive or inert, and though we
admit with
may
idea

Berkeley
when

be

the

in any

not

reach

every
cause

is not
active

he

calls

Berkeley

by the Author

object

their

dead

the

thing

no

of the

relation

declares

exists
as

we

within

this energy

to

of nature, whose
presence
vades
perwill
and
is
the
whose
universe,

manifestations.

material

longer
remains,

mind,

of its influence.

manifested

of

idea

this cause
this energy,
placing ourselves in the proper

verify by

may

the

that

This

substratum,

but

cause

is

Berkeley holds
living,intelligent,

would
remain,
spirit. Objects
them, or
though no human
being were
present to behold
as
though no one, any where
pictures in
represented them
his imagination. Their
is not
esse
percipi;but their esse is
the energy
which
would
mind
make
them
a
percipi,were
this
It may
be said that, on
present to perceive them.
thus

constituted

BERKELEY

AND

HUME

is present to
their esse
is

supposition,their being

the

mind

of

and

God,

of
percipi by the mind
God; true, still they do not vanish into non-entity, when
no
mind.
It is well to keep in mind
longer ideas of any human
has given to human
that God
beings such a degree of liberty
will.
and independence that they often act contrary to God's
it is still true

that

would

human

being
being thought
or
a plant, or

of

the

is not

energy

annihilated, when

thought of any human

being.
should
some
one
Suppose
say
extreme
subjective type: "You
mine, and

if I should

would

you

doubt,
of my

drop
made

fact, whether

you

except myself

and

idealist

had

he

the

realities:

of

human

animal,

an

"I

from

would

as

well

must

to

cease

be

would

since

From

of

no

we

objective
affected

are

be without

in

the

see

to

powers

sistent,
ought to, if conrealities.
ley
Berke-

only

that

be

In fact

game.

the existence

you,

ourselves.
.

of

nothing exists
yourself that would
think of you."

he

as

the

are

as

allow

idea

an

but

drawn

admit

to

not;

or

contend,

to

of the

of you,
at that moment,
idealist would, no
The

It is then
I to

were

sense

assert

but

the

right, in principle,but
conscious
application. I am

me

his ideas

and

we

of

ideas.

my

from

egoisticidealist

is,therefore, a fact, and

thought

good

without,

distinct

true

nothing

are

in its

colloquialcontest
has the temerity
that

from

mistake

into non-entity

This

no

is all

doctrine

existence, which

vanish

other

separated

an

of existence."

out

to

think

to

cease

"Your

retort:

have

you

if

hold

would

same

God's.

act, not

own

annihilated,

be

not

him;

man's

inanimate
of any
a crystal,or
object; each has
it is,and
it to be what
of its nature, which
causes

energy

this

is the

volition

sinful

This

the

that

213

effects

being
duced,
pro-

conclude, there are

actions; and because
actions,
be a will.
volitions;and because there are volitions, there must
the
have
existence,they or
things I perceive must
an
Again,
their archetypes,out of my
but
mind;
being ideas, neither they
I

nor

their

archetypes, can
There

exist otherwise

is therefore

an

than

in

Understanding.

an

standing.
under-

But

Will

and

Mind
or
Understanding constitute in its strictest sense,
does
all
it
that
the
not
follow,
this,
Spirit." Granting
spirit
affectingus is always God, the inJBnite Spirit;human
spirits
affect

us,

objects of

so

do
the

animals, with

their

vegetable kingdom,

lower
and

minds; and
so

may,

so

since

do
the

PHILOSOPHICAL

214

contrary

can

world.
as

Leibniz
and

energy,

THEORIES

be proved, objectsof the so-called inorganic

of atoms,
molecule is a commonwealth
monads,
or
not

held, each
who

of

which

tell whether

can

is

an

inextended

it may
will?

not

be

point of
a
spirit,

having intellect,sensibilityand
To
things, the objects of
explain perception: External
and
to excite the
to act upon
knowledge, have the power
of the ego or subject,of knowledge, this mechanical
sense-organs
of the
with the physiologicalexcitement
action, attended
is followed
by a sensation, which is a psychical phenomenon.
organ,
then apprehends the conditional necessity
Reason
of the sensation, and
of an
of the ego
objective cause
or
The
subject of the sensation.
judgment, by the light of
is, as a real thing. The
experience, infers what the cause
the
imagination then pictures this inference, or constructs
subjective idea, which is,therefore, not the objective reality
are
scious,
conperceived, but the mental construction of which we
inferences in regard
discoveries and
embodying our
to the object,and
representing it,so far as it is possiblefor a
mental
picture to represent an objective reality. The idea
is not
the image of
the objective reality,any
than
more
stands
before
behind a mirror, is yourself who
yourself,seen
and
the glass. We
them
do not perceive ideas, but construct
conscious
ideas
of them.
Our
are
embody our
judgments
sensations.
causes
concerning the objective
of our
In his Theory of Vision, Berkeley maintains
that, at first,
the sense
of sight gives only colors, which
to
appear
may
have
another
in a mental
07itness to one
picture,but not with
from
respect to the eye itself;and that originallyoutness
of sight,
the spectator is not
revealed
through the sense
and
muscular
which
instructed
by the tutorship of touch
and
with
magnitude
finally infers distance
movement,
approximate correctness, by the interpretation of signs
whose
ence.
significanceis gradually correctly learned by experiLikewise, by experience,the sensations gained through
all the other
bined
comare
interpreted, and the whole
senses,
into the
nature,
constitute
be

to

appearances

knowledge

Natural

referred

referred

connected

Science.

to

finite

God

the

of whose
Partial

of what

is called

ternal
ex-

and
laws
phenomena
indeed
phenomena may

but the universal

spirits,
Infinite Spirit.

order

must

be

BERKELEY

HUME

AND

^15

New
Theory of Vision,
are,
Berkeley's principal works
Discourse
Human
Passive
Understanding
on
Principles of
Obedience, Essay towards preventingthe Ruin
of Great Britain,
The
Philosopher, and
Dialogues, Alciphron, or the Minute
place
speculation,and his CommonAnalyst, a series of mathematical
other
Booh, containing with many
things, an attack
imal
the fundamental
conceptions of the fluxional and infiniteson
^

calculus.

He

{\1\\-\11Q),
of good family, both
passed, with credit, his

the

eldest

Hume

2,

rendered
His

he

son,

He

found

soon

"I

says:

but

the

found

his

himself

found
He

went

and

the

him

to

resolved

he

unsuited

to

France,

and

being
found.
for

his tastes.
to

thing
every-

general learning."
active

become

for

measures

merchant,

but

business.

that

spent three

in

be

aversion

more

to

not

side.

profession

proper

with

and

philosophy

drove

his

composing
published in 1737,

study

which

to

of

but

of support

to accord

burgh
Edin-

inheritance, which

unsurmountable

an

support, and

own

to

it not

pursuit

Necessity, however,

in

Law

family supposed

be

at

mother's

career,

means

some

and

slender

born

was

educational
but

that

Hume

his father's

on

received

it necessary

him, but he

David

years

Treatise

on

in London,

pleasantly

very

Human

when

Nature,

he

only
Of
this
old.
publication, Hume
twenty-six years
says:
unfortunate
than
Never
was
literary attempt
more
my
from
Treatise of Human
the press,
It fell dead-born
Nature.
was

was

*'

without

distinction

such

as

excite

to

even

murmur

among

and
sanguine, he soon
Naturally cheerful
in 1742, published
recovered
from
the disappointment, and
the first part of his Essays, which
was
favorably received.
On
the invitation
of the Marquis
of Annandale,
Hume
him
and
with
in
the
tutor
to
as
a
England,
spent a year
such
remuneration
family of the Marquis, he received
as
increased
fortune.
his
materially
Accepting an invitation from Gen. St Clair to attend him,
as
secretary, in his expedition against Canada, but which
the

zealots."

ended

as

an

incursion

the

on

coast

into

in the

to

with

military circles, and

the general, associated

next

year,

and

Turin.

he

attended

the

of France,
uniform

of

officers of

general

to

the

he
an

thrown

was

aide-de-camp

high rank.
courts

The

of Vienna

PHILOSOPHICAL

216
At

Turin, he
and

Nature,

the first part of his Treatise

it Inquiry concerning Human

recast

named

which

met

he

went

THEORIES

with

but
the

Httle

of Human
standing,
Under-

success.

home

of

his

family, where he
composed the second part of his essay, calHng it Political
his Inquiry concerning the
Discussions, and he also wrote
Principlesof Morals, another part of his Treatise of Human
In

1749,

Nature, cast
In

the

to

anew.

time,

mean

and

answers

criticisms of his

works

of a
in, of which he says : "These
began to come
symptoms
I was
me
as
ever
rising reputation gave
encouragement,
the
favorable
the
to
than
unfavorable
see
more
disposed
of mind
which
it is more
side of things, a turn
happy to
than

possess

In

be born

to

to

1752, his Political Discourses

where

successful

he

then

were

resided, and

"

thousand

published

in

these

Discourses

year.

burgh
Edinwere

publication. In the same

year,
for the Faculty of Advocates,
having been
of a large library,he formed
and enjoying the command
the
but
of
the
the
plan
writing
History of England,
appalled by
he
of
the accession
the
with
undertaking,
began
magnitude
on

their

of ten

estate

an

chosen

of the house
howl

of

first

librarian

of Stuart.

The

indignation,and

work

then

was

seemed

received with
to

be

general

gotten.
altogether for-

thought of retiring into

disappointment, Hume
and
to set foot in
never
France, changing his name,
more
his native country; but war
breaking out between
England
from
his
intention.
and France, he was
prevented
executing
his
he
Natural
In the next
two
published
History of
years,
second
of
the
volume
his
and
in
1756,
History of
Religion,
of
England, continuing the narrative from the execution
Charles, the first,to the revolution which
placed William
This volume
of the History gave
and Mary on the throne.
but was
less oflFense than the first,
ful.
only moderately successIn

his

published his History of the House of Tudor,

especiallythe part treating of the reign of
Elizabeth, was generallyunpopular. He finally
completed his
order, to the beginning.
History, going back, in the reverse
ford
Accepting, in 1763, an invitation from the Earl of Hertto attend
him, as secretary, in his embassy to Paris, he
found the association with the Earl to be agreeable,and he
In 1759, Hume
but this volume,

PHILOSOPHICAL

218

that

It is true

perception is

we

are

the

not

THEORIES

conscious

only
only phenomenon

of

phenomena;
of

which

but

we

are

sensations,emotions, affections,desires,
conceptions,judgments, reasonings,volitions,all of which are
We

conscious.

have

But
are
phenomena, and of all of which we are conscious.
Does
think?
these
thinking
self-supporting?
phenomena
who
thinker
thinks.
Thinking implies a
said: "I always stumble
Hume
some
on
When
perception
Did
he
he
did
I?
what
mean
by
mean
other,"
or
tion?
percep-

itself?
on
perception stumble
the perception is different from

Does

stumbles
on

on

Does

it stumbles.

which

the

evidence

The
the

perception

with

change

which

the

tion?
percep-

of

personal identity,is proof

the same
I who had
that / who have a certain perception am
of the
conscious
different perception yesterday. We
are
a
perception. The /, as the subject of the perception,we
know
by rational intuition, not as a fact of experience, but
condition of the perception as the one
the necessary
as
I that perceives,has sensations,
that perceives. The
same
the

Memory,

"

affections,desires, volitions;

instincts, appetites,emotions,
and

he loves

remorse

or

mental

has

and

wrong,

Perception is

the

tion
approba-

not

the

only

act.

admits

Hume

in

neither

an

is based

on

trace

Hume's
of power,

sensible

that
The

reasoning could

destroy

of matter

world

belief is natural

in

nor

an

the

belief

internal

unayoidable, and

and

experience.
the

Locke,

connection
in

of Locke's

callinga sensation

presupposes
quality; but

substance, but power

effect,a sensation
an
"whatever

his

external

of mind.

world

To

hates, does right or

of conscience.

substance
he
he

in

is considered

views

of causation

or

idea the product

an

and

truly as in callingit a
regarded quality as inhering in the
as

conceived
us,

by

not
us

to

found
to

be

cause

in the

operate

to

producing

substance;
the

for

producing

particularsimple idea which did not before exist,hath

the idea
Here
thereby in our minds the relation of cause."
has an
objective factor in the thing; it has also a subjective
which
factor in the mind
interpretsthe sensation caused by
the thing, and
ideates, pictures, or represents the cause.
idea following a sensation
of a
The
implies the presence
thing acting on an organ of sense; but the idea called up in
of any

BERKELEY
the absence
caused

not

of the

creation

by

sensation, yet if vivid, it may,

by reflex
sensation, which, except in extraordinary

a
a

fainter
idea

The

attending the

than

the

of the

sensation

pain, following the

fire,is faint compared

of

into the

hand

pure

219

thing is a

is much

object.

HUME

of the

action, produce
cases,

AND

actual

thrust, and

imagination,

caused

imaginary
with

the

the

by

thrust

real

lacks the fearful effect

pain
the

on

hand.

relation of

The

in the

contained
from

the

that

which

is

the

idea

an

cause

that
signifies

let

to

call

we

Science

effect.

is,according

for

accounts

which
of

change.

theory

find,in the first place,that whatever

objects are

pass

things,

that, in the order

assumes

which

Hume's

cause,

not

arises

that

and

of causation.

us

Locke,

to

is extraneous,
and
of the vicissitudes of

take

senses

our

effect

itself,but

thing

produces

produced

nature,
Now
'T

notice

and

cause

He

says:

considered

contiguous, and that nothing can

is ever
little removed
so
operate in a time or place which
from
those
of its existence.
distant
Though
objects may
sometimes
seem
productive of each other, they are commonly
found, upon
examination, to be linked by a chain of causes

as

causes

which

or

effects

are

continuous

are

objects, and
still presume

when

we

it to

relation

second

not

can

exist.

relation of contiguityas
The

themselves

among

We

and

discover

between

that

to

the

distant

connection,

therefore, consider

may,

essential

the

to

cause

we

the

of cause."
and

effect, Hume

clares
de-

before
priority,in time, in the cause
the effect;" that is,the cause
is the antecedent, and the effect
This may,
in general, be allowed, as when
the consequent.
heat
melts ice. Suppose, however, that we
have
the equation:
is
that
of
if
function
is,
=f(x)
that,
a
or
x
changes,
;
x,
y
^
be
to
to
to
changes,
so
as
always
f{x). It is proper
equal
y
followed by a change in y;
say the change in x is logically
with a
but, chronologically,the change in y is simultaneous
not
change in x, otherwise
always be equal to f{x)
y would
Here
there is no priorityin time in the cause.
The
third relation between
effect is, according
and
cause
that of necessary
to Hume,
he considers of
connection, which
the others
before
mentioned; but
greater importance than
to

be

that

of

says

he:

*'When

I cast

my

eyes

objects, I immediately discover

on

that

the
the

known

of
qualities

relation

of

cause

PHILOSOPHICAL

220

THEORIES
.

effect

and

depends

not

in the

least

on

them.

When

their

and

find none
but those
relations,I can
I have
succession, which
already recorded

and

unsatisfactory."

Hume

then

''First,for what

asks:

reason

of

sider
con-

contiguity
imperfect

as

we

it

pronounce

existence
has a beginning
everything whose
have
cause?
should
that
conclude
Secondly, why we
a
such particularcauses
must
necessarilyhave such particular
of that inferencewe
is
the
what
nature
draw
from
effects;and
that

necessary

the

to

one

Hume

then
a

whose

He

in
a

from

and

cause

to

be

has

The

in it?"

repose

the

first

beginning?
truth

question. Why
to

necessary

philosophy, that

cause."

says:

we

examines

existence

maxim

have

the belief

"

whatever
of

for

account

He

this

do

nounce
pro-

everything
a
general

says:

'Tis

begins

to

maxim,

we

exist

Hume

must

denies.

**A11 certainty arises from the comparison of ideas,

the discovery of such relations as are
unalterable,

These
relations are
long as the ideas continue the same.
resemblance, proportion in quantity and number, degrees of
of which
quality, and contrariety,none
are
implied in
any
this proposition,whatever
has a beginning has also a cause
of
is
therefore
That
existence.
not
proposition
intuitively
this conclusion
Hume
reaches
certain."
by consistently
Locke's
All
our
principle;
applying
knowledge is derived from
ty,
saved the principleof causaliand reflection.Locke
sensation
by lugging in, contrary to his principle,the necessity of
for the occurrence
given by rational intuition, to account
cause,
of an
Locke
event.
IV, Chap. 10, Sec. 2:
says. Book
'Tn the next
intuitive certainty,
knows, by an
place, man
that bare nothing can
more
no
produce any real being, than
be equal to two
that it can
If,therefore,
right angles.
know
is
real
and
that
there
we
some
non-entity cannot
being,
it
evident
real
is
demonstration, that
an
being,
produce any
from
not
eternity there has been something, since what was
from
had
beginning
a
eternity,had a beginning, and what
Locke
here reached
be produced by Something else."
must
the truth by his inconsistency
and by Hume's
to his principle;
consistencywith this principle,which he accepts, he mifeises
so

the

truth.

But

let Hume

demonstrate

the

explain himself.
necessity of a cause

He

says:
to

every

''We
new

can

never

existence,

AND

BERKELEY

221

existence, without

of

modification

HUME

showing, at the
time, the impo^sibihty there is that anything can
ever
same
without
exist
and
where
to
some
productive
principle;
begin
be proved, we
the latter propositioncannot
must
despair of
As these ideas
being able to prove the former.
ever
and
effect are
of cause
evidently distinct, 'twill be easy for
this moment,
to conceive
object to be non-existent
us
any
existent the next, without
and
conjoining to it the distinct
idea
of a cause
or
productive principle. The separation,
from
that of a beginning of
therefore, of the idea of a cause
is
existence, is plainly possible for the imagination; and
therefore incapable of being refuted
by any reasoning from
which
it is impossible to demonstrate
ideas, without
mere
the necessityof a cause."
indeed
without
The
a
picture an event
imagination can
to say.^^ To
but what has the reason
event
an
cause,
suppose
be
without
is
to supto happen, or
cause
a
a
being begin to
pose
into
but
is
non-entity to jump
being;
non-entity nothing,
into
to
therefore, jump
being;
jump is to act, and to
cannot,
that it is, therefore, not
act implies that it already is, and
Even
non-entity. We have here no event without a cause.
caused
Hume's
nation.
imaginary object was
by an act of his imaginew

or

...

If

Hume

But

He

cause.

for if

is,

on

goes

before

to

necessary

with

wanted
it

an

found, which
his

has

an

never

been

cause,

'tis said, must

denial of

we

cause,

Here
The
be

argument

cause,

but

criticized does

asserts

assumes,

feat of

cause;

have

it supposes,
we

doubt, is
not

an

subtle

cause;

that

evident
that

Hume's

to

in

expresslydeny,

power

assume

that, according

but

necessity of

which, therefore, is taken

displayshis

jumps into entity,without

is impossible,and
from

which
not

Hume

case.

produce itself;that
impossible. But this

is

stillgrant what

be a cause,
viz.ythat there must
be the object itself,
and that, no

the

it would

existed, which

reasoning is plainlyinconclusive; because

our

the

out
with-

event

event,

objections to

"Everything,

says:

anything

exist

be

should

cause

is not

cause

to

diction."
contra-

of

ing.
reason-

there

view,

must
entity
non-

for its

jumping,
this impossibility,it infers,
the idea of this extraordinary
into being, was
caused
by the
any

cause

non-entity jumping
himself.
imagination of Hume
'"Tis exactly the
Again, Hume
says:

brilliant

same

case

with

the

THEORIES

PHILOSOPHICAL

222

third

which

argument,

has

been

demonstrate

employed to
is produced

without
necessity of a cause, whatever
any
is
other
words
has
in
cause
produced by nothing, or
nothing
for its cause.
'Tis sufficient only to observe, that when
exclude ail causes
we
reallydo exclude them, and neither
we
of the
nothing nor the object itself to be the causes
suppose
is a just criticism on
the use
Hume's
existence."
answer
be
of the word
caused.
to
produced; for produced means
is produced without
Instead, therefore, of saying,whatever
is
cause
produced by nothing, or has nothing for its
any
the

let

cause,

the

us

affirmation

itself from
of

that the

say

that the event

into

non-entity

absolute

an

will.

denial of the

from

If

is

event

of
produced, but came
is the assumption
being, which
not

was

Let

commencement.

existingthing could
non-entity into being, it must

who

of any

cause

not

an

have

have

this

accept

one

any

of itself

come

been

produced

or

caused.
Hume

raises the

next

rise to such

following: **Why

concliide

we

necessarilyhave

must

form

an

In

inference
to

answer

concerning
of the

which

produces

the

by

why

'*A11

our

both

of

an

idea

of that

says:

of the

of the

impression,or

arguments

impression
existence

is

produced
explain,viz.,

Here, therefore, we
things
First, the originalimpression. Secondly,the transition
have

idea of the
and

connected

of
qualities

that

and

cause

we

the other?"

and

it.

particularcauses

such

effects consist

object

into the

question he sinks

that

question,Hume
senses,

experience gives

particulareffects,and
to

one

and
or

memory

such

from

this

causes

this

But

principle?"

"How

question,

three

to

effect.

Thirdly,the

to the

nature

question,he says:
'twill always be impossible to decide with certainty whether
they arise immediately from the object, or are produced by
idea."

As

of

mind,

to

the first

**

the

creative

author
Hume

of

power

the

or

are

derived

from

the

being."

our

holds

that

"the

vividness

impressions on the
the imagialone
from
senses
nation.
memory
'Tis therefore
that
can
we
by experience only
from
that
of
another.
infer the existence of one
object
Thus
in advancing, we
have
new
insensibly discovered
a
and
where
least
relation betwixt
effect,
cause
we
expected
it, and were
entirely employed on another
subject. This
and

of the

distinguishesthem

BERKELEY
is their

relation

be

relations

two

belief

our

make

to

us

effect unless

and

pronounce

preserved
conjunction,Hume

the

cession
suc-

two

any

perceive

that

these

explain

to

attempts

connection

necessary

and

instances."

constant

in

223

we

in several

are

the

From

sufficient

cause

HUME

conjunction. Contiguity

constant

not

are

objects to

AND

between

and

cause

inquires: ''Whether
experience produces the
of the understanding or imagination; whether
idea by means
determined
the transition, or by a
to make
by reason
are
we
association
and
certain
relation of perceptions. If reason
it would
determined
proceed on the principle,that the
us,
continues
of nature
always uniformly the same.
course
He

effect.

There

can

be

those

instances

those

of which
be

demonstrative

no

of which
we

allowed

have
for

had

this powder

already proved
qualitiesof the cause,
qualitiespresent

that
and

with
the

fore
It shall there.

the

of

production

this effect.
lies not

power

that

prove

instance, impliesa

one

is connected

been

that

to

experience resemble

no

experience.

moment

had

have

we

object by another, in any

that

arguments

and

power,

it

But
in the

one

having

sensible

there

ble
being nothing but the sensiI ask why, in other instances,
to
us,
that the same
still exists merely upon
power
you
presume
of these qualities.^.
Thus
the appearance
not only our
fails us in the discovery of the ultimate
connection
of
reason
after experience has informed
and effects,but even
causes
us
of their constant
conjunction, 'tis impossible for us to satisfy
ourselves by our
reason
why we should extend that experience
fallen under
have
beyond those particular instances which
.

observation."

our

Again: *'When
impression of

the

mind, therefore, passes

from

the

idea

object to the idea or belief of another,

determined
but
it is not
by certain principles
by reason,
which
associate together the ideas of these objects,and unite
them
in the imagination."
effect is,therefore, resolved
and
The
relation of cause
by
habit
induced
association
ideas
into
that
of
of
the
by
Hume,
or

or
so

But

customs.

one

is it not

great importance

to

of the effort
we

objects that
This

surround

experience

Hume,

experience, should
in producing
make

ns?

reveals

strange that

to

To
us

lift a chair,
that

the

who

attached

overlook
effects
we

relation

on

exert

of

the

perience
ex-

material
an
cause

effort.
and

PHILOSOPHICAL

224

is

effect

than

more
or

consequence,

THEORIES

that

of

antecedence

contiguity, or
association

necessary

of

ideas,

and

or

stant
con-

conjunction; it proves, and that too by experience,that

is efficiency,
of cause
the very nature, the very essence
energy
exertion

force, the
the

cause,

of power.
The
real essential element of
Hume
leaves out; but in this he was
sistent
con-

theory of

his acceptance of Locke's

theory of knowledge
is derived
from
sensation
and
all knowledge
reflection.

with

that

"

is, doubtless,

Cause

but

why?

influence

no

invariable

and

cedent;
ante-

it is efficient in

Because

If it exerts

effect.

immediate

an

well be absent; its presence

on

the

would

absence

or

producing the
effect,it might as
make

no

ence;
differ-

when

fore,
absent, the effect does not appear;
it,therebe
exerts
influence, or is efficient;and this would
an
effect were
and
subjective ideas; but in
true, though cause
but

this

the

case

and

cause,

Hume's

so

cause

of that

in his

Essays,

on.

against miracles, found

argument

with

connected

loosely
realityis found only in
necessity of causation
is

the

requiresexplanationand

cause

his

ideas

system

and

their

philosophy.

of

relations,and

If

if the

simply subjective, the necessary

of ideas, induced
connection
association of one
by constant
idea with another, the imagination is at libertyto pass from
of a powerful being to any
the command
conceivable
quence,
consehowever
It is only by giving objective
wonderful.
and to the laws of nature, and by assuming
realityto nature
that

miracle

Hume's

of

and

laws of

on

one

side

one

the

contrary,
the

remainder.

explained,this

it is the

nature.

from
or

suspensionof

experience only which

experiences are

arises from
here

is

or

laws, that

these

force.

has any

*Tt

of the

subt"^act the

either

violation

testimony,
us

kinds
to

says:

human

assures

argument

Hume
to

is

is

same

When,
we

have

gives authority
experience which

therefore, these

nothing

to

do

two

but

other, and embrace

an
other, with that assurance

opinion,

the

principle
popular

the

But, according
with

to

all

which

subtraction,
regard to
therefore
entire annihilation; and
to an
religions,amounts
human
establish it as a maxim, that no
testimony
we
may
have
make
it
such
force
and
to
to
miracle,
can
as
a
a
prove
a

just foundation for any such system of religion."

The
weighty objection to miracles entertained by scientific

PHILOSOPHICAL

226

back

eternal

the

to

universe.

The

accounted

for

Something

be

eternal

The

of

human

the

Hume

was

he

yet

accurate

and

should

assent

Hume

has

philosophy;
his

he

of

truth

the

dogmatic

it

is

to

had

was

slumbers.

my

would

have

for.

been

have

tion
affirma-

necessary

being

not

eternal,

as

never

entire

accounted

be

is

the

you
cause,

to

and

not

of

dogmatist,

event,

an

can

his

had
"After

give

no

clusions
con-

ophy,
philos-

prevailing

the

says:

Hamilton

as

that

and

He

reasoning,

true,

holding

outcome

be

may

while

conclusions.
of

exact

it

and
and

not

was

first

go

we

cause.

skeptic

those

he

Cause
eternal

legitimate

the
that

First

critic;

was

were

there

no

sharp

that

says,

or

reason;

requires

therefore

and

eternal,

if

of

say,

need

not

mind;

But
cause

will

The

human

the

the

The

does

far

unexplained.

have

we

cause.

and

however

unsatisfactory.

however,

first

the

must

anything.

cause,

satisfactory?

events,

satisfy

never

as

skeptic,

caused,

not

can

first

and

causes

something

rejected

be

must

explanation

the

always

therefore,

series,
hence

is

there

go,

infinite

was

of

an

we

back

Is

series

infinite

in

So

and

explanation.

without

left

is

THEORIES

in

faith

no

the

most

why

reason

it."
immense

an

an

epoch

influence

maker,

on

and

awoke

all

subsequent
Kant

from

XX

CHAPTER

Kant

Kant

(1724-1804).

Immanuel

he

educated,

where

berg,
taught

and

He

the

to

father

His

descent,
of

relation

was

where

and

fact

his

he

in

Konigsthought, and

without

not

philosophy

industrious

an

born

was

died.

and

Scotch

of

was

regard

was

wrote,

Kant

saddler,

that

to

his

and

in

interest
of

Hume.

mother

an

of nature,
who
to be a lover
taught her son
intelligent woman,
fields, calling his attention
by walking with him in the open
their
animals
with
the
to
plants and
minding
rethey met
on
way,
He
him
the works
of God.
always spoke
they were
with
of his parents,
valued
the moral
and
training
reverence

they had
There

three
of

Henry,
turned
a

useful
The

people
Kant's
business

and

sons

out

family
Two

His

early.
from

well, graduated

the

and

John

Immanuel.

than
the

sons

"

four

brother,

remaining

younger

years

Immanuel

besides
of

university

He
became

and

minister.

social, intellectual,
of

Konigsberg

development,
men,

or

to

as

repaid

by

the

be

called

of

the

fame
the

in

the

the
he

favorable

citizens

of the

some

of

religious character

and

exerted

officers

Kant

citizens

Konigsberg
The

died

eleven

was

in the

daughters.

seven

daughters

university.
fellow

children

ten

were

the

him.

given

or

army,

good

gave

city of

to

pure

he

influence

on

enterprising

were

professors
received

his native

the

in

from

the
his

city, entitling

reason.

the
Schulz, noticed
early
family, Dr.
indications
of ability displayed by Immanuel,
he had
which
favorable
of the
head
at the
opportunities of doing, as he was
where
his preparation
the
received
Kant
gymnasium
young
for the
his parents
to
University, and
accordingly advised
give him
good education.
a
At home,
in the gymnasium,
the university, or the church,
he was
of the pietistic party,
the influence
in this
under
and

pastor

227

PHILOSOPHICAL

228

THEORIES

with uncontaminated
atmosphere he grew up to manhood
the
he
did
not
morals, though
theology.
fullyaccept
pietistic
his
in
of
the
teacher
Latin
Heydenreich,
gymnasium,
him
he with
love
in
that
such
that
for
inspired
a
language,
pure

his

little club for

and
conrades, Ruhnken
Cunde, formed
a
the purpose
of
of reading Latin
authors, not in the course
study, and this proved a great advantage in giving him a
broader culture.
The
of Lucretius, De Rerum, Natura
poem
his especialfavorite, and
was
probably gave him a distaste
for

theology.

Kant
the

remained

eight years

university at
Kant's

tastes

philosophy; but
Kant

the

age

the

gymnasium,
While

entered
sium,
gymna-

for

Ruhnken's
this

lives reversed

after

and

at the

classics,and

for the

were

their

the

at

of sixteen.

preference,

philosopher, Ruhnken

renowned

becoming
linguist. Cunde

became

tinguishe
dis-

superior teacher

very

of Latin.

Knutzen,
university, the lectures of Professor
extending over
a
variety of subjects ^physics,metaphysics,
In

the

"

ethics
these

and

mathematics,
Kant's

were

for
specialties

his course,
though he
of
study
metaphysics.
he

directed
Kant

his efforts

had

encouraged

to

his studies.

Professor

free

access

converse

He

was

and

Tecker,

conversation.
Kant's career

Though

The
as

Kant

attended

the

For

after

years

finished

prominent the
his graduation

first make

several

chieflyto physics and mathematics.

and
was
to the library of Knutzen,
of
intricacies
the
with
him
on
freely
also greatly profitedby the lectures of
enjoyed his friendship and instructive

influence of these

advantages

in

is shown

philosopher.
not

choose

the

cal
University,as a theologiministry as his calling,yet

in the
the

lectures of Dr.

greatlyprofitedby

after he had

time

at

not

matriculated

student, he did
he

did

great satisfaction, and

him

gave

Schulz

on

theology, and

thorough discussions

and

was

views

broad

which

failed to present.
Schulz never
Kant's
of Kinetics.
first book
treated

now

time

is

historic,showing that the bent

Its

of Kant's

chief
mind

at

value
that

physics and mathematics.

Kant
for nine years, first in the family
was
a family tutor
of a preacher near
home, then in the family of Von Hiillesen,
about
sixty miles from Konigsberg, the greatest distance
was

towards

KANT

229

reached.
Later he was
in
tutor
city he ever
residence
the family of Count
was
near
Kayserhng, whose
of great advantage to him,
Konigsberg. This positionwas
of distinction,
since here he met, on
friendlyterms, persons
of good society,and
learned
the usages
these refining
and
of manner
in Kant's
life by his ease
influences were
and
seen
The traininghe gained in
the versatilityit gave to his mind.
valuable
in cultivatingthe abilityto make
his tutorshipwas
his points clear in his universitylectures.
of the subjects:
In 1754-5, Kant
published discussions
Has
the earth been subjectto any change in its revolution on its
General
axis?
Natural
History, or Theory of the Heavens.
In the last of these, Kant
Hypothesis
anticipatedthe Nebular
while
he
of La Place.
These
books
tutor.
was
were
prepared
To entitle one
to a nomination
to a professorshipin the
and defend
in
for him to prepare
University,it was necessary
his native

from

Latin

three

dissertations.

Fire; his second, A

Kant's

first dissertation

Explanation of the
of Metaphysical Knowledge; his third. The
Natural
Philosophy of a Metaphysic connected
All

New

in the line of his

were

specialties.The

was

On

Principles
Advantages to
with Geometry.

First

difficultiesin the

of

University is a
obtaining a professorshipin a German
spur to efforts and to a thorough preparation.
In 1755, Kant
was
graduated as doctor, and was appointed
subordinate
Privatdocent, which
position he held for fifteen
with
a
gradually increasing popularity, as well as
years,
increasing knowledge, and a development of his ability.
For his first course
chose for his subjects,
of lectures, Kant
of
Mathematics
he was
and Physics subjectson which
sure
way

"

success.

As
basis

for professorsto use

compends as
customary
for his lectures, Kant
Wolff's for Mathematics,
chose

it

was

Physics. In a short time he added Logic

and
Metaphysics to his subjects,choosing for Logic the
compend of Meyer, and for Metaphysics those of Baumister
and
made
He
Baumgarten.
thorough preparation for his
lectures,and delivered from three to four each day, taking
his points clear to the students, aiming
to make
great care
to
show
the practical signification
and
applicationof his
and

Eberhard's

for

theories.
In

1770,

Kant

appointment

to

gained
the

the

chair

of

object of
logic and

his ambition

by his

metaphysics.

The

PHILOSOPHICAL

230

THEORIES

Sensibilis et
subject of his inaugural address was : De Mundi
Forma
Eleven
et Principiis.
later, apIntelligihilis
years
peared
his great work, Kritih of Pure
which
shall
Reason.,
we
for
the
to
examine, dropping
now
proceed
present further
details respecting his life,and taking, as the acceptable and
reliable text, the English translation by F. Max
Miiller.
forerunners
of Kant,
of the
The
Bacon,
English, were
Of the continental, Descartes,
Locke, Berkeley and Hume,
a
Spinoza, Leibniz and Wolff. All Kant's previous study was
twelve
in planpreparation for his great work; he was
ning
years
it 'and thinking it out, but only five months
in writing

it.
On

first page
tells us what

of the

the

is,and

otherwise.

not

general

is,but

truths, and

for that

class of

General

that

not

it must

which

is

is roused

by

reason

knowledge,
truths,

which

at

the

Experience
necessarilyas it
gives us any really
particularlyanxious
says:

be

It, therefore, never

our

*'

Introduction, Kant

it rather
time

same

fied.
satis-

than
bear

the

be independent of
necessity, must
Calling that
experience, clear and certain by themselves.
which
be in order that something else may
must
be,
a condition
truths are
of the facts of experience,
the conditions
necessary
son
but they are
not
apprehended apart from experience. Reacharacter

of

inward

an

"

"

would
if

affirm

never

that

every

event

must

have

cause,

had
been
perience.
knowledge of an event
ever
acquired by exedge
knowlof
Kant
calls
truth,
Knowledge
necessary
while
the
a
priori,
knowledge of contingent facts, he
calls knowledge a posteriori. But
knowledge a priori,is not
knowledge already existing in the mind, though latent, as
innate ideas, as Kant
when
to teach, but ready for use
seems
called for; yet reason
has the power
to apprehend the necessity
of the conditions
of facts known
it
by experience; is not
the a prioripower
of reason
to know
a prioriknowledge, but
though the power
ence
gives the knowledge only after the experino

of the facts.

Again,

Kant

says:

''If

we

remove

from

experience

thing
every-

belongs to the senses, there remain, nevertheless,

originalconcepts, and certain judgments derived from
have
had their originentirely a priori,and
must
them, which
it is owing to them
independent of all experience, because
that we
able, or imagine that we
able, to predicate
are
are
that

certain

KANT

^31

than can
be learnt from mere
objectsof our senses
experience,and that our propositionscontain real generality
strict necessity, such
and
mere
as
empirical knowledge
Are there originalconcepts and certain
never
can
supply.
judgments independent of all experience? No; we have the
facts
experiencefirst of certain facts,facts not self-supporting,
these facts are given
that requirecertain conditions; and when
wakes
by experience,reason
up and apprehends the necessity
of the conditions
of these
facts, by seeing that without
would
be impossible.
these conditions, the facts themselves
the knowledge of the
The
not
as
a faculty,is a "priori,
reason,
conditions
of the facts, but the power
the necessity
to know
of the conditions
render
which
the facts possible. Chronologically
the knowledge of the facts is antecedent
the
to
tions
knowledge of the conditions of the facts,but both the condiof the

more

"

and

the

to

power

know

the

conditions

antecedent

are

to the

knowledge of the facts,and give to these facts a rational

has not
its
explanation. The knowledge of the conditions
originentirelya priori,and independent of all experience,as
Kant

asserts;

it not

were

for the facts, we

should

never

know

conditions.

the

points out the tendency to enlarge the sphere of our

judgments beyond the limits of experience,and states that,
first of all,*'we should ask the question,how
the mere
standing
underarrive at all this knowledge a priori,and
could
Kant

what

truth, what
extent, what
brilliant example of mathematics

value, it could

possess.

The

gives ground for encouragement;

deals with objectsonly so far as they
but mathematics
be represented by intuition;and though a dove finds the
can
air a resistance
make
to its flight,yet it can
no
progress
facts, however,
through empty
being
space." Certain
does apprehend the necessityof their conditions,
given,reason
but

not

without

"Reason
of
not

the facts.

finds

legitimateemployment, even
its work, in the analysisof our
concepts, and
give us knowledge strictly
new,
yet it renders
confused

clear, and

the

adding,

it sometimes

concepts
new

as

distinct; yet

large part
if this does
the obscure

should

reason

avoid

other
does, without
being aware,
in
and
thus
character,
deducing
totally different

judgments
assert

the

void

of all

validity."

necessityof the

Reason

conditions

may

of the

legitimately
enal.
phenom-

PHILOSOPHICAL

232

THEORIES

then

Kant

the
distinction between
proceeds to make
in
their
aflBrmative form.
synthetic judgments,
is
An
in
which
the
analytic judgment
one
conception of the
is
in
that
of
involved
the
predicate
subject; as A body is extended,
A synthetic judgment is one
in which
the predicate
in the conception of the subject;
adds something not involved
A body is heavy. Analytic judgments render the knowledge
as
of the
subject clear; synthetic judgments add something
foreign to the subject.
Synthetic judgments a posterioripresent no
difficulty,
since the relation of the subject and
predicate is known
by
experience; but how are synthetic judgments a prioripossible?
do I know, for example, that every event must
How
have
shall see, as
cause? This is Kant's
a
great question, and we
it. In the meantime,
to state
we
proceed, how he answers
position,we do not hesitate to declare that valid
own
our
synthetic judgments, strictlya priori,that is,apart from all
experience, are altogether impossible. To be able to affirm
I must
have
that every
first have, by
event
must
a
cause,
of
and
motion
events; body
being
experience, knowledge
their
apprehends space as
sary
necesgiven by experience,reason
and
succession
condition; persistence
require time; the
mate
its ultiuniverse, or any existingconcrete
thing demands
as

analytic and

condition, the eternal existence of the first

non-existence

of

of all realities

require

an

eternal

an

save

calls his treatment

and

space

their

as

ego

existence

involves

time.

necessary

critiqueof

pure

The

cause.

ence
non-exist-

the

Psychical phenomena
condition.
not

reason,

Kant

doctrine;

declaring that it is meant, not to extend our knowledge, but

the test of the value of all a priori
to rectifyit,and to become
the doctrine of elements,
contain
both
It must
knowledge.
and

the

doctrine

of method

of pure

in the

sensibilityby
followed
sensation
by an empirical intuition
is called
whose
a
phenomenon.
appearance
corresponding to the sensation,
phenomenon
The

effect

produced

causes
matter; but that which
certain
order, he calls its
a

but
posteriori;

as

in certain

it cannot

forms,

Kant

the

form.

be

matter

The

sensation
holds

to

their

with

reason,

matter

which

that their

object is a
the object

an

of

That
Kant

be

divisions.
sub-

in

the

calls the

perceived in
is known

arranges
form
must

a
sation
sen-

be

PHILOSOPHICAL

^34

THEORIES

But who
can
knowledge relates a thing to a mind.
prove
that
exists
that
is
existence
unknown,
or
nothing
wholly
existence?
idea of that
Kant
had
an
impossible without
of a thing in itself.
the good sense
not
to deny the existence
has not
been
refuted, that since we
Berkeley's statement
affected from
without capable
without, there are powers
are
of affectingus.
Berkeley was
right in affirming external
in what
Two
but mistaken
are
they are.
persons
powers,
another.
If one
should
and lose
talking with one
go away
annihilate
the other,
all thought of the other, that would
not
existence.
Neither
he would
would
testifystill to his own
as
the separation of one's thought from
anything, a dog, a tree
that thing; and if the separation of
what
not, annihilate
or
particularthought from any thing would not annihilate
any
that thing, the separation of all thought from
it would
not
notice the planet Jupiterrising
strike it out of existence.
We
its movement
about
sunset, and watch
night after night,with
For a month
respect to the stars in nearly the same
range.
to retrograde,or
or
Jupiter appears
so,
go westward, with
stationary,and finally
respect to the stars, then it becomes
its motion
All this is explained by
is direct, or eastward.
the supposition that both
the Earth
and
Jupiter, are real
bodies and revolve
eastward
the sun,
the earth being
round
revolves
more
rapidly,throwing the range of Jupiter
nearer,
westward, as the earth sweeps
by, but otherwise the phenomena
If
is
real
are
a
objective body,
inexplicable.
Jupiter
is
round
the
then
and
an
moving
objectivereality,
sun,
space
not
a
mere
representation. Space is not dynamic, it is not
of body
it is the condition
substance, either matter
or
spirit;
for

and

motion, but
in

extent,

existence, space

indifferent
and
is

eternal

to

either, and

in

duration.

is

finite
whole, in-

one

As

an

absolute

be, whether
reality,and must
any thing
else exists or not.
the possiIt is apprehended by reason
as
bility
of body or motion, which
call for its representation.
Phenomena
are
pictures representing the real, as a photograph
the original.
Reason
it is needed, as
a
as
apprehends space as soon
for
the
logicalantecedent, to account, not simply
tion
representaof body and motion, but for the facts of body and motion,
but not before; it was
before the experience
known
more
no
of these facts, than
before the experience of an
was
cause
have
Here we
event, though it is true that it existed before.
a

KANT

realityexistingbefore
before

move

in its annual

sweeps

planet Neptune
before

Neptune

space

annihilation

form

of its motion?

earth

Would

the progress
of the earth
around
the sun?
Did
not

perturbationsin

the motion

of

as

it

the

Uranus,

before its existence

whole
the
universe
Is not
contained
in
the
Would
infinitelyin all directions?

discovered,

was

even

or

annihilate

space?

color," as Kant says, "are sensations of which

have
idea, a priori;but space refers to a pure
can
an
of intuition,and involves
sensation;" yet there are
no
which

"Objects by
our

knew

the

not

arrest

of the universe

appearances

we

being

Did

and

"Taste
one

known.

was

course

cause

suspected?
extending

was

no

human

any

of this motion

the denial

it

235

themselves

call external
the

senses,

of

require

which,

not

are

known

nothing

objects are
of which

form

for

space

their

to

us

but

is space,

at

explanation.
all,and

what

representationsof
and

the

true

lative
corre-

thing by itself,is not known,

do we
to
can
nor
nor
by
care
representations,
know
in
about
it
our
daily experience."
anything
Of course,
known
themselves
to us
at
not
are
objects by
for
be
known
relation
be
in
to
all;
by us, they must
brought
The
to us, and
would no longer be by themselves.
ances
appearof external
in
constructed
are
objects
pictures
space
imagination,as representations,according to our
by our
sensations,
our
judgment of the external realities which cause
and
thus embody
discoveries,
belief,
or
our
knowledge, or
in regard to these objects. As pictured knowledge or belief,
less imperor
fectly;
they represent external objects,no doubt, more
that

be known

but

is, the

these

it is the best

we

can

do, and

we

must

be content.

idealists
deny the existence of external objects,as some
falls the burden
of proof, which
do, is illogical.On them
they artfullyattempt to shift upon their opponents.
"Time
is not an
2, Of timey Kant
empirical concept
says:
neither
deduced
for
co-existence nor
from
experience,
any
succession would
enter into our
perception,if the representation
of time
not
we
were
given a priori. Only then can
time or at
imagine that certain things happen at the same
different times."
The
representation of time is not given
that is,the idea of time is not innate; but the instant
a priori,
we
experience succession, time is rationallyapprehended as
the condition
of succession.
Reason
apprehends time as
To

that

without

which

there could be

no

succession.

THEORIES

PHILOSOPHICAL

236

"We

take

can

time

take

cannot

phenomena
phenomena

never

are

facts.

of the

impossible.
rationally apprehending
was

exist

earth

the

and

therefore, of which

long

the

condition

experience

the

of

succession

necessity of time; but

intuition

the

sion,
succes-

before
before

of time, did not

undergo

geologicalchanges .f* Time,

geologicalperiods are parts, existed

the

its representation by
true, as Kant
says: "Time

the
is

human

mind.

nothing but

the

Time
existed before the interof the internal sense."
nal
it is not substance, either matter
or
spirit. It is
sense;

that

in which

neither

would

is to

exist

Kant

Again,
reference
we

things persistor

to

say,

there

were

"Time

says:

the

that

sensuous

mode

no

has

only, but

phenomena

remove

succession

succession, but

persistencenor

and

if

as

before

ages

Hence, it is not
form

We

before

hence

existed, and

dimension

one

reason

the rational apprehension of time,

man

we

is the

gives us the necessityof the

Before the experience of succession,

Experience gives facts,but

conditions

has

alone

simultaneous, but successive,

successive,but simultaneous."

not

are

though

time

In

possible. Time

times

different spaces

while

phenomena,

time.

from

away

of

reaUty
only. Different

from

away

of

takes

place.

their necessary

It is

tion,
condi-

succession.

persistencenor
objective validity, with
time is no longer objective,

character

of

our

representation which

intuition, that
is

peculiarto

is therefore
ourselves, and speaks of thingsin general. Time
simply a subjectivecondition of our intuition, but by itself,
apart from the subject, nothing." Events, independent of
sive
succesknowledge or representation,took place and were
existed, and time was,
therefore, a
long before man
realitythen as it is now.
Kant
would
that intelligentmen
was
aware
object to his
theory of time, and rejectit; he said, therefore, "what
they
object to is this: Changes, they say, are real; this is proved
if all external
by the change of our own
representations,even
ever,
and
their changes be denied.
phenomena
Changes, howin
be
time only, and therefore time must
are
possible
our

something
The

real.

enough. I grant the whole argument.

Time
is certainlysomething real, the real form
of our
nal
interintuition.
Time, therefore, has subjective reality with
the
respect to internal experience;that is, I really have
answer

is easy

KANT
of
representations
There
as

the

remains,
condition

time

and

of my

237

determinations

of

therefore, the
of

in it.
.

time, only

empirical reaUty
experience,while absolute realitycannot,

to it. Time
according to what has been shown, be conceded
internal intuition.
The
of our
is nothing but the form
own
before man
real and successive
not
isted,
exgeologic periodswere
"

and

not

were

therefore

the forms

of

our

internal intuition.

priori representation, since it is

of
condition
only as the necessary
apprehended by reason
the co-existence and succession of events, whether
subjective
realitywithout which peror
objective. It is the necessary
sistence,
co-existence, or succession would be impossible.
the perception of
"Motion
Again, Kant
presupposes
says:
without
such
something moving;" but a body might move
The
of
does
motion, however,
perception
perception.
suppose
prealso
time
both
and
and
a moving
body,
tune
Nepspace.
If
motion
is
moved
before its motion
was
perceived.
is not ideal,but real.
actual, that is,if anything moves,
space

Time

is not

If succession
time

is not
motion

an

innate

is actual, that is, if one

ideal, but real. Neither

event

follows

another,
succession,

body, nor
be proved to be simply subjective,though our
can
nor
Reason
ideas of them are subjectivewith an objectivefactor.
and
does, that both space
reason
apprehends, at least my
time are
absolute
realities,infinite,eternal.
They are not
not
substance, either matter
spirit;they are
dynamic,
or
and therefore not rivals of God, but they afford him
infinite
for the display of his matchless
perfections,in
possibilities
and
his power
wisdom
the magnificent universe which
have
called into being.
Kant
sums
perception by sayup his doctrine of sensuous
ing:
"All intuition is nothing but the representation of phenomena.
Mental
phenomena are facts of mind known
by
of
external
the
consciousness; representations
objects are
of
whether
internal
nal,
exterphenomena
or
perception. Facts,
known
the
and
and
are
contingent,
are
by experience,
intuitions relatingto these facts are empirical; but the intuitions
of these facts are
conditions
relating to the necessary
rational
the apprehension of fundamental
Rational
truth.
intuitions are
but
not
are
representations of phenomena,
apprehensions of the necessity of the conditions of phenomena.
"

"

PHILOSOPHICAL

238

THEORIES

"The
Again, says Kant:
things which we
see."
Of course
themselves, what
we
not;
of things, that is phenomena,
or
of things. The
things represented are
but

them;

but

which

cause

in relation

seeing

to

is

ourselves, otherwise
kind

see

are

we

see

tions
representa-

our

not
we

not, by
the pearances
ap-

by

could

selves,
themnot

see

judging
objects
are
sensations, and embody our judgments
in mental
less
pictures,which represent, more
or
rectly,
corfar as it is possiblefor a picture to represent objects,
so
discoveries or opinions regarding those objects.
our
"If we
drop our
subject, or the subjective form of our
all qualities,
all relations of objects in space
and
senses,
If we
would vanish.
time, nay space and time themselves
and
time
selves,
themdrop the subject, all qualities,even
space
vanish
with
would
respect to that subject, for the
subject then is nothing, or no longer subject,and could know
nothing. Dropping the actual subjectiveform of our senses,
another
form, the appearances
having
though giving them
stilla subjective,as well as an objectivefactor,would of course,
to change, as we
change, just as the color of objects appears
view
them
through different colored glasses;but space and
of sight, but are
time are
not
seen
rationally
by the sense
al
rationall
and
be
the
be
would
held to
same
apprehended,
by
beings who have perceptions of body and motion, of persistence
did
asked
It
be
succession.
not
then, why
or
may
He
and
time?
Kant
did say:
so
"Space, as
regard space
of external
is
essential
the very
condition
to their
objects,
intuition," and "changes are possiblein time
or
appearance
But
be something real."
time
must
only, and therefore
and
carried away
Kant
was
by his theory which makes
space
of thought.
Not
time merely subjective forms
only is the
the representation of
to
representation of space
necessary
to the objects themselves.
objects,but space is necessary
and time is to render
To deny the objectiverealityof space
all clearness of thought impossible,and to introduce the utter
of reducing the universe to a point, and all events
confusion
That
is not clear thinking;
of time.
of history to a moment
it is utter confusion.
calls a non-sensuous
The
faculty of
understanding Kant
of concepts,
knowledge, not intuitive, but discursive, by means
and holds that all knowledge is either intuitive or disin

us

what

of

those

certain

"

KANT
this is well, if we

cursive; and
and

rational
and

"

empirical,when

239

divide intuitions into

sensuous

or

known

empirical
by experience,

rational, when

the necesapprehended by reason

as
sary
of the phenomenal, as space,
conditions
time and cause.
We
without
cannot
even
imagine body or motion
or
space,
without
succession
time; and though we
can
imagine an
without
that
event
know,
by reason,
a
an
yet we
cause,
without
is impossible, since that would
event
a
quire
recause,
into being of itself,
which
non-entity to act, or to come
is impossible,since it is nothing, it cannot
act.
of the common
of
the
ideas
combinations
Concepts are our
elements
of resembling phenomena,
thus
giving unity to
separate acts of cognition and harmony to thought. Leaving
out
cepts
matter,
gives as pure conconsidering form alone, Kant
of
the
or
categories
understanding,quantity, quality,
and
relation
under
modality;
quantity he gives universal,
particular,individual; under quality,affirmative, negative,
indefinite;under relation, categorical,
tive;
hypothetical,disjuncunder
modality, problematic, assertatory, apodictic.
Pure concepts are
recognized as a prioriconditions of possible
experiences,whether|of sense, intuition or thought. The
to account
concepts are not strictlya priori,but are formed
for experiences.
tween
Judgment is the decision that a certain relation exists beof a judgment,
two
objects of thought. The elements
the subject and predicate,are
derived from
nation,
imagior
sense,
called
also
rational intuition,
or
apperception.
The
of
stream
phenomena, always changing, the immediate
object of consciousness, does not constitute the ego, or permanent
of
the
The
of
all
these
necessity
subject
changes.
is apprehended
ego, as the subject of psychical phenomena,
by rational intuition,as the identical subject,the necessary
condition
of these manifold
experiences,otherwise memory
would
be impossible.
do we
How
Cause
is the dynamical condition of an event.
cause?
arrive at the judgment that every
have
must
event
a
It is true we
can
imagine an event without a cause, yet reason
declares that it is no
more
possible for an event to happen
without
a
though it be thus pictured,than for a body
cause,
to

of

exist without
which

can

space,

be

or

for succession

represented by

the

without

time, neither

imagination.

Reason

THEORIES

PHILOSOPHICAL

240

have
event
must
a
judgment that every
of
the
impossibihty
non-entity
by apprehending
cause,
is
based
into
The
causal
not
on
springing
judgment
being.
the impotence of the imagination to picture an
absolute
but on the potency of the reason
to apprehend
commencement,
the impossibilityof nothing turning itself into something.
effect is that of reciprocity.
The
and
relation between
cause
Whatever
the cause
gives to the effect is taken from itself.
An event is always an effect.
How
does Kant
is
for the judgment that a cause
account

gives

the

the

causal

condition

necessary

of the

of

an

event.^^

He

says:

to its

relation of all

"Our

ception
con-

object contains

knowledge
something
object being looked upon as that
which
at
being determined
knowledge from
prevents our
It is clear also that, as we
can
haphazard.
only deal
with the manifold
and as the Xy (the
in our
representations,
object), corresponding to them, if it is something different
from
all our
representations,is really nothing to us, it is
clear,I say, that the unity, necessitated by an object,cannot
be anything but the formal
unity of our consciousness in the
in our
synthesis of the manifold
representations." That is
the very
that
It is truly wonderful
thing that is not clear.
the object corresponding to our
representationscan have no
interest to a philosopher. Ten
thousand
people witness the
the unity of
of a balloon.
Can
same
thing, say the ascent
each spectator'srepresentations,or the common
agreement,
the
for
the
to
as
object seen, be accounted
unity of a single
by
of

necessity,the

consciousness

or

of

their

collective

consciousness

.^^ It

is

evidently explained by the one

object at which they are all
for any spectahas a double
gazing. The appearance
tor
cause,
reflects light to his eye, causing
first,the object which
of the
sensation; secondly the representation of the cause
a
sensation
as
pictured by the imagination of the spectator.
The
to all the spectators,
essentiallythe same
appearance,
is accepted by them, as the object itself,as known
to sight;
but really,it is a picture of what
they infer to be true of the
object.
Idealism
holds good for the picture but not for the objective
Cause
is something more
than the formal
cause.
unity
of our
it
is
its
is
consciousness;
essence
dynamic;
very
energy;
it is the necessary
condition
of every
is
not
event; it
explained
"

PHILOSOPHICAL

242

callingit

THEORIES

the

in distinction
thing in itselfor the noumenon,
from
the phenomenal appearance,
designatingit by x, as the
unknown,
saying, "if it is something different from all our
is not this
But
representations,it is reallynothing to us."
the thing of interest in philosophy, the real object of our
quest,
is a representation,
the object of which
the phenomenon
though doubtless a partialand imperfect picture. The phenomena
of sightare, therefore,the pictured knowledge of the
in general are
related
objects,and phenomena of the senses
their representatives,adequate only to a
to the objects as
certain degree. Likewise
the a:,
the ego is the noumenon,
or
the essential condition
of subjective phenomena.
It will not
be necessary
to follow, in all its details, the
Critique,the great work of Kant, which is eminently worthy of
careful consideration
the most
of every thinker in philosophy;
but we
shall content
ourselves, by calling attention to his
y

so-called antinomies

of the

pure

his criticisms

and

reason,

the theoretical

of
of

proofs of the existence of God, the freedom

In regard to the
will,and the immortality of the soul.
two
antinomies, that is, that
contradictory propositions
both
be
proved true by reasoning, as Kant maintains,
may
be
shown
Let us take two
to be false.
truths, both true
may
them
by hypothesis, that is,both true in fact, and suppose
to
that the truth of either involves
conflict,which
means
the falsityof the other; then
eack is both
and false at
true
the same
which
is selftime, and taking in the same
sense,
all
that
follows
destructive
and
impossible. It therefore
truths
This
is an
exist in harmony.
intuition of reason.
the

Furthermore

clash, that
is the
Kant

demonstrations
it may
be said that no
two
can
is,be mutually destructive, for a demonstration

logical proof
claims to prove

ispace.
2,

The

world

has

The

world

has

true
premises.
proposition from
both of the followingpropositions:
a
beginning in time and is limited in

of

no

beginning

in

time

and

no

limit in

space.

Evidently,these propositions cannot

and

there

must

be

some

reasoning from
premises

is, if the

conclusion

must

be

true
are

true.

flaw in Kant's

premises
true

and

Thus

both

proved

trtie,

demonstration.

cal
Logi-

involve

that

cannot

the
we

be

may

error,

reasoning logical,the
know

the unsound-

KANT

reasoning

of Kant's

ness

What
not
true

intended

Kant

that

two

in any

experience,

US

without

examining

teach

to

by these

antinomies

propositions could
legitimate application of reason
conflictive

that

but

contradictories

these

his argument.

both

was,

be

proved

in the

field of

would

result

with

speculative reason
beyond the
that
and
limits of experience; and
though God, freedom
immortality could not be theoreticallyproved, neither can
these
they be theoretically disproved, yet he vindicated
of
within
the
sphere
practicalreason,
great objects of belief
whenever

which

we

shows,
but

moral

life.

shown

the

ventured

what

not

what
It

we

we

must

ought

is, however,

impossibilityof
We

accept

to believe

as
as

matter

of demonstration,

helpful guides
whether

Kant

questionable
proving these great doctrines
shall

to

has

by

see.
speculativereasoning.
be classified
The
usual proofs of the existence of God
may
the Cosmological,the Physico-TheologicaL
the Ontological,
as
criticism of the Ontological proof as formulated
Kant's
by
The
be regarded as conclusive.
fact
Descartes, may
mere
that we
have
a
conception of a perfect being, together with
is necessary
the fact that existence
to perfection,is no
proof
himself
Descartes
seemed
that such a being exists.
to have
infer from
the fact that he
of its validity,as we
doubt
a
attempted to strengthen the argument, by saying that the
idea of a perfectbeing is too great for us to form, and hence
have
formed
within
been
that it must
us
by this perfect
and
this
that, therefore,
perfect being actually
being himself,
idea
form
of a more
exists.
We
the
certainly can
perfect
limit
and
is
the
than
what
the
to
ourselves,
degree of
being
form?
can
perfection of the idea which we
Granting the
existence of an unconditioned
being, still the necessity of our
The
fact of the
unconditioned.
idea of that being is not
necessity of the existence of the three angles of a triangle,
is equal to two
and that their sum
lute,
right angles, is not absobut conditioned
the existence
of the triangle. To
on
dictory,
accept the triangleand to reject the three angles is contrabut to rejectthe triangleas well as the angles is not
contradictory,but is simply error*
The
same
thing applies to the concept of an absolutely
his existence, or
rather, if his
being. Remove
necessary
existence
be not
assumed, his perfection is not implied as

PHILOSOPHICAL

244

The

necessary.

only

way

THEORIES
to

absolute

evade

this is to say that the

but this is what
Kant

be removed;
being cannot
calls in question, saying it is the very
thing to be proved,
so-called
that
the
Ontologicalproof is no
rightlydeclaring
of the

demonstration

existence

of God.

Cosmologic proof of the existence

its fallacy. He
of God, and
the
states
attempts to show
thus: "If there exists anything, there must
exist
argument
fore
I, at least,exist;therean
being. Now
absolutelynecessary
exists an
there
absolutely necessary
Being." With
regard to this,Kant says: ''This proof therefore begins with
experience,and is not entirelya priori,or ontological;and as
the object of all possibleexperience is called the world, this
proof is called the cosmologicalproof. As it takes no account
of any
peculiar property of the objects of experience, by
which
this world
differ from
of ours
other possible
any
may
it
is
also
It
is distinguished
world,
distinguishedin its name.
the physico-theological
which
from
proof,
employs as arguments,
observations
of this our
of the peculiar property
Kant

world
"In

now

takes

up

the

of sense."
order

to

have

secure

foundation, this proof takes its

experience,and pretends to be different from the

ontologicalproof, which places its whole confidence in pure
cosmological proof, however,
concepts a priori only. The
that experienceonly in order to make
uses
one
step, namely,
to the existence of a necessary
Being in general. What
erties
proplearnt from
the
that Being may
be
have, can
never
and
for that
takes
reason
empirical argument,
purpose,
leave of it altogether,and tries to find out, from among
cepts
conBeing
only, what propertiesan absolutely necessary
which
all possible things contains
ought to possess, i. e.,
among
in itself,
the requisiteconditions of absolute
necessity.
This requisiteis believed by reason
exist
in
the
to
concept
of an
realissimum
and
at
ens
reason
concludes,
only,
once,
that this must
this
be the absolutely necessary
In
Being.
conclusion
it is simply assumed
that a concept of a being of
the highest realityis perfectlyadequate to the concept of
absolute
necessityin existence; so that the former might be
concluded
from
the latter.
This is the same
proposition as
that maintained
in the ontologicalargument,
and is simply
taken over
into the cosmologicalproof,nay
tion,
its foundamade
to avoid
it.
although the intention was
stand

on

"

KANT

The

245

claims

cosmological proof

than

more

is warranted

of the universe
it says that the existence
absolute
The
necessity of an eternal cause.
when

that

necessary;

universe; it is

the
we

conceive

can

be

known

not

universe

cause

or

go

in

direct

the

traced

an

order

would

have

been

cause

would
the

reach

be

must

cause

is either

would

end

The

an

or

eternal, otherwise

first

cannot

end;

present.

cause

the

causes

never

of

for,

universe

These

reach

ever

therefore

must

this first

Now

it

the

ditionally
con-

condition

exists;therefore, the
this

series,which

could

is

absolutely necessary;

preceding causes.

infinite

back,

universe

the

is actual, and

the effect of

back

be

to

of the

proof

cause

the

as

of its non-existence, then

non-existent; but

of the

is, necessary

is

in

nor

series,

first

cause.

there

never

for

not
non-entity can
jump into
is,therefore, conditionallynecessary
being. The first cause
and actual, and is adequate to the production of the universe,
and is called God, the actuality of whose
existence
know,
we
its mystery
is beyond our
reach.
But
the actuality of the
first cause
and its adequacy to the production of the universe

sufficeth

for

anything,

it is open

reason;

faith

to

believe

to

the

first

absolute.

cause

We

in

therefore, warranted

are,

of the

universe

is

inferringthat
series

of

the

present

of

infinite,in extent,

a
proof
past events
law
of causality, indefinite, though not
who
terminating in a head or first cause,

is

and

state

connected

the

by

unconditioned

infinite in extent.^
event

every

there
we

is

hence

"

Secondly, the
eternity itself
the

left

series

end

"

the

whole

of

the

not

why:

reasons

of the

cause

series

without

is

infinite series

an

would

two

are

is

series

First,though

explained by the preceding cause,

far back
thing unexplained, however

one

the

Why

be

to

the

trace

may

There

seems

always

eternal.

can

suffice;for it has

not

last

plained
ex-

explanation.
be

never

not

event;

end.

reached,
Then

as

would

order

backward,
order, or
never
cease,
reach
the
order
f
orward,could never
order, or
present.
direct
has
in
the
end,
order, a
series,therefore,
an
or

reverse

the direct
The

beginning.

this

Now

in the

direct

empirically known,
As not dependent on
it is

eternal, else

end

in the

reverse

order,

or

the

order, is rationallyapprehended,

for

then

it would

ginning
benot

require explanation.
it is unconditioned;
antecedent,
thing
any
from
it jumped
non-entity into being,

PHILOSOPHICAL

246

which

is impossible. This first cause

that is,necessary
on
necessary,

universe

is,which
when

warrant

for
of its

we

we

to

that

the

say

do

we

know

know

not

non-existence;but

would

first

THEORIES

be

then

is actual.

As

the
fact.

first

cause

and

that,

if that

non-existent, which

cause

be

is therefore

is not

assumption that the

We
go beyond our
is absolutely necessary;

we

can

universe

therefore, the

case;

the

first cause,
universe, that is,

the

conceive

even

true, the

were

the

ally
condition-

it is

adequate

to

production of the
contains, within
wisdom
and
itself,everything of power,
goodness requisite
for the execution
of the mighty work
of creation.
How
God
he is absolutely necessary
be, whether
can
or
not, reason
does

inform

not

but

us;

that

God, the first

ent
transcend-

cause,

wisdom
in power,
and goodness, jactuklly
exists,we may
with the full Assurance
know
of certainty;and
suffithat is cient.
The

Space will

God, but refer

has

to

by

such

not

*'The

creator

who

have

no

be

of

observers
the cobwebs

the

whose

adopt
be

so

argument,

an

architect

material

oj the worlds

with

which

he

very

physico-theologicalargument
coy

with

of nature, to look down

of dark speculators.

the

be

idea everything is subject.

the

and

could

therefore, that

utmost,

to

to

reason

mode

as

icisms
follow, in the details of his crit-

to

proof, would
hampered by

Those
.

us

much

very

work,

any

physico-theologico proof of the existence of

readers to the Critique itself,
ever,
our
quoting,how-

sentences:

established

always

allow

not

the

three

den\

not

God.

perfectionto
of

does

cosmological proof, however,

the

towards

such

upon

The
.

of

conceit

the

and

lightened
en-

ments
argu-

physico-

cosmological

cendental
trans-

the

logical
cosmotheologicalproof
the ontologicalproof of the existence of one
original
on
denies the
Being as the Supreme Being.'' Though Kant
validity of the theoretical argument,
yet he grants that
The
the conclusions
act
true.
as
practicallywe may
upon
cosmological argument, however, and the physico-theological
based
it,hold good for all that is required, but render
upon
themselves
to criticism,by claiming, according to the
open
than
presupposed necessities of preconceived opinions, more
the premises logicallysupport.

rests

As

to

the

freedom

though denying

the

on

of

the

will, Kant

accepts

validityof its theoretical

the

proof.

fact,

It may

KANT
be said, however,
of

not

passive

are

conscious

of

The

motives

determination.

activityin volition,
are

that
without
we
act, and
soHcitation.
The
voUtions,

without

not

we

which

of

account

that

247

caused; but

the

mind

which

on

constraint, yet
events,

as

is not

them

causes

reasons

are

event,

an

of vohtion, not
then
being existing at the moment
If it is inquired what
made
the mind
requiring a cause.
the vohtion, the reply is, it was
made
make
not
to make
it,
made
it freely,in view
of motives
but
as
reasons,
yet not
believe
ourselves
We
causes.
free,
as
compelled by them
irresistible
and
and
hence
the
not
influences,
compelled by
of
of
the
conscience, approving the
explanation
phenomena
The
the
of
consciousness
condemning
right and
wrong.
effort in volition
that we
not
are
passive but active
proves
in willing.
Likewise
admits
fact of immortality, though
Kant
the
be
denying the validityof its proof. As our thoughts cannot
refer
them
mind.
to
explained by material
agencies we
and mind, as species of the common
Matter
substance,
genus,
the ground of union
of body and
soul, are united in life and
As
be explained by
not
separated at death.
thought can
it is referred
to mind
matter,
or
or
spirit,as its noumenon
but

condition.

necessary

soul

and
have

we

no

death,

at

But

of

body

we

must

not
to

reason

but

the Pure

does

imply
that

leave

the

it survives

of Kant's

of the

annihilation

the
that

suppose

rather
take

dissolution

the

Death

soul
in

extinct

eternal

work,

erf

either, and

becomes
an

immortal

of

union

the

state.

Critique

Reason.

shows
that
Critique of the Practical Reason, Kant
various
as
principles,empirically determined, serve
guides
if
the
condition
These
to the will.
principlesare subjective,
will
holds
for
the
of the subject, but objective if they
only
hold for all rational beings.
of intelligence
Kant
"It is a matter
for surprise that men
says:
be drawn
should
imagine that a real distinction
may
the ground
between
the lower
and higher faculty of desire on
with
that
ideas
associated
the feelings of
which
some
are
in undertheir source
in sense
and
others
standing.
pleasure have
In

his

"

and

The

distinction

higher faculty of

desire

is not
but

drawn

between

between
the

lower

the
and

lower

higher

PHILOSOPHICAL

248

objectsof

desire.

Sense

THEORIES

and

furnish

of desire, but

understanding

faculties

not

are

objects of

of which

desire, some
they
desired
others.
be
than
to
more
are
worthy
desire for happiness Kant
holds to be the usual subThe
jective
of individual
condition
for
action, but will not serve
universal
a practical,
guide. Kant, however, does not recognize
distinction
and
lower
between
of
forms
higher
any
feelingof pleasure, which is the
pleai^ure;for he says: "The
real motive
to act, is always
by which the will is determined
in kind, not
it can
be known
the same
only because
only
in
desire
the
vital energy
same
empirically,but because
every
difference
The
between
is always expressed.
only
pleasures
of
The
will, as a faculty,is not
is, therefore, one
degree."
of
determined
by motive, but the ego itself exerts its power
choice

and

which

is

is not

the

not

reason

only

for action.

motive

''So

declares:

heard

Again,

cause.

in view
the

of the

desire

Conscience

for
has

motive

pleasure
voice,
a

obeyed. Suppose that in desire

is always expressed, it does not follow
vital energy
the same
in quality, or
that the objects of desire are
always the same
that one
Worthiness
ought not to be preferred to another.
is the supreme
of character
subjective object of desire, and
the ultimate good.
these are
God the objective;
that
Practical
teaches
the
Reason
Kant
gives us Ood,
the
Pure
Reason
fails to
freedom and immortality, though
their
the
In
demonstrate
this,
reality.
practical reason
be
must
our
guide.
be a practicallaw, for the motive
is subjective
Self-love cannot
of practical
law
and
empirical; but the supreme
of which
are
we
primarily and directly conscious,
reason,
which

is often

volitions

its own

determines

act

perfect harmony
is the
is the

ratio

Virtue

and

the

that
with

ratio essendi

universal

of the

cognoscendiof

is the

maxims

supreme

excellence.

of your

system

moral

will may
of laws."

law, but

the

be

in

dom
Free-

moral

law

freedom.

good.

will to

be

virtuous

is

only perfection, but happiness,

continued
happiness, is a legitimate object of
even
in its
confirmed
desire.
The
will is to be disciplinedand
it is needful
to
desire for perfect moral
excellence, which
this
work
habit
but
in
manifest
and
conduct,
as
character;
in
be
this
"the
life,
can
highest good is,
completed
never
the chief moral

Not

The

XXI

CHAPTER

Fickle, Jacobiy Schelling

in

Rammenau,

school, he

listened

eagerly

in

was

Before

going

to

His

and

intellectual

neighbors,
always knew

"we

who

he
cocious
pre-

of

turn

said, after
that

Gottleib

remarkable

He
of

friends

distinction,

reached

had

born

was

things

development.

his

impressed

mind
he

mental

his

Lusatia.

Upper

many

and

to

Fichte

by his father, which

readily assimilated, as he was

taught

was

in

village

Gottlieb

Johann

(1762-1814).

Fichte

1,

was

the

boy."
intelligent, and

so

reading

the

that

would

he

His

his

that

sense,

father

become

imagination

appreciation
the
duty of

an

him

to

the

cherished

and

desire

minister.

powerfully impressed by

so

was

such

assigned

family,

the

for

prayers

with

read

able
remark-

Siegfried the Horned, that for a time he lost

in other
interest
things, and for neglect of duty, was
severely
to
obey, at least the
Resolving
spirit of the
punished.
offend
thee, cut it off and cast
injunction, If thy right hand
the
make
it from
to
sacrifice, and
thee, he resolved
taking
after
bank
and
short
the book
river
to the
struggle with his
a
called

book

affection,
as

he

saw

deed,

asked

him

and

was

boy.

of how

Soon

Rammenau,

the

favorite

with

how

much

of the

astonished

at

the

on

for

visit

the

to

report

Miltiz,

Count

village,expressed his regret that

The
Count
morning.
Sunday
sermon,
for there
is a boy in the
village who
of the

250

motive

he
he

was

from

was

one

the
late
no

the

the

day

one

too

preach

understood.
mis-

remembered,

said, "It is
can

be

who

heard

who

his

wicked

may

Hoffmansegg,
he

of

supposed

motives

sermon

tears,

father, coming

the

village pastor,

last

von

his

to

way

His

the

purest

accurate

this, Baron

after

gave

beyond
misunderstanding

unmercifully

illustration

was

and

stream,

his reach.

and
him

Gottlieb

day

at

an

the

forever

moment,

chastised

son,

it into

it float

the

at

up

cast

lord

for the

matter,
sermon

Accordingly

memory."

from

of the

the astonishment

eloquent

SCHELLING

JACOBI,

FICHTE,

Gottlieb

for, and

sent

was

delivered

Baron,

251

the

discourse

in

to
an

manner.

impx'essed that he resolved to provide

for his education, and
accordingly took him to his castle;
but the gloom of the castle depressed the spirits
of the boy,
and
Sympathizing with
unfavorably affected his health.
him to the family of a
the Baron
removed
the boy's feelings,
of the happiest
neighboring clergyman, where he spent some
of his life. Here he began the study of language, which
years
he continued
at the
and
then
at
High School of Meissen
Schulpforte.
far from
His life at Schulpforte was
pleasant. His fellow
for the most
students
were
part uncongenial, and the one
him
in
had
unreasonable
who
and
charge, was
especially
Gottlieb
learned the important lesson of
overbearing; but
The

Baron

was

so

self-reliance.

Meeting with

inflamed

great zest, and

in

reach

troublesome

resolution

with

to

his

put

he
opportunity presentingitself,
trudged on, he called to mind
"It is best

pastor say:

ask

to

off in the

companions.
churlish
guardian,

felt free

he

away,

some

his

to

Crusoe, he read it with

enthusiasm, resolved to make

island, afar

his abode
of

of Robinson

copy

when

for the

Having
he

as

resolve
set

off for

what

he

about

to

blessingof

God

in

engage
rest

An
As

Noumberg.
often

heard

he
his

taking
under-

new

on

his

sneak

to

execution.

had

to

reported

scorned

into

of the

out

ocean,

the

prise."
enter-

Kneeling by the road-side, he prayed for divine

It occurred
direction in his wanderings.
to him, while praying,
his parents again, and that they
that he would
never
see
his loss. This he could not
would
bear, and at
grieve over
On returning he was
resolved to retrace
his steps.
met
once
been
had
to leave
ported
reby a party in pursuit, as his purpose
by the student to whose charge he had been assigned.
He

was

taken

before

related the whole

placed in
so

the

the

matter,

charge

great kindness

Rector, and
that

of another

that

Fichte

he

not

was

student
ever

to

who

after

him

he

frankly

so

only forgiven,but
treated
felt for

with

him
him

great

affection.

Knowing
for

of his parents, Fichte became

his patron dying, he abandoned

the wishes

orders, but

date
candi-

all

hope

PHILOSOPHICAL

252

THEORIES

becoming a minister, and accepted the position of a tutor

he remained
in a family in Zurich, Switzerland, where
two
in
the
of
the
Johanna
meantime,
making
acquaintance
years,
of
This
fortunate
niece
Rahn, a
proved a most
Klopstock.
his wife, most
acquaintance for Fichte, for this lady became
devoted
and helpful. While
a
tutor, Fichte kept a journal
in which
he noted
the faults, not only of his pupils,but also
of

of their parents,

those

it

read

to

them

every

week.

relation of his tutorship could not endure,

to the relief of all conat length broken
off,much
cerned.

was

Fichte

private lessons
that
of

he

overstrained

This
and

which

Fichte

Kant.

The

Leipzig, and engaged in giving

in language and philosophy. It was
in Leipzig
first became
acquainted with the writings
philosophy of Kant, especially his ethical
went

to

writings,gave Fichte great satisfaction,and he characterizes

this period as the happiest of his life. He
writes to Kant:
"To
that I now
the declaration
believe,
especiallyI owe
you
with

whole

this

heart, in free will, and that I see that under

supposition alone can
duty, virtue, and morality have

any

existence."

my

He
of
A

visited Kant

introduction,a
Critiqueof every
the

Fichte

value

of

Konigsberg, taking with him, by way

which
he had just finished,entitled
Kant
at once
possibleRevelation,
nized
recogthe production, and received him
warmly.
at

treatise

in straits for money,

but Kant, who
could render
him
but littleaid.
Fichte revised his Critiqueand published it
was

was

not

rich,

anonymously.
gained great applause, partly by its merits, and partly,
no
doubt, because it was
generallytaken to be the work of
Kant
Fichte
himself; but its authorship becoming known,
acquired great celebrity,which secured for him the chair of
of the leading
philosophy in the University at Jena, one
universities of Germany.
he labored
Here
earnestly,not
only for the intellectual development, but for the moral
elevation
of the students.
The
favorable
for
position was
the calm maturing of his philosophy, and
considered
was
so
at first,
raised
by Fichte himself; but the cry of Atheism
was
against him, and the charge made
that he was
endeavoring
It

to

undermine

resigned

the institutions of the Church.

his

position. He

was

called

Fichte
to

the

ly
promptchair

of

FICHTE,

Erlangen,

afterwards

and

philosophy

at

both

institutions,labored

these

great popularity.
At Berlin, Fichte
The
at

one

of

lectured

to

with

253

at

Berlin, and

success,

and

acquired

of enthusiastic

crowds

in

ents.
stud-

agitatedby the Napoleonic wars; and

his lectures,he was
interrupted by martial music

in the street

country

was

the sound

"

voice, and

his

SCHELLING

JACOBI,

drum

fife.

and

''Gentlemen, this

said:

suspended tillthe

of the

course

Fichte

raised

of lectures

is

campaign. We will then resume

in a free country, or perish in the attempt to recover
them
of applaudFichte passed through the crowd
her freedom."
ing
of
the
He
students, andplacedhimself in the ranks
army.
his
resumed
fell
He
lectures.
to a malignant
a victim
never
fever then prevailingin the army.
Let us now
retrace the principal
steps taken by philosophy
end

of the

from

of Modern
Descartes, the founder
Philosophy, to
Fichte, the EgoisticIdealist.
Descartes began with doubt; but doubt was
a fact, since he
is to think, and to think is
conscious of it;but to doubt
was
to exist; or as Descartes
expressed himself, Cogito ergo sum.
His

next

step

was

to

prove

the

existence

of God.

He

said:

perfectbeing; but existence is necessary

to perfection; that
perfect being, therefore, exists. This
conclusion he strengthened by saying as the idea of a perfect
being is too great for me to form, it must have been formed
in me
by that perfectbeing, that is,by God himself; hence
exists.
God
He
next
passed to the existence of a material
world.
Our faculties affirm that material objectsexist;there
God
has
therefore, be material objects, otherwise
must,
since
God
is too
given us lying faculties,which is impossible,
deceive.
is the only essential property
Extension
good to
hence
material things are
not
we
can
predicate of body;
and
and
of
them
affect
cannot
dynamic,
knowledge
our
us,
is caused by the intervention of God, or is miraculous.
and
Geulincx
Malebranche, though not denying to matter
dynamic attributes, and admitting that material
objects
excite
could
the
that
denied
matter
act on
might
yet
senses,
external
mind.
the occasion, when
Therefore, on
objects
"I

have

excited

an

the

idea of

organs

of

sense,

God

sensations to awaken
attention, and
the idea of the object;hence what
we
of

things,or

we

see

all things in God.

intervened

and

gave

us

presented us with
perceive is God's ideas

then

PHILOSOPHICAL

254

Spinoza held
nature, with an
and
extension

that

THEORIES
is but

there

infinite number

substance

one

of attributes, two

thought, having

God

"

of

or

which,

possible modes, are

this he deduced
known
his philosophy, which
to us ; and from
which is not atheistic,but pantheistic.
Liebniz resolved every
thing into monads, or livingpoints,
in degree of perfection
without magnitude, greatlydiffering
many

"

the

to

up

on,

world

The

the world

without

semi-conscious

others

dormant,

some

highest degree

of

conscious, and

or

of matter, constituted
of the
of mind
of the higher monads,

himself.

God

to
rationality,

lower

so

and

monads,

co-operated,though
interaction, according to a pre-established

causal

harmony.
held that all

Locke

that

ideas

our

from

come

sensation

and

flection;
re-

know

things only through the intervention

matter
sets of properties primary,
of ideas;
two
and secondary, as the causes
extension, form, divisibility;
as
of color,taste or smell; that our ideas of the primary qualities
ideas of the secondary
that our
correspond to these qualities;
which
to those
are
qualitieshave no resemblance
qualities,
we

that

had

"

occult.

Berkeley maintained
but

as

there

we

was

Hume
but
some

affected from
without

power

was

power

are

that

we

without,

capable

of

did

he

not

ideas,

doubt

that

affectingus,

and

that

Spirit.
denied

not

only

the

existence

substantial

also that of mind; and said all he found

He
denied cause
sensation or idea.
the relation of
and

but

perceivenothing

and

cause

effect into

perceptionof

was
as

of matter

resolving
efficiency,

that

of antecedence

consequence.

knowledge within the limit of experience,

maintaining that we can know nothing but phenomena given
but set in the forms
of space
and time given a
a posteriori,
priori,merely as forms of thought. The phenomena were
the experiencesof the subject. Kant, however, did not
perceptions of
deny things in themselves, apart from our
but held that they were
them, and called them
noumena,
Kant

restricted

wholly unknown;

that

if

we

attempt

to

transcend

the

limits

experience,the result will be illusion;that the realityof

God, freedom, and immortality cannot, therefore,be proved;
but that we
practically
accept these realities as guides
may
to a righteous life.
of

JACOBI,

FICHTE,
Let

return

now

us

it

of Kant,

thing

or

noumenon,

Fichte,

to

itself,as

in

in itself is unknowable,

that

held

retain

why

255

Starting with

inevitable

almost

was

SCHELLING

he

would

Kant.

by

philosophy

the

it,rather

reject the
If the thing

why

not

reject

this,accordingly,Fichte did.
altogether?
Rejecting
he began with
without
the noumenon,
something he knew
that.^
Fichte
the
answered, I know
question; and what was
rational principleto be true, that if anything exists, it is
And

it

itself;if ^ is, then

law

since

exist,and
law

The

Since

identity.

of

is ^, which

identity is

of

knows
the truth of this
the ego, which
reality,the only fact absolutely known

by the aid of
philosophy. That

the

ego,

calls the

which

Ding

law

of the

limitation

The

foundation

the

to

the

law

of

and

other .^

the

an

If

point of departure
of
object. Which
we

abstract

essential thing, and

be

the

products

the
our

thus:
these

ego,

we

sensations

of this

object; if

left the ego with its sensations

calls dogmatism,
former, Fichte

have

that each is irreconcilable

idealism, and maintains
third way,
the other, and that, as there is no
must
we

latter

with
choose
need

the

as

ego

object as
representations must
abstract the object,we
representations. The

the

Fichtean

of the

with

ego,

left the

have

and

reduced

be

must

the

conjointly the

have

we

the self-

or

philosophy
identity,
ego, which,
its
self-limitations,
thing
acts, including
every
ego.

fortified

Fichte

and

mind,

itself.

from

We

principle;

law, is the fundamental

from
the
to be, and

of the

act

is,therefore, the

evolves, by its

rational

identity,is evolved all genuine

to limit the
thing which seems
the thing in itself.
noumenon,

sick, is simply the proper

an

/
true, then
law of identity.

of

external

Kant

be

to

/, by the

am

fundamental

the

ego,

highest principle,or

this law

/ know

exist,then

is the

between

the two.

abstract

not

Fichte

says

real, while
we

to

the

either the
ego

the
have

account

There

appears

is,however,

ego

or

the

third

way,

we

object.

in consciousness

and

is therefore

invention, since in consciousness

object is a mere
matism,
only that which is perceived; hence dogwith somefor representation,must
start
thing

given in consciousness, that is, with assumed

being, not representation, nor capable of giving representations.
Idealism
the
alternative,
is, therefore,
only correct
for that does not start with being of which
know
nothing,
we
not

PHILOSOPHICAL

256

with

but

conscious

THEORIES

of

hence
is
intelligence;
intelligence
there belongs to it no
being, but

acts

active, not

passive, and
simply acting.
does not acting require something which
But
acts?
Can
this is impossible. Acting is
acting act? To my
reason,
^
is
of
^
but
act than
acting can no more
acting, course, as
;
who
Acting requiresa being
running can run.
acts; knowing
who
the
is
but
the ego,
not
knows;
knowing
impliesan ego
than running is the boy who
but knowing is
more
runs;
any
the act of the ego, a being having personalidentity,as proved
of past acts.
by his memory
that acting is possiblewithout
Fichte has not shown
an
thinker.
He
a
actor, or that thinking is possible without
possible.
has not shown
that the noumenon,
or
thing in itself is imOf course,
is no
an
object known
longer a thing
that knows
but is a thing in relation to a mind
in itself,
the
the
thing; the phenomenon which we represent, as
ance
appearof the thing, is our
the
of
knowledge
thing expressed in
less a truthful representation
or
pictorialform, and is more
of that thing. The
idealism of Fichte is simply hypothesis,
the most
reasonable
and by no means,
edge.
explanationof knowlLet

take

us

the

out-come

of Fichte's

philosophy as stated
is absolutely
There

total is this:
sum
by himself: "The
either without
within me,
but
me
or
nothing permanent,
absolutely nothing of
only an unceasing change. I know
I myself know
of my
existence, not even
own.
nothing,
any
there
and am
nothing. Images
are; they constitute all that
of them
is after the
apparently exist, and what we know
of images; images that pass and vanish without there
manner
being aught to witness their transition;that consist in fact of
the images of images, without
aim.
and without
significance
of the images; nay,
I am
thus
not
one
I, myself, am
even
much, but only a confused
image of images. All realityis
into

converted

of, and

only of
the

source

without
a

marvelous
a

mind

to

dream,

dream;

without a life to dream

made
iiito a dream
up

dream

of itself. Perception is a dream; thought

all the reality which
of all the existence and

imagine to myself of my existence,of my

is the dream
of that dream."

power,

of my

"

tion
destina-

"

Fichte
other

Kantian, and
supposed that his view was
of Kant
mistaken
when they
were
interpreters

that

the

affirmed

PHILOSOPHICAL

258

THEORIES

positingitself;the ego is,therefore, the originalthesis or

starting point, the first principle of philosophy giving the

of

of

category

reality. The

consciousness

ego,

is,however,

the

unique individual

of

subject

special
original

any

ego, the

realityknown.

principleis,non-A is not Ay which

that A has been previously posited. What
non-A
is
supposes
that it is the opposite
in itself,
I do not yet know, I only know
of A; but A is posited through the ego, the only realityabsolutely
there can
be an absolute
posited. Hence
opposition
The
only to the ego, and that opposition is the non-ego.
logicallaw of contradiction is.Ego is not non-ego,
or
non-ego
This
is not
second
the
of
gives
principle
category
ego.
negation.
that by the law of identitywe
It might seem
could affirm
that

non-ego

it that

by

same;

other

The

third

How

the

the

to

non-ego.
ego

the

itself;but

not

do

it is not

to

indeed, if we
if the

say

that

safe to

use

two

mean

non-egos
non-ego

any

the

formula

explainthe reciprocalrelation

of the

Each

other.

the

know

non-ego

impression

non-ego

Kant's

can

that

so

step is

the

knows

In

we

for it will not

non-ego,

the

can

ego

this

non-A.

to

ego

is

non-ego

any

is any
non-A

and

non-ego,

the

not

are

fundamental

second

The

of

active.

seems

to

suppress

Fichte

non-ego?
hindrance

or

limitation, the

ego

as

But

the

limitation
seems

the

answers:

of itself.

passive

and

identical with

this non-ego
in itself.^ In one

is not

it is,that
sense
thing
of being something, the opposite of the ego;
is, in the sense
but
the non-ego
is regarded differentlyby the two
phers.
philosoject,
Kant
regarded it as something independent of the subthing in itself,while Fichte supposed it to be the
a
creation by the subject,made
act of self-limitation.
by its own
thus

We

or

noumenon,

have

the

category

of limitation.

The

ego

and

the

gories
reciprocallylimit each other; hence also the cateof quantity and
the
original
divisibility.The
ego,
limitations
activity,posits,in itself,a divisible non-ego,
as

non-ego

of

divisible Ego.

Can

regard the apparent objects about us as posited

A person
bles,
stumby the Ego?
walking through a dark room,
chair.
Did
he
posit the
unexpectedly to himself, on a
chair in the sense
hindrance?
Here
Kant's
of creating a
we

PICHTE,

JACOBl,

SCHELLING

259

Fichte's.
better than
The
chair seemed
explanation seems
of
the
and
drance.
to exist independently
proved to be a hinego,
also
fault.
But Kant's
The
chair
at
theory appears
when
the
stumbled
was
no
on
longer a thing by itself,
person
conflict
with
in
obstruction
but
his
to
it,
him, as an
was
sharp
Kant

progress.

would

say,

however,

the
shock, the
phenomenon,
image of what the appearance
knows
be suddenly lighted. He
cause

noise
would

all he

knows

is the

the
made,
imaginary
should
be, if the room

also that

there

is

tive
objecsurprise,and the appearance,
but in decided
tion
relaitself,
an

of the shock, the noise, the

longer a thing in
who
to himself
ran
against the chair.
We
of the reciprocalrelation
regard the phenomena
may
of the ego and non-ego
in two
lights: With the conception
of cause
we
posit, through the passivity of the Ego, the
the ground of that passivity. The
as
activityof the non-ego,
passivityand the activitydiffer in quality,the passivitybeing
This is the view
not simply a diminished
activityof the ego.
Realism,
of Dogmatic
With
the
conception of substance,
we
posit the passivity of the ego through its activity,by a
diminished
activity, as the real ground of the apparent
the
passivity,
quality
passivity of the ego being of the same
its
in
but
less
as
activity,
quantity. The apparent passivity
and the activitydiffer in quantity. This is the view of Dogmatic
all
Idealism,
that
aflBrms
Thus, D""gmatic Idealism,
is only the realitygiven to it by the
realityof the non-ego
be given
that nothing can
asserts
ego; and Dogmatic Realism
pendent
unless it be something to receive, as an indeto the non-ego
reality,or thing in itself.
The
contradiction
between
these views, Fichte
attempted
in a new
ideal synthesis,making the real ground
to reconcile
identical with the ideal ground, by showing that the simple
activity of the ego is not the ground for the realityof the
is not
and
that the simple activity of the non-ego
non-ego,
the ground for the passivity of the ego.
In Fichte's
new
ideal synthesis,he conceives
hindrance
that the ego meets
a
when
its activity can
be no
farther extended, and is drawn
back 'into itself,producing self-limitation.
The
or
non-ego,
what
call an
external
we
object, is the activity of the ego
inconceivable
hindrance, which
we
impinging on some
sent
repreas
an
a portion of space.
object filling
a

cause

no

PHILOSOPHICAL

260
what

But
back

us

is this hindrance?
what

is

which

which

Fichte's
called

Kant

in relation to

hindrance,

Fichte

with

as

as

well

the

we

as

in the

can,

own
minds, and in this
truth
of idealism.
The

It is not

us.

calls it,but

real

phenomenal

appearance,

construction

is

of

lies the

appearance

appearance

ceivable
incon-

an

object which

phenomenal

object, is

of the

help

synthesisbrings
thing in itself,but

new

the

only to
truly a thing

represent,

we

THEORIES

ideal; the

our

real

objective

is real.

cause

Fichte's
Moral

action

advance
as

the

conscience

the

to

is

goal advances

vision

our

of his theoretical.
out
philosophy grew
strivingafter ideal perfection;but as we

ethical

before

requires, will

moral

by

order

God

The

clearer.

becomes

lead

to

us

or

conform

which

that

rule. Do

conduct

our

order

is the

dained
or-

it, is itself

conceived

Fichte

as

remote

more

seems

universe, which

of the

himself,

and

us,

God.
Jacobi

2.

(1743-1819). Friedrich

Heinrich

Jacobi, born

the second
of a wealthy merchant.
Diisseldorf, was
son
He
was
educated, according to the direction of his father,
at

for

commercial

fort-on-the-Main.

Geneva,

to

in

of

age

sixteen, where

thoughtfulstudy, associatinghimself

scientific circles of the

by extensive
In

1763, he

large
great
He

and

took

four years

with

the

literaryand
of thought

range

in the

his father's

place
which

the

as

he

following

head

of the

with

managed

success.

gave

up

of the

gained

in 1770, and became

a
of Juliers and
duchies
Berg,

his commercial

council
to

career

for the

distinction

philosophy,and

as

keep

his home

financier

was

the

center

Philosophy,were

contributions

journal projected by
other
friends.
Among
be

mentioned,

the

to

himself
his

the
and

reformer.

and

of

on

and

circle of friends

and

Economics

Mercury,
Wieland,

contributions

He

in literature

his interest

up

distinguishedfor literaryability.
Some
of his earliest writings, both

may

spent

Diisseldorf, and

to

establishment,

continued, however,

of

he

city,and enlarginghis

returned

commercial

member
and

sent

was

reading.

married

year

Frank-

at

he

complete his education,

To

the

at

and

Diisseldorf

partly at

career,

to

ary
liter-

new

with
this

the

aid

journal

Correspondence of Allwell, a

com-

JACOBI,

FICHTE,
bination

of fiction

and

novel, which

by

SCHELLING

philosophy,

exhibits

Jacobi's

and

Waldemar,

philosophic
osophizi
philpleasing pictorial
a

of

peculiarmethod

genial speculation, in

^61

manner.

Lessing, in
he

knew

conversation

in the

philosophy

no

with

Jacobi, had

true

Moses

who

of the

sense

led Jacobi
Spinoza's, and this remark
study of Spinoza's works.
Making the
drew
Jacobi
concerning Spinoza public,

avowed

make

to

that

term,
a

statement

save

thorough
of Lessing

into controversy
but
showed

with

slight
Spinoza's philosophy.
acquaintance
published
Jacobi
letters on
Spinoza's philosophy,
expressed decided
objections to a demonstrated
philosophy, but this brought
him
sohn
Mendelsthe ridicule of the Berlin clique of which
upon
the head.
He
was
was
charged with being an enemy
advocate
of blind faith,a fanatic, and probably
to reason,
an
in disguise. To vindicate himself, he wrote
in 1787,
a Jesuit
David
Faith, Idealism, and
a
Hume, or
dialogue entitled
mediate
he develops his principleof faith, or imRealism, in which
truth, however, is faith is not
knowledge. The
knowledge, though based on knowledge.
In 1804, Jacobi
called to the new
was
Academy of Sciences
in Munich,
in 1807, he was
and
chosen
president of the
Institution,which positionhe held till his death in 1819.
his polemic against the doctrine
Jacobi
directed
that all
knowledge is mediate, or that philosophy is demonstrable
and
that Spinozism is fatalism
throughout. He maintained
Mendelssohn,

however,

with

In

his

the human
that
it asserts
atheism; it is fatalism, because
will falselyholds itself free, since freedom
is a delusion, as all
from
events
occur
necessity according to invariable law; it
is atheism, because
it holds that the cause
of the world is not
and
with reason
and will,not a free creator
a being endowed
of the world, not
God
a
having great plans to
governor
ends to realize by the employment
accomplish and benevolent
of

wise

but

means,

blindly according to
Fatalism
the

and

necessary

explain

from

the

it

of strict

by

its

conditioned

endeavored

Jacobi
of the

consequences

philosophy.
We

cause.

to

the

working

only God,
necessity.

is the

nature

the law

atheism,

strictlydemonstrated
to

that

go

attempt
To

to
to

understand

back,

in

condition, which

show,

are

construct
a

thing

is

regress

order,

is also

condi-

PHILOSOPHICAL

26^

tioned, and
to

If the

on.

so

THEORIES
series has

no

end, though

for

everything, yet there is alway one

the condition
of the last conditioned

account

we

seem

thing

left

that was
unexplained,
explained,and therefore nothing is absolutelyexplained; but
each link follows
endless chain in which
we
an
simply assume
from
there
the preceding by inexorable
necessity,in which
is neither
free personal God.
If we
free will, nor
a
pause
is not
explained; if we accept
anywhere, the last condition
this last condition
as
truly ultimate, it is unconditioned,
absolute
infinite,we
or
explanation, and
accept it without
demonstrated
the so-called
strative.
philosophy fails to be demonJacobi, therefore held that Spinoza's philosophy is
the only demonstrated
philosophy, but demonstrated
only
which
endless
with
its
the
tated
necessichain,
on
assumption of an
atheism.
fatalism
and
involves
both
links,
Spinoza,
atheism
however, attempted to escape
by identifying God
with nature, as in his oft repeated expression,Deus vel Natura,
which
is the expression for pantheism.
Jacobi's
philosophy goes back, not in an infinite series,
but
which

to

Cause, the First Cause, or God,

he accepted by faith.
He, however, explains that his
an

faith is not
faith
which
reason,

Unconditioned

blind

faith,restingon

external

having its toot in feeling,not

has physical conditions, but
or

This

rational

intuition.

rational

intuition

in

authority,but

sensation

so-called,

in pure
feeling,through
Jacobi's faith is rational intuition.
is not

logical consequent
deduced
from
fashion, but is
premises, after the syllogistic
the logicalantecedent, presupposition or necessary
condition
of all rational knowledge, and is apprehended, at once,
by the
direct insightof the reason,
whose
according to
essence,
very
is
instinctive
but
is
Jacobi,
faith, or
feeling,
truly rational
insight. Jacobi, however, resolved all cognition ultimately
into feeling.
Jacobi
complained of the increasing tendency, in the
nate
philosophic schools, since the time of Aristotle, to subordithe
to
reason
understanding, to subject immediate
intuitive
knowledge to mediate, to absorb
knowledge by
He
demonstrative.
opposed Kant's
theory that space and
time
are
given a priori as form of external perception, in
which
determinations
of our
minds, seem
phenomena, mere
to be located, though they have
external existence, holding
no
a

JACOBl,

PICHTE,
that

Kant

in postulating the
illogical

was

by his

which,

SCHELLING

confession, he

own

knew

this respect, the palm to Fichte.

have
It is true
that phenomena
for

mind,

they

they

are

revelations

are

picturescan,
things.
as

our

admitted

Jacobi

no

^6S

thing in itself,of
nothing, giving, in

existence

apart from
held by Jacobi,

mental

pictures,yet as
objective facts, representing as truly
discoveries
beliefs concerning external
or
of

foundation

believe, the

though
in

was

of

Fichte

substance,

makes
to

in

these

to

realities,

apprehend its nature; if

in theoretical
not
agreement

so,

he

with

out
livingworking order itself,withinverted
Spinozism, which makes

the

be God,

sole substance

one

faith

Kant's

failed clearly to

practical,though

Jacobi.

the

Kant

did

good practicalwork in his

critique of the understanding, in showing its insufficiency
the supersensible,thus destroying a delusive
to know
error,
and
for genuine rational
intuition, the
clearing the way
ground of valid faith in God and in the realityof the external
world.
In this respect, the
philosophy of Jacobi
passed
beyond that of Kant.
But Jacobi was
in sympathy with the atheistic tendencies
not
of the post-Kantian philosophy. Kant
held firmly to his
in
belief
God, freedom, and immortality, as necessary
lates
postuof practical reason.
Rational
intuition
we
was,
may
he

that

an

be

God,

who

inherent

thus

lives and

works,

though blindly,according
In Jacobi's philosophy, the understanding and the feelings
is light in my
are
strictlyseparated. Jacobi said: "There
I attempt
heart, but it goes out whenever
to bring it into the
this contradiction,
understanding." Jacobi, in order to escape
brought in immediate
knowledge, but this will not
for conditioned
answer
things,but only for the condition, and
then
is a rational
the condition
only when
principle. But
will this hold good?
Some
philosophers say not, since it is
not
divorced from
all other knowledge; yet it will hold; for
it is not
from
other
deduced
quent,
knowledge as a logicalconsebut the other knowledge being given, it is apprehend
the necessary
condition, or logical
immediately by reason
as
antecedent.
Thus
know
that
event
we
requires a
every
and knowing a particularevent, without
knowing the
cause,
to

cause,

we

know

that

it has

cause.

immutable

law.

PHILOSOPHICAL

264

THEORIES

Schelling(1775-1854). Friedrich Wilhelm

Joseph Von
born
at
His
Schelling was
Leonberg in Wiirtemberg.
father, an excellent Oriental scholar, was
chaplain and professor
for the preparatory
in a Seminary at Bebenhausen,
his home,
At
training of Theological Students.
Schelling
received
his early training,and
showed
great quickness of
3,

intellect.
at

In

Nurtingen,

in two

years,

home,
the

his tenth
and
all he
was

such

he

year,
was

could

his

was

to

to

precocity,that

receive

permitted

sent

from

that

study with

Latin
he

school

acquired,

school, and
the

students

turning
re-

of

Seminary.
under
In 1790, though three years
by special
age, he was,
admitted
the
school
to
at Tubingen,
Theological
permission,
for
student.
He
where
he had
fellow
a
Hegel
graduated in
1792, presenting a Latin thesis.
Continuing his Theological
his
and
literary activity,he
Philosophical studies, and
in 1795, his Theological degree, presenting a thesis
received
Paulinarum
Marcione
De
elititled,
Epistolarum Emendatore,
before receiving
From
1792
to 1795, after graduating and
of both Kant
his degree,he had studied the works
and Fichte,
and
and
with his usual
perhaps with undue
promptness,
haste, published the results of his studies in an essay as early
This essay was
orate
elab1794.
followed, in 1795, by a more
as
Fichte's
to combine
attempt
system with Spinoza's,
thus giving it a more
objectiveform.
and companion of two
For two
he was
tutor
youths
years
of noble
family, at Leipsic, contributing articles,in the
to Fichte's
meantime,
PhilosophicalJournal, besides engaging
and
ardently in the study of medicine
physical science.
In 1798, Schelling was
called, as professor extraordinary
of philosophy, to
the University at
became
Jena, and
a
co-laborer
with Fichte; and after Fichte
his
resigned
position
fill
the
at
to
vacant
Jena, Schelling was
chair,
appointed
and
this position he held till 1803.
His lectures were
very
he assumed
attractive, and
a
more
independent position.
While
this
he
professorship,
holding
published several works,
and
made
contributions
to various
numerous
Literary and
Scientific Journals.
In connection
with Hegel, whom
he had
in 1801, he edited
invited
to Jena
a
Philosophical Journal,
thus raisingthe universityof Jena to the height of its reputation,
as
a philosophiccenter.

PHILOSOPHICAL

266

show

Ego

that
of

ground

knowledge,

the

second

of

stage

his

in

Idealism
the

In
his

in

published
third

stand

the

and

His

object.
my

of Nature;

dialogue,

the

the

In

fourth

of

Religion,
Nature

Medical

fifth
after

Cosmogony
the

In

Divinities

of

ideal

of

the

and
of

real

this

Ideas

for

Divine,

and

Academical

of

takes
the

of

or

period
a

are:

Philosophy
Natural

the

articles

Study;

Physics,
inclines
his

period,

Improved

writings

Philosophy

are:

the

of

Philosophy

articles

and

of Fichte,

Theory

and

Mysticism

to

Relation

True

sixth

Schelling

period,
the

Preface

writings
said

vacillating
at

the

of

or

in

the

in

the

Preface

which

not

he

though

popularity.

to

Becker

styles

and

self-consistent.

he

was

had

tion
Transla-

philosophy

his

of Mythology

He

the

On

lectures

published

muddled.

was

his

are

and

Theogony

Boehme,

Philosophy

Schelling

of

Jacob

Critical

inconsistent,

height

attempted

Schelling

of Cousin,

Schelling
and

of

manner

period,

Philosophy,

Fichte

when

this

of Samothrace;

Positive

The

the

or

and

Journal.
the

In

the

Speculative

Spinoza,

writings

Schelling

Exposition

and

chief

Method

period,
In

phy
Philoso-

Transcendental

of

to

the

of Speculative

Neo-Platonism.
and

of

Bruno

the

Journal

This

Natural

of

System

of Philosophy;

System

of Things;

New

of

the

mind.

Journal

returns

indifference

of

in

clusion
con-

1800.

Exposition
Principle

of

System
the

in

period, Schelling

on

subject

the

between

distinguishes

in

also

1801,

1800,

believes,

philosophy

in

ultimate

the

philosophy.

true

the

and

foiind

Schelling

as

Schelling

1799,

be

can

only

is found

thinking

for

Ego

and

nature

published
Physics

is the

period,

of

philosophy

the

reaching

Idealism

that
In

in

only

THEORIES

In

lation,
Reve-

fact,

imaginative,
great

influence

XXII

CHAPTER

Hegel
(1770-1831).

Hegel
born

Stuttgart;

at

received

he

While
in

his
in

which

translated

recorded

the

from
and
heads.

Greek

other

time,

some

interested

which

studied,

he

for

kept,

plays,
from

and

was

place

same

diary

He

him.
made

and

current

tracts
ex-

publications
alphabetic

under
arranging them
he wrote
others, but
only did he acquire from
his
and
showing
displaying original powers,

essays

admiration

for

works,

the

two

characteristics

and

of
He

he

and

books

standard
Not

many

of the
Gymnasium
for the University.

matters

Antigone

the

Hegel

in the

preparation
gymnasium,

the

he

and

Friedrich

Wilhelm

George

classics.

ancient
of

mind

great

He
the

"

the

combined

thus

of

power

acquisition

origination.
entered

the

of

University

Tiibingen,

at

the

of

age

little
he manifested
but
Theology;
in
either
the
interest
the
taught
philosophy
theology
or
the
his
time
at
reading the
university, preferring to spend
his
classics.
received
due
In
time
his degree, and
he took
edge
knowlcertificate
with
crediting him
good abilities, average
and
industry, but deficiency in philosophy.
Hegel was,
of the
all the
of knowledge
however,
stores
time, laying up

eighteen,

ancient

as

world,

which

student

and

of

gathering

later served

him

not
only
good purpose,
application to philosophy.

also
for
utility, but
much
from
conversation
with
gained
and
especially with Holderlin
Schelling.
After
tutor
was

few

his
in

the

university
family of

and
Tschugg
acquaintances

its fiscal system;

and
calm

wrote

in the

he

life of

winter
in
also

residence

Berne,
in

he

earnest

whom

of his
267

oneness

he

his

for

general
He

associates,

for
summer

three

also
but

years,

residence

but
Hegel made
systematically studied
study to Christianity
found
noble
spirit,
a
of spirit with
God.

Berne.

yet

devoted

Jesus,

consciousness

Hegel was,
Steiger, whose

course,

M.

tion
informa-

of miscellaneous

mass

PHILOSOPHICAL

268

THEORIES

he kept up a correspondWhile engaged with these studies,

ence
with Holderiin and ScheUing. He was
stimulated by
whose
brilliant genius was
gaininghim fame, to
Schelling,
direct his attention more
and was
to philosophy,
especially
in
thus kept abreast in the latest speculations,
especially
Kantian
philosophy. By the acquisitionsthus gained,
Hegel'sniind was enriched and furnished with material for
future use.
In 1797, through the influence of his friend,Holderiin,
Hegel became tutor in the familyof a merchant in Frankfort,
and this position
favorable for study, and brought him
was
intercourse
into
with intellectual society. With
Holderiin
he renewed his interest in Greek literatureand with Sinclare,
a
discipleof Fichte, he revived his interest in philosophy,
advanced
by Fichte's speculations.While in Frankfort,
he also turned his attention to Economics
and the science of
able essays.
Government, and on these subjectswrote some
as

He

attached

questions,and
great importance to religious

enforced by
emphasized the distinction between a religion
and the natural religious
authority,
development of a people.
while at Frankfort
It was
that the philosophicideas of
He
first reduced to systematicform.
sponded
correHegel were
in reference to his making. Bamberg,
with Schelling
the result of the correspondence
a place of residence;but
invitation to come
to Jena as an assistant of Schelling
was
an
in philosophy. The two philosophers
publishedconjointly
Critical Philosophical
for
which
a
Journal,
Hegel wrote the
majorityof the articles.
The subjectof his dissertation,which qualified
him for the
of
Orbitis
in
Privatdocent
De
was
Planetarum,
position
which
he expresseddoubts in regard to the existence of a
planet between the orbits of Mars and that of Jupiter,and
this was
afterwards made the ground of attack on his a priori
philosophy,as a method for the deduction of facts.
At Jena, Hegel delivered lectures on philosophy,
logicand
left Jena in 1803, Hegel had
mathematics.
After Schelling
the field of philosophyto himself. His lectures though expressing
too obscure to be popular. His
deep thought were
view

of art was,

that it should express the national taste in

regard
beauty,and as the expressionof the generalsense
of beauty, it is transmitted enriched
from generationto
to

generation.

ii\

HEGEL
disturbed

Jena

Napoleon's victory at

269
in his

him

of

cal
philosophibut

he was
employment;
of the
offered the position of editor
Bamberger
Zeitung,
he accepted, and filled the place for eighteen months,
which
he was
when
appointed to the rectorshipof the Gymnasium
at Nuremberg.
Von
Marie
Tucher, who
In 1811, Hegel married
proved
to

be

wife.

excellent

an

him

threw

labors, and

out

In

he

professorof Philosophy, where

of the philosophicalsciences.
Heidelberg, Hegel accepted
where

reached

he

character

the

and

church

system

was

of his fame.

the

as

The

conciliatory
did

both
they
great popularity, and
philosophy.

them

state, gave

hailed

years' service at
philosophy at Berlin,

two

of

doctrines, supporting

of his

to

came

After
chair

the

zenith

the

Heidelberg, as
published the Encyclopedia
he

1816,

national

as

the

his

chain
form
of three
links.
a
Berkeley, Hume,
the first and
original, Berkeley, the intermediate

Locke,
Locke,
natural

Hume

development.
In like

slumbers.
constitute

links, Fichte

and

terminal

the

link, Hume

and

manner,

of

chain

four

logicaloutcome,
awoke

constitute

from

Kant

his

ic
dogmat-

Kant, Fichte, Schelling,Hegel,

links.

The

two

Hegel

Schelling,connect

intermediate

with

Kant,

and

that he
Hegel is truly indebted; but it is from Kant
derives his inspiration.
was
especiallydue to three facts : he had
Hegel's success
made
industrious
preparation; he had
long and
a
great
of origination.
capacity for acquisition;he had strong powers
to

them

The

following is the

volumes:

Vol.

list of his

1, Minor

principalworks,

in seventeen

Articles; 2, Phenomenology;

3-5,
ophy
9, Philosof Religion;

of

Logic; 6, 7, Encyclopedia; 8, Philosophy

Rights;
of History; 10, Aesthetics; 11, 12, Philosophy
13-15, History of Philosophy; 16, 17, Miscellanies.
The
the Logic are the most
and
Phenomenology
important
of Hegel's works, though the Philosophy of History is the
readable
and
most
interesting. The
Phenomenology
was
in
six
the
later.
and
published
1807,
Logic
years
Thd
the
Phenomenology
sis
develops
concept, and by analyand

abstraction, attempts

the All is reduced

to

the

One,

to

reach

The

the

Absolute

in which

Logic, beginning with

the

THEORIES

PHILOSOPHICAL

270

Absolute,

develops

the

reverses

the

existence

into

One

perception of a tree,
the perception cannot

since

of

through

the

but

ego

the

tree

is not

example,

for

exist except

immediate,

through

the

vention
inter-

or

manifestations

of

the

individual.

is, however,

tree

festations
mani-

likewise
save
object perceived, nor
intervention
of the ego
subject perceiving,
or
the tree
and
according to Hegel, merely
are,

the

phenomenal
this

of concrete

phenomenal

subjective, or

as

synthesis,

forms

Absolute.

of the
The

continued

by

Individual

All.

the

regarded

are

and

process,

Absolute.
Ideas

idea

The

of other

trees

of

can,

be formed.

in like manner,

dropping from the ideas the individual peculiarities,

is common,
the
to
retaining what
we
tree,
concept
pass
which is equally applicableto every
tree, since the individual
exclude
been
would
marks, which
dropped.
tree, have
any
Now,

We

have

now

the

of the

concept

class

Other

tree.

concepts,

be formed, and taken

besides that of tree, can, in Hke manner,
teristics
in along with the concept tree, if we
drop the peculiar characof each

retaining only

concept,

all the

concepts;

highest

genus,

and

so

we

on,

embracing

what

is

rise, till

can

actual

to

common

the

reach

we

and

possible concept,
class or
individual
object. What
applicable to any
we.^
then
have
Being embracins
Evidently Being; not
both
and
is itg
but
What
extent
only content.
content,
The
content.'^
Hegel answers
Nothing.
Nothing; Being
every

and

"

is existence, that is the

universal
content
however,
of Being, and that only.
the
not
extent
Hegel, however, deals
especially with
of a
with
the
class, but
content,
concept, the idea in

true

answer,

the

Platonic

philosophy

sense,

of the
these

to

concept,
are

diagram

by

is Idealism,

individual
individuals

and

the

him, as
the class, the

concept

is

is of little account,

transitory and will pass

of a triangle,for example,

his

dialectical

To

object, or
which

the

to

method;
Plato, the

crete
con-

collection

whole

of

applicable, or the extent

specimens, for
save
as
The

away.

drawn

on

paper

individual
or

on

be erased, and
others
black-board, may
another, or many
drawn
be erased; but
instead, which, in like manner,
may
the idea, the concept triangle,abides; and it is with concepts

HEGEL

that
in

deals.

philosophy

individual

Nature

for

carefulness

her

271

the

herself

follows

species and

this

method

carelessness

for

the

careful

of the type she seems,

careless of the singlelife."

"So
So

of
account
is,however, due that philosophy give some
this it does by seeing in it the concept,
the individual, and
idea
the
whatever
individual
embodied,
peculiarities,or
contain.
accidents, it may
In risingfrom the individual, a tree for example, to Being,
according to the Hegelian method, we neglected the extent,
and
that
classes, and considered
is, individuals
only the
which
the
become
the concept,
attributes,
content,
common
It

less, as

less and
genus,

when

ascend, till we

we

the

is

content

reach

minimum^

Being,

the

highest

simply Existence,

but

Nothing.
neglect extent, or to consider only content, is however,
an
arbitrary proceeding. We should consider both kinds of
and content.
Then, in ascending from an
quantity extent
individual to its species or class, reducing the idea of the

not

To

"

individual

the

to

concept,

or

content

common

of the

class,

passing from the species to the genus, and so on,

we
continually increase the extent and diminish the content,
till reaching Being, the highest genus,
is a maximum
which
in extent, since it embraces
object in the universe, but
every
and

then

is

minimum

in content,

since

only

its

is

attribute

common

existence.
Does
extent

No; it includes in its

Being, then, equal Nothing?
actual object in the universe, and in its content,
every

existence, their
be

to

all

understood

objects,and
all

to

common

content

common

that

in it content,
Being, but as

or

Being

attribute.
in

its extent,

actual

every

found

It

ever,
is, howcontains

attribute, not

somewhere

in the

as

divisions
sub-

of its extent.
We

can

descend

by

content

to

reach

the
the

is:

The

division

The

division between

are

of the

content
an

of

its extent,

divisions

several

law

Being, including all reality,and

with

individuals, which

in content.
extent

begin

now

varies

individual

and

adding the proper

sub-divisions, till we

in extent, but
relation of the content

minima

inverselyas
and Being

the

maxima
to

extent.

is neither

the

Any
maxi-

PHILOSOPHICAL

272

mum

nor

either

minimum,

THEORIES

to

as

extent

content.

or

We

be
analyze
Any
can
defined
by referringit to its class and designating it by its
characteristic
attribute.
be defined, its extent
Being cannot
be
be
cannot
divided, but its content
can
analyzed; an
divide

extent,

individual

can

its content

can

the

Individual

and

its content

its extent
What

and

be

defined, its

be

analyzed; any

and

can

extent

be

divided, but
class,between

cannot

intermediate
be

The

defined, its

division

of any

name

divided

extent

denotes

its content.

connotes

is the

of

nature

is not

necessarily

agree

can

from

tree, that

objects. The being is no

when
he said
particularthing, and that is what Hegel meant
being is no thing; that is, Being
Nothing; but certainly
we

abstract

as

this

It

Being?

horse, John
Brown; but
in existing,in being, which, as common
to all,

particular thing,
all these

Being,

analyzed.

and

subdivision

content.

each

of these

when

we

say

this tree

is,John

Brown

is, the is,

Is
evidently has meaning.
the meaning
of is nothing?
concrete
It is truly no
thing
taken
it
is
the
whole; but we call it Being, or existence;
as
a
their
of
non-existence.
actuality these objects,as opposed to
existence, as
Being, then, is existence, not a determinate
has
but
has
it
real meaning, or
objective
tree, horse, man,
a
in
their
and
attribute,
reality everything, as
common
though,
all
in thought, it can
from
be abstracted
determinate
or
any
has
existence
and
things,
no
objective
apart from determinate
things, yet it has subjective existence as the idea of the common
of all existing things
Its objective reality is
content
of the
but by the energy
maintained, not by its own
energy,
determinate
it is the common
attribute; as
things of which
be kept indefinitely
subjective idea, it is formed, and may
in mind, by thought.
has
Hence, Being, the highest genus,
of things, or
attribute
existence, objective as the common
subjective as the idea of this common
attribute, and is kept
of the objects,
in existence, in the one
by the energy
case,
and in the other, by the energy
of thought.
The First Cause,
has eternal
is the
Ultimate
eternal energy,
as
Being, and
Reality.
The
Logic of Hegel, descending by division, from Being,
the highest genus,
existingthing.
attempts to develop every
common

to

all these

is,that horse
statements,

PHILOSOPHICAL

274

the

to

not
antithesis,

but subjective
objectivemovement,
Nothing is what thought finds Being
Nothing; in thought,therefore.Nothing swings

in thought. As
to

be.Being

back

THEORIES

into

this

Being;that is,the

antithesis returns

to the thesis.

of thought from Being to Nothing,

This oscillating
process
and back again from the
from the thesis to the antithesis,
antithesis to the thesis,from Nothing to Being,is the process
called Becoming, The result is the synthesisof Being and
Nothing, of the thesis and antithesis. This synthesisis,

however, the synthesisof

of

determinate

pure

Being and

pure

Nothing, not

and

determinate
Being
Nothing; for the
is
with
the not-Beingof 100 miles,
not identical
Being of $100
for this might be the Being of 100 acres, since the Being of
The idea of Being,
100 acres, is the not-Beingof 100 miles.

however, is not the idea of something which

can

be added

to

the idea of any existing

thing;for itis alreadyinvolved in the
idea of that thing. It is no peculiaror specialelement of
thing,but is the generalor universal element
any determinate
of all things,
and is the same
in all. Being,then, is not that
which
constitutes objectivethings,but is constituted by

them; it does

not

constitute the

idea
subjective

of

things,

is involved in and constituted by the subjective

idea.
To
throw
further light on
Hegel's exact meaning, we
translation: '*We think that Being is
quote from Stirling's
rather something quite other th^n what
Nothing is; that
but

nothing clearer than their absolute difference;and

ever,
seems
nothing easier than to show it. It is,howjustas easy to convince oneself that this is impossible,
that it is unsayahle. To those who would persist
in the difference
let
them
themselves
and
to
challenge
of Being
Nothing,
in
what
it
consists.
assign
Had
Being and Nothing, each any determinateness by
which they might be distinguished
from the other,
the one
would
has
been
determinate
Being and
observed,
be, as
they
and
determinate Nothing not pure Being
pure Nothing, as
they still are here. Their difference,therefore, is entirely

there

is

that there

"

indeterminate:
blank; each of the two is in the same
way
the difference,
therefore, lies not in them, but in a tertium
is a mere
quid, in a mere
supposition. But supposition
of
subjectivestate which does not belong to this course
exposition.The tertium quid,however, in which Being and

HEGEL

they

are

challenge to assign the

this other

includes

Nothing

is
the

one

the

other

and

that

itself: it is

so

so

itself

present

far

here,

In it
Becoming.
differas
they are ent.

The

also

must

support,

presented
different; Becoming is only
already

it has

and

their

have

Nothing

275

as
"

"

definition

also, to

.f^ Let

those

well

the

difference
what

say,

who

other

strive

of

Being and Nothing

then is Being and what
against perceiving that

is

only a transition,the one into

maintain
of Being and of Nothing this
and who
^justsay what it is they speak of, that is, produce
of Being and Nothing, and demonstrate
that it is
as

correct."
This

is

fair

challenge.

of definition: Considered

way

Being

is whatever

attribute; it is

would

have

no

us

as

see

what

to both

be

can

extent

and

done

by

content,

is; it is all

reality,including object and

only as to content.
attribute
of all existent things; it is the
which
existence; it is that without
things
is
existence.
it
is
no
Nothing
thing;
existence
non-

realityitself.

Being is the common

reality of their

Let

Considered

itself.
It is true

that, in Hegel's

sense,

pure

Being,

that

has

is.Being

existing thing,
no
The
idea of pure
Nothing.
pure
pure
Being becomes the idea of pure Nothing, and the idea of pure
Nothing becomes the idea of pure Being; that is,the idea of
either pure Being or pure Nothing makes
to that
a transition
of Becoming.
of the other, by the process
Nothing is thought
of, spoken of; it is therefore, in idea, and has its being in
transition
of Nothing
to
Being is called
thought. The
arising,that of Being to Nothing departing.
dwelt
have
the fundamental
We
principle of Hegel,
on
is
understand
it
would
because
this, if we
important to
all.
understand
Hegel at
Being
Nothing, Being is the
thesis.Nothing the antithesis,and Becoming the synthesisof
the two, the reciprocaltransition of each into the other.
of all things as God's
ideas
We
regard the sum-total
may
objectified;and as all things are related to God, as their
verse.
another, and constitute a uniorigin,they are related to one

abstracted

from

every

Being

existence, or

determinate

The

human

mind,

the

likeness

of

God,

thinks

his

Philosophy is the result of human

thoughts after him.
the system
thought objectifiedin history;it is not specifically

PHILOSOPHICAL

276
of

Plato,

of

or

Hegel, only

Aristotle, of Descartes, of Locke, of Kant, of

far

so

of

says

when

necessary

system

he

Notions

says.

his part,

where,

*'He

Hegel:

universe,

it

from

Sensations
is

the

the

notion

and

Again, Stirlingsays:

abstractions

says.

philosopher seizes the

in a cohering system.
ing
Stirlhimself to have explained the

demonstrated

of notions."

bottom,

at

individual

believes

has

are

Hegel

the

as

elaborates

result, and

entire

THEORIES

are

the

'Xocke

Sensations; while, for

concretions

difference?

from

Notions:

but

Yes,

observe.

Hegel's series is the organic system of thought, complete, so

to speak, alive in itself."
from
the oscillation of pure
does Hegel pass
How
Being
of Becoming,
and pure Nothing, through the process
to the
of objects,to every
universe
thing that excites curiosity or
that Hegel was
elicits thoiight.f^Let it be remembered
an
idealist;that he held the phenomenal universe to be ideal
God's ideas objectified,
externalized, arranged, according to
his thoughts, by the act of his will.
I quote what
Stirlingsays of Hegel's view of the external
finite
world: ''Every finite object, whatever
truly is, every
finite object whatever
truly is not, every
object whatever
other of the modes
of
in one
or
truly becomes, and becomes
does
its double
form.
Nor
mination
object receive such deterany
"

it possesses
such determination
from
received
such
determination

from

self; it has
been

in

it has

thought by God,

so

according
These

us;

to

these

thoughts

here

within

created

been

by

thoughts. Being, Nothing,

there

are

"

without

^in the

us

"

and

^in the

in its

God,
God

own

it has
on

and

Becoming.

universe, and

universe;

objective
they are
is disposed. They
the whole
to which
thoughts in obedience
moulding the all of
or
are
necessary
pressures
compressures
things. They are three of God's thoughts in the making of
"

us

"

the universe."
The

universe

is understood

through its phenomena,

to

some

but
more
though imperfectly by the average
man,
perfectlyby the philosopher who, from the history of speculation
and
earnest
thought, forms
opinions,
by his own
With
assured
beliefs,ideas, and often reaches
knowledge.
Hegel, as with Plato, the idea, or concept, is the chief thing,
extent

the individual

certainlynot

is of httle

nothing.

or

no

account;

but

the

individual

is

HEGEL

says

them

arrive

we

is to

notions

To

notion.

denial

the

synthesis the

the

affirm

and

thought.
The
human
mind. Godlike
with
in conformity
system
with

mind,

approach

an

but

by

evolution.

and

comes
be-

affirmation, and

like

and

other

manner,
so

different

The

by

minate
deterall

throughout

on

completeness,

of minds,

advanced.

knowledge

its ideal

constructs

actual

the

often

The

ha

by

not

the

through

systems were
another, errors

one

upon

by nature,

towards

succession

their reactions

by

all other

deny

it
universe, which
interpret. This, however, has been

and

construe

to

all

deny

affirmation

The

the

In

one.

any

is to

to

nega-

other

of

processes

seems

notions,

notion.

constructed,

are

notion

thesis,

est

is not

we

excludes

determinatio

definite

denial

of

being

notion

of

given

become

two

notions

realm

the

character

Omnis

mistake

by conception;

says

determinate

Berkeley

ideas, and

three-fold

affirm

in the

notions; and

God's

determinate

Spinoza.

determinate
other

their

synthesis. A
being from itself.

other

iio, says

and

antithesis,
every

at

in

notions

construct

done

of the universe?

knowledge
perceive
by perception; we
for material
objects. Hegel
do

How

the

277

one

of

process

in conflict;but
ed
eliminate been
has

process

been

struction,
con-

criticism, reconstruction,
it overlooked
neither
Hegel's mind had an immense
sweep;
relation, essence,
actuality,
quality, quantity, measure,
considered
it
science
causality,or reciprocity;
physics,
every
in
two-fold
its
form
geology, biology
chemistry, astronomy,
of botany and
zoology, history, language, literature,ethics,
tecture,
art
^landscape and archipolitics,religion;it studied every
tion
sculpture and painting, music and poetry, conversa"

"

and

oratory.

could Hegel, employing,

interestingquestion. How
he did, the a ^priori method, constructing notions
thesis,
as
as
his constructions
antithesis and
synthesis, make
correspond
It is

to

the

an

facts

of

sciences, and
the

facts

idea

is

of the

the

universe, and

institutions
universe

of
are

finite copy
of the
like
constructed
by a mind
a

correspond

to

the

creations

to

the

mankind

God's

various

.^^ We

the

Divine

as

system

Hegel's, would,
of the

may

ideas, and

Divine,

arts,

in

mind.

the
of
some

and

answer,

human

notions,

degree,

PHILOSOPHICAL

278

The

correspondence,
An

proved.

ideahst

all with

and

which

THEORIES

however

is

would

say

concerned.

am

own

my

solipsism. The

assumed

of the

rather

ideas

are

This

is

all I

idealist,in

than

know,

dangerously
spite of his

modesty
from
the
probably restrain him
outrageous
of
his
and
himself
considering
thoughts the sumegotism
total of reality. Hegel had all the senses
sight,hearing,
smell
and
he
reached
of his
most
touch, taste,
likely
many
ideas empiricallythrough the senses.
for philosophy,as for science, is to beg^n
better way
The
with the facts of experience,and by examination, generalization,
near

logic, would

"

classification,definition, induction, and

ascend

rise, while

Being,
with

summit

the

to

of

decreasing

Being,

the

extent, as we
having reached

Now,

content.

have, instead of Nothing, every

universal attribute, existence, but

we

one

somewhere

attribute

verication,

increasing the

existing thing,
actual

every

subdivisions.

in the

by division, by the process roughly

thus indicated : Being is divided into dynamic being and nondynamic;
the
into
and
matter
dynamic
spirit,
non-dynamic
into space
and time; matter
into organic and inorganic,and
dividua
organic in vegetable and animal, and so on till we reach inWe

descend

now

can

propensity for blending opposites. This was

of the Greek
true
philosopher Heraclitus, and of Ferrier, the
Scotch
often blend, but
conphilosopher. Contrarieties
and
without
A
hollow
flictives,never.
sphere is convex
Hegel

had

concave

within, but

within.

at the

not

body

will

be

are

not

exhaust

exhaust

or

spherical and red, but

sphericaland cubical.
or

conflictive
not

contradictories

their genus,

their genus.

Thus

convex

nor

both

congruent

contraries

without

concave

blend, conflictive if they will

are

do

may

time, both

same

Attributes

it is not

"

they

butes
blend; conflictive attri"

contraries when

contradictories
red and

if

congruent

it is

when

sphericalare

they
they do

congruents;

conflictives
and
contraries,
spherical and
cylindrical are
regular and irregularare conflictives and contradictories.
The
fundamental
laws of thought, if not
respected, will
violates them, they
themselves
the thinker
who
on
revenge
the following:Law
of identity;A thing is itself;a thing
are
is not anything else than itself.

HEGEL

Law

of

either

involve

not

absent,

either

the

either

or

the

hence,

absent;

presence

be
be

may
or

presence

the

hence

present;

conflictive

Two

confliciives:

of

Law

of

does

both

or

both

may

absence

absence

or

of

other.

the

be

other

attributes

congruent

object,

same

the

and

present,
of

the

in

present

Two

congruents:

279

of

presence

attributes

either

both

cannot

involves

the

absence

not

both

other.

the
Law

contraries:

of

but

present,
either

involves

either

does

Law

of
both

Two
both

may

not

involve

present

either

involves

the

either

the

of

sufficient

effect,

of
and

when

an

effect

the

the

we

but
the

of

presence

absence

the

of

other.
attributes

hence

other,

be

the
and

not
can-

presence

absence

the

of
of

other.
An

consequent:

When

reason.

of

absent;
of

the

other,

the

the

contradictory

both

absence

can

hence,

presence

Two

nor

presence
reason

absent;
of

the

contradictories:
be

Law

be

absence

the

attributes

contrary

infer

reason

some

inference
is

cause.

cause,

requires
we

infer

the

CHAPTER

XXIII

Herbaria Schopenhauer,

Hartmann

Johann
Friedrich
Herbart
(1776-1841).
was
His
cultured
born
at
and
Oldenburg.
were
people,
parents
their
intelligent boy, who
an
early showed
was
taste
son
a
He
Fichte
studied
under
at Jena, and
for philosophy.
was
in 1805,
elected
and
professor of philosophy at Gottingen
Kant's
in 1808,
at
and
successor
appointed
Konigsberg
recalled to Gottingen in 1833, where, in 1841, he died.
of beginning his philosophy with
Instead
idea of reason,
an
he
followed
the
done,
Fichte, Schelling and
Hegel had
as
of Kant,
and
method
the
subjected to a critical examination
facts of experience.
His
results, however,
peculiar and
were
different
He
those
of
Kant.
from
regarded antecedent
widely
rather
than
mainly as failures, giving phantoms
systems
1.

Herbart

truth.
the

beginning of his
point of departure, the common
The
facts
by experience.
As

the

becomes
His

is to

first step
and

the

experience.
the

business

of

Difficulties

first result

view

sense

experience

of

philosophy

discriminate

thought

Herbart

system,

to

thus

are

is

This

seen,

and

his

things, as given
being accepted, it
for

immediate
to

for

of

account

between

endeavors

which

takes,

account

doubt
in

them.

ence
experifor

that

arises, and

early philosophy
in the case
of Sextus
Empiricus, and later
of Hume.
in that
In
doubts
its lower
form. Skepticism
in
whether
its
but
higher form,
as
they appear,
things are
existence
whether
have
doubts
at all.
things
Skepticism
any
arise from
Doubts
the
discovery that the conceptions of
for philosophy,
constitute
the
materials
experience, which
involve
incongruous elements; hence, the second
step is so to
them
remodel
the
conceptions of experience, as to render
and
thus
to transform
skepticism into philosophy.
congruous,
Herbart
with
Hegel in regard to the conflictive
agrees
these
in thought;
while
that
but
elements
Hegel teaches
of becoming,
Herblend
into one
conflictives
by the process
skepticism.
of Pyrrho
and

280

was

seen

PHILOSOPHICAL

28^

is, therefore, both

full of

hence

contradictions.

It

holds

Herbart

other

that

than

noumenon.

faculties of the

so-called

the

soul

its self-preservation,
changing and
of

causes

reals with

other

opposition to

The

soul's

the

which

it

in

comes

the

are

fold,
maniflict.
con-

changing phenomena

therefore, other reals coming in conflict with

and

be

to

seems

reals,yet believes in its own

unity; but as
monad
real, absolutelysimple, indissoluble,
or

It is Kant's

immortal.

in

object,or subject-object,and

of

unity, it is

nothing

subject and

apparent

commonwealth
a

THEORIES

are,

soul-monad,

these

changing operations apparently imply independent

faculties,which Herbart
or
rejects. It has, however,
powers
of resistance.
This discarding of faculties,is well
the power
enough so long as faculties are regarded as subordinate egos
The
within the ego, each doing its own
independent work.
fact of different mental
be denied, as it
phenomena cannot
in
for
since
the
is given
consciousness;
ble
ego feels,it is susceptiof feeling,
since
it
has
has
it thinks,
intellect;
or
sensibility;
since it chooses, it has will.
and
volition
Feeling,cognition
cannot

pass

marked
same

the

by
ego

into

another, and

one

words

feels,and

ridicule the

these

distinctions

intellect and
sensibility,

thinks, and

wills.

are

will; but

It is

the

thoughtless

ridicule

those
who
faculty or
employ the term, by calling them
"faculty-philosophers."
faculties than
It is better for a philosopher to possess
to be
Herbart
discards the term facultybecause
destitute of them.
inconsistent
with
his own
have
not
peculiar views, which
established
venient
beyond question. Faculty is a conyet been
and
denotes
term
susceptibilityof the
a
or
power
to

act

to

term

ego.

To

return

to

reals: A

real

in itself

the

be

can

object

of

thought, though it is independent of thought; it is absolute,

simple,spaceless. A line regarded as made up of consecutive
be conceived
track of a point
the continuous
as
points, may
be
moving through the consecutive
points. A body may
conceived
to be made
up of reals in adjacent positions.
How

the ego
real,it remains
one
can

caused
a

different

The

ego,

by

exhibit
and

identical .^^It reacts

various

other

manifestation, because
as

manifestations, while,

various

is
intelligent,

reals, each
the other

conscious

against the
reaction

reals

of the

are

as

turbances
dis-

giving

different.

changing

mani-

SCHOPENHAUER,

HERBART,
testations

caused

its conflict

by

realization

is the

with

of

other

these

283

reals; for

disturbances

sciousness
con-

which

Representations restrained from the

phenomena.
thought are feelings. The resolution to realize
object of desire is volition, which, as a dominant
sentation,
reprethe
of
The
character
of a
success.
implies
hope
as

appear

of

clearness
the

is the constant

man

did

Herbart
be

making

educational

good

stimulus
with

deals

appeal

no

that

would,

of

be

which

which

has

self-interest,but

to

has

proved to
taught that

He

absolute

an

value,

calling out

Ethics, according
with

tions.
representa-

to

those

terested
disin-

Herbart,

relations

is

among

unconditionallyplease or displease. This

bring Ethics under Aesthetics, if to please

course,

add

displease,we

would

dominant

teachers.

Aesthetics, dealing

of

volitions

the

work,

to

beauty

admiration.
branch

of certain

presence

wholesome

Aesthetics

or

HARTMANN

better

to

Aesthetic
Ethics

say:

sentiment

deals

with

of taste.
those

It

volitions

approval or disapproval of the moral

judgment. Five topics,according to Herbart, are embraced
in Ethics: Internal freedom, perfection,benevolence, right,
which

with

the

meet

the

retribution.
was
beginning with the facts of consciousness, Herbart
also right in maintaining that every
was
right; and he
implies a real, and in general, two reals the
phenomenon
The
two
objective real, and the subjective real, or ego.
is
also
when
become
the
the
reals
one
object; but
subject
of difficulty.How
the
here is a case
can
subject be its own
of
The
is conscious
object.f^Empirically, it cannot.
ego
phenomena; but the necessityof the ego itselfis apprehended
Psychology deals with the facts of
by rational intuition.
ditions
mind, metaphysics with the ego, or in general,with the conof phenomena.
There
is,of late,a tendency to use the word consciousness

In

"

instead
of

mind,

or

ego;

but

consciousness, as

an

act

or

state

for its condition the

demands,
it would
which
say, a real,without

mind, is phenomenal, and

ego,

be

of

or

as

Herbart

impossible.
but

realization
Herbart

would

Consciousness

it is not

the ego;

takes

ego'sactivityor

found

contradictions

he

of mental

tions;
opera-

experienceof the ego,

disturbances.

it is the

of the

contradictions

note

attempted

in all
*

to

phenomena,

eliminate.

To

and
do

the

these

this he

PHILOSOPHICAL

^84

THEORIES

mathematics,
ness
expressing the states of consciousof
which
he
endeavored
formulae,
to get
by means
by

resorted

to

contradictions, and thus to purify conceptions. By

mental
ing
this method, psychology becomes
mechanics, excludall freedom, which
Herbart
ical
allowed. But his mathematbeen
has
method
not
eminently successful.
Herbart,
however, had a penetrating mind, and was
a deep thinker.
rid

of

Schopenhauer (1788-1860). Arthur Schopenhauer

at Dantzic, a free imperial city. His father was
a

2,

born

to-do

his mother

and

merchant,

incorporate

became

with

Arthur's

Hamburg.

novelist.

Prussia, the

early education

After

was

well-

Dantzic

family withdrew
under

was

the

care

to

of

his mother.
time in France
and
family spent some
England, and
the
with
of
these
his
languages
acquaintance
countries,
by
than
he acquired a more
usual
for a
sprightly style
was
At first,he was
but
not
German.
a diligentstudent,
finally,
from
the Greek
with
scholar, Passow, he acquired familiarity
and Latin languages.
the Greek
He entered the University of Gottingen, and by the advice
of Prof. Schulze, his philosophic studies were
directed especially
and Kant, both of which he held in high admiration.
to Plato
in the universityhe was
While
unsocial,gloomy and
confirmed
became
him
pessimist. With
happiness was
a
not
positiveenjoyment, but negative, the absence of misery.
the UniAfter spending two
versity
at Gottingen, he entered
years
The

Berlin, and

at

attended

the

lectures

of Fichte

and

Schleiermacher.
Awakened
and
could

by

against

make

not

Weimar,

and

for
general enthusiasm
he
dominion,
bought a

the

French

his

up

from

thence

to

to

enlist.

Rudolstadt,

very

essay

for the

set

He
where

of

liberty,
arms,

withdrew
in

but
to

quiet, he

ophy,
degree of Doctor of PhilosThe four roots of the principleof sufficient
on
reason.
four
Causa
These
to
roots, according
Schopenhauer, are:
essendi, causa
cognoscendi,causa
agendi, relating
fiendi,causa
for events, the reason
of knowing,
respectively,to the reason
received his
of being, the reason
for acting. He
the reason
diploma from Jena.
the press of Rudolstadt, he issued his first philosophic
From
Die
Welt
als Wille
work.
und
Vorstellung,which, though

prepared

able

mind

German

HARTMANN

SCHOPENHAUER,

HERBART,

285

good style,and abounding in sharp criticisms,fell

notices from
flat from the press, winning neither readers, nor
result probably due to the prevailingHegeliana
periodicals,
to be regarded as a work
ism ; but after thirty years, it came
of merit.
sor
Schopenhauer considered himself the true successcientific
is
limited
to Kant; but
knowledge
though our
of
line
the
experience,yet we can
penetrate to the mysby
terious
of
ourselves.
The
desires
the
sich,
study
Ding an
by
volitions
within
and
ourselves, leading to our
hopes and
fears, strivingsand disappointments, reveal to us the core
of the
of our
own
nature, and through us the hidden essence
that
that
world
itself,and that core,
centraling
essence,
in

written

existence,
be, the will for continued
The
the desire to rise to consciousness, as in man.
world, as
idea, exhibits these strugglesof the will, as revealed through
chemical
affinities,magnetic and
gravitation,crystalization,
is the
principle,

desire

electrical attractions

to

and

through feelings,perceptions, reason,

but

where

every

no

in

repulsions and

and

organization,

deliberate

satisfaction, only unrest,

desire,defeat, pain, disgrace;nor

better; all is vanity and vexation

can

of

hope
spirit.
we

will;

unsatisfied

for

anything

of Fichte, Schelling and

admirer
Schopenhauer was
no
became
Hegel, and
Schelling and Hegel
suspicious that
and
especiallyconspired against his own
success,
regarding
these great philosopherswith contempt, he still more
despised
their disciples. All this, however,
to his own
only added
unhappiness,and intensified his pessimism.
Perception, Schopenhauer held, is to be explained by an

external
with
has
of

time
a

and

mode
in the

ideas
reason;

in connection

cause

it
priori,not a posteriori;
root, not
an
empirical origin. The necessity
is known
the cause
is, a posteriori.
a priori,what
of
the
law
of
inertia,and of the
principle causality,

the

conservation

The

is known

space,

rational

cause

From

This

excitingsensation.

cause

of matter

appearance

of

our

but

of the

knowledge,

constitution
held

and

of

our

follow

energy

world
and

to

would

senses.

us

as

necessary

is determined

change with
The

world

is

the
a

quences.
conse-

by the
change
series of

together by the four-fold principleof sufficient

its empirical result is not disturbed by the theory

of its ideal existence; but

as

ideal, its explanationfalls back

PHILOSOPHICAL

286

THEORIES

subject whose very core is will accompanied by feeling

and thought. But
each ego the center
does not this make
of things, and the creator
of his own
universe?
It is true
of idealism.
that is the logicaloutcome
that it does, and
Any ego, if idealism is true, can say : I am the sole creator of
all things,and all other egos, so-called,are only the creatures
the

to

of my

of creation.

of ego is will,
of nature,
and this will is identical with the will,the essence
How
the will of ego is the will of nature.
will,if only
or
can
act

own

But

phenomenal, if only volition,be

is

an

event, and

has

the

the

essence

of nature?

essence

will

But

cause.

as

volition,is

the

tion
Voliof

source

therefore,not merely phenomenal,

noumenal,
The
individual human
it is cause
itself,essential Being.
be
the
essential
of
the
will
universe; for this will
ego cannot
is often thwarted, defeated, disappointed,and does not have
the essential will is the omnipotent God, who created
its way;
it is

things,and upholds them by the word of his power.

Schopenhauer discriminated
knowledge
sharply between
and the will,but confounds
reds
hatthe feelings,
loves,
desires,
with the volition,and this is accounted
for by his own
for he often gave way
desire in
of life,
to passion and
manner

all

oppositionto

reason.

consciousness, is outwardly visible

in the movements
of our
bodies; the volition and bodily movement,
and effect,
Schopenhauer held, are not related as cause
Volition, as revealed

but

is the

movement

manifests

itself in

its different

to

visible volition.

bodily movements,

As
so

visible in the

forces, become

the

will in

man

will in nature,
in the
movements

the

degree, the will is blind or

conscious deliberate
action, as in the voluntary actions of
man.
Schopenhauer held, as taught by Fichte, that the
human
to struggleagainst the limitations
body enables man
opposed by nature.
in nature
With
Schelling,Schopenhauer held that matter
cal
attempts to raise itself up to spirit,
through mechanistriving
action and all forms
of activityto conscious
volition and
external

world.

reasonable

visible.

According

action, and
The

to

its

becomes

thus

the

universe

made

ness;
optimist, in his hopefulness,looks for happithe pessimist,in his despondency, anticipatesevil;for
he sees
in his opinion
through the illusion,and is confirmed
by his own
experience;but the evil he encounters, is brought
himself, for the most part, by his own
folly.
upon

SCHOPENHAUER,

HERBART,

did

Schopenhauer
obedience

moral

the

to

dehverance

find

not

law, but

in intellectual

satisfaction, and

HARTMANN

he

from

sought
the

to

evil

through

in aesthetic

peace

activity;but

authorship only subjected him

of

287

the achievements

envy

and

detraction

of rivals.
Hartmann
Von
(1842-1906). Edward
was
born
at Berlin, an
only child of the family. His father was
at
Berlin, at the
a
military officer permanently stationed
for testingproposed improvements
of a commission
in
head
Hartmann

3.

heavy firearms.
Edward

precocious boy, and at a very early age was

prepared to enter the University. He, however, chose the
in artilleryand
profession of his father, and took a course
engineering,but a chronic affection of the knee prevented his
active service.
entering upon
and

his attention

turned

He

was

published

even

Tristan

and

Isolde;

his attention

turned
He

art, for which

founded
poeticaldrama

but

this did

as

volume

one

and

has

use,

for this

of 800

age

The

pp.

passed through
the

on

prove

taste,
story of
a

the

successful, he

at

Schelling,Hegel and
of twenty-two,
began The
This work
first published
was
book
at once
was
popular,

of

least nine

review, the authorized

published by

had

to

Schopenhauer, and at the

Philosophy of the Unconscious.
as

not

philosophy.
carefully the works

studied

he

to

Macmillan

different

translation

editions.
of

We

Coupland's,

Company.

Hartmann's

author, compared with

as
superior success,
an
that of Schopenhauer's, is accounted
for by the fact that he
found
of the
interested
himself in the success
a publisher who
he vigorously pushed, while Schopenhauer pubwork, which
lished
his book
himself, and trusted to its merits in giving it
circulation, and consequently it remained, for a time, comparatively
unknown.
book

topics

Hartmann

suitable

better

Hartmann
with

'*

popular conversation,
consequently the book at once

known
opens

unconscious

there

are

which

have

introduced

for

discussion, and
great deal of attention;
it the

also

and
his

not

even

yet risen

criticisms

of the

review

his
and

attracted
work

made

sought after.
work. Philosophy of the Unconscious,
the

idea,

subconscious

the

into

"

more

which

he finds in Kant.

No

doubt

operations of mind, those processes

to the plane of consciousness; they are

PHILOSOPHICAL

288

subliminal

states,

as

rank

of

rises to the

THEORIES

they are called by others; but whatever

knowledge, becomes, by that very fact,

object of consciousness; because

an

for if I do

know,

know

not

if I

know, I know
I know, I do not

that

knowledge involves consciousness.

We
conscious of every phenomenon;
are
is what
not

appears,

that there
which

or

appear,

of

is not

not

are

conscious

not

phenomenon;

but

of

know;

phenomenon

it,then it does

it does

not

follow

that is,processes
latent processes,
of
conscious.
Thus we may
gation
begin the investibe

not

may
are

we

if we

and

for

that

subject,then drop it for awhile in order to attend

to something else,and after a time return
to the subject,and
in its development, though we
find that we
have
advanced
not
were
conscious, in the meantime, that it had occupied
our
thought.
To
the subject himself, we
let Hartmann
quote:
open
"I designate the united unconscious
will and
unconscious
idea *the Unconscious.'
Since, however, this unity again
only rests upon the identityof the unconsciously willingand
scious,'
unconsciously thinking subject,the expression,Hhe Uncondenotes
also this identical subject of the unconscious
psychical functions, a something in the main unknown, it is
a

"

true, but of which

attributes

we

may

at least

affirm, that besides the negative

'being unconscious

and

functions
exercising

also the essentially

tributes,
positive atunconsciously,'it possesses
willingand representing. As long as our speculation
this may
does not transgress the limits of individuality,
be sufficientl

however, view the world as a whole,

the expression,*the Unconscious,' acquiresthe force,not only
clear.

of

an

When

abstraction from

we,

all unconscious

individual functions and

subjects,but also of a collective,

comprehending the foregoing
both
extensively and intensively. Lastly, it will appear
that all unconscious
operationsspringfrom one and the same
revelation
in the
has only its phenomenal
subject, which
several individuals, so that the 'Unconscious'
this
signifies
Absolute Subject.
one
"In
each
Hartmann
piece
succeeding chapter, one
says:
around
this
of
it
the
world
nucleus,
more
as
crystallizeSy
were,
the Cosmos,
and
until, expanding to all unity, it embraces
the
has formed
that which
at last is suddenly revealed
as
of Spinoza, the
of all great philosophies,
the Substance
core
of Fichte, Schelling'sAbsolute
Ego
Subject-Object,the
"

PHILOSOPHICAL

290

holds

Hartmann
animals

be

to

in

one

his

from

arises

the

THEORIES

difference between

applicationof concepts,

Man's

generalize in

ability to

in his

and

and

man

in kind.

degree, not

the lower

superiority

formation

the

and

perfect language.
apparently new
are
only secondary powers
been
in
certain
which
have
directions by the
developed
higher cultivation of primary capacities.
mental

The

these.
he

but

have

volition,we

In

action.

with

intention

an

Hartmann

powers,

when

into those
one

the

or

of willing
other

of

will in man;
volition
reflex
and

same

emotion, and

as

the

carrying out

but reflex action is mechanical

purpose,

passionateless.Emotion

and

divided

thinking, resolvingfeelinginto
is essentially
Will in animals
the
rightly distinguished between

and

of

more

faculties

The

is often

in

present

animals,
another,

makes
war
community
upon
wise
the conquering tribe reducing the conquered to slavery,likeis exhibited by bees.
A decapitated frog seems
anger
to act with a purpose,
indicatingthat thought is not confined
as

in ants

to

the

one

head; and

spinal chord
meaning of
in the

and
the

aim, he
will.

to
disposition

Hartmann

there

word

will,Hartmann

calls

Desire

is will without

ganglia exhibit

the

of unconscious

cause

simply

hence

separate
extends

so

Will

movements.

unconscious

and
free-will,
is inchoate

brains.

volition,and

The

will.
as

to

take

scious
con-

with

will he

impulse

The

calls

is latent

action.
maintains

that

when

wills,for example,

person

finger,the finger is lifted,not by the direct act of

the conscious
will, but by the unconscious; the right nerve
of contracting the
is not consciously selected to do the work
the
muscle, but the end
being consciously chosen
proper
mind
unconsciously wills the right means
by selecting,
the
the right
contract
to
right nerve
though unconsciously,
to

lift

muscle.
Instinct

is first defined

consciousness

without

by

Hartmann

of the

purpose;

as

purposive action

it directs action

to

an

by conscious reflection,though the result, when

of
Is it a
realized, gives satisfaction.
mere
consequence
.^^
is it a result of mental
mechanism
or
corporeal organization.^^
of unconscious
mental
is it the consequence
activity?
or
second of
for
the
and
first
Hartmann
gives reasons
denying
end,

these

not

alternatives, and

for

affirmingthe

third.

The

work

SCHOPENHAUER,

HERBART,

instinct

varies

instinct

is

HARTMANN

291

according to circumstances,
that
plastic, approaching,
conscious
tion
in certain cases,
action, or is in combinaintelligent
bees build hexagonal cells in the middle
with it. Thus
but pentagonal at the edges; they kill off the
of the comb,
Some
birds brood
the
no
longer needed.
drones, when
on
by

prompted
showing

in the cold of the

eggs

the

that

when

Even

virtue.

where

pain, and

with

sometimes

night, and

is sometimes

Instinct

day.

somewhat

leave

the nest

attended

in the

latter

with

attended

in the heat

with

pleasure,and

it appears

case

of

pleasure,we

like

cannot

sider
con-

pleasure the motive, as in the first act from instinct,

there has been no previous experience of pleasure from
therefore, concludes

Hartmann,

source.

that:

Instinct

to an
unconsciouslywilled end.
willingof the means
peremptorily rejects the hypothesis
Though
ism,
that instinct is merely the action of a pre-arranged mechan-

is conscious

Hartmann

he

does

the

exclude

not

constitutional

tendencies

of the

either
instinctive tendency is augmented
organism. The
by individual habit, or by inheritance, through the customs
be called forth by an
of many
generations,or it may
scious
unconline
of
Instinct
action.
to
particular
a
plains
eximpuli^e
the
actions
of
individual
of
not
one
a
why
especially,
of another
those
class differ from
individual, but why the
actions

of

class differ from

one

those

Deviations, from
custontary instinctive
for by mechanism;
inheritance
modifies

which

does

the

the

necessitate

not

action
found

in

without

instinctive

consciousness

acts

not

are

counted
ac-

is

possible only
ment
embryonic develop-

mechanism;
mere
be engendered by habit; mechanism

cannot

but

influence

unconscious

through

class.

of another

instinctive
may
acts.

actions

predispose,
Hence,

of purpose

is

posive
pur-

always

in instinct.

Hartmann

raises

now

instinctive

actions

Narrowing

the

question, whether

the

so-called

not, after all,the results of premeditation.

the field intensifies the action; but the

are

lower the rank,the narrower

the field relative to total capacity,
equal, while the
yet as the instinctive performances remain

perfection
conscious
the
acts

of

those

reflection

instinctive
of animals

acts
are

which

admittedly proceed from

is proportional to the mental
capacity,
have
different origin. The
instinctive
a
well performed at first as ever
afteras
acts

PHILOSOPHICAL

29^

wards,

not

is blind

as

those

so

to

the

acts

learned

why,

reason

THEORIES

clear

by experience.
as

to

the

manner

Instinct

how, but

rise in the scale of

immediately, not by reflection,as we
being, instinct is gradually supplanted by reflection,as in
though traces of instinct remain.
man,
data given in consciousness,
Reflection operates only on
the data for reflection are
but certain acts are performed when
do
whence
then
such acts
not
proceed?
possible. From
from
Hartmann
clairvoyance,that is from unconscious
says
knowledge, or knowledge not produced by sensible experience.
at the approach of enemies
Witness, the alarm of animals
before seen.
their discrimination
Observe
they have never
of
in their choice
in
food; their avoidance of poisons. Even
there is often a craving for a certain kind of food, the
from home
for which is not understood.
Cats taken
reason
back again by a clairvoyantinstinct.
find their way
man,

instinctive act is vividly realized by the individual,

springsfrom its inmost nature, while neither the end nor

The
and
the

consciouslychosen.
Clairvoyance and instinct,though not identical,are often
found together,then clairvoyance serves
to throw
light on
of
is
inmost
but
the
not conversely. Instinct
core
instinct,
in the effort to preserve
the individual, or
being, as shown
at
in the more
important effort to preserve the species,even
the sacrifice of the individual.
Instincts are
unerring, and
within the same
species,uniform.
Hartmann
closes his chapter on instinct by quoting from
of a genuine philosophy
Schelling:"There is no better touchstone
be
which
must
than
the phenomena of animal
instinct,
the very greatest by every
ranked among
thoughtful human
Harthave
being." Though we
greatly condensed
very
means

mann's

are

discussion

of

instinct,we

have

endeavored

to

make

it clear.

evils commonly
attending the
of ordinary life. These
evils arise chieflyfrom
rance
ignothe selfish desire to enjoy the unlawful pleasures
or from
discusses

Hartmann
course

of

an

and

immoral

by the
givesmany

these
or

life.

purpose

the

These

always

valuable

evils can
to

obey

be obviated
the moral

by knowledge

law.

directions for discoveringand

Hartmann

avoiding
avoiding

be applied in
directions, may
greatly modifying these evils, and thus rendering life

evils,and

these

successful.
satisfactorily

XXIV

CHAPTER

Reid, Stewart,

Brown

Thomas
of the
Reid, the founder
(1710-1796).
of philosophy,
born
Scottish
school
at
Strachan,
was
near
Aberdeen.
His
descended
from
father, a clergyman
a
long
line of clergymen, held
his position as pastor
for
at Strachan
of the family of the
His
mother
Gregories,
fifty yeax's.
was
which
ments.
literary attaindistinguished for scientific and
was
Reid

1.

After

receiving

Thomas

entered

his

instruction

primary

Marischal

the

at

parish school,

College, Aberdeen,

and

was

structed
in-

of
writer
philosophy by Dr. George Turnbull,
a
bias
considerable
Reid
received
whom
his
ability, and from
in philosophy.
of sixteen, but
the
Reid
remained
at
ten
graduated
age
in
the
of
the
librarian,
University
longer at
capacity
years
time
scientific
and
and
matical
mathehis
to reading
to
devoting
spare
study.
In 1737, Reid
at Newappointed pastor of the Church
was
with
machar.
At
received
first, he
hostility by his
was
them
parishioners, but finally, he won
by his affability and
in

his

study,
treatise

study

on

of

attention
Human

understood,
1752,

being
Nature.

was

In

He

elected

King's College, Aberdeen,

years.

turned

perception.
of philosophical
by reading the works

Reid

1763,

he

filled

he

pastor,

external

treated

In

While

of heart.

goodness

to

which
the

devoted

time

much

to

philosophy by Hume's
in the
chiefly interested
was
His
ever,
first publication, howmethod,
suggested, as
was
to

of Hutchison.
the

chair

position
chair

of

of
he

moral

philosophy
held

for

in

twelve

philosophy

at

resigning to give his time to philosophical

writing.
Owing mainly to the efforts of Reid, the Aberdeen
the first
he was
organized of which
philosophical society was
this
of
the
society enrolled
Secretary,
distinguished names
Dr.
John
the
and
Beattie, Campbell,
Gregory.
Among
the speculations of Hume;
thus
and
subjects discussed
were
Glasgow.

Then

293

PHILOSOPHICAL

204
in his

Reid,

opposition to Hume,

philosophic doctrine
Reid

did

THEORIES

not

of Common
the

mean

crude

Sense.
notions

generally accepted opinions of

forming reasonable judgments.
Reid

admitted

could

be

made, was
by Hume,

assumed

to

show

the

of Hume

sense,

vulgar, but the

minds, capable of
logical

were

therefore concluded

of Hume's

doctrines

falsityof

the

the basis of his

as

common

conclusions

refutation
only satisfactory

that the

his

to

of the

philosophy, and

Locke's

from

deductions

By

sound

Hume's

that

naturally led

was

that

principles

reasoning.
'*allthe

objects of my
Reid opposed his
mind,"
own
knowledge are ideas in my
Sense."
This
doctrine of ''Common
fortunate,
undesignation was
because
the
misleading, many
taking it to mean
Reid
crass
opinions of the ignorant; but by common
sense,
the

To

assumption

rational

meant

intuition,

though

the

or

that

imuiediate

the

affirmations

of

of

reasoning. Evidently,
rational intuition is authority sufficient to establish
reason
or
such as, for example.
axioms, or rational first principles,
of two
either
have a cause,
or
equals is a
Every event must
reason,

not

process

for the other.

substitute

to the
sense
applied his doctrine of common
explanation of the fact of perception,maintaining that the
has an immediate
mind
knowledge of external objects. Surely

Reid, however,

in this
was

at

applicationof
fault.

be

aware

not

of

perception

mediate

but

immediate,

objects did

Our

his doctrine

affect
their

us

of Common
of

external

sensations,

giving us
We

sensations, inferringtheir

causes,

objects

and

we

should

judgment

pass

then

is not

If external

sensations.

through

existence.

Sense, Reid

ideate

or

on

not
our

picture

by the act of the imagination. This fact of

that the
mental
pictures constitutes the truth of idealism
call
which
the vulgar
things,are ideas of our
appearances,
the
far
is
creation and so
own
theory of idealism true; but it
of the truth.
We
the pictures but
is not the whole
create
our

inferences

not

the

causes

of

our

sensations.

The

appearances

are

the

hold to be true
of
pictures of our discoveries of what we
takes the appearances
for
external objects. Common
sense
takes the pictures as ideas,
the objects;subjective idealism
of the
which
they truly are, but denies the objectivecauses
of
sensations, though Berkeley admitted
objective causes

sensation, but

called them

God's

ideas.

REID,

BUOWN

STEWART,

^95

In affirmingthe existence of external objects,Reid is right;

with
the objects he is
but in identifyingthe appearances
In

wrong.

is

right;but

with ideas, idealism

identifyingthe appearances
in denying external
objects,apart from ideas,

it is wrong.
and not by the
produced by external causes,
which
is passive in sensation.
Even
Berkeley admitted
that since we
in saying: 'T assert, as well as you,
are

Sensations
ego,

this

are

from

affected

without,

allow powers

must

we

be

to

without,

affected
That
we
are
being distinct from ourselves."
is clearlyevident
whenever
from without
are
we
spoken to
himself
will
testify.
by another person, as that person
external
of
have
In holding that we
things,
knowledge
this
that
is
Reid
in holding
knowledge
right;but he iiswTong
in

should need
is immediate; for if immediate, we
sensation; but sensation is the condition
nor
and

the

point

senses

interpretationof
picture

or

embodies

idea of the

our

in his treatment

color: "The
that

common

to

which

is conceived

body,

and

may

the

be varied

of the

medium,

of the

body

kinds

or

cause

is that

the

imagination,

Reid

is not

always self-consistent

perception. Take

his

theory of

ways,

of the

or

color to the eye, which

by a variation of the light,

of that

thousand

is the

the

by

and

cause,

shows
evidently
language of mankind
the
of
between
color
body
distinguish
a
in
to be a fixed and permanent
quality the

appearance
a

its

to

of sensation.

of the facts of

ought

we

constructed

appearance,

senses,

of

perception,
objects. Perception is the

sensation, in reference

fact,however,

The

to

external

neither

eye

itself.

The

which, by the mediation

cause

degrees of light,and

of various

color

permanent

of various

transparent

bodies

interposed,produces all this variety of appearances.

In particular,
the idea which we
have
called the appearance
of color,suggests the conception and belief of some
unknown
qualityin the body which occasions the idea; and it is to this
of color."
quality,and not to the idea, that we give the name
If the quality which
the mind
Reid calls color is unknown,
does
not
perceive the very thing itself,and the colored
is only a representativeidea, or picture of the
appearance
.

external

The

cause.

known;
That
somewhat

Reid's

phenomenal

the external

doctrine

vacillatingcan

in

as

sensation

is immediatel

is inferred.

cause

regard
be

color

to

external

readily shown.

perception
Does

he

is

hold

PHILOSOPHICAL

296
that

have

THEORIES

immediate

an

perception

of external

objects?
It appears
''after acknowledging
so;
says that Hume,
is
it
universal
and
that
that we
a
primary opinion of all men
external
objectsimmediately, subjoins what follows;
perceive
is soon
'But this universal and
primary opinion of all men
destroyed by the slightestphilosophy which teaches us that
be present to the mind
but an
ever
nothing can
image or
and
that
the
the
inlets
senses
only
are
through
perception;
these images are
able to
which
without
received,
being ever
intercourse
the mind
and
between
produce any immediate
table which
the object. The
to diminish
we
seems
see
we
as
we

for he

farther from

remove

of

nothing

its

dictates
that

doubted

ever

the

house, and

alteration.

no

image which

obvious

the

are

suffers

us,

but

it;but the real table, which

was

present

of reason;

and

existences

which

It

exists independent

therefore,

was,

the mind.

to
no

who

man
we

These
reflects

consider, when

that tree, are

nothing but perceptions,

in the mind, and fleetingcopies and representationsof other
which remain
So far
and
existences
uniform
independent.
necessitated
then
are
we
by reasoning to depart from the
new
a
system
primary instincts of nature, and to embrace
Reid resumes:
of our
senses."
with regard to the evidence
this

say

we

have

"We

here

remarkable

conflict

between

two

dictory
contra-

engaged. On the
are
opinions,wherein all mankind
all the vulgar, who
side stand
are
unpracticed in philosophical
one
and
researches
guided by the uncorrupted primary
On the other side stand
all the philosoinstincts of nature.
phers,
without
modern
ancient and
exception
man
every
"

In

reflects.

who

myself

find

Reid

this

classed

here

division, to

with

admits

that

the
he

great humiliation, I

my

vulgar."
believes

we

have

an

immediate

objects. The quotation from Hume

the
He distinguishesrightlybetween
he admits
real object as the table which

perception of external
is worthy of attention.
and

appearance

the

of the
fact is,the appearance
The
independent of us.
table is the picture constructed
ing
by the imagination embodyexternal
the
real
in
to
object, the
regard
our
judgment

to

be

table

itself.

Does

hold

that

we

objects? It appears
external object but by means

external
no

Reid

have
so;

perception of
"We
for he says:
perceive
of certain bodily organs."
a

mediate

PHILOSOPHICAL

298

this

THEORIES

cultivated

school, he

his

for

language and
literature,and acquired that elegance and finish of stylewhich
distinguishedhis subsequent writings. At the University his
chief studies were
philosophy and mathematics, in which he
became
proficient.
very
His
in philosophy at Edinburgh
Adam
instructor
was
he attended, at Glasgow, the
Furgerson, though afterwards
he acknowledged his master
in philosolectures of Reid whom
phy.
At Glasgow he formed
with
Alison,
a lasting
friendship
the author
of an
Taste
who, later in life,was
Essay on
At

celebrated
Stewart

for its valuable

taste

criticisms,

assisted his father

for three

in

years

mathematics,

in 1775, in conjunction with

his father, was
appointed
professorof mathematics, which position he filled for several
and

years

with

distinguishedability.

appointed secretary of the

colonies, requested Stewart
moral
on
philosophy which
his mathematical

to

year's work
In

1783,

work,

In

1778, Furgerson, being

the
commission
American
to

to

supply

his

place

he

did

one

year,

but

for

called

it the

lecturer

as

in addition

most

laborious

of his life.

Stewart

1787, leaving

an

married

only

son,

Helen
who

Baunatyne,

afterwards

died

who

became

in

colonel

in the army.
On
the resignation of

Stewart
was
Furgerson in 1785.
of
the
and
transferred to
chair
for twentyMoral
Philosophy,
five years adorned
his positionby the eloquence of his lectures,
which
who
afterwards
attended
were
men
by many
young
became
Sir Walter
celebrated.
these
Scott,
were
Among
Lord
James
Francis
Horner,
Mill,
Brougham, Sydney Smith,
Dr.
Thomas
Archibald
Alison, and Sir James
Jeffrey,
Brown,
Mackintosh.
In
and

1790, Stewart

married

Miss

Cranstoun, a lady of rank

in his
critic,assisted him

accomplishments, who, as
of the Elements
writings. Stewart published the first volume
Mind, in 1792 and in 1793, his
of the Philosophy of the Human
Outlines
of Moral
Philosophy. His PhilosophicalEssays
in 1814,
of the Elements
appeared in 1810; the second volume
and the third volume, not till 1827.
In 1815, the first part of his Dissertation
the Progress of
on
Philosophy was
published in the Encyclopoedia Britannica
Supplement, and in 1821, the second part. In 1828, a few

STEWART,

REID,
weeks

his death,

before

Philosophy of

the Active

appeared
Moral

and

BROWN

299

his last work,

entitled

The

Powers,

distinguished for his elegant

perhaps more
style than for his originalityor depth of thought. Dr. John
of Edinburgh University said that what
Thomson
impressed
of his life was
in the course
the acting of Mrs.
him
most,
and the eloquence of Stewart.
Siddons
avoided
Stewart
daring hypotheses and eccentric theories,
and followed the safer path of sound
judgment and conservative
opinion.
rendered
the Philosophy
By the elegance of his style,Stewart
attractive to many
Sense
minds
that
were
of Common
bold
of Reid.
statements
Any cultivated
repelled by the
trained
in
not
with
read
philosophy, can
though
mind,
Stewart's
chapters on
delight, approaching fascination,
the
and
imagination.
memory
added
to philosophy, yet he
Stewart
nothing new
Though
the doctrines
coherent
of Reid, making
adjusted and made
them
inteUigibleand attractive to the common
mind,
more
and thus, by awaking a philosophicaltaste, promoted
higher
His
the
works
still
be read,
culture among
people.
may
the
and
interest
with
philosopher.
profit,even
by
versed
than
Stewart
better
in the history
Much
Reid, was
him
this enabled
of philosophy, and
to give to his writings
Stewart

the

was

richness

wealth

of all the ages

of

thought, and

to

exhibit

all the

of

scholarly attainment.
the
Stewart
improved on
phraseology of Reid, as for
example, by introducing,in place of the term, "The Principles
of Common
of its
Sense," which is objectionable on account
ambiguity, the more
preciseand dignifiedexpression, **The
and

charm

Fundamental
He

Laws

also made

of Human

Belief."

of
phenomena
the mind.
In fact, he was
much
better
psychologistthan
a
Reid; and yet Stewart's analyses and classifications are by
faultless.
Thus, he called consciousness
special
no
means
a
faculty, co-ordinate, for example, with perception, memory
and
it is an
of the
imagination, whereas
accompaniment
other
a
or

acts

necessary
am

and

states

element.

conscious

better

of

classification of the

of the

mind, and

Thus, if I know,

knowing.

Of

course,

is involved
I know
if

we

in them

that
are

as

I know,

conscious,

PHILOSOPHICAL

300

capable of being conscious, but

are

we

in all our

involved
Stewart

was

and

complete

than

minister

Brown,

equivalent

employed

in

positions

in

powers.

of

system

defending

advances

making

or

the

in building up

philosophy of his
Thomas

Dr.

(1778-1820).

Kirkmabreck,

at

capabilityis
tendency

compact

Brown

this

It is the present
to mind.

more

gained by Reid
5.

mental

consciousness

make

to

THEORIES

own.

Brown

born

was

at the

manse

of his

of the

united

parishes of Kirkmabreck

father, the Rev.

Samuel
and

Kirkdale.

father died before Thomas

His

with

mother, shortly after,removed

and

there

was

attended

bright and

When
under

about

seven

charge

placed at

school.

on

First.

the

of age, Thomas

his

Edinburgh,

to

of her

He

showed

verses

sent

was

Captain Smith, by

of his uncle.

assigned theme,

his
verses

so

who

son,

to London

whom

he

genius for poetry

the death
of
on

pleased his teacher,

literarymagazine. He

their publicationin a
different schools while in London,

secured

uncle, returned

family

primary education

years

These

her

old, and

years

precociouschild.

very

the

the

the

to

two

was

and

the

on

was

ing,
writ-

by

Charles
that

he

ed
attend-

death

of his

Edinburgh, at the age of fourteen, and

the University. His books
entered
were
shipped by water
lost at sea.
and, to his great grief,were
with
He
his University course
commenced
Logic, under
the instruction of Dr. Finlayson. While
spending his vacation
at Liverpool, he became
acquainted with Dr. Currie,
the

to

biographer of Burns,

volume
with

of Stewart's

it, that

the

winter

lectures given by Stewart.

Brown

ventured

Stewart's
to him

making
Brown

to

doctrine.
letter from

the

Brown

Philosophy.
next

Stewart
the

he

Though

make

in his

placed

who

was

attended

the

hand
so

captivated

the

on

certain

listened kindly, and

distinguishedM.

of

course

greatlyadmiring

criticism

first

Stewart

point
then

of

read

Provost, of Geneva,

criticism.

same

spent

his time

profitablyat

University, under
attention to general

the

able

instructors,giving also considerable

literature.
of the learned
In reading "Zoonomia,"
the work
Dr. Erasmus
Darwin, grandfather of the celebrated Charles
he
found
certain points of interest which
Darwin, Brown
noted

in the

margin.

These

notes

were

finallyexpanded

STEWART,

REID,

BROWN

301

pubHshed
anonymously, and
by the high authority of the
attracting great attention, was
of
Annals
the
and
Medicine, highly
Review,
Monthly
distinguishedphilosopher.
praised,and attributed to some
that
for
Brown
began the study of law, but abandoned
he finished a course
and took the degree
in which
medicine
In
the practice of medicine, he
of Doctor
of Medicine,
Dr. Gregory.
became
partner of the famous
of
invited Brown
to
On account
declining health, Stewart
and
the
the
for
next
lecture
him,
1810, at
request of
year,
Stewart, he was
appointed his colleague in the department
thenceforward
of philosophy, and
discharged all the duties
of the professor of Moral
Philosophy.
Stewart's
lectures exhibited
classical elegance; Brown's
pletely
poetic imagery, and all the flowers of rhetoric. They comcaptivated his audience of students from sixteen to
books
were
exceedingly poputwenty years of age, Brown's
lar,
not only in Great
Britain, but in the United States.
Brown
For what
was
distinguished.^^ Not
only for the
attractiveness
of his style, but for his penetrating discernment
and masterly powers
accustomed
of analysis. He was
to resolve
subject he took up into simpler elements,
every
into

volume,

which

and

to

present

it in

popularity

for

was

new

form.

He

attained

an

undue

reputation culminating
during the five years
1835, and then through
the infiuence, chiefly of Coleridge and
Hamilton,
passed
into undeserved
neglect.
Brown's
classification of mental
is as follows:
phenomena
twenty

his
years,
from
1830
to

External

\ Sensations
States
Mental

Simple Suggestion

phenomena

Intellectual
Relative

Suggestion

Internal
States

Passions
Emotional
Desires

PHILOSOPHICAL

302

distinction

The

well taken.

is not

is

between
A

physical, a

THEORIES
the

external

and

internal

sensation, though its immediate

excitement, is just
nervous

states
dent
antece-

clearly
or
an
Again, the
relative suggestion is
distinction of simple suggestion and
and
that of memory
not
correct
clear, nor
as
as
judgment,
for which
Association
undoubtedly is
they are substituted.
of primary importance in memory,
but
judgment is not
but is
merely passive,swayed by hints from various sources,
and in fact is the typical
active operation of the intellect,
an
form of thought.
has entirely overlooked
Brown
the will as a distinct act
internal

as

intellectual

an

emotional

as

state.

or
as

power

of the mind.

many

of the

It is not

Scotch

to

be confounded

philosophers are

inclined

with
to

desire,

do; for

we

is
appropriate.
things we
the sovereign power
of the mind, and a moral being is justified
condemned, according, as its decisions are right or wrong.
or
The
classifications of the psychical phenomena
as
tions,
cognior
ceptibilities
susfeelings,and volitions, implying the powers
of intellect,sensibility
and
will, is much
more
than that given by Brown.
clear, comprehensive and correct
Brown
of the terms,
the use
discarded
bilities,
susceptipowers,
done
faculties, and this has also been
by the
or
If
German
philosopher,Herbart, but without good reason.
ceptible
we
think, we are capable of thinking; if we feel,we are suschoose
of feeling;if we
have
to
or
will, we
power
and
and
these
decide;
capabilities,susceptibilities,
powers
term
the
compendious
are
conveniently designated by
is
that the mind
mean
faculties. This does not, of course,
triple,but that the one mind has three generic capabilities;

desire

do

many

for every
He
who

one

says:

thinks

Will

will to

not

think, I feel,I will.

that

he

is

no

It is the

than

more

same

succession

/.
of

adequate conception
be no personal
of himself.
In such a state of things,there can
indentity. It would certainlybe absurd to punish a certain
for what
collection of thoughts, feelings,and volitions now,
an
entirelydifferent collection did a long time ago.
It is true, that we
conscious
are
only of phenomena; but
thoughts, feelingsand volitions are neither self-originating,
refers them
to a subject who
nor
self-supporting.Reason
thinks, feels,and wills. It is by rational intuition, and by

thoughts, feelingsand

volitions,has

no

STEWART,

REID,

itself

as

the

that

only,

that

sensitive,
of

identity
of

justification

the

conscious

ego,

knowing,

personal

BROWN

of

phenomena,

active

and
the

303

is

ego

punishment

being.

the

The

condition

reward,

or

knows
tinuous
con-

of
and

ory,
mem-

the

seat

conscience.

of

Antagonistic
which

Brown
itself

state;
state

but
and

perception

the

such

truth

infers
in

that
in

affected

as

Reid's

to

held

the

and
next

of

theory
the
a

object
manner

as

is, perception
ideates

chapter.

its

preception

of

to

goes
cause.

induce

beyond
But

that

was

is

perception
in

it
the
more

the
a

mind
certain
mental
about

of

XXV

CHAPTER

Ferrier,

Hamilton,
Hamilton

1.

the

was

Dr.

father,
the

in

afterwards

under

the

care

their

of

mother,

his

in

father,

brother,

younger

Hamilton,

Thomas

his

Anatomy

of

death
his

and

William

Captain
of

the

On

Glasgow.
1791,

professor

as

Bart.,

succeeded

who

Hamilton,

Hamilton,

of

occurred

Thomas,

William

Dr.

Thomas

University

which

up

of

son

Hamilton,

William

Sir

(1788-1856).

McCosh

brought
ability and

were

of

woman

energetic character.
in Scotland,
early education
except
London.
for two
at
private school
Returning
near
a
years
he entered
the
to
University at the age of fifteen,
Glasgow,
and
studied
Jardine, and Moral
Philosophy under
Logic under
held
in
both
classes.
the first rank
Mylne, and
Balliol
In
he
and
entered
went
to
Oxford,
College.
1807,
the
He
into
entered
the
students
with
English
heartily
but
threw
other
exercises
gymnastic
sports of boating and
the
whole
into
his
force
of his
intellect
studies, delving
close
At
the
of his
of Aristotle.
especially into the works
he presented
himself
for examination
course
on
more
many
studies
first honors.
difllcult
than
those
required for the
His
and
long remembered
triumphant,
success
was
was
as
a
in
the
tradition
College.
secured
the degree B, A, and
first class honors, he
Having
with
the
of devoting himself
went
to
intention
Edinburgh,
that
to
but
medicine,
pursuit for the
shortly abandoned
studied
for the
study of law.
legal profession, he
Having
in 1813,
of the
Scottish
bar.
member
became,
Through
a
for himself
the
title of
legal investigation, he recovered
a
which
Baronet,
formerly had been held by the representatives
of the Hamilton
had
been
suffered
to lapse.
family, but which
William

In

18^0,

for the

at

chair
but

his

received

the

solicitation

of Moral
failed

to

of his

Philosophy
receive

the

friends, he
in the

was

candidate

University
which,
appointment,

304

of

burgh,
Edin-

through

PHILOSOPHICAL

306

collection

of

THEORIES

attributes

species or to all the species

of
denoting all the individuals
characterized

genus

how

could

the

by

of

and

genus,

species,

individuals

the

of

species

attributes.

common

extension

the

all the

or

of

He

showed

that of
quantity, emphasizing
the
form
Thus,
comprehension,
usually overlooked.
as
we
in extensive
class morally
can
reason
quantity : The
ble
responsibeings belongs to the class free beings; man
belongs to
the
class morally
responsible beings; therefore, man
belongs
the
class
free
In
to
quantity, we
beings.
comprehensive
we

reason

attribute

The

reason:

free

agency;

has

in

all

to

common

the

the
attribute
responsibility involves
the attribute
fore,
thereresponsibility; man,

has

man

free

attribute

Hamilton

claimed

is

some

is not
No

doubt

other

four

is not

some

this

Mr.

as

is

eight categorical
usually recognized: the

De

P,

four

only

The

of

P,
S

any

P.

some

them.

were

The

especially, some
has
shown,
nothing

last

has

Morgan

is not

propositions

these

of

P,

any

some

is all

some

is not

any

that

is true

P,

some

any

ambiguous.

all

P,

is not

thought

but
are

all S

ough
thor-

making

four

negatives,
S

some

Hamilton

unambiguous,

the

of the

doctrine

his

predicate,
of

P; the
P,

some

the

is all P,

all S

some

agency.

originality for

quantification of
propositions instead
affirmatives,

either

to

S and
P denote
always true, except when
the same
individual
by different n^ames.
in extensive
Relation
is the
thing in logic, and
important
of a proposithe terms
quantity, only four relations between
tion
with
the
is
is co-extensive
other, one
possible: one
are

contradict

excluded
one

the

other,

intersects

the

other.

take,

we

as

can

as

we

write:

write:

above.

by

is subordinate

one

If
the

may,

P, S is subordinate

relations
can

is

from

always
from

it, or

in

of

case

for

term

with

P, S intersects

the

other,

subordination,

subordinate

is co-extensive
to

to

P.

P,

the

or
we

ject,
sub-

is excluded

Denoting

these

the terms,
(C), (E), (S), (I,) placed between
we
which
S
S
S
read
(I) P,
S(C) P,
(S) P,
(E) P,
are

FERRIER,

HAMILTON,

which
givethe syllogisms

We

prove

McCOSH

307

co-extension,exclusion,

subordination, and intersection,using the notation (C),(E),

(S),(I). These conclusions are proved in order, thus:
1.

(C).

2.

(E).

3.

(S).

4.

(I).

It will be interesting
to represent the arguments by Euler's
notation with circles. These syllogisms
are
imambiguous, and
contribution
clear.
the
I
above
to logic.
as
a
perfectly
give
Reasoning,it is to be remembered, is an indirect comparison.
The relation of two
terms
to each other is determined
by
their separate relation to the middle term.
As to psychology,it is quite clear that Hamilton's
fication
classiof the faculties of the mind, as the cognitive,the
emotive, and the causative, is a great advance beyond that
in including
he is certainly
wrong
the causative phenomena, rather than under the
mistake characteristic of the Scotch philosophy.

given by Brown, though

desire under

emotive,

Desire is a feeling
rather than volition.
of the term
In his use
consciousness, Hamilton, though
in
it
to waver
not
seems
faculty,
clearlyright
making a special
between
its use as a compendious term, co-extensive with all
which he
the cognitive
and its use in a special
sense,
powers,
of
all the
calls self
-consciousness,as affordinga knowledge
self-consciousness,
phenomena of the mind; but this designation,
is improper,unless by self,
the acts and states
he means
and not
of the mind
its cognitions,
and volitions,
feelings
the mind itself. The truth is,we are conscious of the phenomena
"

of the
reason,

sine qua

mind; but

that
non,

is, by

know
the ego,
we
rational intuition,as

of mental

or

mind

the

itself,by
condition,or

phenomena.

PHILOSOPHICAL

308
In

maintaininghis

THEORIES

doctrine

of

perception,which he called
Natural
all his strength, which
exerted
Realism, Hamilton
indeed formidable, as his antagonistsknew
to their cost.
was
He
to teach
that we
seems
are
immediately conscious of external
'*For example,
objects,as in the following passage:
I

the inkstand.

see

modification

How

I be conscious

can

that

my

present

perception, and not another

state,
a perception of sightto the exclusion
of every
other sense,
and finallythat it is a perception of
the inkstand, and
of the inkstand
sciousness
cononly, unless my
comprehends within its sphere the object,which
determines
the existence of the act, qualifies
its kind,
at once
and distinguishes
its individuality. Annihilate
the inkstand,
annihilate
the perception;annihilate the consciousness of
you
the object,you annihilate the consciousness
of the operation.
exists,that it is

mental

it is

that

"

"

"

It is true

that if you annihilate the inkstand, you annihilate

annihilate
the perception;but it is not true that if you
the

consciousness
of

the

inkstand

we

inkstand.
but

Between
be

mediate

no

as
or

process
to

the

appearance,

mental

our

own

but

the

the

the

other

holds

that

when

we

see

an

only of the perception, but

stand,
knowledge, it is true, of the inkknowledge through the sensations which
is immediate
consciousness
knowledge.
not

have

and

the

idea of the

inkstand, there

of

reasoning,but there is,at least, a judgment

object causing the sensation, and the idea,
embodies
this judgment.
Of this idea, as
of course,
conscious;
for
formed
to
account
construction,
own
of which
conscious, is to be dis
we
are

construction, we

idea, as our
sensation, and

tinguished from
On

We

in us; but
the sensation

causes

may

Hamilton

conscious,

are

annihilate the consciousness

object,you

operation.

of the
it

of the

the

inkstand

hand, Hamilton

are,

itself,the
seems

cause

to

teach

of the
that

tion.
sensa-

we

are

is
object.
says:
the external
be conceived
object perceived.^^ Nothing can
ridiculous
than
the opinion of philosophers in regard
more
For example, it has been curiouslyheld (and Reid
to this.
is no
or
exception),that in looking at the sun, moon
any
other object of sight,we
the one
doctrine, actually
on
are,
of
those
distant
the
conscious
other, that those
objects,or on
those
distant objects are
really represented in the mind.
absurd; we perceive through no sense
Nothing can be more
not

conscious

of the

external

He

"What

HAMILTON,

FERRIER,

but

what

is in immediate

with

its

aught external
contact

the

sun

of the perception and

A

system
the

on

of

laiown

should

account

laws

impotence

of the

but

of

of the

object.

or

may

not

may

be;

philosophy, yet philosophy

thought

Take

the

mind

to

is

either laws

are

law

Hamilton

impotence
The

conscious

are

facts.

cause,

necessary,

constitute

for the

primary laws
of harmony.

have

must

not

of

impregnable, must be based

reason.
Contingent facts,
basis
for philosophy;
adequate

no

being

not

though

or

perception we

idea, but

form

the facts do not

The

conscious

not

are

diate
imme-

principlesof

can
empirically,

facts

we

and

philosophy, to be

necessary

for such

In

of the

309

relation

Then

organ."

of the inkstand.

nor

McCOSH

of

causality:Every

derives

conceive

this
for

event

from

law

absolute

an

warrant

no

of sequence
the

ment;
commence-

philosophical

fact

is potent to apprehend, not

is, reason
principle.
that every
thing,but that every event has a cause; for nonentity
into
Eternal
cannot
existence
fore,
therespring
being.
is,
a

eternal

reality. Imagination, it
existence, but

imagination
to

does

show

cannot

the

that

its

On

reason.

though

it

the

is

disprove
impossibility. It

its

not

other

hand,

picture
reality;for

cannot

true,

an

is not

possible
im-

absolute

mencement,
com-

be

pictured by the imagination,

is impossible to reason.
It is reason,
not
imagination, that
fundamental
deals with
truth, and this explains why the
of all intelligent
common
sense
minds, in choosing between
the contradictory alternatives,a cause
for every
event, and
absolute
an
commencement,
rejects the absurdity of an
absolute
have
see

how

commencement,
An
event
cause.
it

can

be;

can

can

and

without
see

that

asserts

that

every

cause,

it can't

event

Hamilton

must

can't

be.

of being, is one
principle of causality,the reason
branch
of the generic law of reason
and consequent, the other
branch
of knowing.
rain
Thus,
being merely the reason
the ground to be wet; it is thus a reason
of being, and
causes
also be a reason
of knowing.
it may
of the
witness
The
of knowing that it has
ground, after a drouth, is a reason
The

rained, but

it is not

the

cause

of the

rain, or

the

of

reason

being.
The

laws

of

harmony

of which

Hamilton

of

of non-contradiction, and
identity,

be

more

fullypresented:

gives three,

of excluded

middle,

that
can

PHILOSOPHICAL

310
law

The

THEORIES

of

identity in its positive form: A thing is itself;

in its negative form: A thing is not any other than itself.
law of congruents: Two
The
be
congruent propositionsmay
both true, or both false,or one
the other false.
true and
The
law of conflietives:
Two
conflidivepropositionscannot
^

both

be true.

law

The

of

contraries,the speciesof conflietives

inclusive:
both be

Two

law

of

be true,

speciesof

contradictories,the

inclusive:

but

may

Two

contradictories

conflietives

versally
uni-

be both true

cannot

nor

false.

The

to,

both

cannot

false.

The

both

contraries

sally
univer-

not

given tell what

here

names

these

laws

applicable

are

contradictories.
contraries, and
congruents, conflietives,
for example, of excluded middle, does not tell the
name,

as

The
kind

of

it is

which

propositions to

applicable,that

is, to

contradictories.
In

his

of

treatment

time, Hamilton

and

space

too

was

influenced

greatly

The
contradictory propositions
by Kant.
affirmed
is
and space
be
cannot
: Space is finite,
infinite,
is
The
ceive
equal authority.
impotent to conimagination

on

the
the

of
infinity

other

limit

hand,

beyond

which

there

that

is

that

ulterior

no

is not

space

In

evidence

accepts the existence of God

of

but

reason;

that

there

is

faith,not

on

eternal

an

that

knows

proposition, space is finite,is false, reason

is true.
contradictory,space is infinite,

no

Reason,

knowing

the

Hamilton

is

there

space.

finite.

On

it finite.

prove

clearlyapprehends

reason

therefore, knows

it cannot

but

space,

on

its

the

ultimate

reality,involving the possibilityof all actual existence,

would
reason
intuitivelyapprehends, otherwise there never
have
been anything.
That
His

Hamilton

works

will live and

philosophy
son

intimate

earliest

read

(1808-1864).

of John
friend

Ferrier
of

sister of Professor
James

be

for all

in

all his

writings.

coming time, yet

his

will be modified.

Ferrier

2,

the

great is manifest

was

Frederick
education

Sir

John
was

at

and

Frederick

James
the

Walter

grandson

Scott.

His

Ferrier

of James
mother

was

Ferrier,
was

the

Wilson.
born
the

manse

in

Edinburgh,
of

and

received

his

Rothwell, Dumfriesshire,

in the

family
acquired a

he

which

Horace,

Dr.

of Rev.

for

love
he

McCOSH

FERRIER,

HAMILTON,

Latin
He

lost.

never

through whose influence

poets, Vergil, Ovid, and

Duncan,

the

311

attended

later

the

burgh
Edin-

University of Edinburgh from

entered
He
1827.
to
1825
Magdalen
College, Oxford,
of Arts.
in 1831, he took the degree of Bachelor
In
where
time
in 1837, he
at Heidelberg; and
1834, he spent some
John
his cousin, the daughter of Professor
Wilson.
married
law, and

studied

He

Ferrier

and

lectured

for the

chair

1845

of

which

title, An
The

in

was

in

1832.

three

position he

as

Introduction

volumes,

assert

articles
the

vacant

received

the

Edinburgh,

at

Philosophy
for

Institutes

more

no

at

Blackwood

Philosophy of

of Ferrier

we

to

applicant

an

became

have

been

of Metaphysics,

notice

in the

above

interestingbook

on

on

and

order.
Greek

of Ferrier's.

He had
ever
Philosophy was
clear conception of what
a
Philosophy is in itself,and what
He
exhibited
a
History of Philosophy ought to be.
clearly
the significanceof the Ionic
and
the
Eleatic,
Philosophy,
Heraclitus
and
and
the
obscure
of
Pythagoras.
systems
He
entered
sympathetically into the spirit,and traced the
connection
of the
theories
of Empedocles,
Anaxagoras,
the
Democritus,
Sophists, Socrates, Plato, Epicurus and
A few
Zeno.
to
points only in this history, it is needful
written

than

that

sciousness
Con-

lished
pub-

entitled, respectively.Lectures

Early Greek Philosophy,

These
PhilosophicalRemains.
that

of
to

works

collected

failed

till his death.

held

series

the

It is safe to

of Moral

Professor

but

Philosophy,
which

applicant

an

failed likewise

He

elected

was

contributed

the

Moral

Ferrier

Metaphysics
of Hamilton.
He, however,
of Civil History
of Professor

St. Andrews,
Ferrier

Wilson,

appointment.
of Logic and

by the death
appointment

under

advocate

an

acquaintance with Sir William

him in the session, 1844-5, during

for

Prof.

chair

vacant

the

in

of

death

receive

and

as

illness.

the
the

admitted

intimate

an

Hamilton's

for

the

was

formed

Hamilton,
On

and

School,

High

mention.
Ferrier
forward

evident

dwells

with

principleof change,brought
bination
by Heraclitus, and called by him becoming, a comof being and
It
is, however, at once
not-being.
that change cannot
be the^r^^ or ultimate principle;
favor

on

the

PHILOSOPHICAL

312

by the action of
which
is truly the ultimate
first principle. Cause
or
cause,
is an essential requisite
which
is also apprehended by reason,
of a first principle,
while change is known
empirically,either
experienced in consciousness, or perceived through the senses,
which excludes it from being a first principle.
Ferrier
also accepts the opinion attributed
to Heraclitus
for

itself is

THEORIES

change

that

an

effect

determinations

contrary

about

brought

into

enter

constitution

the

of

we
object. This is true, if by contrary determinations
diverse attributes^
form, as spherical,may commean
as
bine
any
if
with any
color as red; but it is not true,
by contrary
cubical.
for
and
we
mean
as
example spherical
conflictive,
It is true that objects are
undergoing continuous
changes,
and Ferrier would
from
the
is
raised
when
water
freezing
say,
the boiling point, calling the
successive
to
temperatures,

every

a,

6, c,

not-b is
not-a

that

"

c,

and

is b then

and

since

the

water

so
a

is 6, that b is not-b, and

is not-a, and
not-a
tillthe water
boils.
But if a is not-a, and
on
is

b; if b is not-b

is 6 and

is

temperatures
law

b is

c,

freezing and
at

the

of conflictions

same

holds

then

and
is

and

c,

boiling, and
ime
not-a

and

is

not-b

Ferrier

then

on.

so

has

c,

b is

c,

Therefore,

all intermediate

declares

b apart,

since

that
it

the

holds

being apart, as incompatible. Yes, it -s true

that absolute
patible;
not-being and being are held apart, as incomalso is the not-being of a and the being of a; but
so
the
not
not
not
are
being of a and the being of fe,which
for
d.
not-a
incompatible,though not identical;
mayb e c or
in
Ferrier
Again
changes its
a
body falling a vacuum
says
tell what
calculus can
velocity every instant, and that no
its velocity is at any
instant, since at the instant it has any
velocity,it has another velocity;but that is the very thing the
calculus
be stated in common
can
tell,and this velocity can
Its velocityat any instant
language, so as to be understood.
is the distance
it would
fall the next second, if at that instant,
to act.
gravity should cease
In distinguishingbetween
sensation
and thought, and in,
assigning the superiorityto thought, Ferrier awards, in the
Socrates
between
the Sophists, the palm
and
antagonism
is
Socrates.
Follow
said:
to
Both
Nature, but what
parties
answered
nature.^
The
Sophists said Sensation; Socrates
has both
sensation and thought.
Thought, The fact is,man
not-being and

PHILOSOPHICAL

314

they do,

relating,as
at

are

emotions,

the

for

by

of

sorrows

rational

of the

life.

enal,
phenom-

intuition.

The

sensations, appetites,instincts,
lose
aversions, will never

mind.

The

truths

of

reason

"All
experience. Ferrier says:
strict demonstrative
rigorousevidence
on

on

This

proof."

the

and

human

facts

the

for

certainty depends
facts

for

accounts

and

conditions

necessary

affections, desires

its interest

joys

apprehended

once

philosophy which

account

the

to

truths, the

Fundamental

THEORIES

of

"

is not

of consciousness, which

of

either

true
are

as

axioms,

certain

as

or

of the

demonstrated

truth.
of
justification

of his system,
polemic character
of
Ferrier says: ''The object of philosophy is the correction
of ordinary thinking; and
these inadthe inadvertencies
vertencies
as
corrected
generally confirmed, and never
are
by
thus
from
converted
psychology, and are
oversights into
it
is
further the business of philosophy to
something worse,
This
is what
refute psychology.
philosophy has to do,''
of psychology;
the
properly correct
Philosophy may
errors
In

it should

but

As

each

make

not

of mind.

deliverance

of

Ferrier, contradicts
he

confronts

doctrines

the

which

some

conform

ordinary thinking, according

law

opinions,

or

and

truth
the

to

of all reason,

psychological

truths
them, with the necessary
they contradict, stating first the necessary

It is,however,
error,

aims

to

with

ordinary opinion, or

overthrow

psychology itself,which

necessary

natural

laws, which
laws, and facing each
or

the

on

war

science

be the true

to

the

but

the
to

the counter

propositionexpressing
of psycholthe corresponding error
ogy.
business
of philosophy not only to
establish
Ferrier
positive truth.

scheme
of Reid
the
and
repudiates the common
sense
Scotch
philosophy.
Ferrier treats of philosophy in three divisions : Epistemology,
or
theory of knowledge; Agnoiology, or theory of ignorance;
of procedand Ontology,or the theory of being. This order
ure
is the reverse
of the order of ordinary thinking, which
is
failures.
the secret
of so many
The
not
questions of being canbe properly answered
till the questions of knowledge and
ignorance have been decided.
of knowledge,
that the unit or minimum
Ferrier contends
in regard to what
is known,
is Objectplus Subject,smd
that
thus

FERRIER,

HAMILTON,

McCOSH

315

are
inseparable in cognition.
distinguishable,
This is true.
Knowledge implies an object known, a subject
and
that knows,
synthesis of subject and objects; but in
itself;the two
are
knowing the object, the subject knows
The
known
together, but in a different way.
object is
if a fact, but rationally,if a necessary
known
empirically,
the subject is always
truth, and in either case,
as
not-self;
known
as
self. Knowledge is not self-supporting;
rationally,
it requires,as its indispensiblecondition, an
or
subject
ego
The ego in knowing an object,refers the knowledge
that knows.
in saying / know
that object. That
to itself,
knowledge
is impossible without
a
subject is at once
apprehended by
intuition.
The
rational
subject is, however, not strictly
of itself,
conscious
though conscious of the knowledge of an
itself empirically,but
it
object; that is, it does not know
rationallyapprehends the necessityof itself as the indispensable
condition
it knows
of knowledge, and
that
whenever
knowledge is impossible. The
object, otherwise
ego,
any
is
made
not
however, being always present,
specialobject
a

these, though

the rational intuition of

attention, and on this account,
self is unobstrusive, since the attention
is usually directed
of

the

The

subject however, may,

by a special
the chief object of reflection.
effort,be made
Ferrier discusses the Minimum
object of knowledge, before
is knowledge? what
is it to
he answers
the question. What
is knowledge distinguishedfrom belief ? Knowl?
edge
know
How
involves
certainty;but does certainty always involve
often
does
excludes
doubt, so
knowledge?
Knowledge

to

object.

belief.

Ferrier contends, and

rightlytoo, that independent matter

is not only unknown
but that it canto human
not
intelligence,
be known
and is thus shut out from
by any intelligence,
law
for cognition of
of reason;
all cognition,by a necessary
matter
impliesalong with it,a rational apprehension of the
pendent
But
that it is not the indeto note
we
are
knowing mind.
existence of matter, but the independent knowledge
of matter

that is thus

considerations
of
but

contradiction."

it is not

knowledge
per

matter

se

has

matter

of matter
not

been

shut
per

out.
se

Ferrier
is reduced

contradiction

per

se

per

se.

proved.

that
The

is

then
to

is

says

the

''By these

predicament

self-destructive;

self-destructive,but

impossibilityof

matter,

PHILOSOPHICAL

316

above

The

Ferrier

to
anticipates,and endeavors
besieges,not merely
but
the
ence
thing,
thing itself. The differ-

answer,

set

it

the

knowledge

aside,

thus:

contradiction

"The

of the
the

between

THEORIES

contradictions

two

The
this way.
cognizance of a circle is
that figure be presented,either reallyor

contradiction, however,

This

cognizance; it does
would

of this kind
the

But

leave

matter,

per

the

contradiction

altogetherunaffected.
circle is not only a contradictory
se

cognizance of a centerless
dictory
contracognizance, the object of it is, moreover,
a
circle is absolutely incogitaobject. A centerless

ble in itself."

Yes, and

by definition,a

circle has

circumference

of the

exclusivelyto

the circle.

to

illustrated,in

contradictory,unless
ideally,to the mind.

is limited

extend

not

be

may

we

on

to

per

se, is of this character.

say:

which

equally distant.

are

contradiction

**The

from

center

for
impossiblein itself,

add

may

which

all the

Ferrier then

attaches

Matter
per
circle without

points

is

se

to

goes

matter,

contradictory

is a contracenter
dictory
as
a
a
thing,just as much
thing." This Ferrier has signally failed to show,
of the centerless
though he attempts it thus: 'Tn the case
is
the
it
lacks an element
circle,
contradictory,because
object
is essential to the constitution,
center) which
circle;and
only of every known, but of every knowable

(to wit, the

not

in like manner,
matter, per se
the element
wants
(to wit, the

constitution

is thus

thing. It
thing, and
but

that

the

introduced

been

its

to

The

to

contradictory,because

me)

which

known,
matter

contradiction

is essential

the

of every
knowable
is a contradictory

but
se

per

to

it

these

(as
cleaves
not
show)
only

remarks
the

to

have

cognition

object."
is

center

without

of every
certain that

only

not

is

point

of

it;but Ferrier has

the

circle which

shown

not

that

is

matter

impossible
is impossible

is no
subject, which
part of the matter
but only a part of the object of cognition. Matter
may
be known,
exist, though it cannot
apart from the subject.

without

Did

Ferrier

Ferrier

known

not

shown

Where

all matter

know

then

contends

.^^

that

matter,

per

se,

as

an

object of

edge;
contradictory;yes, as an object of knowlan
object of knowledge implies a subject;that is,
object implies a knowing subject; but Ferrier has
is the contradictory.
that matter, per se, as a reality,

knowledge,
for

the

is the

is the

contradiction?

If it is asked

how

can

it be

known

that

needful

not

failed

to

taken

the

jper se, is

matter,
to show

matter,
of

burden

per

proof

317

reality? The
only to show

that; but

that

prove

McCOSH

TERRIER,

HAMILTON,

se, is not

is,it is

answer

that

Ferrier has

reality.

himself; let him

upon

the

He

has
it.

carry

of

expedient

asking their
external material objects,
that there are
to
opponents
prove
there
that
of proof,
such
when
the burden
are
no
objects,
this
neither
the
have
idealists themselves;
falls upon
they
It is not simply the realityof matter
that,
done nor
do.
can
brings it into relation with mind, but the conception of the
reality.
that matter
Ferrier contends
per se is the contradictory;
but the contradictory is self-destructive and impossible; yet
Idealists

in general

Ferrier

'*this system is
maintaining that matter

holds

be, from

to

that

',*Thematerialist

blank.".
.

resort

loaf of bread
idealism, when
a
of consciousness, and is locked

into

turn

No

nothing.
the loaf, or
,

into

nothing,

but

what.f^ to

itself?

far, as

as

se

per

supposes
to

ceases

away

in

in

the

"

system

any

is

nonentity a
that, according to
be a phenomenon
dark closet,it must
a

"

absence

of

all

whatever

it may

can

be, lapses,not

sciousness,
con-

into

the

contradictory." Contradictory to
lapses into the impossible,for the
idea
or
contradictory is the impossible. The
appearance
of the loaf vanishes, but not the loaf itself. Suppose after
a
week, the loaf,for the time, not thought of, the closet is
opened, and the loaf is found to be moldy, what has been
time?
There
going on in the mean
was
an
object there,
Then

it

apart from the idea.

As a compact
example of reasoning,Ferrier's Metaphysics
ranks
but

with
as

Spinoza'sEthics; its study is a

body of information, it reminds

valuable

discipline,

of the

one

Latin

proverb :
Parturiunt
The

monies,

nascetur

PhilosophicalRemains

subjectspublished
worthy
clearness
will
true

and

of
and

consist

in Blackwood's

lectures delivered

occasional

ridiculus

at

publication. They
attractiveness

mus.

of papers

on

cal
philosophialso several

Magazine,
times, and

various

exhibit

the

of all of Ferrier's

deemed

characteristic

writings, and
abundantly repay for their perusal. This is especially
of the articles on
the Philosophy of Consciousness,Reid,
the Philosophy of Common
Sense, and A Speculationon

the Senses.

PHILOSOPHICAL

S18

overestimated

Ferrier, however,
he

when

it for

took

THEORIES

they would

that

granted

influence

the

of his works,
the

overthrow

older

Philosophy and Modern

Psychology.
in
McCosh
born
James
McCosh
3.
was
(1811-1884).
After
Ayrshire, Scotland.
acquiring his primary education
his universitytraining at Glasgow and.
at home, he received
pher.
He
both
at
was
Edinburgh.
Theologian and a Philosoa
While
for

he wrote

Edinburgh,

at

which,

of its

account

on

Sir William

Hamilton,

an

Stoic

on

essay

merit, he received,

the

honorary

degree

Philosophy,
motion

on

of

of

Master

of

Arts.

1835, McCosh

In

in 1839

Scotland, and
active

was

in the

became

he

While

in 1843.

entitled Methods

published
Physical and Moral,
saying: *'It is refreshingto

which
read

of

work

of
he

of the

in,
Brech-

at

Divine

ment,
Govern-

commended

Hamilton
a

church

establishment

for the

organized

was

his book

of the

Brechin, where

at

pastor

movement

Church, which

Free

minister

ordained

was

by

distinguishedfor

so

thinking." This book laid the

for his reputation as a philosophicalthinker.
foundation
physics
In 1841, he was
elected
professor of Logic and Metain Queen's College, Belfast, where
he distinguished
himself as a lecturer.
Jointly with Professor George Dickey,
in 1856, he wrote
Typical Forms and SpecialEnds in Creation,
and
in 1862, the
Supernatural in Relation to the Natural.
In
Inductively
1866, he published Intuitions
of the Mind
It is,
Truth.
Investigated,being a Defense of Fundamental
soundness

and
originality

difficult

somewhat

however,
method

has

do

to

by

apprehended

once

by induction
There
intuition

is,however,
arid

with

to

rational

an

then
We

external
do

induction

intuition.

know

it

by

Truths

which

may

be

discovered

We

find

the

reached

make

to

that

an

intuition

by

the

ence,
by our experilift a weight, that

power.

of power,
is an
object of
do
not
observe the
event, we

know

we

is at

interestingrelation existingbetween

effort,the exertion
an

tive
induc-

the

truth, which

fundamental

of cause.
investigationof the nature
for example in the effort we
is the efficiencyof force or
cause

in

what

understand

fundamental.

not

are

of

In

this

case,

the

observation; but

efficiency. How
external
event
requires a cause?
that non-entitycannot
springinto

HAMILTON,

beingyfor that would

incapable. This is
by

once

reason,

the

real

of which

intuition,

319

nothing is

mere

it is known

and

at

induction.

by

of any
event
induction
and

generalizeby

McCOSH

require action

not

it is true

As

FERRIER,

that

it

affirm

requires a

cause,

that

event

we

may

requiresa
every
is
induction
the
not
intuition
generalization
by
cause;
that any
The
real intuition
particularevent
requires a cause.
is known
that is by rational intuition,
at once
by reason,
but the generalizationof the intuition,which
is not intuition,
is reached
by induction.
induction
The
here
employed is not ordinary probable
certain thing is found
in which
induction
by observation
a
this

but

be

to

instances

of many

true

of

class, that

is of all the

examined, and is therefore

probably true of the
class;but is a perfect induction, not the ordinary case
the number
of instances
limited, and each has
are

instances
whole
where

examined

been
events

induction,
It is

intuition
we

that

is
cause;

has

we

is identical

occurrence
an

Then

this

occurrence

is

But

particular event,

as
we

an

with

event.

cause.

that

an
we

this
can

say:

this

perfect

reach, by

can

witnessed
The

rence
occur-

event

has

event.

Every

has

event

The

this

therefore

occurrence

is identical

occurrence

say

we

occurrence.

can

tion
generaliza-

the

particular

observed

by

cause.

making

cause,

any

event;

an

has

then

cause,

after

requires
witness

event

that

conclusion

Suppose

has

every

note

event

every

deduction, the

each

that

know

found

of
true; for the number
infinite.
it
is
But
known
practically

that

interestingto

cause.

fact

indefinite,or

are

rational

by

the

and

with

particular event

this
has

cause.

McCosh
in which
In

1865,

also

published

he makes
McCosh

some
was

An

Examination

of

tellinghits.
elected
president

Mill's

of

New

phy
Philoso-

Jersey

wide
the institution
to
a
College at Princeton, and gave
reputation and greatly enlarged its usefulness.
In 1869, McCosh
published a treatise on Logic entitled
The Laws
Thought. In this treatise he gave
of Discursive
much
thought to the discussion of concepts.
itivism
series of lectures on
McCosh
Christianityand Posa
gave
in 1871, at the Union
Theological Seminary in New
York.

PHILOSOPHICAL

SW

McCosh

fundamental

while

In

in

Hopkins

1875,

published

of

treats

reply
In

forcibly

to

Without

or

virtue.

entitled

very

for
In

Cosh
Mc-

the

The

Scottish

interesting

and

the

extending

period

same

he

year

able,
valu-

wrote

lecture.
volumes

two

contain

his

thus
for

many

adding
stout

Ferrier,

lived
the

that

notable

future

much
of
of

that
Scotch

Reid,

was

Realistic

on

thoughts

mature

is

grateful
original

Philosophy,
Stewart

frequent

gave

useful

and

in

also

and

Review,

defender
but

McCosh

works,

Princeton

He

by

these

to

the

lectures.
held

combined

are

expressed.

addition

In

is

volumes

These

Philosophy,

ple,
princi-

of

book

published

McCosh

1887,

which

Belfast

Tyndale's

to

principles

Hamilton.

to

ing
maintain-

fundamental

foundation

philosophy

Scotch

Hopkins

foeman.

worthy

book,

Hutcheson

from

forming

Mark

Hopkins

the

other
the

McCosh
This

Ethics,
is

that

found

Philosophy,

of

benevolence
held

McCosh

benevolence

with

was

that

with

controversy

principle

opinion

the

in

engaged

the

on

THEORIES

and

utor
contrib-

public

many

life,

will

and

remembrance.
in

thought,
not

Hamilton.

that

McCosh
of

Brown

be

THEORIES

PHILOSOPHICAL

322

of Contiguity,Synchronous
applied to explain, not only
had been done by others, but emotion, reasoning,
as
memory,
volition,and action, both voluntary and involuntary.
Following Hartley, in this respect, other philosophers of
mental
this school are
state
wont
to explain every
or
process
and
association;
undoubtedly,
thought
inseparable
by an
may
idea
from
second
the
and
second
to
third,
one
a
a
through
pass
in the course
This
be observed
of a
be dropped.
may
may
law, which

he

styled, The
law

This

Successive.

aud

Law

he

conversation.
his

In

connection

intimate

and

states,

thus

the

but

to

particlesof

minute
ether

thus

sensation

held

He

caused

to

thought,

neither

be

the

the

result

in the

minute

the

human

is the vibration

the

ether, as
vibrates, and

to

spirit,to be
experience
this

upon

which

of the

of the

subtle

elastic

of the

brain;

the

may,
so

however,

intimately

sensation

sensation, the
is

is not

nerves

of the ether, unless

the ether

suppose

connected

whenever

the

the

with
ether

intelligent,
thought awakens

ego,

judgment,
thought, and
emotions, affections, desires, volitions,
passes

vibrations

interstices

particlesof

itself is intelligentspirit. We
ego,

in

way

postulating

nerves,

vibrate

of the

vibration

led the

tracing the
between
physiologicalfacts and psychical
originated Physiological Psychology.

physicaltheory, Hartley

as

which

transcend

sensation.
be admitted
that
Hartley's opinion cannot
reasoning is
series of ideas united
than
nothing more
a
by association;
for it has cogency.
The
premises are not merely associated
with
the conclusion, but
they necessitate the conclusion.
In mere
association, the premises would
simply lead us to
think of the conclusion, but as a matter
of fact, the truth of
the premises, there being no
formal fallacy,compels us to

accept the truth

of the conclusion.

ethical
attention
and
to
Hartley also gave
theological
questions;but he derives all knowledge of these subjectsfrom
His style is simple and attractive,and his specusensation.
lations
of his
said
of
the
truth
be
entertaining,whatever
may

conclusions.
The

doctrines

who
Priestley,
to

reduce

the

of

Hartley were
warmly advocated
by Dr.
was
distinguishedin science, and who hoped
science of mind
of physics, as he
to a branch

ASSOCIATIONAL
inclined

was

said:

to

'*Dr.
of

theory

materialism.

mind

marked

thought

clear

of

In

argument.
in the

pursuit of
is

fishes, as
he

thus

virtue

"Virtue
the

to

light

the

the

upon

theory

of

the

altruistic;but
reward

satisfaction

was

had

is the

an

utilitarian;

extreme

his eye on
the loaves and
definition of virtue which
of

doing

good

to

mankind,

in

God, for the sake of eternal happiness."

its place in ethics, both
egoistic utility

we

external
take

we

he

he

will of

Utility has
for the

ethics

in his celebrated

seen

states:

obedience

and

Hartley, Priestley

celebrated
Paley, a
in philosophy the line of
moralist, followed
and Hartley.
out .by Locke
Paley had the
the ability to make
and
a
vincing
constatement,

theologian and

and

upon

323

William

(1743-1805).

Foley

power

to

useful

more

did

Newton

than

regard

thrown

has

Hartley

In

PHILOSOPHY

world."

external
2,

EMPIRICAL

AND

should
to

in virtue

aim

to

virtuous,

not

solely

chieflyfor the
worthy attainment

itself,but

virtue
as

be

the

most

moral

of

to

the

being.
Bentham
bom
in
3.
was
(1748-1832). Jeremy Bentham
London.
His father, who
him
the
tages
advanwas
wealthy, gave
of a good education.
He early studied Latin and Greek,
and
became
He
entered
proficient in those
languages.
son's
Queen's College,Oxford, where he thoroughly studied Sanderlogic. He received the bachelor's degree, and became
student
of law at Lincoln's
listened with delight
Inn.
He
a
decisions

Blackstone

at

of Lord

Mansfield, and

heard

lectures of

the

Oxford.

He

tion
investigatedthe principleson which all sound legislaHis reputation
be based, and published his views.
must
thinker
consulted, as an
as
a
rapidly extended, and he was
authority,in regard to legalprinciples,by many
ents
correspondin different countries.
In 1823, he established
The Westminster
Review,
noted
for vigorous thought and liberal opinions.

Bentham

politics,and

was

the

author

of

many

works,

on

journal
finance,

for
Seeking for a solid foundation
and morals, he accepted the principleof Beccaria,
the Italian jurist, *'The
greatest happiness to the greatest
number."
He
made
a
systematic application of this vital
and
Penalties, as also
principle in his treatises on Rewards
in his writings on Law
and Ethics.
both

law

morals.

PHILOSOPHICAL

3^4

Bentham

Mill,

intimate

was

in

and

THEORIES
with

small

James

influenced

Mill

and

John

Stuart

their

degree
speculations.
James
Mill
born
in the village
Jf.
was
(1773-1836).
called Northwater
Bridge, in the county of Forfar, Scotland.
His parents were
respectable people, and his mother, who
resolved
ambitious
to give her son
was
an
a
good
woman,
He was
education.
where
he
sent to the Montrose
Academy,
till his eighteenth year,
and
remained
then
the
entered
universityat Edinburgh.
and
Mill enjoyed the friendship of Sir John
Lady Jane
of their daughter.
He
guished,
distintutor
Stuart, and was
a
was
and
at
Edinburgh, for his attainments, in Greek
Logic. He greatly admired
Dugald Stewart, whose lectures
no

Mill

he

attended.
After

licensed as a preacher, but did

graduating, he was
he entertained
to preach, owing probably to doubts
in regard to certain doctrines, and to the great interest
in the study of history and moral
and political
philosophy.

continue

not

he took
In

Stuart, who
was
a
accompanied Sir John
found
of parliament, to London,
where
member
he soon
he
literary occupation suited to his mind, and to which
applied himself with great assiduity.
He
started a new
periodicalcalled The Literary Journal
enriched
which, comprehensive in its scope,
was
by the
of distinguished scholars. Mill himself writing
contributions
articles for it on
history, biography, and on politicaland
social subjects.
In 1804, he wrote
the Corn
Trade which
was
a pamphlet
on
the
first of his economic
writings. In 1805" he married
1802,

Harriet

he

His

Burrow.

eldest

after his

distinguishedfriend

In

he

1806,

began

for twelve

his
and

and

History of

named

patron.
India

on

John

Sir John
which

he

Stuart,
Stuart.
was

gaged
en-

years.

in 1808,
acquainted with Jeremy Bentham
co-operated with him in elaborating and disseminating
and ethical doctrines, and by his clear statements
political
logicalreasoning gave to the Utilitarian philosophy wide

Mill
and

his

was

son

became

currency.

From

1806

to

periodicals,such

1818, he contributed
as

the

Edinburgh

able

articles to

various

the

British

Review,

ASSOCIATIONAL

Review, the
the Annual,
article

Eclectic
he

on

for

Annual

the

review

''Beniharns

and

and

Review,

wrote

PHILOSOPHY

EMPIRICAL

AND

''Fox's

of

Reforms,''
He
Edinburgh.

the

Review.

History'

also

Law

325

one

also

For
and

an

Money

on

the
Exchange
pany,
article on the East India ComLibertyof the Press, and a severe
Mill co-operated with William
Allen in founding and
writing for a periodicalcalled "The
Philanthropist,"which
He
also contributed
1811
to
1817.
was
published from
articles to the fifth edition of the Encyclopedia
valuable
many
wrote

on

Britannica.
In

1878,

Mill

published

his

with

and
great success,
gave
the India House, in which
he

met
History of India, which
him
an
important position in
gradually rose to the headship

of the oflSce.
Mill
of

one

Review,
principal writer for the Westminster
of
his articles was
criticism
the
a vigorous
Edinburgh
Other
articles dealt with English History and with
was

Review.

Ecclesiastic

establishments.

published his Political Economy, and in 1829,

In addition
Mind.
to
appeared his Analysis of the Human
of his son,
all these labors. Mill took charge of the education
In

1821,

Stuart

John

Mill.

various

These

exhibit

and

he

immense

the

All his

forth.

labors

exemplify

deep logicalthought

of expression.
Mill's Analysis of the Human
that

chieflyclaims

second

Mind

attention.

our

edition, in two
Alexander
Bain, Andrew

mind

his

of intellectual effort he

amount

writingsshow

activity of

the

is,however,
shall make

We

volumes,

with

valuable

Findlater, George Grote

and

work

the
use

of the

notes
and

put

ness
clear-

by
John

Mill.

Stuart

begins with sensation, following,in his exposition of

the five special senses,
the followingorder: Smell, hearing,
muscular
and
also the
touch.
He
considers
sight, taste
sensations, and those of the Alimentary canal.
Mill properly begins his "Analysis" with a discussion of the
for they are
with
the
the means
of communication
senses,
external
world, pointing unmistakably to the fact that there
Mill

is

an

outer

After
on

an

world,

not

ideal,but

interestingdiscussion

to the treatment

of ideas.

He

real.
of the
"

says

Mill

passes

sensations

which

senses.

The

PHILOSOPHICAL

3^6

through the medium

of the object, and

have

we

presence

When

THEORIES

sensations

our

of the
cease

by

cease

something remains; so
sensation; something,

the

sensation.

Another
of the

this copy

name

The
.

the
The

of

consequence

than

more

remains
class

one

of

class of

other

objects,
image of

an

copy,

representation, or
denote
we
by which

sensation, which

is idea.

ceases,

the

of the

trace

this

trace,

sensation

after the

feelings I

of their

absence

I call it

hke, that

only by

its absence.

upon

the

exist

senses

call

tions;
sensa-

"

feelingsI call idxas.

an
object exciting any

sensation.

is the

There

of the

rational

senses

intuition

is
of

of the sensation, and

of
necessity of a cause
the subject which
experiences the sensation; there is also the
the cause
is; also the ideation, or
judgment inferring what
of the idea or image representing not the sensation,
formation
the cause,
constructed
but
by the imagination, embodying
inferential
idea
the
The
judgment concerning the cause.
is
reinforced
vivid
is
and made
so
long as the cause
present,
and is strengthened by a co-operation of several of the senses.
The
actual
induce
sensations
definite
and
judgments
clear perceptions
corresponding ideas giving, in normal
cases,
by, clothed with
answering to the objects. Thus, a tree near
the

conditional

verdure,

cannot

made

sensations

to

of leaves, since

denuded

appear

permit. Going from the tree,

the
we
by an act of the imagination, call up in memory
can,
idea of the tree
representing the actual perception, though
of the sensations
less vividly, because
of the absence
caused
of the object. Now,
the tree being absent,
by the presence
the idea, and
we
can
imagine it stripped of leaves and
vary
of branches,
even
or
picture a very different tree, or any
other object, in its place.
of perception sensation, which
Mill calls the entire process
is more
term
by
properly restricted to the feelingoccasioned
the presence
of an
The
object affecting any of the senses.
idea formed
in the absence
of the object has usually but a
faint trace
stances,
of sensation, though
in extraordinary circum-

the

actual

be

it may
and

cause

ghost

may

credulous

an

be

will not

become

so

apparent

apparently
anticipation or

vivid

as

to

perception
seen

by

fearful

call back
of

the

vivid

the

sensation,

object.

idea

apprehension.

Thus

stimulated

by

ASSOCIATIONAL

EMPIRICAL

AND

PHILOSOPHY

327

Mill's greatest service to philosophy is his treatment

of the
This led to the formation
association of ideas.
often

Psychology. Ideas,
tend, according to Mill, to form

of

Associational

that

so

when

one

Instead
Mill

suggested

much

the

the

of

the

of

an

gether,
to-

union,

invariable

paniment.
accom-

John

Stuart

inseparable,which, however,

word

thing.
represented the

Bain

thought

indissoluble

word

school

indissoluble

an

is

is revived, the other

of the

means

same

another,

if there

as

associated

attraction

an

was

ideas

adhering

as

between

to

one

them.

The

explanation is the law : That the mind tends to act as it has

associated
ideas having been
acted before. The
thought of
from
succession, the mind
together, or in immediate
passes
before.
the one
to the other, since it has passed that way
laws of association
The
be most
can
clearlyexpressed as
The law of recurrence:
for the
three: 1.
Ideas tend to recur;
real

mind

tends

to

The

law

2.

tends

begun,

act

to

it has

as

acted

before.
revived

of integration:A
completion; for the

train

mind

of ideas
completed

has

once

that

train before.
The

S.

ideas

to

similar

law

another
or

is liable to

antithetical

similar

the

transition:

of

links

to

of antithetical

case

is

the

one,

the

either

when

complete

to

The
the

the

that

to

inevitable

is

the two

mind

by

for
of

of

way

school

from
in

opposites
passes

before.

series is reached, the mind

the law

of

have

train; and

mind

the
that

trains

passed

knowledge

suggested,
it has passed

of that

account

the

train

one

has

of either

and

Associational

law

when

occur,

links, since

train

fault of the

from

completion

the second

philosophers

endeavor

the

train, since

case,

transition

links; for the

antithesis

second

to

In
tends

of

integration.
Psychology, however,
make

almost

association.

too

any

much

process

is that

of it, and
whatever

good thing

may

by
be

greatly overworked.
Following the example of Locke, Mill devotes considerable
to the subject of language; and
though this part of his
space
work
is worthy of consideration, we
it without
must
pass
further

notice.

and
conscious
consciousness. Mill
regard to the words
correctlysays: ''If we are in any way sentient, that is, have
of the feelingsof a living creature,
conscious
the word
any
In

PHILOSOPHICAL

328

IS

the

applicable to

This

is

feeler,and

fine distinction

Likewise

it

be

can

volition, the

word

THEORIES

the

properly

said

conscious

is

If

mind

its activities.

and

have

we

feeling,''

the

to

consciousness

between

any

thought

or

thinker

the

or
applicable
to the thinking or willing.
If we
are
Feeling is not the only mental
phenomenon.
Mill
of
but
conscious, we
are
rectly
corcapable
being conscious;
held that consciousness
is
not
a
special
as
a capability,
faculty,but an element of any faculty,or a general capability
of being aware
of what
is going on
in the mind, and
sciousness,
conin any
mental
as
a state, is involved
phenomenon

the

wilier, and

to

consciousness

word

whatever.
Mill

to signify
expression,the conceptionof an object
the same
thing as the idea of an object. In logical usage,
the conception of a class of objects signifiesthe
however,
formation
of the notion
of the qualitiescommon
to all the
objects of the class. The product of the act of conception

the

uses

is called

concept, which

is not

the

idea; for

as

same

idea

an

picture of an object;
but a pure concept cannot
be imagined; it can
only be thought.
of a train
word
The
imagination, Mill employs as the name
of ideas, and shows why it is especiallyapplicable to poetic
be

can

imagined,

since

it is

mental

creations.
In

regard

to

to

classification

He

says:

*'Man

He

first

and

he

one

name

and

names

classification.Mill maintains
for the

acquainted

individuals; but

individuals

have
for

serve

certain, that
of

purpose

Little

in the

first becomes

not

can

of economy

sake

innumerable

men

economizing

were

in the

resort

men

of

use

with

names.

individuals.

innumerable,

are

He

names.

make

must

It is thus

individuals.

many

that

obvious,

classifysolely for

led

to

use

of names."

the

qualities,or
similar attributes
found
in all the objects of a class, though
these objects have
individual
attributes
that distinguishthe
The common
objects of the class from one another.
qualities
form

the

account

were

makes

of

the

common

basis of the class.

Classification
economy

Mill

is, however,

of

of
thought than economy
of
studied singly,the finite powers
by the infinite wealth of nature.

hundred

of

thousand

black-birds.

value

greater

It would

in

securing
If objects

names.

would

man

Take
be

be

whelmed
over-

flock of

hopeless task

SSO

THEORIES

PHILOSOPHICAL

speciescut
the

from

out

denotation,

the

genus

and

extent,
the
content,
extent,
which
it is associated.
or

the

that
with
As

to

Mill

memory,

the

thing, ^,

the

up,

it will not

be

of my
call

we

"The

beliefof my

having

other

experiences

than

what

remember

thought.
Memory
involves

past
there
is

could
the

is the

those

have

we

of that
Yet

"

idea of

1, the

make

Mill

sciousness
con-

adds:

remember

however,

We,

of

state

J. S.

all

out

it,combined,

whole

it.

two,

seen

memory."
seen

species,so

will call

name,

having
the

of the

these

with

associated

course,

name

the

''Now

doubted,

which

the
or

says:

idea

of

are,

We

acquired through sight.

heard,

tasted, smelt

touched,

or

present recognition of past experiences; it

retention, reproduction, and

the

recognitionof these
without
though
memory,

experiences. In retention
is a retiringof the idea from
consciousness, yet there
the past experience
conserving of the effect, otherwise
be recalled.
In reproduction there is a recallingof
not

idea

back

to

consciousness, and

the

of the

reconstruction

idea.

Recognition identifies the idea as representinga former

volved
time.
is also inThere
and
experience, localized in space
belief in our
worthiness
a
personal identity, and in the trustof memory.
Mill, of course,
explains the whole
he was
bound
to do, by the law of association; and
as
process,
his explanations are
remarkably clear, calling it "a train of
antecedents
and
consequents of which the present feelingis
one
extremity.
of
Personal
essential sameness
identity,or the continued
the ego, is more
than
a
string of experiences bound together
than
I am
a
string of
by indissoluble association.
more
is proof of personal identity,though
experiences. Memory
"

it does

constitute

not

experience as
then

as

The
I.
or

and

mine, unless

am

of associated

now.

real

on

and

word

in the

most

belief under
truth

of

belief,then, of the existence

belief,that, in such

and

remember

mean

past

a
same

simply

being
string

ideas?

important

three

existences,present, past,

belief

not

essentiallythe

were

the

Beliefis the

considers

could

I
I

Does

sensations

chapter

Mill

it.

or

heads:

in Volume

Belief in events

future; belief in testimony,

propositions. He
of an object,there

such

one

says:

"In

is included

circumstances, I should

my

the
have

such
be

and

AND

AL

ASSOCIATION

EMPIRICAL

sensations.

such

PHILOSOPHY

Is there
for

answered

immediately yes;
sensations
the effect,
there
as
5

in my
the cause;

and

is

object

of

of

than

to

the

the

to

word

belief

my

something

effect,the

as

name

denotes

cause

It will

with

the

where
the connection
is conconsequent,
stant.
From
this, it necessarilyfollows, that between
a

ideas

our

not

cause,

more?

is belief of

The

appropriate.

antecedent

none

that

anything
that along

331

between

is the association

antecedent

and

intimate

more

in

consequent

and

intense,

the

order

of

events."

Again
nothing
longer a

Mill
the

to

"That

says:

mind,

human

cause

but

and

means,

can

mean

antecedent, is

constant

no

in

dispute." On this assertion J. S. Mill

"So
being no longer a point in dispute, that it
says:
is denied
with vehemence,
by a large numerical
majority of
denial
is
and
its
the
philosophers;
principal badge
perhaps
point

far from

of

of the

one

other

bisect

times,

school

and

schools

two

the

the

which,

this

at

time,

philosophical world

"

at

as

the

most

intuitional

The

experimental method
do for science, but it will not
do for philosophy, since
may
of reason
in establishing
philosophy is the employment
fundamiental
principlesthat shall give unity and harmony
antecedent
Is a constant
the sole meaning
to knowledge.
It is,if the antecedent
is not
but if it is
of caused
efficient;
not eflScient,if it fexerts no
influence, it might as
no
energy,
well

be

experimental."

in

absent,
is

therefore

which

efficient,exerts

would

effect

no

case,

influence

follow; it.

is

Is
dynamic.
it not strange that the experimental philosophers,who
claim
to build on
experience, do not consider that they exert their
whenever
they lift a weight .f^ Their own
experience
energy
is dynamic, that is,
ought to teach them that the antecedent
antecedent.
than a mere
Philosophy requiresa rational
more

basis.

If

would

first assertion

"Our

is indissoluble

by

no

the

influence, the consequent

the belief.Mill invariably

principleof association.
that

was,

or

be

Whatever

follow.

not

explains it
there

exerted

antecedent

the

an

in

association

instance

every

of ideas.

by all
as

the

men

that

was

be

to

belief.

cases

this, and
There

identity

of indissoluble

nothing

is not

more,

more

second

association
are

says

of belief,
Our

assertion

He

admitted

acknowledged

decisive

instance

of

of

belief

and

association

than

the

dread

of

PHILOSOPHICAL

332

is here,

There

ghosts.

association."
that

association

depends
as

the

on

reason

association.
transformed
Mill

THEORIES

indisputably

Mill

has

into

belief;but

enters

When

attempts

evidence

to

that

show

right relation

with

showing
belief

cases,

is

than

more

is conclusive, the

all

taken
mere

belief is

evidence, includingthat

resolvable

not. All P is M, all S is M, .*. all S

is P, all S is M, .*. all S is P.^
M
the

in many

soluble
indis-

into knowledge.

syllogisticreasoning, is

on

in

probable evidence,

on

evidence

the

of

case

successful

been

evidence, at least
for the belief,and

of P

and

S to

into

association.

is P,

just

The

conclusion

M,

not

on

as

Why

valid

as,

of
is
all

depends

tion
their associa-

M.

Volume

II, Mill

carries

forward

his

investigationsby
his ever
ready law of association,that a former experience is
known
recalled whenever
which
was
anything recurs
along
with that experience in time or place.
He
considers
of language and
the discussion
resumes
relative terms, and abstract
especiallythe subject of names,
as
This
is one
of the most
relative terms.
interesting and
and
will well repay
instructive chapters in the whole
work,
careful study. He
then
to
numbers,
on
privative
passes
In

terms,

space

and

time.

of all qualities
regard to quality.Mill says: "The names
of objects are
Are they anything else.^^
of sensations.
names
of our
tion
Yes; they are the names
sensations, with the connotaof a supposed unknown
As
of those
sensations.
cause
of
far, however, as our
names
knowledge goes, they are
is never
sensations, and nothing else. The supposed cause
to us."
known; the eflFectsalone are known
This
the
quotation brings out the difference between
experimental and the intuitional philosophy. We experience
the effects,the sensations, and the experimental philosophy
that is all we
know, and virtually,that is all there is;
says
the intuitional philosophy says,
is a
there
know
that
we
for the sensations, whether
the specificcause
know
cause
we
do not
of
know.
for the peculiar taste
There
is a cause
or
for that of sugar,
salt,and a different cause
though we may
be able to account
for either, or to explain the reason
not
In

for their
is

difference.

In

many

clearlyexplicable.

Thus

cases
an

the

difference

of

iron

ball three

inches

tions
sensa-

in

ASSOCIATIONAL
diameter

exerts

greater pressure

particleof which

has

PHILOSOPHY
the hand

on

it contains

because

diameter,

in

inch

EMPIRICAL

AND

and

weight,

more

adds

to

333

than

ball

one

matter,
every
the sensation
of

pressure.

Mill

Again
by

me,

ideas included

other

of the

belief

the

all the

other

is

rose

to

indissoluble

union

sensations

sensation

I refer each

when

mean

previous

with

sensations

under

of

smell

perceived
all the
immediately
me,
term
are
suggested along
rose,
union, presupposed. But this

suggested

their indissoluble

it, and

with

idea

the

or

the

"When

says:

to

of

of those

each

is all which

the

rose

its cause."

as

the qualitieswhich
sensations are united because
in
called
the rose.
The
the object
united
them
are
The

or

their

associated,
When

ideas,
that

so

to another, does

are

the

he

in

of them

one

any

takes

person

united

rose

you

transfer

your

are

really
excite
tions,
sensa-

thus

experience, and

will call up the rest.

admiring, and gives it

sensations

or

the

cause

of them?
As

to

time. Mill

says:

preciselythe meaning

objects, is

''Succession, without

of the

word

time."

That

is, from

ideas, of whatever
nature, abstract
this abstract, this succession is time.
To

train of sensations

or

succession, and
mind, time is that

the
my

in which

things persist and succession

takes place. At first thought, this would
to mean,
seem
that, without things or succession, there could be no time;
but before things existed,or succession took place,supposing
them
that in which things
time
not to be eternal, there was
could persistand succession take place,if things should come
"

to be or

the

succession should

opportunity, the

If there
of all
that

should

things

as

be

no

they

that is,time is the condition,

of persistenceand succession.
possibility
occur;

succession,no
are,

time

change, but

would

continuance; hence, succession, or

though

it is the

still be

a
a

change,

continuance
condition

of

is not time,
idea of time.

chronologicalantecedent of our
If there should be no continuance
of things,but an unceasing
succession or change, time would
still be a condition of that
succession or change; hence
of
time is not the continuance
things. Time, then, is that which renders both continuance
and succession possible;it is their condition, or that without
which they could not be.
In

is an
word
regard to space. Mill says: "The
space
like other abstracts,
from
its concrete,
abstract, diflfering

PHILOSOPHICAL

334

the

dropping

by

abstract

terms

because

they

connotation

(denotation). In
explained through their

be

can

note

leaving

names,

THEORIES

or

name

the

out

what

may

be

part

rest."

This

wire,

cord,

of

all

cases

concretes,

the

concrete

illustrated

by

rod,
a
or
a
leaving out
matter,
Take
cubic
foot
of
of
length.
wood, or
a
iron, or of
we
have the geometric cube.
stone, and dropping the matter, we
aid us in reaching the idea; but when
have
the
This may
we
reference
idea, a cubic foot, as a geometric object, without

taking

and

the

have

the

to

concrete

Likewise

space.

remains

matter,
we

as

form

may

the

and
enlarge indefinitely,

we

may

we

have

idea

if

no

would

matter,
with
go

knowledge

no

sensations,

idea of motion

the

derives

Mill

be

of pure
sphere, which

matter,
reality,would

of the

in

as

moving

the

from

tips of

tactual
the

fingersof

We
have
here
along the bare left arm.
sensation in the tips of the fingers,local change

and
the

left

the idea

right

of force

hand.

space

time

through

right arm

by

with

tactual

by

which

for the

of sensations

followed

be detected

can

right

continuous

in the

blended

are

the

in the effort to move

time, and motion
are

be

may

sensations

implies the

Motion

involved
of space,

movement

till finallymotion

muscular,

sensations

energy

ideas

The

ocular

thus

or

The

also involved.
and

muscular

and

arm,

muscular

and

hand

in the

space

the

too.f^

go

space

would

there

though

of

form

drop all limitations,

we

If there were
infinite space.
If all mind
should
annihilated.^

be

limited

an

the eye,

the eye

and,
alone.

object moves,
object from one

required
passage
another.
to
point
path
Any change in the motion of a
body requires force, that is, a cause,
dynamic antecedent.
a
ated
series of associIn regard to personal identity,we
have
a
and
sensations
ideas, past and present, including the
also the

of the

of its

of

memory

this

Does
believe

forms

the

series constitute

that
the

the

consciousness

the

of other

''There

note:

parts of the series which

this bond

person

to

me

who

and

was

constitutes

the
my

the
Mill

is

says:

some

tence."
exissort

they were
throughout,

say

me

person

ego."

''I

which

my

of

bond

makes
same

present.

consequents

also formed

has

men,

of

Is it I?

ego?

of antecedents

in

adds

the feelingsof
and

train

existence

J. S. Mill
among

and

past

We

do not

say.

ASSOCIATIONAL
I

PHILOSOPHY

past series of sensations

of that series,neither do we

memory

of the

past and

conscious

am

and

begins

then

of the

of

"Reflection

mind
is

say

ideas, but

his discussion

says:

ideas,

present.

The

the

and

ego

335

the

am

ness
conscious-

I remember
not

am

not

am

holds

or

the

am

feehngs, but

feeUngs.

notice which

"That

and

sensations; I have

I have

Mill

ideas

present

train of ideas

He

EMPIRICAL

the

was

but

AND

the

the

sensations,
ideas, nor a

gether.
experiencesto-

reflection
by quoting Locke:
takes of its own
operations."

nothing but

consciousness; and

is the

Reflection
having sensations and ideas."
than
is,however, more
simple consciousness, or being aware
of what
is passing in the mind; it signifies
the study of these
tion,
identificaphenomena, their examination, discrimination
or
consciousness

classifications.

and

careful

investigationof

reflection

reveals

the

following
of the thoughts from
Abstraction, the withdrawal
processes:
irrelevant
desired
phenomena; attention to the phenomena
the separation of these phenomena
to be understood
; analysis,
into their elements; synthesis,or putting together again the
elements
found
by analysis;comparison, or ascertainingresemblances
and
differences;discrimination, the distinguishing
of differences;identification,
the detection
of sameness
or
resemblance; classification,
or
assigningthe unlike to different
classes, and

like to

the

of classes and

naming
of

things by

discriminate

the

individuals,and

genus

the descripdefinition,
tion

differentia that

and

the

class; denomination,

same

enables

to

us

identify.
pain, Mill correctlysays can be known
only
The
idea
of
identifies
with
by experience.
desire,
pleasure he
and the idea of pain with aversion, each with a reference to
Pleasure

the

or

to

and

future.

It

however, that desire involves the wish

to
enjoy pleasure, as well as the idea of it; and that the
aversion
to pain combines, with
the idea of pain, the wish to
avoid
it. Hope
is a compound
of the emotional
element
desire
the

with

seems,

the

probability

intellectual
of

element

reahzation.

In

expectation
like

manner,

of aversion
and
compound
expectation. They
intellectual,but differ in the emotional element.
Mill has noted
cause

of

the fact that it is not

pleasure,as food, that

is most

based
fear

agree

on

is

in the

always the immediate

eagerly sought after,

but

THEORIES

PHILOSOPHICAL

336

very

money,

of pleasure,as
remote
cause
frequently the more
the means
of affordingmany
pleasures,and of gratifying

innumerable

desires.

desire

Men

wealth,

power,

knowledge, wisdom, the passports to dignity and to fame,

the means
of securing the friendship,
the favor, or the subserviency
of their fellows; and they have
strong aversion to
their opposites poverty, impotence, ignorance, folly,contemptibility. It is regarded praiseworthy to cultivate the
domestic
lence.
affections,patriotism,philanthropy, and benevo"

motives

The

sensations, the
appetites,the instincts,the emotions, the affections,as love
the
aversions.
These
desires or
or
hatred, and
not
are
of
of
in view
which
strictlycauses
volition,but are reasons
action

to

the

spring from

the ego makes

its choice and decides to act.
Virtue involves purity,decision,independence and

heroism.

The

specificegoistic,or self-regardingvirtues are prudence,

virtues of,
temperance, chastity,and the economic
courage,
and
industry,frugality,
enterprise. The altruistic virtues,
embrace
sympathy, justiceand benevolence, including also,
pity, compassion, mercy,
gratitude,honesty and veracity.
These

virtues

command

approbation of mankind,

the

the

opposite vices their detestation.

together by association,so likewise the
To

the

possess

individual
individual

vices

are

conscience, and

obligationto

do

evil consequences,
"With
the idea of our
from

is formed

business

of

becomes

paramount

In

regard

is to find out
is

by

same

which
name.

acts

own

of

acts

association

of

virtue, there

in due
in the

Will, Mill

what

advantages

strength,which
to

When

''The

object of

peculiarstate of mind or
all men
action is preceded. From
It is called Will by everybody;
to be

it is the
to

this
main

virtue

breast."

that

this will is understood

derive

we

effect, the motive

human
says:

naturally

are

fellow-creatures.

our

good education
to

conduct, is by

to

the ideas of all the immense

virtuous

the

in

avoid wrong
finds,in the good
As Mill says:
its final confirmation.

right and

or

associated

linked

are

right,and is approved by the

quences.
fullyjustified
by the good consecondemned
by society, by the
The
by their evil consequences.

considered

conscience, and
The

virtues

vices.

virtues, to exhibit them

consent,

common

The

and

state

of mind

the

inquiry

consciousness
it receives the
and
or

by

body
every-

conscious-

PHILOSOPHICAL

338

Mill

gives

immediately

intervention

in

of

case

in

the

but

muscle,

of

idea,

When

scarcely

reach

I have

he

Mill,

says

him:

as

right

and

or

The

beings,
good,
at

is
a

so

both

to

as

to

This

large."
regarded
greater

evil

for

actor

is

greater
than

regulating

not

good

blame.

himself

and

to

objectionable,
than

praise,

dominated.
pre-

much
inastest

produce

to

his

actions

greatest

of

of

title:
human

amount

his

fellow-creatures

if

praiseworthiness

and

of

pleasure

description

alternative

the

the
the

them

Stoic

Epicurean,

in

seen,

the

Stuart

exclusive

the

gives

he

from

deduce

the

as

is

chiefly,
method

John

son,

was

as

act.

Philosophy.

actions

of

the

distinguished

qualities

taking

the

other.

Mill,

was

His

morals

of

but

psychological
he

and

ness
conscious-

book,

James

the

that
the

idea,

of

the

personal

which

the

Associational

tendency

of Rules

Book

his

for

of Ethics,

up

Utilitarian.

is confirmed,

This

Book

''The

the

take

that
of

willing

power

but

idea

the

associated,

treating

reason

idea;

the

yet

cause;

often

making

Utilitarian,

wrong,

pain."

in

standard

was

the

over

indirect

an

of

willed

only

school
a

has

without

and

in

''In

of

one

not

the

will

so

hand

was

His

it

the

explicit

the

Mill

of

been

for
of

Ethics,

have

leader

and

representative

nature

my

quite

was

prominent,

of the

that

me

sists
con-

appropriate

immediately

not

and

willing

the

intervention

the

will

forth

been

because

In

not

action

informs

is

the

case,

through

itself, is

could

ego

the

were

muscular

the

will

the

of

existence

into

without

instinct;

or

power

muscular

idea

or

habit

our

of

idea."

the

over

muscle

the

over

of

of

''that

calling

of

sensation

result

holds:

power

if this

Even

will,

he

power

the

following

the

volition,

that

idea;

of

examples

interesting

and

numerous

contraction
the

THEORIES

blameworthiness

of

CHAPTER

and

Associational

and

London,

He

eight.
and

read

In

regard

that

scientific

any

Logic

Political

and

read

He

Adam
of

Theory
make

to

He

the

Economy,
what

conclusions."
Mill

read

walks

great

deal

the

He

family
but

left

then

of

kept

his

up

duty

of

of

agents
The

concert

he

his

he

as

of

detect
his

he

read,

took

their

as

they

under

fourteen
in

ical
Polit-

in

thus

was

the
of

years

with

company

spent

India

became

soon

to

in

year

in

Mill

House

the

France,

diary what

the

gave

in

examiner.
letters

instructions

wrote

clerk

as

assistant

examine

write

and
which

object

and

notes

recorded

the

was

company,

main
views

experience.

entered

dispatches

practical
In

in

examiner

the

and

habits,

ofiice, and

the

many

which

studious

He

father."

for himself.

was

France,

Bentham.

eighteen,

examiner's

for

in which

erroneous

think

till he

father

England

interesting

When

The

his

or

or

Ricardo's

Ricardo,

He

believe

and

history, taking
his father,
to

breakfast.

Samuel

Sir

found

the

of

tutorship

age.

taught

of

of

thirteen.

my

father's

superficial

to

Latin,

not

by

me

arguments

was

substance

before

together

careful

in

he

rehearsing

and

he

Thus

and

mode

Nations

of

age

thorough,

the

my

lights

Smith's

in

was

more

superior

fallacious

was

"It

says:

than

of

Wealth

do

more

taught

were

to. Smith's

apply

me

faculties

Economy

Rent.

was

the

at

when
''I

the

Arithmetic

Greek

says:

ever

the

Smith's

both

in

began

of

Economics

Mill

teaching

training

for

fitted

better

and

education

his

to

twelve

when

Logic

began

He

Algebra

of

born

was

that

age,

and

amount

great

of

Latin

of

study

the

five, and

at

Mill

father.

his

years

{Continued)

"

Stuart

by

three

when

Philosophy

John

instructed

was

Greek

of

study

Empirical

(1806-1873).

Mill

5.

XXVII

him

in

of

the

reply.

experience

affairs.

with
called

The

few

kindred

Utilitarian

spirits. Mill
Society^

the

organized

object

of

club

which

S40

PHILOSOPHICAL
the reformation

was

societyby reaching a rational solution

problems, according to the principlesof Hartley,

social

of

two

Review,

magazines,

new

Bentham's

house, and
In

the

life.

He

is

one

part in
in

engaged
had
He

Chronicle,

wrote

many

great ability. At
oi Bentham'

edition

found

He

and

the work

ale
RationHe

congenial.

reading societywhich met at Grote's

the debates
of a speculativecharacter.

'T

says:

views

in

was

occasionally liable

it occurred

exhibited

an

the

him.

to

of 18^6, a crisis occurred

marked
for himself
the
out

autumn

reformer.

edited

and

his

Parliamentary History

open

Evidence, and

active

an

were

of which

some

request, he

of Judicial

Traveller

the

and

disseminated

He

the

Review

articles for both,

took

Mill.

newspapers,

Westminster

The

of

James

and

Bentham,

through

THEORIES

of

state

In

to.

in Mill's
of

career

this

social

such

nerves,

mental

as

every

of

frame

mind,

the

question directly to myself:

realized;that all the
Suppose that all your objects in life were
changes in institutions and opinions which you are looking
forward
to could be completely effected at this very
instant,
would
this be a great joy and
happiness to you.^^ And
an
self-consciousness
At
irrepressible
distinctlyanswered, No!
this my
life was

to

heart

the

The
had

pursuit

how

could

I seemed

means.

cloud

did

overworked;

aesthetic

not

he
He

nature.

rest, from

prolonged
read, slowly
says:

**The

cloud
I

miserable

I had

as

to

foundation

had

All my
happiness
of this good.
end
The

there
have

soon

had

again be

ever

nothing

pass

also

ceased

his

left to

starved
for

time

health

and

I had
.

any

had

in

interest

live for."
Mill

was.

and

of

mind.

his

after

still continued

tone

now

ceased

write, and

to

gradually drew off, and

several
relapses,I never
been.

to have

was

his affections

he

which

on

fact

The

away.

writing, though

recovered

life;though

the whole

me;

fell down.

in the

charm, and

to

put

within

sank

constructed

found

been

to

me

to

He

again enjoyed
again was
as
learnt by experience
I

needed
to be cultivated
passive susceptibilities
well as the active capacities,
and required to be nourished
as
and enriched as well as guided."
He found
satisfaction
in reading Wordsworth's
: He
poems
"These
themselves
addressed
powerfully to one
says:
poems
of the strongest of my
the love
pleasurable susceptibilities,
of rural objects and natural
scenery."
that

the

AND

ASSOCIATIONAL
Mill

enjoyed

the

him

encouraged

became

and

Mrs.

Taylor,

341

congenial

his

assisted
wife, and
and
in his literarylabors, and who, if his estimate

correct, had
Mill served one
term

of her

PHILOSOPHY

friendship of

aftewards

spirit,who

EMPIRICAL

was

not
though he was
and
attention,

intellect

an
as

member

inferior to

not

of the House

his

own.

of Commons

eloquent orator, his speeches commanded

opinions had great weight.
In addition
to many
articles for
pamphlets and numerous
Mill
the
author
of
magazines.
was
numerous
important books :
On
Logic, 1843; Political Economy
1848;
Liberty, 1859;
Examination
Government,
Representative
1860;
s
of Hamilton
Philosophy, 1865; Subjectionof Women,
1869; Autobiography,
Nature, Religion,and Theism
1873; Dissertations
on
mous),
(Posthuan

his

1874.

Of

Mill's

magazine

articles, the

one

on

Utilitarianism,

as
published in Frazier's in 1861, will serve
a
type, as it was
reasoned
to the objections to his ethical
answer
a
carefully
article
this
he
In
explained that he meant
theory.
by utility,
what
sensational
whatever
not only
tributed
conpleasure, but
gave
the pleasures of the imagination, or
afforded
to

satisfaction
His

to

reason.

joint product of
himself
He says: "The
and wife.
Libertyis likelyto survive
written
(with the
longer than anything else that I have
the conjunction
possible exception of the Logic), because
with mine
it a kind of philosophic
of her mind
has rendered
of a single truth, which
the changes progressively
text-book
in ever
in
modern
to bring out
taking place
society tend
and
importance to man
society, of a
stronger relief: The
large variety of types of character, and of giving full freedom
itself in innumerable
and
nature
to expand
to human
flicting
conbook

On

the

describes

Liberty, he

as

directions."
Of

Mill's

length and

other

I shall

books,

shall then

pass

notice

the

Logic

at

some

on.

contemplated writing a work on

Logic. With Whately, whose book on Logic he had reviewed,
be thrown
he had accepted the theory that all reasoning can
said:
he
'T
into the syllogistic
form; but
puzzled myself, like
with the great paradox of the discovery of
others before me,
truths by general reasoning. As to the fact, there could
new
As little could it be doubted, that all reasoning
be no doubt.
For

many

years

Mill

had

PHILOSOPHICAL

342

is resolvable

conclusion

and
syllogisms,

that

in every
syllogism the
in
the
implied
premises.

is

actually contained and

and
being so contained
implied, it could

How,
and

into

THEORIES

definitions

the

from

these,

was

difficultywhich

felt,and

truth,

now

of geometry, so different in appearance

and
axioms, could be all contained

the theorems

how

be

which,

no

all events,

at

one,
no

thought, had
had

one

in

ciently
suffi-

succeeded

in

'

clearingup.

premise alone involves the conclusion,

and
taking the premises separately, does not see the
one
conclusion, but taking them
together he sees the conclusion,
fact is, neither

The

which

to

appears

position that the syllogism

begging the question. He says: "It
in every
syllogism, considered as an
conclusion, there is a petitioprincipii.

the

be

argument

to

When

say,

we

All
is

Socrates

is

Socrates

men

are

mortal, Socrates

the

mortal; that
are
assumption, AH men
unless we
of the mortality of all men,
the mortality of every
individual man;
whether
to

Socrates,
be

name,

is

fore
there-

man,

mortal; it is unanswerably

syllogistictheory,
mortal, is pre-supposed

of

adversaries

the

prove

him.

to

new

untenable

fallacy of
granted that

involved

truth,

new

the

maintained

Mill

must

him

mortal

or

other

any

not, the

or

in

urged by the
the proposition,
the
more
general

we

cannot

that

be

assured

already certain

are

that

of

if it be stilldoubtful

individual

we

choose

may

degree of uncertainty

same

the assertion.All men

mortal : that the
hang over
are
general principle,instead of being given as evidence of the
itself be taken
for true, without
not
can
particular case,
of doubt
which could affect any
exception,until every shadow
case
comprised within it, is dispelled by evidence aliunde
then
what
and
remains
for the syllogism to prove?
That,
in short, no
reasoning from generals to particularscan, as
such, prove
anything, since from a general principlewe can
infer any particulars,
but those which
the principle itself
not
must

assumes

Mill

where

as

here
the

induction.

known."
chose

major
It

the

premise

is, of

favorable

most

view,

proved probable by ordinary

the
impossible to establish
mortal, as a certainty,as is
are

men
major premise, that
in perfect induction
where
where
it is possible to examine

done

for this

is

course,

all

case

the

instances

every

are

few, and

instance; but

from

EMPIRICAL

AND

ASSOCIATIONAL

general experience,it

all men

probablethat

mortal?

is raised, Is Gabriel

Gabriel

is

or

man

mortal; Gabriel is a

Any

mortal.

are

truthfullysay. All
knowing the existence of

without

informed

when

and

then

that

Gabriel

any

known

men

are

probably mortal,
man
Gabriel;
as

such

Gabx'iel is

that

the tion
queswhether

is probably mortal.

are

men

gree
highest de-

say, All

can

Gabriel

can

one

343

suppose

being

Now

therefore

man;

Now

it not

angel.

an

in the

accepted,as

be

can

PHILOSOPHY

he

man,

can

say

probably mortal.

is

major premise is established,beyond question,

stances
independently of the knowledge of the particular inillustration before given:
involved.
To
repeat an
of a hill,on
the sea-shore
Suppose I stand on the summit
I do not have to
with all on board.
and see a ship go down
the

Sometimes

John

that

know
board

aboard

Brown
can

that

aboard
all

that

vessel

board

on

John

drowned;

were

that

statement

of

was

on

d, the number

if the

n,

or

Now,

on

is

the

suppose

term

I wish

to know

is 5, the common
100.
I write:

the

a,

a-]- 5,n
.

have

to

/,thus

true.

sion
progres-

difference

common

Mill's

petitiois not

arithmetical

an

time

is there

hence

none,

the

(n

"

l)d.

l)d.

the last term

difference

"

(n

first term

I did not

is

vessel at that

Where

the last term

and

Then

of the
being one less than the number
is evidently expressed by the formula
:
Z

terms

of

first term

of terms

coefficient of d

The
term,

There

a-{-d, a-\- 2rf,a -f-36?,a + 4rf,

a,

all

certain

that

drowned.

find the last term

can

board

syllogisminvolves

every

terms,

that

down.

vessel,at

certain

Brown

it went

when

Brown
time; therefore John
was
of the petitiohere.^
the shadow

Again,

know

to

know
for I may
that John
not
Brown
I learn,the next
day, that John
suppose

but

was

say

drowned

was

drowned,

were

was

Brown

know

a-{-

{n

"

5 +

99 X

3, and

series whose

the

number

of

l)d.

100, and

of

this answer,

d
=

="=

3,

302.

to

know

the formula.

PHILOSOPHICAL

344

it may
from
be objected that a deduction
a perfect
is useless, since the conclusion
what
asserts
simply

Again,
induction

already known,
Thus, Capt. Smith
these

the

when

was

and

THEORIES

has

three

major premise

John, Thomas

sons,

all of the

Captain's
visited England,

are

John

sons.

has
England, Thomas
England, as Capt. Smith
perfect induction, all my

well

and

and

Henry,

has

visited

has

Henry

and

knows,

state

can

it may
be worth
while for Capt. Smith
not
to prove
that John
has visited England, by saying, All
John
Let
this

however, whether

see,

us

will reveal

fact

new

visited
young

he

England.
man,

Capt. Smith's
entering into a
is the

he

Captain

Now

yesterday.
syllogism thus:
England; this young

deduction
visited

therefore, this
deduced

fact

young

man

to you

new

of

part of
of
had

sons

he

that

was

visited England;
he

informs

you

with

whom

you

make

Capt.

from

fall in with

you

Smith
can

you

All

which

course

all his

him,

with

conversation
of that

son

that

nor

sons,

therefore

in the

had

he

sons

my

drawn

neither

know

for himself

another

and

day

next

would

stranger, you

conversed

the

from

that

you

the

Suppose

be

cannot

one,

inform

should

of

that

some

Suppose you,
visit Capt. Smith,

should

country,

conversation

one

to

as

Now

legitimate deduction,

perfect induction.

the

but

of my
sons;
that before.

is one
visited England; but John
has visited England; for he knew

have

visited

visited England.

have

sons

established.

was

Smith's

legitimate
have

sons

of

Capt. Smith,
You
have
has visited England.
and have not been guiltyof begging
man

is the

son

question.

opinion that there are two kinds

of reasoning
inductive, from
particulars to generals, and
then
deductive, from
generals to particulars, and
says:
falls under
There
is a third
species of reasoning which
neither
of these, and
which
is not
only valid, but is the
Mill

refers to the

common

"

*'

foundation

of

both

the

The

others.
.

third

kind

of

reasoning is from
particulars to particulars." He
says:
is
is
mortal
"The
proposition that the duke of Wellington
from
thing
someevidently an inference; it is got at, as a conclusion
from
the
it
tion,
proposielse;but do we in realityconclude
All

men

experience
now

dead,

are

mortal

of John,
we

are

.^^ I

Thomas,

entitled

to

answer,

no.

If from
.

our

living,but are
were
etc., who
conclude
that all human
beings

g46

THEORIES

PHILOSOPHICAL

generalizations.
which

is

far from

so

what

In

being

for all the

then

sense

earliest

our

can

induction,

be

principle
regarded

In the

others?

in which
only sense
(as we have already seen) the general propositions which we
place at the head of our reasonings when we throw them into
really contributed to their validity.
syllogisms,ever
In founding the great generalization,that the course
of
is uniform^ on
nature
prior generalizations,and at the same
of those prior generalizations,
it the warrant
time, making
has not Mill been guilty of reasoning in a circle?
The
tion
objecthat his explanation involves the fallacy of the petitio
his objection to the
forcible than
more
principii is even
syllogism, on the same
account; for the major premise was
from
used in finding the particular cases,
which
it was
not
the
generalization,while according to Mill's theory, the
for those prior inductions
is the warrant
uniformity of nature
it is the generalization.
of which
for the principlethat the course
Well, what is the warrant
as

warrant

our

"

of nature

is

have

events

take

not

uniform, in the realm

their conditions

place,

since

and

conditions

Like

signifiesessentiallyalike,

for whenever

determines

two

the

it in the other.

otherwise

causes

The

there

are

is

one

by

conditions

or

differ;

causes

whatever

is present to determine
be essentially
must
alike,

case

for the inference.

warrant

no

like consequences.
If the effects
identical.

however,

cases,

they would
entity.

essentiallyalike,then

effect in the

All

spring into

cannot

not

the

effect?

otherwise

allowed

are

alike, it is because

not

are

causes

and

cause

causes,

non-entity

Like

and

of

Mill
the principle of the
did not
Why
accept, at once,
Because, as
uniformity of nature, as a rational intuition?
an
empirical philosopher,basing all knowledge on experience
he rejected the Intuitional
Philosophy altogether. He says:
"The

by
and

notion

that

truths external

mind

be known

may

consciousness, independently of observation

persuaded, in these times, the great
experience,is, I am

intuition

or

intellectual support

By

the

to

the

intense
enabled
reason,

aid

of this

of false doctrines

theory,

feeling,of which
to dispense with
and

is erected

justification.There

the
the

into
never

every

and

inveterate

bad

institutions.

belief and

every

is
origin is not remembered,
obligationof justifyingitself by

its
was

own

all sufficient voucher

such

an

instrument

and

devised

AND

ASSOCIATIONAL
for
or
on

EMPIRICAL

PHILOSOPHY
"

consecratingall deep-seated prejudices.

rejectionof a theory should turn on its truth
the fact that

is sometimes

use

wrong

The
or

made

347

reception
not
falsity,

of it.

ing,
Noth-

for wrong
purposes,
than the tongue; shall we,
therefore, cut it out, and cast it
In fact. Mill's theory reduces
rational philosto the dogs?
ophy

perhaps,

frequently used,

more

empiricalscience.

to

Mill

is

defines

thus:

cause,

is the

"The

then, philosophically
conditions, positive and

cause,

of the

sum-total

speaking,
negative, taken together,the whole of the contingencies of
description, which
being realized, the consequent
every
Mill
It will be
that
includes
seen
invariably follows."
under
the term
the non-dynamic condition
well as
as
cause,
of support, then, is as much
the dynamic.
absence
The
the
of the fall of a body as gravity itself. It would, however,
cause
accord better with the popular view, which is important,
when
there is no
serious objection,to call the combination
of the dynamic conditions
and the non-dynamic
the cause,
is
conditions, simply the conditions; but Mill's idea of cause
and invariable
that of efficiency,
not
but that of immediate
and
of James
is the theory of Hume
antecedence, which
Mill; but there is more
immediate
Mill's

in

cause,

as

we

have

before

shown, than

antecedence.
of the four

of

methods

experimental inquiry,
which
he calls,the Method
ence,
of Agreement, the Method of Differthe Method
of Concomitant
of Residues, and the Method
Variations, exhibits clear and profound thought. In fact,
his extensive
Inductive
of
treatise on
Logic is a monument
untiringindustry and deep research, unrivaled in this field of
of every
lover of
and merits the sincere thanks
investigation,
of our
science.
The
in consideration
subject, however,
limited space, is too extensive to follow minutely in a detailed
brief quotation,
examination.
We
be content
with one
must
"Let
as
a
A, then, be an agent or
specimen of his method:
and
let the object of our
inquiry be to ascertain what
cause,
the effects of this cause.
If we
either find or produce
are
can
the agent A
in such
that the
a
variety of circumstances
theory

different

have

cases

then, whatever
indicated
is tried
suppose

as

effect

we

find

effect of A,

the

along with
that

circumstances

no

and

is next

C, and

in

common

in all

except A;
trials, is

our
produced
for
example,
Suppose,

that

tried with

the effect is A
and

that

C; and

E, but without

PHILOSOPHICAL

348

C, and

and
thus:

and

effect of A

second

is fulfilled

this condition

for

experiment;

been

have

Then

E,

in the first.

produced

must

effects of A,

not

are

not

were

effect is A

the

it in the

by
they

that

THEORIES

by

we

they

nor

are

Whatever

produced

not

and
is

in both

reason

may
were

duced
pro-

E, for

reallythe

instances; now

circumstance

The
except A,
have
been the effect of B or C, since
of D or E, since it
they were
not; nor
no

phenomenon A can not

it was
produced where
was
they
produced where

Therefore

not.

were

is the

effect of ^."

theory of the relativity

sharply criticizes Hamilton's
of knowledge, but as this criticism,though severe
ton
Hamilon
Mill's
doctrine
throws
new
no
light on
concerning the
in this conrelative of knowledge, it need not be considered
nection.
Mill

Mill's

of

theory

weakness

exhibits

however,

space,

the hand

from

inherent

He

empirical philosophy.
"Space is
says:
sensation we experience,for example, in moving
one
tion
sensapoint to another.
Space a muscular

of the

the muscular

the

discusses

Mill
in

all of

critical skill,and

acute

ability,and

eminent

he

though

truths, yet he commands

necessary

and

these

great variety of phases of philosophy, and

discussions displays great knowledge and

be

may

thinkers

of the

with

regarded, by

all who

our

world, and
he

honor

doing justiceto

respect for his candor

justlyregarded

which

consideration

fails in

as

one

of the

most

well

worthy of the high

undoubtedly will always be
and
noble
high attainments

character.

Bain, Professor of Logic,

(1818-1903) Alexander
in the University of Aberdeen, continued
the investigations
in the line of Empirical and Associational
Philosophy, adding
in Physiological
important contributions
by his investigations
Psychology.
His principalworks
entitled The
Senses and the Intellect;
are
6,

Bain

the Emotions

Psychology
It will not
of these

and

and

the

Will; Mental

Ethics; Logic,

and

Deductive

be necessary
to enter
since
works,
they follow

upon

Moral

and
a

Science;

Inductive.

detailed discussion

the course
essentially
by the two Mills, and present really no new
phase of
I shall,therefore,content
myself with a notice
a few
points of Bain's doctrines :

taken
phy.
Philosoof

only

ASSOCIATIONAL

AND

EMPIRICAL

PHILOSOPHY

349

"The

He

says:

that constitute
operations and appearances
indicated
mind
are
by such terms as feehng,thought, memory,
conscience, imagination, will, passions, affections,
reason,
But
the definition
of mind
taste.
aspires to comprehend,
in few words, by some
of
generalization,the whole kindred
mental
ter."
facts, and to exclude
everything of a foreign characIn

speaking

constitute
Bain

mind,"

mind

If "the

operations

Bain

is the

elsewhere

feels and

"the

of

identifies
total

sum

wills, but

that

appearances

with

mind

its

phenomena.
subject experiences," as

of

mind

declares, then

and

is not

which

that

thinks,

thinking, feelingand willing,apart

thinker,
wilier; but the recognition of a
or
any
its recurrence,
on
phenomenon
implies a spiritualsubject
of the
the
the occurrence
from
enduring through
period
therefore
distinct from
and
to its recurrence,
phenomenon
discrimination
of one
the fleeting
The
phenomena.
psychical
ring
from
another
be
explained only by refercan
phenomenon
them
to
a
common
subject, which, being differently
affected by them, discriminates
from
other.
the one
the
do
does not
constitute personal identity, neither
Memory
conscious.
the
of which
ever
we
are
shifting phenomena
is the proof of personal identity,and
the shifting
Memory
find their explanation in the ego, and so far as
phenomena
from

reason

can

Again
existence

see,

external

have

can

says:

of

independent

an

world

that

but

we

that

nothing exists

do

not

to the

of the modes

"We

We

know,

of

and

are

says:

to

related

way

"The

act

very

to

of

is

an

affirming,

mind.

human

'choice' gives us

word

the

minds;

our

in

warranted

not

any

discussing
nothing

know

course,

in any

of

world, the

material

unknown

Will, Bain

incapable

are

can,

is not

foundation.

other

no

Bain

contradiction."

As

is the

feeler

one

libertyof

voluntary
designating the supposed
is
The
real meaning of this word, that
to say, the
only real fact that can be pointed at in correspondence with
different
of several
it, is the acting out one
promptings.
When
of
several
submitted
article
out
a person
purchases an
of

actions.

to

view, the

greater than
said
a

in

moment

recommendations
of the

rest, and

of that

nothing

describing the transaction.

the opposing attractions

one
more

needs

said

to

be

really be

happen that
exactly balanced,

It may
are

are

for
and

PHILOSOPHICAL

350

THEORIES

decision is

suspended thereby.

the

then

choice

and

compel choice;
decision

but

is in the

inducement,

an

Bain

not

in

say

is the

This

whole

is,according

for

and

the

is

no

fact

the

the

that

and

only

but

'*^The

when

the

the

is

the

and

of

causes

that

ego

an

is

reasons,

as

mind,

the

to

are

there

deliberates

that

ego

of

meaning are
giving a
side that has preponderated.
the act of choosing."
That

risen

of

of motives

decision, in view
there

to

substance

supposition

not

is

motives:

long time;

Bain, the motives

to

motive, which

of balanced

case

has

of motive

superior energy

make

must

cause.

consideration

some

in the

not

continue
even
equipoise may
decision is actually come
to,
that

he

suppose

motives, being equal, do

decide, and therefore the power

and

to

But

The

he does

person

on

goes

there.

"

volition,

makes

the

fiction;that

chooses, but

is

there

is,

only

an
operations without
operator,
which
the motives
produced them.
save
designation 'libertyof choice' has
Again, Bain says: "The
interference.
real meaning, except denying extraneous
no

deliberation

choice

and

as

But,

different

the

between

as

motives

of my
own
choice.'
Various

meaning in 'libertyof
present or prospective pleasures and
is

no

result

act; the

to

me

of the

stronger than

another,

Bain

'

in

mean

urging

that

by
me

'me,

conglomerate
phenomena, but
a

he

that

he says :
sum-total

when

during

the

the
he

The

and
subject,
has

made

"

that

whole

Various
of

when

the

urging

group

motives

How
the
"

one

"

is

Does
concur

subject experiences

is not

ego

one

case."

of his life?

course

act?

bundle

and

that

he

that

shows

in

concur

"

is the

motives

says

decision, and

can
sum

such
of the
"

I will do it,
will

perform
act
himself;
passive
but
and
not
active,
rationallyactive,
arbitrarily
by "1,"
bundle
of
not
himself, a personality,
a
means
operations.
means

but

and

act," the

to

he has had

"

pains

conflict

mind, there

It

is,however,

due

great ability. The

in this, he

to
one

Bain

to

entitled

counts

state

The

himself

not

that his works

Senses

and

exhibit

the Intellect

especiallywell repay careful reading; for it introduces the

important subject of physiologicalpsychology.
Bain
Prof.
To
great credit is due for enterprise and
in
liberality,as a projector and generous
supporter, both
and in philosophic contributions, of Mind,
an
English
money
PsychologicalJournal of a high order of merit.
will

XXVII

CHAPTER

French

Voltaire

1.

Philosophy

(1694-1778).

is not
of the

his

not

was

though
facts

His

facilityin making
of ten,

age

le-Grand,

where

gave

he

he

the

his

mulgator
pro-

forth,

set

the

de

and

chief

Chateau-

Deism.

in these

father

the

to

seven

course

Jesuit

the

to

years.

instruction,

of

which,

from

doubt,

no

who

college,

desired

him

regarding|literature,
the
worthy
name.
will

of

He

attempts,

College, LouisThis
college not
but
encouraged
Voltaire

gave

formed

The
father

in

for

prepare

of the

his

law,

as

in

suited

to

and

wrote

attachments,

sion,
profesno

fession
pro-

formally

read

more

conflict

some

son,

man

young

and

pursuits

romantic

some

to

in

himself

found

he

choice

the

his

actually engaged

He

to

Abbe

and

philosophy

him,

the

in

theater.
home

Coming

sent

was

performances

for

while

As

lettres

verses,

remained

wide

dramatic

with

to

belles

in

of

possible manner,
literary career.

intrusted

him

that

school.

it is due

work,

wonderful
was

instructed

certain

Voltaire

encouragement.

the

taste

his

of

importance
originator, but

briefest

the

education

who

received

only

in

of

Philosophy

The
an

of

field

life, and

showed

of

doctrines

chief

early

neuf,

At

that

necessarily

of his

soon

Enlightenment

mitted
sub-

pretense,
his

tastes.

libelous

prosecution, his
father
him
into the country,
his friend, the Marquis
with
sent
de
St. Ange,
where
he was
to
study law; but he
supposed
his time
and
gathering the gossip of
writing essays
spent
he afterwards
with
used
history which
telling effect.
to
Paris, and
Returning
entering into literary society, he
his tragedy
read
of Oedipe privately to his friends, and
was
for

poems

which,

introduced
the
in

to

ambitious

lampooning

hated,

he

was

the

avoid

to

*'

famous

Duchesse
the
banished

the

du

regent
from

court

of

Maine.

Orleanes,
Paris.
251

of

danger

the

Sceaux,"
For
whom
After

his

coterie

supposed
the

being

of
aid

Duchesse
allowed

to

PHILOSOPHICAL

352

again fell under the suspicion of again engaging in

by the spy Beauregard, was
inveigled into confession,

he

return,

Kbels, and

and
recast

the

arrested

was

and

Oedipe

interview

An

THEORIES

propensity to

and

began

with

the

Bastile, where

he

the Henriade,
him

induced

regent

and

the

to

sent

libel.

to

curb

his

His

acted at
Oedipe was
the Thfeatre Francais, and brought him both reputation and
The
next
money.
year, the Lagrange-Chancel's libels called
Philippiques,again brought him under suspicion, and he
time with Villars,
was
informallybanished, and spending some
he added to his stock of historic gossip.
he was
Later
secret
as
a
employed by the government,
diplomatist; but fallingin with his old enemy
Beauregard,
he

got the

with

he

He

encounter.

an

He

quarrelled.

his work
and

Rouen

of

worst

whom

continued
at

sarcasm

the

on

afterwards

went

Henriade

with

met
to

which

the
was

Rousseau

Hague, and
first printed

revised.

cess,
tragedy, appeared first with great sucfell
into disrepute; it was
afterwards
but at length
revised and regained its popularity.
de Rohan, he repliedwith keen
Insulted by the Chevalier
of the Chevahe was
beaten
lier.
satire for which
by the servants
Voltaire
himself
sent
to the
sent
a
challenge,but was
This was
Bastile, and shortly after to England.
an
tant
imporvisit for him, as it gained him distinguishedfriends,as
Young, Pope, Congreve, Malborough, and exerted a great
influence on his subsequent life.
Returning to France, he published, in 1731, his Charles
and
in 1733
les
XII,
appeared Lettres Philosophiques sur
and
latter
the
du
Gout,
The
was
demned,
conAnglais,
Temple

The

Mariamne,

sl

searched
of harm's

for, and

burned.

Voltaire

himself

took

independent duchy of
he did
the chateau
at
Lorraine, and dwelt
Cirey, where
important literarywork, as well as minor work of more
fugitive
with
the
the
latter, was
a
writings. Among
pamphlet
sounding title, Treatise on Metaphysics, Though Voltaire
knew
little of metaphysics, this pamphlet served his purpose,
vehicle for his ridicule of religion,
as
a
though softening his
out

attack
In
and

under

1739,
back

the
he

by going

way

cloak

made

again

to

the

to

of Deism.

journey
Brussels.

to

He

Brussels, thence
visited

to

Paris,

Frederick, the

PHILOSOPHICAL

354

though

and

poor,

In

Valette.

happy

as

THEORIES

her

gave

in

marriage

gratitude she made

possible.

was

the

From

her

the

to

last

Marquis

of Voltaire

days
beauty and

de
as

goodness

she received

the pet name

of Belle et Bonne.
of his life,Voltaire was
In 1778, the last year
invited to
Paris to witness the tragedy Irene which he had justfinished.
left his

home, and

after five

days, arrived in Paris, which

for twenty-eight years.
he had not
seen
Though not well,
his play, and
crowned
with laurels. He
he witnessed
was
and
Dr.
also met
warmly embraced
Franklin, the world
American
renowned
philosopher.
he became
His time had
seriouslyill,and shortly
come,
He

died, whether

Deist

Poems

Christian

is not

of Voltaire may
be
Prose
Romances,

literaryworks

The

or

proper,

very

certain.

grouped

as.

cal,
Theatri-

Historical

Works,

Scientific Works,

laneous
Philosophic Writings, Criticisms, Miscelindeed that the
Writings, Correspondence, so many
all the

In

work,

of Voltaire

volumes"

"hundred
and

for

if not

literarymen
Voltaire's

named

above

literaryform,
unrivaled;

as

has

he

stands,
ever

of the marvels

one

current

divisions,Voltaire
will

and

become

as

hold

an

his

ing.
say-

did

great

artist,unsurpassed,

place

among

of the world.

in

philosophy is not to be attributed

to his giftas a popularizer
to original
as
a thinker, but
power
disseminator
of opinions. His
and
principal philosophic
work, Dictionnaire
Philosophique,gave him the opportunity
he employed with
to exhibit his skill in paraphrasing,which
great effect. He thus set forth his philosophic views, and
and
the Empirical
to the Physics of Newton
currency
gave
philosophy of Locke.
for deriving from
sensation
Locke
Voltaire commends
in the
everything found
understanding, thus giving the
He
mind
instead of romance.
even
history of the human
and
and
regards memory
thought as sensation continued
sensation
far
the
thus
modified,
enough to cover
carrying
ground assigned by Locke to reflection.
If it be true that mental
operationsare simply transformed
importance

sensations, what
eternal, or
is :

"

God

essence

can

we

know

of any form of necessary

has given thee, O man,

good conduct,
the

then

and

of the

not

for the

things he

has

of the

infinite and

truth .^^ Voltaire's

the

reply
understanding
thy own
of penetrating into
purpose

created."

for

FRENCH
He

ENLIGHTENMENT

PHILOSOPHY

355

assertion
that there can
be
eagerly accepted Locke's
the
that
matter
think,
can
opinion
objection to
of
stance,
the
soul
the
a
as
rejecting
hypothesis
spiritualsuband
and reducing all realityto God
matter,
ing
regard-

valid

no

thus

both

as

eternal.

For

he

says:

"No

axiom

has

ever

been

out of
generally received than this, that nothing comes
of the present
"We
nothing.'''He sarcasticallyobserves:
created
day are so happy as to know, by faith, that God
still
of nothing."
matter
Just
out
here, if Voltaire
were
edge
like to ask him whether
he regarded the knowlalive, I would
of the axiom. Nothing comes
out of nothing,as a modified
more

sensation.
essential
immortality was
to the preservation of morality, and
encouraged this belief
for its practicalvalue to society.
in taking dark
Voltaire found
Pleasure, it would
seem,
views
of things,especiallyof human
life,and the prospects
of humanity.
the burial of
such
He
dwelt
disasters
as
on
Pompeii by the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius, or the earthquake
of Lisbon, asking the question, as
if directed
to
Leibniz,
be?"
"If this is the best possibleworld, what
others
the
must
Hence
he concludes
is good, he is not omnipotent.
that if God
proved himself
Notwithstanding his cynicism, Voltaire
to be a philanthropist by his defense
of the oppressed and
his compassion for the friendless.
He
held that
morality
is the essence
of religion,and
had
little or
no
respect for
tion,
toleraHe
denounced
dogma.
impostors, and advocated
and
the enlightened and
ruling classes of
urged upon
Voltaire was
society their duty of ca,ringfor the masses.
ethical reformer
rather than
an
metaphysical Philosopher.
a
de
^.
Charles
Secondat,
Montesquieu
(1689-1755).
Baron
de La Br^de
of a noble and
et de Montesquieu, was
the Oratorian
well educated
at
wealthy family. He was
School
of Juilly and
destined
to the
and
at
Bordeaux,
was
and
His
left him
his fortune
uncle
an
profession of law.
important judicial office, the presidency of a district of
Voltaire

held

that

the

belief in

France.
The

fame

of

works:

Montesquieu
The

letters purporting

to

traveling in Europe.

Lettres

Persanes

be written

by

In

this

his

chiefly on

rests

two

book,

were

in

Persians

the

three

portant
im-

guise

of

of distinction

Montesquieu

satirized

PHILOSOPHICAL

356
the

THEORIES

ecclesiastical follies of the

and
social,political,

shocked

his grave
readers
by tales
made
The book
sharp hits, was

life.

of scandal

day,

from

and

social

eagerly read, and went

Its questionable
through three editions the first year.
morality, however, prevented Montesquieu's election to the
Academy, but for a time only, as he afterwards canceled the
objectionablefeatures of his book.
Traveling over
Europe, he met Lord Chesterfield in Italy,
fast friends.
and
Continuing his travels, he
they became
in
he
remained
arrived
England, where
nearly two years, and
and
of the English government
acquired a high admiration
of the English people.
the character
His

next

book

grandeur des
dignifiedbook

was

entitled

Romains

la

Considerations

les

sur

This

et leur decadence.

de

causes

was

more

popular in
The
the grandeur, and
Paris.
salons called the Persanes
the Considerations,the decadence
of Montesquieu; but the
Considerations
the greater book; it had
extraordinary
was
In it Montesquieu dropped scandal, and
merit.
discussed
the more
and sociology. It is a
serious questions of politics
tated
noteworthy incident that a copy of the Considerations, annothe Potsdam
abstracted from
by the great Frederick, was
libraryby the great Napoleon.
Montesquieu's third and greatest book, called Esprit des
than

the

Persanes, though

not

so

social tions,
quescould affect the
forms of Government,
and whatever
quieu
condition
and happiness of the people. It entitled Montesto be regarded the pioneer in the philosophy of history.

Lois, contains

His

his mature

important views

of character

views

be

can

on

and
political

thus summed

up

ence
differ-

That

by difference of circumstances,
and
especiallyby the peculiar laws of the state; that it is
better to worship duty rather than wealth or social position;
that extremes

is determined

should

be

pursued; that absolutism

whether

found

in the

and

avoided
a

was

State

or

the

safe middle

great wrong

in the

to

the

course

people,

church; that the

perity
pros-

victory in
people depends not so much
upon
public sentiment, love of liberty,patriotism,
morality;that the laws of nature are the orderly
of
resultingnecessarilyfrom the constitution

of the
war,

as

on

industry and
movements

things;that civil law should reflect the constitution

that the prevalence of religionis proof that there
something essential to the happiness of man.

of

man;

is in it

FRENCH

ENLIGHTENMENT

PHILOSOPHY

considered
Montesquieu
ideal of perfection. He
won

ideas, and

liberal

made

the

the

English
the

over

357

the

government
educated

politicaldoctrines

class

to

of Locke

the

Europe. His importance is that of a

social philosopher,and his province the philosophy of history.
the founder
La Mettrie (1709-1751). La Mettrie
3,
was
lost his position as
materialism.
of French
He
physician
of his attack on the prevailingmedical
in the army
account
on
practice, and for his too free expression of his opinions, at
that time unpopular. He
persecuted, but took refuge
was
in Holland, but this refuge was
him
at length denied
owing
to the indignation aroused
Machine,
by his work, Vhomme
fled to Prussia
and
found
machine.
He
the man
refuge
him
reader.
with Frederick
the Great, who
court
appointed
the
difference
between
Mettrie
that
La
attempted to prove
is one
the mind
of man
and
that of the brute
merely of
quantity, not quality. He extended the analogy to plants.
with
have
Animals
plants; but they
something in common
also have
enlarged desires. Man
higher wants, and more
is
has what
is common
to plants and
animals, plus what
peculiarto animals, plus what is characteristic of himself;
ascend
the scale of being, the more
but the higherwe
ous
numerthe wants,
and the greater the struggle for existence.
and
we
see
According to La Mettrie
nothing but matter
know
We
its changes, yet we
know
its real nature.
cannot
know
its extension, motion, change of form; and
our
we
sensations, which
are
qualitiesof matter, since they always
certain organic changes. As
thought springs
accompany
sensation, it also

from
To

of

property

common

is

modification

mere

it may
be replied that La Mettrie
of which
the sensation
conscious
we
are

this

that

change

in

sense

organ,

brain

from

nerves,

the
which

and

the

Of this action
is not
The
nor

realm

When

matter.

afferent
a

nerves

part of the

quivering

of

consciousness.
of matter,

belong

to

nerves

nerve

objects
the
back

some

move

there

is

no

is

matter.

not

shown

nothing
act

on

but
some

impressionto
along

organ,

the

as

consciousness.

the

the

efferent
hand.
tion
Sensa-

but
an
accompaniment.
neitlier
thought,
sensation, nor

process,

is

agitation belongs to the

ness,
sensation, the thought, the conscious-

The
the

carry

is sent

response

muscles

of the

external

has

of

the realm

nervous

of mind.

The

one

is

physical,the

PHILOSOPHICAL

358
other
ble

The

psychical.
by the laws

and

mind

their

and

"potency the

of the

essence

Mettrie-was

matter

disowned

never

of L'homme

Condillac

to

common

mind.

popular, and was

but
he will always
themselves;

materialists

4.

and

substance,

genus

and

species,matter

inventor

Regarding

two

La

motion.

expKca-

not

are

substance, the
species of the genus
attributes, we
possibly find the ground of
may
and
the
explanation of their interaction, in

union

its two

of consciousness

states

of matter

the

as

of

support

THEORIES

by

the

as

the

known

be

Machine.
Etienne

(1715-1780).

de

Bonnot

Condillac

received

and late in life,was

holy orders when a young
man,
and its revenues.
He
presented with the Abbey de Mureaux
is the psychologistof the French
Enlightenment Philosophy.
Like Locke, he began with a polemic against innate ideas
"

mere

of straw.

man

but

there

when

in

are,

than

was

infant, the

an

He

fiftyvolumes.
was

Wealth

of

opinions
des

in

Nations.

The

L'Origine

are:

Ecrire, UArt
des

Condillac

de

conditions, evolve
of the

one

Commerce
the

1776,

et
same

author

des Connaissances

ideas.

of

more

greatest treatises
le Gouvernement,
year

giving

books

powers

ideas,
which,

his

Smith's

as

philosophical

Humaines,

Traite

de
Systemes, Grammaire, UArt
Raisonner, L'Art de Penser, La Logique, La
Traite

Sensations,

Langue

wrote

published

of

germs

innate

no

course,

writer, the

entitled, Le

economics,

which

proper

voluminous

of

are,

developed, will, under

Condillac

on

There

des

Calculs.
derived

all

mental

Locke's
operations, even
the
"reflection," from
one
origin, sensation.
Memory,
imagination, judgment, reasoning, all actual or conceivable
sensations.
mental
transformed
It is pertinent
are
processes,
transforms
As
to
the sensations?
enquire, What
passive
transform
themselves.
There
not
is,
effects, they can
called mind, which
is conscious
therefore, a power
and
sensations, examines
them, analyzes,interprets,
them.

The

reason,

are

the

same

the

not

continuous

identity,the
Condillac

very

ego,
same

which

each

which

criticized abstract

obscurity with

the

clearness

is the

the

person

systems, and

of the

classifies

judgment, the
are
capabilitiesof
of personal
core
very

imagination,
but
independent powers,

memory,

of these

concrete

calls /.
contrasted

system

their

built up

ENLIGHTENMENT

PHENCH
from

classes:
based

divides

He

sensations.

Systems resting on
hypotheses, systems,

on

PHILOSOPHY

S5d

philosophic systems into three

abstract
principles,systems
like Locke's, built up

from

the

facts of sensation.

Reasoning, according to Condillac, consists in evolving

one
judgment from another in which it is implicitlyinvolved;
in the essential identity
that is,the force of reasoning is found
of two
In a series
judgments which differ merely in form.
is
each
deduced
continued
from
of
the
judgment
reasoning,
is
of
not
true
the
judgment next preceding. This, however,
derived
conclusion
is
from
in
which
the
two
syllogism
ositions,
propof
intervention
middle
the
dillac,
Conterm.
a
through
in his endeavor
term
to
however, rejectsthe middle
arithmetical
of
form
reduce
the
to
calculation, an
reasoning
Condillac
but
objects to the
operation purely mechanical;
it deduces
particulars from
syllogism because
generals,
from
and
whereas
sets
out
to
particulars,
on
thought
passes
therefore
generals. He
accepts inductive
reasoning and
will not stand criticism,
rejectsdeductive; but this contention
since Science
employs deduction as well as induction.
Condillac

the

discards

Cartesian

test

of

truth, clearness

distinctness,but makes
identitythe test, not identityin
He
did not
form, but in essential meaning.
begin with
and

began by doubting everything it was

leaves everything undetermined,
possible for him to doubt; for doubt
is impossible.
and to doubt
in mathematics
Condillac
held that we
have
can
a
positive beginning in
of fact, of feeling,and
of reason.
the threefold
evidence
doubt,

Series

as

Descartes

of facts

sensation.

from

transformations

is, therefore,

There
to

common

are

all the

one

initial fact of

one

method

science, verifying each

of

analysis

step by the

test

model, and nature

as
a
as
a
identity,taking mathematics
guide.
dillac
The
development of the faculties of a human
being, Conillustrated by a statue
cut
out
by a sculptor from a
of

block
At

of marble.
first it is destitute

not

only

of

Suppose that the sensation of odor

by an object,as a flower; attention
then

the

sensations.

idea

of succession, then
Let

the other

senses

of sensation.

thought, but
is first given
is awakened,

then

comparison by
be

awakened,

the

to

in

statue

memory

variety of
succession,

PHILOSOPHICAL

360

in

similar

has

no

be

could
would

have

but

begin with,

converted
be

thus

no

power

should

have

it is evident

that

the

finallywe

like man;

to

senses
nor

then

manner,

thinking being,

THEORIES

into

could

and

be

not

sensitive

given
But

statue
tion,
sensa-

if

thinking being.
tions
sensainduced,
they
being passively

awakened,

of interaction.

would

There

be needed

conscious
of the sensations, analyzing
indwelling mind
them, recombining, comparing, discriminating,identifying,
classifying,
defining. A sensation is itself and nothing else;
it is not
law of
idea, nor
an
a thought, nor
a volition; the
identity will not apply; and Condillac has certainlyfailed in
an

his attempt

mind

deduce

to

from

sensation.

Helvetius

(1715-1771). Claude Adrien Helvetius was

from
descended
a
good family, mainly physicians. He was
and
handsome
in person,
agreeable in manners,
ready in
of age,
When
he
conversation.
only twenty-three years
of
member
of
and
the Academy
elected a
Caen,
was
shortly
of
the
the
Queen, was
after, at
appointed farmerrequest
which
him
income.
a
general,
great
very
gave
versatile
had
ling
Helvetius
mind, and was
a
capable of excelvarious
of several
in any
one
pursuits; but finallyhe
the
entered
investigation of philosophic questions,
upon
especiallythose having a moral and social bearing.
entitled De VEsprity taking
His first philosophic work
was
for its point of departure. Though
Helvetius
sensation
make
him
famous, it
fondly imagined that this book would
condemned
aroused
by the Sorgreat opposition. It was
bonne, by the priests,by the Archbishop of Paris, and by
This
himself.
the
opposition, though led by the
Pope
and
the influential
dauphine, and supported by the church
5.

classes, served
in

published
readers.

The

popularity,and
Alarmed
by
hurried

an

advertisement

several

languages,

as

book
in
the

did
few

which

France,
persecuted authors, Frederick
him

had

It

took

of
its

excited, Helvetius

his book

refuge

was

multitude

long maintain
quite neglected.

was

years

and

from

and

book.

however,

not,

storm

for the

with

the Great, who

that

friend

of

highly esteemed

for his amiable

Why

did

De

qualities.
I'Espritraise such

its doctrines, the mere

question: All man's

statement

storm.?

of which

faculties, memory,

On
will

account
answer

of
the

imagination, judg-

Bm

THEORIES

PHILOSOPHICAL
His

writings are
to

even

so

name

of

and

he

1745,

made

mind

Inquiry concerning
In

the

of

of the

question
a large variety
versatilityand

over

great

to mention

free

Virtue

the

translation

that

works

of

have

Shaftesbury's

Merit, adding originalnotes.

and

morning of Good
Friday and the
evening of Easter Monday, he wrote Philosophic Thought, and
shortly after supplemented it by an essay On the Sufficiency
in 1747.
the Sceptics Walk
of Natural Religion. He wrote
His
letter on
him
The
Blind, published in 1749, made
known
of letters,as an originalthinker.
It was
to the world
It
the dependence of ideas on
the senses.
written to show
however
unacceptable to the authorities, and he was
was,
into prison.
thrown
A bookseller
applied to him for a translation of Chambers'
the work; but, on
to undertake
Cyclopcedia, He consented
that it would
be better to produce an
reflection,concluded
latest thought of the
work
which
should
contain
the
original
for the
License
time, and to this the publisher assented.
work
secured, the contributors
were
was
engaged, who
and
Diderot
the
afterwards
known
French
as
Encyclopoedists,
Editor-in-chief.
was
appointed
After reaching the seventh
volume, the work fell under the
forbidden.
displeasureof the authorities, and its continuance
1746,

between

extend

They

exhibit

a
subjects,
SuflBce
it,then,
originality.
a
philosophicbearing.

In

it is out

that

numerous

all of them.

Diderot, however, carried forward

difficulties,in a clandestine
manner.

the

By

vexatious

under

work

work

incessant

for

finished and published,

Encyclopaedia was
through the timidity of the publisher in
though marred
he feared
might give offense
striking out certain passages
Diderot's
The Encyclopaedia,however, was
to the authorities.
monumental
work, and gave him lastingfame.
D'Alembetween
Conversations
Two
dialogues of Diderot's

twenty

bert

and

the

years,

Diderot

Philosophy.
atom

from

that

combination

and

sensation.

the

attribute

and

Diderot,

to

conjunction

the

the

D'Alemberfs
held

that

of

dead

atoms

raises

the

original atom
atoms,

can

to

could

suppose

have

question:

sensation, yet how,

a

consciousness

in

inherent

it is absurd

for

several

classic in

are

sensibihty was

beginning;

D'Alembert

of such

Dream,

If

by

life
we

the

arise which

ENLIGHTENMENT

FRENCH
has

in

its seat
All

repHed:

but

in their

finite individuals,

their

no

There

individual.
Diderot
it has

been

verser

did

bach's

The

of the

many

know

inner

did

of the

him

at all.

Salon, he charmed

At

as

one,

Diderot

admiring

that

so

powers,

his friend

circle of

into

orchestra.

know

not

by individuals?
one
great single

blend

atoms

Diderot

relation,form

is the

for his conversational

said, whoever
not

whole

363

aggregate?

mean

you

instruments

noted

was

by
do

sensations

The
of the

music

the

What

individuals.

no

are

atom

one

whole.

aggregate

one

PHILOSOPHY

as

Baron

con-

D'Hol-

friends

by

his

wonderful

giftin conversation.
Diderot, notwithstanding
amassed

never

than

$600

Diderot

fortune.

working
often

When

whole

makes

Diderot

His

Voltaire

year.

"500

wished

his

extensive

income

literary labors,

did not

average

indignantly exclaimed:

year

in
to

for "120,

while

singleday !
provide a suitable

an

more

Think
army

of
tractor
con-

dower

for his

himself
for
and
straitened
daughter, he found
means,
proposed to sell his library,his most valued possession. The
her
of Russia, hearing of it, directed
Empress Catherine
agent in Paris to buy the libraryat a price of "1,000, and
then requested the philosopher to retain the books
till she
called for them, in the meantime
appointed him her librariafi
with a generous
salary.
Diderot
French

life and

the

was

soul

Enlightenment Philosophy, but

of permanent

value

insight,clear

and

originality,
gave

his

to

he

contributed

little

philosophy,though his
light,and his penetrating
views, expressed in his written works,

the progress
brilliant as the
to

of the

culmination

the

and
of

especiallyin conversations, the fascination of Romance.

Religious faith as exhibited in the church, he regarded as
an
evil; for as he believed it inevitably degenerates into
first deforming then
ritualistic ceremonies,
dogmas and
displacingtrue morality. This opinion should have due
and the evil results guarded against by those
consideration
who
regulatereligiousworship.
Von
Heinrich
Dietrich
7.
Holbach
(1723-1789). Paul
at Heidelsheim
Holbach, a wealthy German
Baron, born
and

in the
made

Palatinate,

came

to

for life.

it his home

Paris
He

the brilliant circle of the French

Holbach

was

man

was

when
the

young

center

man,

and

heart

and
of

Enlightenment Philosophers.

well-informed, and

his

excellent

PHILOSOPHICAL

364

placed ready

memory

He

disposalhis

manner,

opinions. Impassive
of gravity of the group

center

vast

and
of

of knowledge.

store

his

to

generous

of his

tenacious
the

his

at

in
qiiiet

was

THEORIES

friends,and

inflexible,he

was

philosophers, who

at his salon for conversation.

statedly assembled
His
principal work, Systeme de la Nature, the Bible of
in 1770, bearing the
Atheism,
appeared pseudonymously
No
of Miraband, who had died ten years before.
one
name
attributed the authorship to Miraband, and for some
time,
ship
Holbach
not even
was
suspected,though later the authorthe
of the book
It reflected
was
assuredly known.
reduced the
opinions of the brilliant circle,though Holbach

whole

the

to

order

of

compact system.
sensationthe systems of materialism, alism,
detached,
atheism, hitherto somewhat

combined

Holbach

fatalism, and
into

one

The

He thus
System of Nature.
Sovereign of all being, and Ye

"

"O

Nature,
Virtue, Reason,

and

Truth, be forever

our

invokes
her

only

Nature:

Daughters,
Divinities!"

taught
making ourselves happy
morality
chastises imthe
of
others; that nature
happiness
through
that religionapplies inefficient remedies
quiring
by reHe

virtue is the art of

that

renunciation

contrary

to

human

nature;

that

true

the mind
cal
morality cures
through the body, instead of mythiand
that
the
road
to
beliefs;
one
sure
happiness is to
labor for the general welfare.
Theology is mythology, and class government
oppression.
rules
the
in
the
moral
world
in
physical. In
as
Necessity
sciousness.
fact, the moral world is the physical with superadded con-

Since

hypothesis of
nor

of the

organism

as
spirit,

Soul,

acted

nature

on

as

the

by

is alive, there
the

and

author

ruler

external

of

the

causes

is

no

governor

need

of the

of nature,

body. The physical

explainsthe ena
phenom-

of mind.

Voltaire

tem
greatly shocked
by the doctrine of the Sysof Nature, and called it illogical
in its deductions, absurd
in its physics, and
abominable
in its morals.
Voltaire's
refutation
of comconducted
after the popular method
mon
was
rather than by a method
strictlyphilosophical;
sense,
but Voltaire was
Atheist.
an
a Deist, not
doned
Holbach
taught that mythical hypotheses will be abanfar as
scientific explanations of phenomena
are
so
discovered.

was

(1712-1778)

Rousseau

8.

his father

from

When

of Geneva.

native

PHILOSOPHY

ENLIGHTENMENT

FRENCH

who

Jean

Jacques

years

of age,

ten

brought

had

him

up

Rousseau

he

in

365

was

separated

was

very

irregular

fashion.

wandering life, finding many

he
usually quarreled, and
patrons and friends with whom
other
adventures, and
to
places, finding new
passed on
to
Geneva
Paris and
gaining additional experience. From
times, and to other places,
back
again, he wandered
many
He saw
to England, at the invitation of Hume.
society,
even
to
and learned human
nature, and this knowledge he turned
profitin his writings.
of Dijon offered a prize for the best
In 1749, the Academy
the subject: The Influence of the Progress of Science
on
essay
the prize, and
Rousseau
at once
and Art on Morals,
won
an

irregular

famous.

His

led

He

became

go

back
He

contention

that, if

and
artificial,

and

we

was

to

are

that

attain

civilization is

happiness,

we

too

must

nature.

to

another

wrote

which

equal in merit

essay

though
to

the

not

equality,
prize on The Origin of Inthe
at least
securing
prize,was

for

other.

brought him the greatest notoriety were

Emile, a work on education; Confessions,an Autobiography;
La Nouvelle
Heloise, a novel; and Contrat Social, a political
The

books

which

treatise.
The

relation

that

of

of Rousseau

but

to

of

the

French

Illumination
He

was

from

opposition.
harmony,
from
reasoning
feeling,
speculation to conscience, from
theologicaldogmas to the experience of the heart.
Morality
be
This
recedes
advances.
as
knowledge
true, at
may
certain epochs, but the experience of mankind,
that the
the
highest morality will, at
greatest happiness attends
but that morality
length, be heeded
by the human
race,
will be based on knowledge.
Social order, according to Rousseau,
rests
a
on
contract,
ruler and people, but between
selves,
the people themnot beween
who
to certain
regulations for mutual
tion,
protecagree
each
citizen submitting to the law for his own
good,
thus
is the
The
securing the general welfare.
government
middle
between
term
the citizens as
sovereign law-giver
not

to

turns

PHILOSOPHICAL

366

of

citizen

the

and

pohtical

opinion

human

influenced

existence

and

The

its

its

did

erratic,

too

through

his

literary

gift

political

theories

were

has

exerted

its

checks

as

is

evidence

to

that

of

immortality,

and

wise
Like-

feeling.

conscience,

its

and

fication
justi-

social

educational,

in
wide

and

lasting

making

in

Philosophy;

speculative

influential

his

and

political

influence,

largely

writings
in

his

interesting.
about

bringing

the

revolution.

add,

at

close

the

Philosophy
of

proper

education

on

instinctive
in

in

yet

matters,

We

real
freedom

of

excel

not

he

French

views

profitable

the

authority

under

un-

Froebel.

are

God,

in

consequences.

Rousseau
were

but

assurance

finds

His

God

world,

the

inward

the

in

His

is

subject

faith

on

child,

the

and

of

Atheism;

Soul,

morality

views

consensus

the

founded

himself.

Pestalozzi

the

Materialism

have

the

is

majority,

is

Let

educate

Basedow,
for

feeling.

the

education

nature.

largely

Proofs

least

at

of

theory

corrupted

all

of

sovereign

citizen.

Rousseau's

guidance,

The

subject.

as

individual

the

THEORIES

Literature

than

of
is
for

this

chapter,

distinguished
the

profundity

The

that

for

more

of

its

French
the

lightenment
En-

brilliancy

Philosophy.

CHAPTER

Eclecticism, Positivism

Reaction,

(1754-18^1).

Maistre

1.

noble

XXIX

His

family.

father

was

Joseph de Maistre
president of the

Savoy.
Joseph having completed his studies
in the civil service, and
appointment
an
of the Senate
of Savoy.
member
When
France,

to

work

he

went

entitled

to

Lusanne

where

Considerations

sur

at

Turin,

at

length
was

in 1796,

he

received
became

annexed

published
This

France.

of

Senate

Savoy

la

of

was

book

ary
prevalent skeptical and revolutiontheories
of the time, but from
religiouspoint of view.
a
His
celebrated
most
works, Z)w Pope and De V Eglise Gallicane, were
polemics against the philosophy and political
views
He
of the philosophers of the so-called
illumination.
all such
crime
regarded
against order,
speculations as
a
against religion,and against the well-being of mankind.
directed

was

De

the

against

Maistre's

opinions

can

be

thus

summed

up:

He

denied

all
that
possibility of physical causation, and affirmed
material
movement
origiaates from
spiritual beings. Let
if they
scientists
physical
themselves,
will, with
amuse
of intermeddling with social
beware
but let them
phenomena,
is faith, not
and
religious questions. The guide of mankind
God
imparts his guiding truth through the church
reason.
and
the state, and
not
reason
through philosophers. Human
is a blind
authoritative
be
There
guide.
must
guide.
an
chief
misFree
The
should
have
been
thought
permitted.
never
tinued
conwas
began with the so-called reformation, and
taire
Volthe
of
the
by
philosophy
eighteenth century.
buffoon.
was
a
Montesquieu, Condillac, Helvetius,

the

La

Mettrie,

Holbach,

only remedy
the Pope, and
He

is to

go

submit

commended

war,

purifying agencies,
humanity.
from

Man

without,

and

back
to

the

recognize
his authority as
and
hangman,

necessary

is

and

in the

the
a

the

disordered

367

from

of
infallibility

heavenly

purely passive, he receives

his illumination

The

of mischief.

disseminators

were

above.

guide.

inquisition,as
condition
his sensations

of

THEORIES

PHILOSOPHICAL

368

As

the

philosophy of the eighteenth century was

a wicked
it
conspiracy against legitimate authority,
ought to be
crushed.
He
of
the
wrote
examination
an
philosophy of
attack
acrimonious
Bacon, and made
an
on
Locke; but he
able man,
and struck heavy blows.
was
an
Cabanis
2.
(1757-1808). Pierre Jean Georges Cabanis
of a prominent lawyer who
the son
also chief magiswas
was
trate
of

district in lower Limousin.

His

intrusted to priests,and at ten

early education was
He was
an
apt scholar,
years of age, to the collegeof Brives.
but independent and obstinate in his opinions,and so difficult
of management
left to carry

that
on

delight,and

attended

cultivated

He

Roucher.

He

he

was

his studies
some

dismissed

from

the

by himself. He read Locke

of the universitylectures.

poetry, and

intimate

was

became

acquainted with
Condillac, D'Holbach, and

D'Alembert,
Americans, Franklin
Mirabeau, land with

and

and
college,

Jefferson.

He

with

the

with

poet

Turgot, Diderot,
the
was

distinguished
intimate

with

Condorcet.

Cabanis
finally chose the professionof medicine, and
studied the mysteries of physiology with the deepest interest.
He

was

member

of the National

Institute,and

was

ed
appoint-

professorof Clinics.
of 1797-8, Cabanis
read a series of papers
on
between
the soul, which
the body and
were

In the winter
the

relation

form.
additions, in book
published in 1802, with some
Though he entertained a great respect for Condillac, he held
not
against him that our sensations were
wholly excited by
external causes;
for physiological conditions, the internal
the causes
workings of the various organs of the body, were
of sensations of which
are
distinctlyconscious.
we
The instincts and appetites,in close relation with the vital
all
feelings,the emotions, the affections, the desires, are
from which the higher operationsof thought
a constant
source
take their rise. His works
to be regarded as connot
tributions
are
"the
to materialistic philosophy, though he says
brain excretes
thought as the liver,bile."
maintained
Cabanis
that there is a universal instinct,and
force pervading all nature.
one
Biran
Maine
de
de Biran
3,
was
(1766-1824). Maine
He
the son
him a good education.
of a physician who
gave
of the life-guards
of Louis XVI.
was
one

PHILOSOPHICAL

370

THEORIES

the existence of
to
apprehends the necessity of noumena
neither
not
are
self-supporting,
phenomena; for phenomena
from
can
they spring
non-entity into being.
deal,
We
that
not
now
can
see
empirical philosophy can
with noumena,
the realityof which
it will either ignore or
deny. Empiricism is, therefore, a one-sided
philosophy, a
its
in
partial system.
entirety,is both
Philosophy itself,
empirical and rational.
Judged by its history,philosophy includes the five phases :
Empiricism, Idealism, Skepticism, Mysticism, Rationalism.
Marie
nator
^. Ampere (1775-1836). Andre
Ampere, the origiof the science of Electro-dynamics, was
a
a
physicist,

mathematician,

and

philosopher,and

in all these

eminent

respects.
He
for the

associate

the

was

most

consciousness

and

friend

of Maine

with him,
part, in agreement
of the energy
of the ego the

de

Biran,and

making the
starting-pointin

as

in

method
was
philosophicalinvestigations. His psychological
that of the English associational philosophers.
He investigatedhow
sensations
and ideas are involuntarily
associated, and how scientific knowledge is possiblethrough
mental
with
description,
mere
activity. He is not content
but explains the appearance
of complex phenomena
by the
Thus, a low
blending or association of simpler elements.
voiced
reader
be
when
not
ui^erstood
reading an
may
unfamiliar
but
be followed, word
by word,
passage,
may
each
with
known
In

distinctlyheard,
no

increase in the

reads

he

familiar

passage,

strength of the voice, the words

distinctlyheard.
moving an
Ampere
arm,

being

are

consciousness
since when
the

force, or

of effort, and

another

of muscular
learn

when

moves

that
one's

sensation, but
nature

energy,

of

cause,

distinguishedbetween

not
as

the

sensation,
muscular
there is a consciousness

of the
arm,

effort, we
as
antecedent, even

of effort.

more

than

From

the effort of power.

conscious of
are
Though Ampere correctlyheld that we
tween
that the relations bephenomena
only, yet he maintained
noumenal
the phenomena,
involving causality,imply
reality,
validity. Cause, time, and space have noumenal
form
the
of
inference
under
reach
them
though we
by way
of hypothesis. We
of
as conditions
apprehend their necessity

phenomena.

ECLECTICISM,

REACTION,

hypothesis,however,

The
force of

is

POSITIVISM
and

necessary,

rational intuition,which

371
has

all the

the

apprehends

necessity
of ph^iomena,
the absolute necessity,
not
of the conditions
conditional
the
but
necessity; that is, phenomena
being
be.
We
know
must
change empirically, for
given, cause
in
the
of
movement
this change,
a body; but
example, change
is
known
without
impossible,without
by experience,
cause,
time.
the
without
of
Hence,
necessity of cause,
space,
is
of time,
and
infalhbly apprehended by rational
space,
a

intuition.
de Biran's

In Maine
of self
we

as

to that

cause

bridge.

cannot

opinion, the

Here

we

of external
encounter

of

from

passage

is

causes
one

of the

the

edge
knowl-

gulf
profound-

over

The

be
gulf, however, can
metaphysics.
questions
is
but
The
the
bridge
rationally.
bridged, not empirically,
that
into
Maine
de
non-entity can not spring
being,
principle
asks the question: ''What
teach
Biran
experience can
us
in which
whether
the forms
co-ordinated
are
phenomena are
in
whether
that
in
the
is,
absolute,
things, or
they are
only
them.f^
external
which
Can
mind
apprehends
experience
this
which
reflection
shed
must
light on
ever
question
any
both possibilities
fit in equally well with the
Do
raise?
not
The
is, experience cannot
tell, nor
answer
phenomena?"
of
but
tell.
relations;
reason
can
perhaps Ampere's theory
Events
are
our
knowledge,
continually happening without
side
from
of
the
the
other
on
globe, or elsewhere
us,
away
est

far removed
real and

from

necessary,

is not,

as

Kant

apprehension, but
If the
The

us.

The

events

are

since the events

held, merely
the

events

are

real, the causes

are
but
this
ty
necessireal;

the

subjective necessity of
objectivenecessityof the cause
hended.
appreare,

the

cause

must

be.

question is, do we
necessarilyapprehend what
may
what
be an
do
is a
not
truth,
or
we
objective
apprehend
Is the necessityin the apprehenobjectivetruth?
sion,
necessary
in the realityapprehended?
Kant's
or
great mistake
in placing the necessity in the apprehension, and
this
was
mistake
from
has thrown
track
philosophy on the wrong
his day to ours.
There is no
subjectivenecessitywith the empiricalphilosophers,
while
consistentlyadhering to their theory; for a
with
them
is not
is
but antecedence, and
cause
efllciency,

S7^

PHILOSOPHICAL

by
necessity or

induction, which

but

when

gives only probabiHty, not

from
their empiricertainty. This comes
cism;
they lose sight of their one-sided philosophy,

say,

with

the

reached

they
have

even

in the

in this

that

event

every

must

the

necessity,the event
being given,
and not in the subjective affirmation;
find
noumenal
we
reality,not only in ourselves
strikes
which
fatal blow
objective world,
a

cause

in the

but

of mankind,

rest

placing
objective cause,
cause,

and

THEOHIES

subjective idealism.

to

In the

of nature, in the
is the dynamic

course

of science and

development

which
philosophy, cause
explains the
agency
tendency of everything to order, to a comprehensive and
symmetrical unity.
Cousin
Cousin
5.
(1792-1867). Victor
began life in
in receiving a
fortunate
troublous
times, but was
good
in the Lycee where he studied
classical education
eightyears.
The
teaching he received gave him a taste for rhetoric and
On

oratory.
of

the

Sorbonne
the

entered

In

leaving the Lycee

for

miguiene's lectures
him,

on

of

decided

the

on

minds.

powerful

afterwards

He

life."

of my

course

philosophy by Royer-Collard

on

in terms

by

me,

hall

oration, and

with

listened

in the

thus

well-deserved

tinction
dis-

with

delight to Laromade
pression
a
philosophy, which
deep imwas
highly susceptibleto the Influence

he

as

Latin

of Paris

School, he

Normal

the

crowned

was

eloquent

an

School

Normal

he

said:

"Those

also heard

He

of whom

he

lectures

the

lectures

always spoke

of great respect.
He
''Royer-Collard turned
says:
the severity of his logic,from
the beaten
path of

Condillac, into that

Scottish

de Biran

Maine

also influenced

Cousin's

of the

by
philosophy early

Reid's

philosophy."

and

was

Ampere.

its eclectic

shows

He

character

of immediate

by

of external

theory
perception
combining
Maine
de
Biran's
of the consciousness
with
doctrine
objects
and
with
tions.
of self-activity,
Ampere's view of absolute relaTo
the

absolute

philosophy
is
not

these,

at

of

though

Schelling and

by

similar

later
taken

reason

impersonal,since
vitiated

the
to

date, he
from

added
German

the

Hegel.

He

it is alike in all; but

senses.

that

Every

in others.

the

man's

doctrine

speculative

taught that

reason

this is because
reason

of

is his

it is
own,

ECLECTICISM,

REACTION,

in the

professor of philosophy

As

Cousin

lectures

the

took

elements

on

history

School

of Paris,

of

charmed

therefore

and

the

human

mind,

the

method

of eclecticism, to
form

systems, and
and

Normal

373

philosophy to enthusiastic
his
were
eloquence.
all schools
of philosophy have
the position that
that absolute
of truth, and
is impossible to
error

gave

audiences, who

He

POSITIVISM

said:

complete

'As is the

that

take

the

what

whole.

of

method

with

is true

He

from

insisted

philosopher,so

procedure

true

is

all the

method,

on

is his system,
destiny of his

decides
the
adoption of a method
philosophy."
will not do; it will lack
A conglomerate system, however,
be unity in the central principles,
consistency. There must
these must
be fundamental;
but having complied with
and
this condition, a philosopher may
rightfullybe eclectic,for
this will secure,
to completeness.
at least tend
or
and

the

Cousin

gave

to

currency

will.

intellect, sensibilityand
of

philosophy

review

perhaps,
the work
6.

criterion

His

philosophy.

entitled, Du

on

the

of the

lectures

on

faculties

His

most

Vraiy du
and

Beau,
the

into

the

reading, especiallyhis

the true, the beautiful

Germain

of

and

are

that

and

She

well worth

of Locke's

division

the

valuable

history
searching
work

du

Bien, that
good.

is,
is,

matician
(1776-1831). Sophia Germain, a lady matheof developphilosopher,investigated the course
ment
sciences
and
and
sought for the
philosophy,

of truth.

held

the

that

inter-relation

researches, and

mind

human
to

found

guide
the

in

realizes the
scientific

and

need

of order

philosophic

sole type of the true

in order
and
the whole,
to
harmony

and

and
proportion, giving unity
including the principleof causalityas a specialform.
of asking why that is,seeking for the final cause
Instead
are
beginning to search for the how, and the
or
we
purpose,
how ivhat; that is,we
are
tending towards positivephilosophy;
and this was,
at that time, undoubtedly the drift of thought.
7.
Jouffroy (1796-1842). Theodore
Jouffroy emphasized
the importance of the psychological method
of consciousness
or
introspection,and exaggerated it to the neglect
of both
physiology and metaphysics. He carried forward
with
the eclecticism
of Cousin
more
sobriety,but not with
such lofty flightsof eloquence.

PHILOSOPHICAL

374

Eclecticism

pupil of

also

was

the nineteenth

eclecticism

was

Condillac, on the
the other, and
on
Saint-Simon,
of

name

as

advocated

school

of

by

if he

be called

soldier in

is entitled
social

aiding

the

to

philosopher.

the

American

their

Britain.
Great
independence from
project of connecting the Atlantic and
ship canal through the isthmus of Darien.

the

Pacific Oceans

the

that of

should

French

gain

to

and

reformer; and

philosopher,he

colonies
He

hand

he maintained

between

mean

French

on

theologicalphilosophy
thus reconciled them
in a higher unity.
Claude
de
(1768-1825).
Henri, Comte

was

served

He

by Damiron,
work

century, in which

true

one

Saint-Simon

8.

strongly advocated
in 1828
published

Cousin, who

philosophyin
that

THEORIES

part in the French

revolution, but made

some
by dealing in real estate, as he said, to aid him in his
money
He
lost his fortune, but continued
to
proposed reforms.
took

He

no

in poverty.

work

Saint-Simon

of French

founder
and

his

among

did

He

held

devote
and

wealth

the

in

his belief in

its essential

men

Comte

of

He

talent;

were

oned
reck-

abolition

of

leaders

influence

to

the

private property,
of society should
relief of the

poor,

society.

his

greatest work.

God, and

elements
He

excrescences.

and

of

the elevation

aflirms

him

Auguste

capitalistsand

that

their

around

the

disciples.

advocate

not

Saint-Simon
to

systematic thinker, yet, as

Socialism, he is a conspicuous figure.
not

the attractive power

to draw
both
Augustin Thierry and

had

but

was

said:

proposes

The
to

New
reduce

by clearing away
''The

new

its

Christian

Christianity^

Christianity
dogmas and
organization
the spiritual,

temporal institutions,as well as

all men
the principle,that
towards
from
should
act
one
another
brethren," an important truth.
as
On account
of Saint-Simon's
views, Auguste Comte
religious
with
him, though Comte, at a later date
parted company
attempted to organize a religionon the basis of his positive
forcing its recognition in
philosophy, the religiousnature
spiteof an atheistic philosophy.
of Saint-Simon,
the
After
the death
leadership of the
Enfantin.
Socialistic School
assumed
and
was
by Bazard
Bazard
was
thoughtful and logicalin his turn of mind; but
Enfantin
to
was
flighty and impractical,and endeavored
will deduce

the

ECLECTICISM,

REACTION,
found

the

with

Socialistic church

practice of

immoral
could

and

of Enfantin

doctrines

and

his

fantastic

free love.

this, and

endure

not

POSITIVISM

rituals,and
Bazard

withdrew

party, which,

and

from
on

suppressed by

practices,was

375

his followers

the fellowship

account

the

ing
allow-

of their

civil authorities.

of
(1798-1857) Auguste Comte, the founder
the Positive
Philosophy received his elementary education
At the age of sixteen, he
town.
at Montpellier, his native
admitted
to the Ecole
ously
Polytechnique, where he strenuwas
applied himself to study. After two years at this
taking a leading part in a students'
institution, Comte,
to Paris,
sent
home, but he shortly returned
rebellion,was
and supported himself by teaching.
of Franklin, and
Comte
wrote
to a
was
a
great admirer
friend: "I seek to imitate the modern
Socrates,not in talents,
of living. At five and twenty, he formed
but in the way
a
wise
his
of
and
fulfilled
design
becoming perfectly
[moral],
have
undertake
I
dared
the same,
to
design.
though I am
He
not
thought of going to America, but a
yet twenty."
friend told him
that the Americans
were
so
practical,that
could make
not
even
a
Lagrange, the great mathematician,
livingthere only by land surveying.
By the aid of a friend he attained a positionas tutor in the
family of Casimir Perier, at a good salary,but finding the
work
irksome, he resigned his position after a trial of three
Comte

9,

weeks.
When
with

about

twenty

Saint-Simon, and

six years.

of age, he became
assobiated
with him

years
was

After

acquainted
for

about

his

own
beginning
independent career, he
under
wrote
to a friend: "I certainlyam
great obligationsto
Saint-Simon; that is to say, he helped, in a powerful degree,
in the philosophicdirection I have now
to launch
me
definitely
worked
for myself, and
out
I shall follow that, without
of
But after six years
looking back, for the rest of my life.
Comte
and
Saint-Simon
the
association,
as
parted company,
master's
be
to
could
dured
enpretensions
no
superiority
longer
low
w
ho
estimate
by his ambitious
disciple,
placed no
"

on

his

own

intellectual

forgot his indebtedness

"'depraved quack," and
was
merely mischievous.

powers.
to
to

in fife,Comte
far
so
Saint-Simon, as to call him
a

say

Later

that

his influence

over

him

PHILOSOPHICAL

376

Comte's

marriage

separation from
correspondence.

his

condemned

in
happy and finally ended
wife, though they kept up a friendly
not

was

in

formed
the
Comte
1848,
husband
Clotilda de Vaux, whose

Later,

of Madam
been

THEORIES

for

hfe

quaintance
ac-

had

the

rated
her
galleys. Comte
highly, even
extravagantly. She supplied the cravings
very
her death, which
of his heart, and he deeply mourned
occurred
after the acquaintance of one
year.
of boys who
In 1833, Comte
was
were
appointed examiner
Paris.
to the Ecole
candidates for admission
at
Polytechnique
for
this
work
with
other
The
of
him,
sources
salary
gave
He
a
respectable income.
discharged his duties as
revenue,
examiner
with this work,
thoroughly. An incident connected
shows

that

wrote

to

disclose
when

Comte

was

his wife:
the

I find

"I
and

sweet
a

young

not

addition

to

destitute of

man

whose
you
were

all his other

heart.

generous

hardly know, if even

softened
feelingthat

satisfactory. Yes, though

easilystir me to tears, if I
In

to

to

you,

examination

is

carefullyon

not

work,

even

when

me

thoroughly

smile, the emotion

may

I dare
over

comes

He

would
"

guard.
writing his

my

free
a
Philosophy, he gave, for seventeen
years,
of popular lectures on
He
lost his posicourse
tion
Astronomy.
examiner, and with it half his income, by a needless
as
in the preface to the sixth volume
of his philosophy,
statement
which
who
offended
had given him the appointment.
the men
He
of State to the King,
applied to M. Guizot, Minister
Louis
Philippe, to establish, in the University, a chair of
the History of Science, hoping to receive the appointment to
this chair as professor. He gave, in substance, the following
Positive

reasons

for the chair:

"If there

are

four

chairs

devoted

to

the

and
philosophy, that is, to the study of dreams
aberrations
of thought through the ages, surely there should
be one
of real knowledge."
at least to explain the progress
Comte
The chair was
not established.
suggestion
says : The
first
Guizot's
at
was
philosophic instinct, and
approved by
then repelledby his metaphysical rancor."
financial straits,his friend, J. S. Mill,
Hearing of Comte's
with
advanced
the help of Grote, Carrie
and
Molesworth,
him
the sum
The
of "240.
same
was
repeated for another
effort to
made
when
no
Mill, learning that Comte
year,
take care
him that he must
his own
mend
fortune. Informed

history

of

''

PHILOSOPHICAL

378

notions, the originand

search after Absolute

vain

the universe, and the causes

to the study of their laws
and

of succession
There

theory

doubt,

of

and apphes itself

phenomena,
their
invariable
that is,
relations

"

"

of truth

large measure

stages of human

three

the

destination

of

resemblance.

is,without
of

THEORIES

progress;

in Comte's
but

these

strictlysuccessive.
Many minds,
but
those
the
not
ignorant,
highly cultivated, yet
simply
of
the
hold to
validity Theologicalconceptions. Metaphysics
and has come
to stay.
shows
Science, despairingto
vitality,
find the ultimate
explanations of things, and though legitimate
in its method, and the prevaihng stage at the present
time, does not go to the depth of things, and is, by its own
confession, superficial.Philosophy is deeper than Science,
of phenomena, the human
Not
knowing the natural causes
to
mind, in the early periods, referred them
supernatural
is
The
Comte
admits, the
as
theological stage,
agencies.
mind; yet he denies to
point of departure for the human
"I
must
theological conceptions any
validity. He
says:
becomes
remark
one
apparent
upon
very strikingtruth which
the
astronomical
science
distinct
of
its
and
pursuit
during
ever
increasingopposition,as it attains a higher perfection,
the
to
theological and
metaphysical spirit. Theological
philosophy supposes
everything to be governed by will,and
that phenomena
therefore, eminently variable, at least
are,
ceives
virtually. The positive philosophy, on the contrary, conthem
subject to invariable laws, which permit us to
predict with absolute precision.
The
views is nowhere
radical incompatibilityof these two
than in regard to the phenomena
of the heavens,
marked
more
since in that direction, our
prevision is proved to be perfect.
The
punctual arrival of comets, and eclipses,with all their
train of minute
incidents,exactly foretold,long before, by the
stages overlap and

are

not

"

aid

of ascertained

that
which

such

events

could

not

astronomical

must

be

must

be

lead

free from

will,if it

was

the

common

the
thus

control

mind

to

of any
subordinated
to

feel

will,
our

decisions."

"is no
theologicalconception that with God
is the
of turning." How
shadow
variableness, neither
laws incompatible with
the
uniformity of the astronomical
conception of God who is "the same
yesterday, today, and
But

it is

laws,

ECLECTICISM,

REACTION,

material

stabilityof the
uniformity of the laws
The

of

existence

POSITIVISM

379

universe, consequent

the

on

of nature, is essential to the continued

inhabitants
of the world, as
at
they are

the

wills the existence of man

If God
present constituted.
earth, he also wills the uniformity of the laws of nature,
which

on

and

is the

indispensable condition of the

uniformity,
is
subversive
of theologicalconceptions,
not
act
prevision,
incompatible with the idea of God.
nor
this
**With
Again, in reference to Physics, Comte
says:
of human
science begins the exhibition
in modifying
power
In astronomy,
human
of
is out
intervention
phenomena.
in physics, it begins; and
the question
shall see
it
how
we
becomes
This power
more
powerful as we descend the scale.
that
of exact
counterbalances
previsionwe have in astronomy.

this

of

"

The

one

or

power

the

other

the

"

of

power

foreseeing

or

of

of theological
to
our
outgrowth
modifying is necessary
philosophy. Our previsiondisproves the notion that phenomena
which
from
is
the
same
will,
a
supernatural
proceed
thing as callingthem variable; and our abilityto modify them
under which
shows
that the powers
nate
they proceed are subordi"

to

As

our

the

own.

of any

phenomena

science

become

complex,

more

first power
(that
prevision) decreases, and
of
the
or
(that
modifying) increases, so that one
of

the

always present
world

the

unquestionably

the

that

other
events

is
of

by supernatural will,but by natural

ruled

not

are

show

to

other

the

laws."
it is

But

theologicalconception

that

dominion

the

should

man

the

over

fowl

earth, and
earth."

*'have

over

This

subserve
and

his

Comte's

cattle, and

over

sea,

and

all the

the
creeping thing that creepeth upon
certainly gives man
ample license to modify
which

surround

interests, and

this modification
nor

the

over

fish of the

will that

every

circumstances

the

air,and

of the

over

it is God's

thus

is not

incompatible

with

classification of the

him, and
to

promote

subversive
the

idea

sciences

of

cause

them

to

his

happiness,
ceptions
theological con-

of God.

begins with

the

most

simple and general, and passes on to the more

complex and
matics,
Mathehave:
the
subdivisions, we
special. Leaving out
Astronomy, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Sociology,
This classification follows the historical order according to

PHILOSOPHICAL

380

which

each

has

passed

THEORIES
from

the

theological,
through

the

method
metaphysical,into the positive
stage. The deductive
of reasoning prevailsin the more
simple and general of the
sciences,and the inductive in the more
complex and special.
Comte
The
six groups
regards as irreducible. The passage
from a lower to the next
higher is accomplished by a leap
over

The

gap.

same

law

holds

as

to

the

subdivisions,also

organic species. This, of course, does not accord

with Darwin's
does
theory of the origin of species Comte
establish the discontinuityby the positive method
not
of
and experiment, but metaphysically and
observation
maticall
dogthus forsakinghis own
methods; but discontinuity,
when
it is a fact, does not disprove the existence of a common
laws of the
law, more
general,as generic,than the narrower
the
of
hyperbola are discontinuous,
species. The branches
the
and same
one
equation.
yet both are representedby
the

to

as

from one
of energy
mode
raises the question whether

transmutation

The

another

to

identityof fundamental

even

of

apparent
closer

manifestations, and

cause

also

may

continuity

admit

explainthose

discontinuityof manifestations

to
inspection,

not

of manifestation

resolve itself into

has

or

of discontinuity
where

cases

been

found, by

continuity.

At

least

later

the
investigationshave proved that, in many
cases,
hiatus of discontinuity,
supposed by Comte, has been resolved
into continuity;but the fact of continuity may
be regarded
method, since it has been found by
as
a triumph of the positive
that method, and
not
by the metaphysical, and hence that
Comte's
mistake
from his forsakingthe positivemethod
arose
for the metaphysical ; but this is a clear proof that the methods,
not
metaphysical and positive,by their overlapping,are

discontinuous

and

successive.

objects to psychology,because it is founded

upon
He says :
consciousness or observation of mental phenomena.
from activity;
"In order to observe, your intellect must
pause
observe.
If you
want
to
activity you
yet it is this very
Comte

effect the pause,

cannot
you
is
The
there
observe.
it,
nothing to
cannot

results of such

do
a

effect

method

thousand
two
absurdity.
proportion to
propositionis established
years of psychologicalpursuit,no one
satisfaction of its followers.
to the
They are divided, to
this day, into a multitude
of schools,still disputingabout the
are

very

in

observe; if you

elements

its

of their doctrine."

After

REACTION,

ECLECTICISM,
of

POSITIVISM

381

its

being impossible to be conscious

without
knowing, it is impossible to know
being conscious
Consciousness
is involved
in knowing as an
knowing.
tial
essenBut

instead

element.
know

that

If I know,
I know,

I know

I do not

that

know.

know;

are

not

conscious.

are

that

psychological method

The

results

good
laws

Comte

as

of association

has

We

supposes.

and

as

memory,

of which

been

not

but

appear;

need

exhibited

so

be
We
there
are

we

fruitless
refer to

only
by the

of

not

In like manner,
it may
involve
consciousness.

feeling and volition

of all phenomena,
all that
conscious
subliminal
operations,not phenomena,

shown

for if I do

of

of
the

Associa-

tionalist

Mill is the typical

of whom
James
philosophers,
work
of the Physiological
modern
representative. The more
The
Psychologists has been fruitful in rich results.
means
of psychological investigationmay
into principal
be divided
and collateral;the principleemploys consciousness, reflection
and

rational

various

intuition; the

authors

who

have

collateral, uses

written

the

works

of

subject; it studies
comparative psychology, biology, physiology, anthropology,
of society, and
and
the phenomena
sociology; it observes
acquaints itself with literature,as found in history,biography,
lished
Psychology has estabpoetry, the novel and the drama.
something worth knowing; for writers on economics, on
sociology,on ethics, appeal to psychology for fundamental
principles.
substitute
mathematics.
For logic,Comte
He says:
would
is found
of advantage
in logic in directing and
"Whatever
strengthening the action of the understanding is found, in a
study, with the immense
higher degree, in mathematical
of a determinate
cumscribe
added
advantage
subject,distinctly cirfree
admitting of the utmost
precision, and
is inherent
in all abstract
from
the danger which
logic of
leading to useless and puerile rules, or to vain ontological
speculations."
closing
But certainlylogichas performed a valuable service in dislaws of thought
the law of identity,
the fundamental
on

the

"

"

of congruents,
of conflictive whether
contraries
dictories,
contraor
it has also exhibited
and consequent;
and of reason
the

doctrine

whether

of

concepts,

deductive

or

of

judgments

inductive, and

and

laid

of
down

reasoning,
the

safe-

PHILOSOPHICAL

S82

fallacy.

against

guards

All

it

this
its

notwithstanding

mathematics,

has

done,

and

which

achievements,

great

has

done.

not

held

Comte
but

He

he

arrive
for

reason;

induction

fact;

and

only

so

far

philosophy

Comte

in

place
if

thought,

humanity

not

does

of

its

religion

of
.f^

worship
guiding

human

to

its

human

part.

it

in

his

to

is

humanity
is

better

humanity.
Love

brotherhood.

to

God;

for

second

feeling

to

co-ordinate

with

ought

part.

be

to

as

God

to

and
it

quality,
Love

of

object

proper

be

may

Worship
is

of

religion

acceptable

is.

religion
its

science.

whatever

scarcely

precept
True

without

and

religion

Every

to

seems

empiricism,

His

heart,

the

and

assigned
it

in

foundation,

importance.

humanuy,
A

he

it
it

good

made

and

head.
but

Worship

elevate

first

his

humanity;

precept.
to

to

be

certain

with

does

pure

may

mystic;

discredit

no

into
it

nature,

superior

relation

resolved

of

it

be

extended

if

objective

all, though

at

something

was

due

is

be

accords

certainty,

logical

no

philosophy

positive

strive

has

be

can

but

the

not

may

can

This

but

therefore

it

generalization;
for

induction;

nature

It

analogy.

craving
it

for

it.

metaphysical.

as

and

of

tion
intui-

the

by

real

by

law;

natural

Not

method,

confirms

for

subjective

is not

mind

the

laws

positive

by

.^^

probable;

the

the

to

it

the

of

method

that

reached

of

only

warrant;

said

principle

experience

as

of

satisfy

its

at

this

only

according

tendency

the

immutability

have

gives

application

due

the

immutability

necessary

its

to

discarded

he

therefore,

must,

such

for

strictly

did

how
of

or

THEORIES

has

man,

CHAPTER

Later

If

1.

he

German

a^^r (1814-1878).

medicine

Surgeon

XXX

Philosophy

Julius

Robert

Munich
Tubingen,
Dutch
for
ship bound
position as physician

and

at

for

obtained

Paris,

Java.
in

after studying

Mayer,

chosen

was

After

returning,

Heilbronn,

his

native

agency,

had

city.
indestnictibihty of matter,
already been proved by Lavoisier,
The

kindred

for the
of energy.

The

out

passes

when

they

passes

into

is

unite

heat,

this

from

of

way

transformation

the

transformed,

"

into
do

in turn,

between

and
a

effect; it

no

hydrogen

Motion,

when

checked,

produces
vanishing

motion.

oxygen

this

and

There
and

cause

the

relation

constant

relation, being eximportance.

pressed
in
ing
estimatbe
mechanics
to
applied
by a
can
of given forces
effective
work
the
vention
interthe
through
of machinery.
of experiment,
it is
needs
the
and
test
Theory, however,
of the theoretical
and
the practical
only by the combination

is the

fact

prime

the

and

water.

heat,

the

prepared

principle of reason
it by experiment.
proved

than

form

to

and

it is

which

into

conservation

existence

relation

constant

effect

of

human
this

and

than
effectuin,rather
held, passes
Mayer
as

cause,

more

the

"

inferred

Mayer

aequat

causa

truth

by

The

formula,

valuable

that

only

not

by Colding,
several

this

minds,

and
^.

Leibniz

VogL

obtained.

without
reach

in the

(1817-1895).

Physiologist, maintained

Joule,

found

to

often

results, illustrated

Karl
that
383

man,
English-

an

be

that

true,

work

by

the

at

Newton

Calculus.

of the

discovery

discovered

by

and

intercommunication,
similar

sists
con-

conservation

independently

is often

illustrates, what

of the

variety of physical phenomena.

also

was

merit

Mayer's

principle

by Helmholtz,

Dane,

thing, and

same

be

discovering the
in applying it to

of conservation

law

and

can

in

but

of energy,

The

results

Vogt,

matter

is the

Naturalist

and

only substance;

PHILOSOPHICAL

384

is the

brain

the

that

function; that
either

thus

motion

THEORIES
of

organ

thought is

to

the

which

consciousness

brain

as

making thought material,

of

matter^

"

vibrations

the

or

of

is the

gall is to the liver,

resolvingit into the

the

filiaments

of the

brain.
Moleschott

3,

his

(1822-1893).

principlethe

conservation

of matter, which
is the constant
Force

of energy.
of matter, and circulates

devoid

never

with

and
with

the

Moleschott

Jacob

he

took

for

held to be

ment
accompani-

it

with

through the universe;

force, life;with life,thought; with thought, will;
most
highly organized human
brain, the highest

thought, the firmest

believed

will.
his

standpoint could be regarded oneconceive

matter
sidedly materialistic only by those who can
without
without
force
force, or
supporting substance; it
any
is,therefore, monistic, dealing with two attributes, material
is the conception of
and
substance, which
spiritual,in one
opposition it sets up is not that between
Spinoza. The
in one,
and
two
matter
two
spirit,but that between
a
or
a
his conception he
Of
"Since
hopelessly sundered.
says:
is a bearer of force, endowed
matter
w ith force, or
penetrated
it would
be just as correct
with spirit,
to call it a spiritual
conception."
He

that

doctrine

Moleschott's

may

be thus

stated

The

foundation

with two
attributes, material and
realityis substance
found
that
these
and
are
never
spiritual,
apart, but are not
in
ratio
each
the
and
to
to
other,
always
same
so
as
vary
extension
and
the
the
inertia, on
hand, or
one
approach
will
the
firmest
other.
His principal
and
on
highest thought
he called Kreislauf des Lebens.
work
(1824-1899). Louis Biichner held that mind
^. Buchner
and matter,
to speak more
or
generally,force and stuff, are
necessarilyand inseparatelyconnected, though he does not
of the relation, more
than
to
attempt to explain the nature
of all

say

that

stuff;but

mind
even

is

this is
His

knowledge.
by Moleschott's
Biichner
and
of

that
energy;

holds

of matter,
force a property of
or
of belief rather than
of scientific
matter

property

that

famous

Kreislauf des
the ultimate

the conservation
that

the

work, Kraft und

of matter

intricate

Siqffwas

gested
sug-

Lebens.

basis of all

involves

complexity

being is matter,

the conservation
of

the

organism,

PHILOSOPHICAL

386

THEORIES

the activities
Psychical phenomena
are
tissues of the hving organism.
The
of matter

and

energy,

law

The

universe.

is the

of the
law

basis of the

of substance,

complex

of the

vous
ner-

tion
conserva-

stabilityof the
Haeckel, is the

according
only cosmological law.
Haeckel
accepts the theory of evolution
as
expounded by
and
the only true
Darwin,
of
as
regards Pantheism
system
His views
are
Theology.
forciblyexpressed in his writings:
The History of Creation, The Evolution
of Man, and The Riddle
of the Universe,
Riddle
The
In
of Spinoza:
of the Universe, Haeckel
says
**We
adherel firmly to the pure,
of
unequivocal monism
extended
substance
and
Spinoza: Matter, or infinitely
spirit
sensitive
and
(or energy), or
thinking substance, are the two
fundamental
attributes, or principal properties of the allof the world, the universal
stance."
subembracing divine essence
since come
Again, "All the changes which have
the idea of substance
reduced, on a logicalanalysis,
are
over
to this supreme
thought of Spinoza's; with Goethe, I take
it to be the loftiest,
profoundest, and truest thought of all the
to

and

true

"

ages.
5.

born

Lotze
at

educated

(1817-1882).

as

district of Fichte

the

Bautzen,

physician

Hermann

Rudolph

at

and

His

Leipzig.

Lotze

was

Lessing, and

teachers

was

in medicine

and
Volkmann
Fechner.
Weisse
Weber,
physics were
in
his
the
was
philosophy. He graduated
same
guide
year,
of medicine, and
both as a doctor
of philosophy and a doctor
in both.
afterwards
became
He was
at once
a docent
sor
profesof philosophy at Gottingen, and
the
elected
to
was
same
and

chair

at

Berlin, but
ideal

Lotze's
trace
one

the

after died.

soon

idea.

In

him

speculative tendencies,
reconstruction

accomplish this, he
the

mistake

of romanticism

and

mechanical

that

of materialism
for the

thus

that

saw

sum

connections
of

romantic

on

must

to

avoid,

attempt

nature,

and

which

the

on

the

to
to

scientific and

the

overlooking
of

world

realistic foundation.

he
of

of the

him

leading

taking matter,
reality.

total of

philosophers,

combined

were

idealism

of

the

interconnections

and

development

eternal

of

that

was

one

the
To

hand,

real conditions
on

is

the

only

other,
work,
frame-

LATER
Lotze's
He

of

point

endeavored

PHILOSOPHY

GERMAN

departure

is the

whatever

is

analysis of the

thoughts

to

of

value.

any

the relations

is the

Ideas

of ideas, and

to

hence

works, Lotze attributed

mystical vital force, but to the

universal

forces

nature.

concept, that

eternal

of

source

things, and
also of things.
physicalphenomena,
regular operations of

represent

In his medical
not

of

mechanism

show, by an
ideal principleis involved, which

an

S87

in

stitutes
conliving organisms; but mechanism
only a part of nature, the spiritualalso has its place;
it is the relation of the material
and spiritual
that has interest
for philosophy. This relation he traces
in his Microcosmus,
work
which
Cosmos
and Herder's
a
supplements Humboldt's

Ideen.
The

Microcosmus

physiology, human
theories, and
realized

as

shown

relation

in

psychology

philosophy of religion.
spirituallife, at its highest value,

losses.

with

It is the

than

of science, to

cause

and

inquire
and

effect,means

and

mechanical

of

business
into

the

to

history, cosmological

that

only in combination
and

causes

culture

the

holds

Lotze

of

treats

system

philosophy,
and

nature

is
of

rather

relation

of

and force,freedom
end, substance
spirit,which, in practicallife,and

and
necessity,matter
in the special sciences, are
for granted. Philosophy
taken
science.
goes deeper than
of ca^se,
of all change, may
the source
Though the nature
be learned
from
of effort we
experience in the consciousness
make
in overcoming resistance,yet its necessityis presupposed
plying
whenever
there is experience of change, thus imby reason
the interconnection
of phenomena.
The
very
tion
concepof nature
in reciprocal
is of a pluralityof real elements
interaction
is not
the only
interaction; but this mechanical
feature of our
conception of nature, which is even
impossible
without a connecting cause.
be an all embracing
There
must
cause

to

constitute

things turned

into

immanent,

a
one

not

this

cosmos,

that

system.
transcendent.

The

which

is, a universe
one

great

Things

cause

in

is all

fore
is,there-

their relation

related to one
There
another.
is,
are
ground cause
substance
the
all
the
then, an original
embracing principle,
Deus
sive Natura
of Spinoza, which
called the ultimate
Lotze
fact of all thought
the ultimate
postulate; it is presupposed
in the simplest case
of reciprocalaction.
to

"

PHILOSOPHICAL

388
Materialism

and

Idealism

the monads

Neither

thought

THEORIES

of

thus

are

Leibniz,

restingplace; the

reconciled

and

united.

the reals of Herbart

nor

basis

afford

monistic-Spirit,
as
all
at
as
points,
energy
the points of energy
and cause
The
to interact.
not
points canbe extended
small, for then they would
solids,however
have parts and be divisible;neither are they inextended
solids,
for then they would
be nothing; they are, therefore, points of
This
extension.
view
loca-ly placed, but without
energy,
renders
the creation
of so-called
matter
ceivable.
possible and conWhat
is this one
substance
We
or
primal cause?
it only by analogy to ourselves
understand
can
as
causes;
but we
ourselves
know
bilities.
as
subjects of activities or susceptiand
do
As finite spirits,
suffer, so likewise
we
can
the infinite Spirit.
can
"The
soul
To
obviate objectionsto freedom, Lotze
says:
evolves
from
itself resolutions, starting points for future
that every
if experience convinces
us
movements,
of external
effect having
is at the same
time an
event
nature
its cause
in preceding facts, it still remains
possiblethat the
life does not
consist throughout of a
cycle of inner mental
rigid mechanism
working necessarily,but that along with
a

could

held, which

Lotze

be

must

itself

exert

...

unlimited
absolute

freedom

of

will,it also
"

commencement.

however,

is not

antecedent

an

caused

by

the

ego.

in the

ego,

the

subject of

but

being, free to

are

volitions

is caused

does

The

caused,
to

freedom
the

cause

it does
cause

own

not

them.

volitions.
follow
The

that

free, but
volition, but

not

in the

volition, which

its

Divine.

or

therefore

is not

from

nothing, not

human

from

mind,
is caused, and

but

event

volitions

from

of

power

commencement,"

absolute

commencement

events,

volition, as

This

"

limited

possesses

is not

an

Now,
the

doctrine

cause

event,
because
of the

of freedom

them.
require free volitions,but a being free to cause
The
in its origin^but in its acts.
ego, as a being, is free, not
A perfectlynew
with the primal
beginning, not connected
and
without
with anything else,is an event
a cause,
or
cause,
is therefore
and
possible
impossible. Yet it is conceivable
that the primal cause
time, and originatea
can
act, at any
line of events,
unless its energies are
new
engaged as to
so
leave no reserved
thus implying that it had exhausted
power,
itself in the universe.
Even if the primal cause
originatesnew
not

LATER

GERMAN

PHILOSOPHY

389

related to all other events, by their

these events
events,
are
and we
would
still have
relation to the primal cause,
verse.
unia
The

events

new

though miraculous,
the primal cause.

nature,
but
by

violations

as

his

violate

of

caused

not

Miracles
laws

the

laws, he

own

violations

not

are

of

should

does

of

by existing events,
never

be

God

does

of nature.

simply

laws

any

that

which

ceived
con-

not

would

not

the existingforces

of nature.
by
of
absolute
an
commencement,
supposition
or
a
mencement
comfrom
admits
the
of
nothing,
possibility a time,
in the past, when
back
there was
absolutely nothing, not
if so, non-entity sprang
into entity, and
the first cause;

be done
The

far
even

is not

cause

of

the

causality is
is

there

itself,or

condition

necessary

delusion, and

causal

no

of

event

any

destroy foresight,a firmly

experience, and would
disintegrate the
rather

there

would

have

never

been

Lotze
similar

that,

held
or

commensurable
last

necessity,that
which
If

exhibit
we

the

desire

to

analysis,it is not

leads

us

infinite
to

trine
doc-

come

of

may

entire

universe,

or

Lotze's

universe.

is unfortunate.
not

an

absolute

mencement;
com-

originatesit.
universe
need not be wholly
be reciprocallyrelated,and
aesthetic
but an
a logical,

mind

the facts of the

that

even

in the

to

the

but
events,
established
fact of

any

commencement,"
expression, "absolute
series,originated by a mind, has
new
it is related

or

between

connection

would

this

event,

an

to conceive

which

universe, all the parts of

variety in perfectharmony.

understand

the

inner

nature

of

things,

we

spiritual
nature,
deeper than
goes
the mechanical
conception. Things are real beings, existing
for themselves, and
not
are
merely poetic ideas of our own
God's
be true
that
however,
creating. It may,
they are
ideas.
The
all-embracingworld spiritrenders the universe
in its
of its parts, and
comprehensible in the interactions
must

conceive

relation
Lotze

after

them

the

as

feelingbeings, and

to

ourselves.

held
from

that

we

can,

in

analogy

of

our

own

this method

some

degree, understand,

own
our
spiritualstates, that
personality, since in that

the absolute

by

world

analogy
principle is a
case
only could it
in our
independence and
case,
originality.But
possess
and
obstacles
which
resist
efforts
encounters
personality
our
disturb our
feelings;but in the all-embracing cause,
feelings

PHILOSOPHICAL

390

set in motion

are

God

that

beings
degree

he
of

own

themselves, and

manage

God,
and

be conceived
activity. It may
resistance in the finite
encounters
objects,and even
has created, and
he has granted some
to whom
independence. Free beings, within certain limits,

by

its

in fact

as

THEORIES

often

man

even

may

does, and

is

thereby grieved; but can

form of time is not applicableto
action and timeless sufferingare
held

Lotze

is the

this
the

other

In

God

this be, if

forms

of existence

Being?

Timeless

contradictories; but

case,

them

species under

substance

be
spirit,though it must
higher genus than substance,
contraries.

contradictories, but

holds, the

inconceivable.

consider

this

will of

the

Lotze

as

the Divine

spiritare

we

to

suffers his illmanners

and

to

not

are

when

substance.

matter

Passing

and

matter

only

case

genus

both

that

counter

run

one

or

matter

We

be

cannot

may

other.

the
and

spirit

conceive

and

spirit,as geometric
forms
in pure
of non-existence
as
even
opposed to
or
space,
is not necessarilyspirit,
both matter
and spirit. Not-matter
for it may
be a form
of space
a
or
portion of time, or even
than

matter

nothing.
the reciprocalaction of
unity of the universe makes
which
is continual, is a constant
parts possible;and this action,

The
the

witness

of

interest

common

and

common

end

"

the

ethical principleof
The
highest possiblegood for the whole.
reciprocityis,therefore the controllinglaw according to which
the

universe

system

may,

is carried

forward

to its consummation.

therefore, be entitled Ethical

Lotze's

Pantheism.

Reciprocal action does not require complete homogeneity

in the interacting things, or
proportionality,as the
even
density of a body varies inverselyas its extension; there is no
inconsistency in supposing that interaction pertains between
soul and
body, and to this fact experience testifies. The
soul
both
connection
finds its ground in substance, of which
and
and body are
species,or if we prefer to say, both matter
mind

are

attributes.

supposing a specialsoul substance.^

be
must
Two
alternatives
psychical phenomena
appear:
of physical forces;
referred
to the interactions
to a soul or
be explained by varying physical
but personal identity cannot
the
forces; therefore, the soul, the only alternative, remains
true
explanation.
What

are

the

reasons

for

Stimuli

the

to

nerves

391

the

brain, and

the

is

of the brain

reaction

from

carried

are

PHILOSOPHY

GERMAN

LATER

accompanied by sensations, which are

interprets,and thus arise ideas, and thoughts,
Idealism
is true so far as
and all other mental
phenomena.
it denies the
mental
pictures are concerned, but false when
of sensation.
external
Lotze, however, prefersnot to
causes
call material
but effects of mental
objects,so-called,causes,
states.
They may be effects of God's mental
states, but not
all point to something external.
of ours.
The
Even
senses
Berkeley says: "Since we are affected from without, we must
allow powers
in a being distinct from ourselves.
to be without
dualistic conception of the relation of body and mind
The
Lotze
regarded as a provisionalassumption which will give
itself is
views; for he held that extension
place to maturer
itself is nothing but the phenomenal
subjective;that matter
inextended
between
form of interaction
beings,as the monads
of Leibniz, or the reals of Herbart; and that the immortahty
its nature, but on
its place
of the soul does not depend upon
ethical
order
world.
He
of the
''No principle
in the
says:
conviction
here
that
us
serve
can
except the general idealistic
created
continued
existence holds a part
thing, whose
every
signalsthe soul

"

of the

of the

sense

if it

if he
does

exist, and

that
find

can

history."
will be

mortal
ima
anything,
person
fillworthily a place in the moral
realm, and
can
fillthat place, but otherwise, he will pass out of

means,

if he

to

will pass
the reality of which
away
in the transitory phase of the world's

everything
place only
This

world, will continue

so

that

means

existence.
Fechner

9.

born

Lanwich.

at

but

in

account

In his

His

chief

In

1835,

he

was

few

years,

he

was

physics.

Gustav

(1801-1887).

forced

of his eyes.

thinking,he

was

an

as

was

Fechner

quantitive

to

influenced,

Lotze, and

idealistic world

studies

were

was

medicine

and

appointed professor of physics,

of weakness

by Weisse,

Fechner

Theodor

with

him

retire from

to

the

relation

between

connected

considerable

he endeavored

conception on
conception that

formed

his post

on

extent
to

struct
con-

realistic basis.
there

mental

is
and

definite
material

the
by working out this conception he became
founder
of the experimental science of psycho-physics, or as
it is otherwise
called,of physiologicalpsychology. To ascer-

facts, and

PHILOSOPHICAL

392

facts pertaining

the

tain

and

system
laws

mental

Fechner

two

experimental method,

and

He

were

does

universe,

thought,

nor

nervous

their

determine

free rein to his

give

to

to

"

from

matter,

the

world

employ
tion.
imaginafrom

God

nor

from

conscious

poetic pictures of the imagination from

material
infinite embraces
things. The

of

God

finite,and

just

support,

to

the

or

darkness

and

strong tendencies

separate mind
does he derive

not

of the

connection

the

of his life.

found

In

the

to

manifestations,

the work

became

the

THEORIES

is its life and

is immanent
the

as

in

human

world

the

body,

of his

is conscious

person

the

its life and

as

spirit,by pervading

Each

support.

the

the

own

spiritualactivities,and by analogy extends like activities to

animals, to plants, and, if he pleases,to inorganic objects.
found
the basis
of all things, Fechner
In the interaction
for philosophy and religion,
which
and thus the fact,
to some
made
the
minds
rendered
the being of God
superfluous,
belief

his

in

Lotze.

The

life is the
the

existence

concept

world.

progress

to

and

Fechner

is the concept of God

perfectionof God is

of the world

life of the

unfolding and

both

necessary

The

of the world

through

to

whose
in

seen

infinite time.

superior to that of Lotze, who does

not
regard time as applicableto God.
The
material
and
spiritualworlds are the outer and the
inner aspects of Deity, the one
with two
substance
attributes,
and mind, which
of Spinoza.
We
is the doctrine
matter
may

Herein

Fechner'

the world

see

view

as

is

universe

of matter

or

according to our point of view, just as

hollow
see
sphere would
only its convex
within
of

would

see

view, would

see

,"but

concave

the

surface

it

of

universe

Fechner

mind,

advanced
exact

an

the

two

substance.

mental

surface, while

by changing

his

one

point

without

is, convex

and

beyond

Spinoza
relation

mathematical

sides of existence,
He

found

that

or

the

in

attempting

between

and

two

that

to

attributes

cover
disand

matter

of the

changes in corresponding
not
directly proportional,
is equal to the ratio
state
to that state
multipliedby

the

physical states were

the change in the mental
of the change in the physical state
constant.
state
Thus, if the change in a mental
a
and
the change in the corresponding physical state
but

mind,

without

observer

an

one,

as

within.

concave

one

its

as

is dm,
j) is

dp.

THEORIES

PHILOSOPHICAL

894

ism

material

from

how

explain

to

motion,

difficult to

means

matter

and

purely

intellectual

itself?

One

sit in it?

creditors,

what

they

hand,

from

mind?
genus

that

could

the

on

other

is the

result of

his debts?

in

from

hand,

matter,

and
which

substance,
and

do

they

mind, however

err

not

matter
a

sentation;
repre-

attempts

one

troubled

will

rich; but

believing that

Matter

of their connection,

debt, and

If materialists

mind

err,

in

himself

imagine

when

consequence

deeply

about

come

by no
representation of
an
organization of

whole

our

is the

man

deduce

can

other

the

can

pay

money

sensation

it is,

dispositionsto sensation."
identical
with
representationof matter
call it
Let
can
us
imagine a chair.

but
to

yet

conceive

its movements

is the

But

conscious

in

by his
his imaginary
believing that

idealists, on
deduce

can

may

is the

the

matter

species of
explanation

be

ground and
unity of all existence.
in
born
). Eugen Diihring was
in the atmosphere of free religious

the true

Duhring (1833^
Berlin, and was
brought up
his favorite
and
thought. Mathematics
were
astronomy
of
branches
knowledge. He studied for the legalprofession,
entered
its practice,but was
forced to abandon
this
and
on
vacation
of disease of his eyes which
account
on
finallymade
him
blind.
His affliction increased
his natural
tendency to
enemies.
and
all
who
differed
from
him
to
suspicion,
as
regard
11.

His

wife and

later his

off from

becaijiehis amanuensis.
practice of law, he turned
son

his

thoughts
investigation
philosophical questions, paying
attention
to
especial
Epistemology,orthe theory of knowledge.
He took up the Kantian
problem of the scope and limits of
knowledge, and discussed it in the spiritof positivescience.
This
His
Dialiktik,
he called Naturliche
principal work
Cut

to

the

book, excellent
the

the

of

of
is valuable on account
matter,
the relation of the critical to the positive

in form

and

lightit throws on
the
philosophy. He
principle of
distinguished between
of
law
law
of thought, from
the wider
a
sufficient
reason,
He
out.
reality; and this principle knocks
dogmatism
directed attention
he called the principleof insufficient
to what
fall
which
of proof should
requires that the burden
reason,
the one
who
on
new
a
theory in conflict with that
proposes
which
is generally accepted as true.
This hits the idealists
who
call upon
realists to prove
that things exist,as is gener-

LATER

GERMAN

PHILOSOPHY

from

ally believed, apart

395

human

it is the
thought, when
that they do not
business
of the idealists to prove
exist.
so
throw
Realists, in meeting the challenge of Idealists should
it belongs.
of proof where
back the burden
Diihring calls his philosophy, the philosophy of reality,
facts of which, as
known
the fundamental
by experience,
of theoretical
afford the subject matter
must
investigation.
aside the facts, and to speculate on
To throw
concepts, is to
leave the solid ground of realityto explore the cloudy region
of the unreal fictions of the imagination.
the great thinkers
of the seventeenth
Diihring admired
Hobbes
such
and Spinoza, and
Galileo,
Newton,
as
century,
reactionists;
regarded the philosophers of the nineteenth
as
of science in the nineteenth
is its glory; the
but the advance
of
subjection of theory to the test of experiment is a matter
great practicalimportance.
in the critical spirit,
In his theory of knowledge, conducted
Diihring seeks to ascertain the relation of thought to reality.
interconnection,
by continuous
Thought strives to advance
but a real thing is
and like a line, to stretch on
indefinitely;
take place only by the addition
definite, and continuation
can
of particularreals, also definite in magnitude and in number.
Pure
thought is not restricted to real things. Thought,

however,

restrict

may

realities of nature,
overthrown
by the
of

the

From
consequence

From
must

this
be

cannot

we

of

test
to

of

that

the

absolute

or

first cause,
In the
or

by link,back
or

we

may

thought

to

the

Diihring

of nature
that

cannot

had

nature

further

deduced
go
a

consequence

the

back

in

beginning.
that

there

of the

creator

they

often

confirmed

number,

hence

series of facts, but

We

the

to

universe^ since non-entity

itself into entity. There
however, be no
may,

turn

break

science,

are
hypotheses which
hypotheses,

facts; but

processes

and

eternal

an

beings.

in

facts.

deduce

can

it makes

definite

law

infinite regress,

an

when

save

correspond

course,

it does

itself, as

in

series of

some

finite but

the

cause

at

origin either
free

causes,

as

in the
human

lute
effects,there is no absothe chain is connected, link

and

causes

discontinuity,but
to

their

will have

its head.

discontinuity,
it was
fail to find continuity by experiment where
forsakes
its sphere and
science
exist.
Hence
discover

continuity

in

apparent

PHILOSOPHICAL

396

dogmatizes, when
natural

event, not
depending on any
it
impossible; must, however, be dependent
it is not an absolute commencement.

cause;

the

it says

an

is

causes,

some

on

THEORIES

part, there

is

correspondence between
thought and reality,or the relation of premise and conclusion
of
that
effect.
and
stand
to
cause
corresponds
They
the reason
of knowing and
related as the reason
being; but
that causes
the deep principle,
nature
underlying all reality,
For

most

the two, there

work, induces mind to think, and between
should be harmony.
It does not, therefore, destroy the validityof knowledge,

to

it is the product of two

of

factors

the

objectivenature
things,and the subjectivenature of thought. In speculative
be disagreement between
the concepthought, there may
tion
and the reality,
but in real knowledge, there is harmony.
tence
Diihring held that to give a complete pictureof real exis-

because

is the task

all it

and

nature

of

assigns ends

to

intended

not.

or

mechanical
The
which

lend

make

finds

Diihring

the

realizes his

to

or

forms

in the

he

of

one

beings

included,
first

cause

"

He

Spinoza.

encounter
to

are

the

foils,

effort, promote

in

sympathy.
in
society, and
highest good
).

not

living.

basis of ethics

(1832-

"

whether
final outcome,
exist for the higher; the

existence, lead

progress

reality

rational.

life worth

of human
Wundt

results

conscious

charm

in nature
sive Natura

lower

The

finds its end

happiness,and

12,

Deus
the

nature,

resistances

recognized

all reality,includingthe

substance, the

one

He

but

embraces;
but

only phenomena,
the

philosophy.

"

will be universal

Wilhelm^Wundt,

dividua
in-

The
the

summation
con-

brotherhood.
Professor

of

Philosophy in the universityof Leipzig,bases his psychology

on
physiology, and thus is a physiological
psychologist. He
makes
physiology, however, an introduction to psychology,
which
of

he

holds

to

be

the

science

of immediate

consciousness

phenomena.
In

regard

to

Fechner's

work, Wundt

said:

'*The

Psycho-

he founded
"physicswhich
only the first conquest
was
field in gaining full possession of which
be no
there can
insurmountable
that such a beginning has
obstacles,now

on

more

been

made."
Wundt's

work

which

he

called

PhysiologischePsychologic,

first
of

aims

published in 1874,

science

PHILOSOPHY

GERMAN

LATER

accomplish the co-operation

giving philosophy a positive

to

philosophy, thus

and

397

basis.
Wundt

volumes

three

wrote

on

Ethics

The

/.

Facts

of the
Principles of

The
Life; II. Ethical Systems; III.
Morals and the Sphere of Their Validity. He classifies Ethical
Under
ethics of
Systems, as to motives, and as to ends.

Moral

motives, he

Ethical

classes

placing ethics
ethics

of

of

Intuitionism

feeling under

under

understanding

Ethical

and

piricism,
Em-

intuitionism, and

empiricism;

but

ethics

of

he relates to both.

reason,

ethics of ends, he places the heteronomous

systems,
and
under
he
a
nd
autonomous
religious;
systems
political
individual and universal; also evolutionism,
places eudemonism,
Under

individual
Science

universal.

and

philosophy

and

not

are

identical

either in aim

or

science deals with facts, their classification,

and
method,
as
and
fundamental
laws, while philosophy deals with causes

principleswhich

Wundt
are

the

facts; but

harmony of science
their co-operation in the advancement

Wundt
to

for

account

the

harmony

tend

to

the

holds that
laws

of the

between

the

labors

of

philosophy, and
of knowledge.
the laws of our
apprehension of objects,
objects themselves, thus postulating the
and

man

nature,

and

manifest

in their

action.
inter-

are
important works by Wundt
Logic, System of
Human
and
Animal
Psychology, Folk Psychology.
Philosophy,
Paulsen
13.
Paulsen, Professor
(1846-1908). Friedrich
of Philosophy in the University of Berlin, has written
a work
entitled A System
called Introduction to Philosophy, also one
of Ethics, both of which have been translated by Professor
ThiUy.
Paulsen's specialmerit is his success
in making philosophy
the
has
aimed to do this especially
to
intelligible
people. He

Other

in his treatise
Socrates

down

instructive.

ethics.

on

to

He

the
has

His

historical sketch

present is remarkably

of ethics

from

interestingand

presented practicalethics in such a way

the mind
of his readers, and to
to impress its importance on
as
inspirethem with a noble ambition to live a higher moral life.
be called Teleologic
His system may
Energism, since it teaches
the duty of strivingfor the highest end.

THEORIES

PHILOSOPHICAL

398

In

his

utilitarianism, as

morality

did

edition, Paulsen

second

he did in the first,and

is older

moral

than
what

The

of conduct

call his

system

though admitting that

philosophy,yet

is advantageous

experiencedecides
consequences

not

he

holds

that

disadvantageous.
stand, therefore, in his opinion,
or

condemnation.
or
justification
Stirner is best known
as
IJf., Stirner (1808-1856). Max
entitled Der Einzige und Sein Eigentum,
the author of a work
and his Property,
be translated. The Unique One
which
may
more
or
smoothly, though less accurately. The Ego and His

as

its final

Own.

This

His

is Anarchism.

system

remarkable

book, published in 1845,

attention, but being in advance

considerable

it sank

at first attracted

of the

current

generation. In the last

interest
ten
revived, and it has been
years,
translated
into several of the
languages of Europe. An
excellent translation into English, made
by Steven Byington,
was
published by Benjamin R. Tucker, in 1907, at New York.,
Lange, in his History of Materialism, calls Stirner, '*The
who
in German
Literature
has most
man
preached Egoism
far in
and
''Stirner
a
nd
went
recklessly
so
logically,"
says,
his notorious
work, as to reject all word ideas.
Everything
it be external force, belief,or mere
that, in any way, whether
idea, placesitself above the individual and his caprice,Stirner
rejectsas a hateful limitation of himself."
the part of human
nature
By Ego, Stirner did not mean
but the unique personalitypeculiar to
to all egos,
common
individual ego.
Each
sui generis,the
ego is for himself
any
sole ego, all other egos being his own
the
ideas.
/ then am
concerned, the
important reality,and as far as myself am
fact, rightfullyfree from all law, civil,ecclesiastical,
supreme
will.
social,or moral, save
own
my
Egoism, therefore, obliterates justice,or reduces it to the
will of the strongest, and logicallyresolves itself into anarchism,
not
necessarily anarchism
as
popularly understood,
and
murder, but the
signifyingdisorder, robbery, bloodshed

thought,

out

of

abolition

of all law

of Hobbes

sight for

in it has

the

above

the

will of the

ego.

This

reminds

held to the egoisticview of human

nature.
He
exterminate
would
believed, however, that mankind
themselves
unless held in check
by civil law eaforc^d by
us

penalties.

who

LATER

Walker, who

J. L.

aside

wrote

government,

consulted."

for the

not

that

knowing

that

sake

it would

doctrine

work,
this
the

399

introduction

establish

Bying[Stirner]would
regulation
any

only

convenience

'*He

says:

would

not

the

able

very

for

and

would

But

believes

Stirner

but

convenient,

deemed

PHILOSOPHY

of Stirner's

translation

ton's

lay

GERMAN

our

strong

to

refrain from
strong would
of the weak,
but for their
the

bring

results

best

weak?

the

oppress

is

such

duct,
con-

sake,

own

themselves.

to

its consequent
egoism, with
anarchism, is based on the assumption of the total selfishness
of the ego, which
it is assumed
always acts in view of its own
interests.
Benevolence
is,therefore, rejected as constituting
of human
Let us see.
nature.
no
originalelement
Suppose
The

ultra egoist

an

action.
a

He

exclusive

of

have

to

his choice

certain action, and

at

he

can

$1,000

worth,

$1,000 worth

get, say

can

or

the

damaging his neighbor

affected by his act, which
If he had

would

concerned,
would

and

answer,

that

course

would

of that

out

damaging

be

benevolent,

not

damaging
displease.
B,

ultimate

an

that

the

man's

To

this

motive

help

would

law

only

one

nor

the

take
more

good

and

regret

that

when

the

is

motive

element.

is

that

does

usually

not
plex,
com-

will of the

ego

enlightened

and

The
ego

to

Granting

selfish element,

benevolence.

more

for

they are
the egoist

as

damage
well as selfishness,is
that is, the doctrine

please you,

not

therefore, as

contains
than

.^^

choose

he

it may
be replied,if you
were
neither enjoy helping A nor
regret

of human

always

invariably
containing
answer

get

eiijoy helping A,

nature;
selfish
is false.
exclusively

exclude

would

answer

would

element

ego

far

so

by
being

person

would

I should

A, because

Benevolence

is

other

no

himseK,

for

good

by

neighbor

of

I would

you

for himself

indifference; but
this is Stirner's belief, I would

benefit

To

of

of

courses

his

benefit

J5, the choice,

or

two

good

of conduct

course

matter

course.

B,

of

time

same

get $1,000
B
$1,000,

regard for A

no

the

between

benevolent.
Other

considerations, it must

be

admitted,

exclusively
egoistmight
if I
or
help me,

more

egoistic,
foregoing case.
may
If
I
will
he
help A,
probably in turn,
say:
and
damage B, he would
likely damage
me,
I act.
Suppose, however, these
enter

into the

The

on

these

siderations
con-

considerations

THEORIES

PHILOSOPHICAL

400

still the egoist

possibility,entirely removed,
would
prefer to help A, rather than to damage B, which
would
be a choice purely benevolent.
would
the weak
ments
How
Stirner secure
against the encroach"I love men
of the strong?
He says, page
386:
too,
I love them
with
But
not
merely individuals, but every one.

by

were,

some

"

the

consciousness
I love

happy.
pleases me.
being, and
me

why.^

If Stirner

by

their

or

refreshed

Let

their

or

torment

the

the

be

is an
selfishness,
be

us

reconsider,

involved

combination

in

idea

the

modern

have

generally
but why?

except from
the

extent

attach

the
is

more

slow

benevolent

heart.

if benevolence
but

ego,

as

that

of

quantity

to

the

tonic
Pla-

extent, the class embracing

with its subdivisions

and

Hegel, philosophers
than
importance to content

more

is

content

invariable,
practically

advancing knowledge, while

continual
change, and philosophers

growth

subject to
importance

refreshed

altruism.

content,
Plato
to

From

because

of

is tormented

he

of the

element

concept,

attached

to extent;

has

and

common

individuals.

to

since

but

ment
tor-

matter

egoism
point, the two kinds
content
corresponding

"

refreshes

nor

this

at

objects having
down

be

tormented

philosophy only

of

knowledge

or

neither

ultimate

feeling

every

utterly selfish,the
would

it

because

me,

feeling with

was

others, he

final

to

their refreshment

refreshment;

or

with

be

love makes

because

natural

refreshment,

would

He

can

as

fellow

torments,

indifference.

would

their torment
But

Egoism

have

.1

of others,

well

loving is

because

too."

me

egoism; I love them

of

of

the

to

permanent

than

to

the

transitory. The
corresponding to the
content,
concept
be an object of thought, and gradually become
though it may
more
complete and perfect,cannot, by itself,be pictured by
the imagination.
It contains
nothing subject to either pain
or
pleasure,while the extent embracing classes and individuals
which
be imxproved or damaged, or suffer pain or pleasure,
may
has value in itself,
equal if not superior to that of the concept.
Take
His uniqueness,
individual, for example Aristotle.
an
that

in which

Disturb

that,
and

as

he
or

differed

from

destroy it,and

his value.

or

men,

Aristotle

had

gave

him

value.

lost his individuality

capable of thought of will,

misery, of pleasure or pain, had

Aristotle

susceptibleof happiness

other

as

CHAPTER

XXXI

Philosophy

Evolution

of

Charles
Darwin
born
at
(1809-1882).
was
studied
in Edinburgh,
He
medicine
Shrewsbury,
England.
and
in neither
but
of these
theology at Cambridge,
engaged
towards
science.
professions, as he felt a strong attraction
He
the
round
world, from
joined the Beagle in its voyage
This
1831
Darwin's
settled
1836.
to
destiny as a
voyage
1.

Darwin

Naturalist.
the
works
most
following are
important of Darwin's
and
Origin of Species, published 1859; Variation
of Animals
Plants
Descent
under
Domestication,
of Man,
1868;
1871;
in Man
and
We
Animals,
Expression of the Emotions
1872;
The
The
with
especially concerned
Origin of Species and
are

The

Descent

of Man,
The
importance
origination of the

of Darwin's

teaching
evolution^

of

theory

does

not

that

"

rest

on

the

different

the

natural

for
produced
by
causes,
his
held by others
before
been
him, but on
in
the
of supporting this theory, by collecting facts
method
in
of natural
indicating the action
organic kingdom,
causes
the production
of variations
species.
leading to new
the
did
Darwin
not
to
origin of life by
explain
attempt

organic species
opinion had

have

been

this

natural
or

the

but

causes,

survival

referred

of the

the

to

of

origin

the

fittest; for

Creator,

later

but

of life he, at

origin

the

called

selection,

natural

species by

it

first,

inexplicable

an

mystery.
Darwin
of

to

Malthus,

that

than

the

the

entire

for existence

the

means

of

animal
in which

of

surviving, while
struggle for life is

developed

investigations by reading the theory

ly
rapidpopulation tends to increase more
and
seeing that the law applied
support,
would
Hence
struggle
arise
a
kingdom.
his

led to

was

would

the

the

be

unfit
means

would

fittest

would
of

transmitted
402

be

the

stand

likely

to

perish.

and

the

by heredity.

The

evolution,

chance

best

The

qualities
process,

OF

PHILOSOPHY

40S

generations,would, by gradual accumulations,

varieties, which, becoming permanent,
called
are
for

continued
form

EVOLUTION

new

species.
struggle for existence develops certain qualities,
in the organisms, adapting them
to their environment,
or
powers,
environment
natural
the
favors
those
selection,
itself,
have
varieties which
The
outcome
developed these powers.
instances
of the struggle,in some
at least,is progress,
which
of man,
in case
means
especiallyintellectual,moral, and social
the

While

advancement.

writings afford

Darwin's

application of the

inductive

the

features

common

creator.^

does

of the

that

proof

of

But

in

does

common

he

carries

house

forward

is

that the

that

common

barn?

features.
life were

the

Cannot

Many
house;

the

developed

will

explain the common

primordial forms of

house.
to

are

the fact that

prove

barn, then

thorough

investigation,and

development of the other?

explained from the fact of

barn
that

prove

builder

common

be

features

carpenter builds

features

the

no

is the

advanced

more

method

instructive.

interestingand
species have many

otherwise
two

illustration of the

an

of
but
The
is

There

few.

God

was

restricted

The
in this respect.
human
line, for all that
been
have
from
the beginning; but
human
know, may
we
features
of man's
be found
in lower
organism may
many
into the
proving that the lower evolved
organisms, without
not

higher,
wanting

that

or

had

man

which, by

the

simian

test

of

origin. Examples are

the theory
make

fact, would

conclusive.

origin of

The

the

but
matter;
'Xife
is the

originate?

life has

never

of nature

method

issue

of

answer

proved to be inorganic
is, as Tyndall declared:

life."

antecedent

rational

The

been

to

seems

How

did

then

be: From

the

life

living

did the
asked, "How
living Creator
may
is eternal,
is, the living Creator
originate?" The
answer
and did not originatefrom anything. Events, new
beginnings,
Creator.

have

It

eternal

but

causes,

they would
Darwin

be

discussed

slighttrace;

former

type

have

no

causes,

for if

so,

be eternal.

not

causing them

realities

to

be

and
or

the effect of the

atrophied, and
thus

sometimes

simpler form.

disuse

of certain

organs,

finallyto disappear, save

to
an
organism reverts

PHILOSOPHICAL

404

originof

The

variations

the

The

selection.

natural

THEORIES
is

not

to

be

confounded

with

of

variation, produced by
in the environment, change in the climate,
whatever
cause
absence
of
abundance
or
or
scarcity of food, the presence
fits or
enemies, confirmed
habits, or growing intelligence,
its
for
the
animal
habitat.
unfits
Then, by natural selection,

origin

fittest for their environment

those

fortunate

natural

survive

and

transmit

the

variation, while those unfit finallyperish. The

selection follows the variation as a necessary
quence.
conseselection

The

impliesimprovement

as

to

the

ditions
con-

of life.

Darwin

effects of natural

the

traces

caused.

variations, however

that the

simply means

causes

evolution, in its broadest

both of the causes
Variations may
the

point where
best

animal

its

and

sense,

continuous

be

includes

theory of
investigation

the

progressive up to the
organism, instincts,habits, intelligence,
are

and

environment,

then

and

descendants, remain

the

cease,

environment,
variations, though it would
established

of

meet

with

the

and

long as the
but a change in

same

as

essentiallythe same;
after a lapse of time, would

the

than

The

remains

environment

account

unknown.

are

the effects of variation.

and

for the

fitted

selection between
the
Callingthe variations accidental

call for

new

resistance,on
confirmed
habits,

more

organization and
change in the environment

if the

it would

had
meet,
been more
continuous.
far as man
survival of the fittest,
is concerned, does
The
so
the survival of
at least,always mean
not, in certain cases,
and
morally the best; for the savage
intellectually
with
fitter to
tribes of Africa, compared
Europeans, are
survive in the malarious
regions of that continent; but it
and for a long period, that
holds true, take the world over,
those

of the fittest

the survival

the survival of the best; and

from the history of the past, a

means

gives,as may be inferred

gence,
Intellirace.
hopeful outlook for the future of the human
and brotherhood, finallywill premorality, manhood
vail,
this

and

established.

become

of evolution, and

so

This

optimism

is the
is

more

natural

quence
conse-

reasonable

than

pessimism.
,

There

is

no

doubt

eagerlyaccepted evolution
truth

in evolution

materialists

that
as

and

atheists

have

favoring their opinions;but

favors neither materialism

nor

atheism.

the

OF

PHILOSOPHY

Creator,

The

whole
God
he

working, and

does

iminent

as

of evolution, and

process

is his

regarded
the

the

natural

in

405

law

works

nature,

working

of his

mode

violate any

not

EVOLUTION

of natural

the

forces

is natural

working

in producing any

law.
result

will; for his working, always consistent, is natural

may

otherwise
certain things which
would not be
in doing so, neither sets aside, nor
violates any law;

law; but he does

done, but

breaker^but a law maker.

The
divine working, therefore, is not
beginning of life,but is continued in the
he is not

law

to

be restricted to the

progress

of evolution

of nature,
The processes
through the entire realm of nature.
tended
occurring according to general laws will inevitably be atby certain evils,but certainlyby less evil than that
attending continual intervention, and interruption of law,
thus throwing every
thing into confusion, and rendering it
for, the
impossible to foresee, to anticipate,and to prepare
irregularand lawless changes.
evils which
The
undoubtedly in the world give ample
are
for the exertion of our
in mitigating them, and
scope
powers
for relievingthe unfortunate, and for laboring for the intellectual
and
not

may

Darwin

be

moral
able

elevation
to

of the

solve the

nobly said, ''do

has

human

problem
duty."

our

Though

race.

of

evil,yet
To

we

we

can,

as

mitigate evil,to

of moral
development.
duty, is the best means
2,
born
at
Spencer (1820-1903). Herbert
Spencer was
He
self,
was
Derby.
encouraged by his father to think for himthis he was
slow to do.
and
At an
not
early age, he
showed
for history and for natural
science and mathematics.
a taste
He worked
several years as a civil engineer; but his
to authorship in the line of philosophy.
calhng was
In accepting the doctrine
of the relativityof knowledge,
do

our

he

followed

boldly

Hamilton

forward

to

and

Mansel,

its consequences.

in agreement
with
Mill, Lewes,
with the Scotch
philosophy.
His

but
He

Darwin

carried
was,

and

the

doctrine

however,

Huxley,

more

than

study of Lyell'sGeology led him to accept the theory

of natural development, and to extend
it as universal
tion;
evoluhis life.
to the exposition of this he devoted
Spencer'sPhilosophy of Evolution, which he called Synthetic
the following
Philosophy^ is found in his collected works of which
the titles : First Principles,Principlesof Biology,
are

PHILOSOPHICAL

406

THEORIES

Principlesof Psychology,Principlesof Sociology,Principlesof

Ethics, Essays, Social

Statics,Study of Sociology,Education,
Various
Comments,
Fragments, Inadequacy of
Selection,DescriptiveSociology,and Autobiography,

and

Facts

Natural

consists in his extension

of the theory
Spencer's originality
of evolution to all specializedinvestigations,
rather than
in
his elaboration of a new
of
He
has
theory
knowledge.
not,
however, reconciled conflicting
trines
views, by extending the docof empiricism and positivism,to all objects of knowledge,
through the fact of evolution.
Empirical knowledge
does

not

embrace

all that

be known.

may

knowledge, as well as empirical.

The
relativityof knowledge may mean
knowledge are related to our faculties
case,

it is

self-evident,or it

of the relative
we

distinguishedfrom

as

the

by

mean

is,that which

absolute.?

is not

it is, of course,
by the
mean,

mean

may

related

unknown

If
to

and

absolute, the

we

We

have

that

the

rational

objects of

of

knowing, in which
that our
knowledge is

the absolute.
the

mean

anything, even
unknowable;

What

do

unrelated,that
to our
thought,

but

not-dependent,it may

if

simply
possibly be
we

object of knowledge.
Spencer's teaching in regard to the absolute, which
calls the ultimate
reality,is certainlycontradictory.
he says: "The
ultimate
realityis of all things the most
He also says: "The
ultimate
realityis unknown
an

unknowable

''

These

irreconcilable

he
For
tain."
cer-

and

they
by
knowledge is
may
appear,
of two kinds : rational,and empiricalor positive.
That
the ultimate
certain
realityis of all things the most
is rational knowledge; it is known
by reason; for if there were
ultimate
would
have
been
no
reality,there never
anything.
But
the ultimate realityis unknown
by sensation and perception;
that is, it is unknown
empirically or as positive
knowledge. How
easilymight Spencer have reconciled the
conflicts in philosophy, between
rational
the empirical and
the authority of rational intuition
schools, had he admitted
in consistencywith his own
teaching that what is intuitive to
the individual was
empiricalto the race, the facultyof rational
intuition being gradually evolved
by the long experience of
be

two

accounted

statements,

for

the

as

fact that

mankind; yet it could not have been evolved had there been
ual
no
faculty to be developed; but however, formed, the individhas

now

the

facultyof

rational

intuition.

PHILOSOPHY
absolute,

If the

the

as

first

certain, as

and

unknowable.

is not

of its existence, and

mode

know

We

know

we

the

that

it is the

Mill

Stuart

knowledge
Spencer

of the

The

for

find

to

of science

in each

in the

reconciliation,he

to

universe

unknowable.

for both

truth

is

did
of

tacit conviction

insoluble

an

mystery,

unknowable.

therefore

manifests, and

unknowable

not

this:

to

which

ceivable
Inconto the

The

power

therefore, know

we,

therefore

unknown

and

The

apparent contradiction, that the ultimate

known
and unknown,
possibly be reconciled
may

realityis both
by a restatement:
known
to exist
by reason
empiricallyas to its essence.
essential

scientific ideas

soul, matter,
these

our

self
him-

agreement.

declares, is the

exist, is wholly inconceivable, and

The

universe;

fundamental

be

utterly inconceivable,
it is to the imagination, but
amounts
reason.
Spencer's doctrine
the

being.

it is eternal;

must

and

which

that

its

the

philosophic basis for the

religion. Assuming that there

and

there

case,

the ultimate

that

realityof

know

power

and

essence

unknowable."

and

unknown

attempted

reconciliation
basis

the

to

is; we

ultimate

its

to

as

positive,not negative; and Spencer

Well
object of religioussentiment."
say : '^Spencer has a prodigious amount

calls it '*an

is truth

reality,is
Spencer
certainly
Spencer probably meant

as

cause

ultimate

of it is

knowledge
John

first

that

not

407

declares,it

unknowable,

and

it is unknown

that

the

cause,

of all things the most

unknown

EVOLUTION

OF

The
as

or

power,
a

reality,but

realities
are

ultimate
is

corresponding
expressed by the words

time, space,

force.

If the

reality,is

wholly unknown
religious and

to

God,

creation,

realities

expressed

"

then

guish
distincannot
we
wholly unknown,
These
but
do
them;
we
distinguish.
terms,
is
have
the
not
therefore,
not
time,
same
meaning.
Space
know
and neither space nor
time is force.
We
by experience,
when
lift
what
force
is,
not
we
as
though we may
a
weight,

by

terms

are

between

know

the

essence

of the

Spencer's criterion

of

substance

which

force.

conceivability; that is,

is inconceivable
what
is unknowable,
thus making the imagination,
which
is the picture forming faculty, the test of
knowledge; but it is not the business of the imagination to
make
mental
to
test truth, but
pictures, and as a poetic
aesthetic satisfaction.
to give us
power,
knowledge

is

exerts

PHILOSOPHICAL

408

Let

apply Spencer's

THEORIES
of

conceivabilityto the idea

of space:
We
conceive space
cannot
as
necessarilyfinite;for
can
we
imagine space beyond any supposed limit. We cannot
conceive
for
infinite
to
infinite;
as
imagine an
space
whether
finite or
picture is impossible; therefore
space,
infinite, is inconceivable, and therefore, according to Spencer's
for making the imagSo much
doctrine, unknowable.
ination
the test of knowledge.
let us apply to our
idea of space
the test of reason.
Now,
clear ideas of body and
We
have
motion; but neither body
for body and
the room
is possiblewithout
motion
nor
space,
us

We

motion.

body,
which

then
a

have

test

the

part of which

idea of space
the

body

as

that which

occupies, and

tains
con-

through

moves.
Space, then, is a reality,though not a
substance; it is extension in three dimensions, whether
empty
is
the
but
the
filled
i
s
the
not
filled;
or
a part
filling
yet
space,

it

of space.
We
know
finite

to

finite

of contradictories,that
Let
what
reason
see
us

the law

infinite.

or

respect

by

its finitude

or

infinitude.

If

we

space

is either

declares
suppose

with
space

limited,the limit,if infinitesimal in thickness, would

or

finite portion of space, leaving an unlimited

portion
without; if the boundary has finite thickness, it occupies space,
still leaving unlimited
ary
without; if the enclosing boundspace
inclose

has
hence

unlimited

in any

finite,and

case,

thickness
the

whole

it occupies unlimited
space;
of space
be limited or
cannot

is,therefore, infinite,and

this is known

to

be true

therefore
though not picturableby the imagination. Reason
by the law of
apprehends space to be infinite. We know first,
is either finite or
infinite; we
contradictories, that space
know
that it is
know
that it is not finite;therefore, we
next
infinite.
Conceivability is not, therefore, the test of truth;
be
for we
to
by the imagination, conceive space
cannot,
be
finite,neither can we conceive it to be infinite;but it must
either finite
We

or

infinite.

repeat: If by the absolute,

we

mean

the

unrelated

to

to
to thought, it is, of course,
not known
anything else,even
exist,and the assumption of its existence is utterlygroundless;
but if,by the absolute, we
the non-dependent, it is not
mean
be
to
rationally
necessarily unrelated
thought, and may
The
be
known.
dependent must
dependent on something.

PHILOSOPHICAL

410
it

be

might possibly not

fail;the

would

at

all,and again the demonstration

therefore, be a necessary
truth,

at

must,

possible;and the ultimate

apprehended as self-evident by the

demonstration

if the

be,

basis

THEORIES

once,

be

basis must

insight of

rational intuition.
Let

try, in another

us

the ultimate

to reach

way,

declared

of

inexplicableand

be

thought,
able.
unknow-

by Spencer
begin with any object,either mineral, vegemay
table
class
for
the
What
animal,
or
example,
quadruped.
say,
is implied in thinking quadruped as existing? We
answer
the thinking subject and the class quadruped, at least as an
The
object of thought. We call the subject /, or the ego.
object thought of is a class or collection of individual objects,
and may
be defined thus : Quadrupeds are vertebrates having
though

to

We

four

feet.

We

have

now

wider

the

includes

quadrupeds and all other

Quadrupeds are not dropped, but
their

has

The

been

remains.

diminished.
we

been

has

extent

Suppose

having
their

extent, diminish
of the class,making

it

determination,

existence

of all other

increased,

while
of its

retained
the

and

wider, and

the

retain

tent
con-

thinking,

animals;

are

content,

the

skeleton.

is

vertebrates

say

existence

ego, conscious

The

the

we

crease
intence
exis-

the

of the

existence

crease
organized beings; we inthe extent, by taking in vegetables,without
dropping
the
still
both
the content,
animals, and decrease
retaining
Let us say organized beings are
object and the ego.
beings;
retaining the ego, we have dropped from the content
every
attribute
in every
but existence, and
have
taken
object in
the universe.
Does
being equal nothing, as Hegel asserts?

ego.

Let

only
the

with

specification,
along

vertebrates.

vertebrates, which

animals

attribute; their

characteristic

without

class

us

now

say

No; it has for its

animals

content

one

are

attribute, existence, and

for its

object of the universe including the ego, who

thinks being. Being equals everything existing.
Is being unknown?
in the
No; although it is inexplicable,
extent

sense

every

that

it

can

not

be referred

to

wider

class, it is known

knows
along with the ego which
its existence.
Were
it possibleto drop existence, everything
would
vanish, including the ego, leaving nothing to know
and
could not
We
nothing to be known
a
perfect blank.

immediately

in itself and

"

even

assert

the

blank; for

to

assert

would

call back

the

ego.

PHILOSOPHY

supposing

even

it

EVOLUTION

annihilated; but

is to

deny existence

OF

411

it is not

annihilated; for

the ego that denies.

realityis, therefore, contradictory,since it assumes
if we
could deny objective ex stence, we
Even
to

without

deny,

If

To

deny
reality.

assume

self-stultification,
the

ego,

could

not

ence.
subjective exist-

or

could

drop being,we would annihilate ourselves,

and could neither affirm nor
ence,
deny anything. To deny existis to assume
existence,paradoxical as it may seem, since
in
the form
thinking,even
denying, implies self. Thinking
is
existence
is impossible.
which
thinking self away,
away,
be
But can
Existence, therefore,cannot
not
thought away.
be thought away,
all objective existence
leaving subjective
That
existence?
would
the
be self-existent,
to
require
ego
self-dependent,or absolute; but the finite ego knows itself as
the absolute.
consciously dependent; it is, therefore, not
The dependent, however, must
depend on something else,and
that,if dependent, must
depend on something else,and so on,
the independent, or
reach
in an
either till we
infinite
on,
series of dependent things, but dependent without
pendent
indean
is impossible, and
if so, we
must
support, which
finallyreach the independent, the absolute, not absolute in
the

we

of the

sense

unrelated, but absolute in the sense

absolute
is, therefore, not unknown

The

dependent.
unknowable;

for

knowledge of
independent or

of the

knowledge

absolute

of the

the

opens

the

of notand

dependent implies

the

absolute.

The

for valid

way

the

edge
knowl-

knowledge

of

reality,subjectiveor objective,and we are not driven

to the monstrous
absurdity that all knowledge depends on
the unknown,
and hence
is not
knowledge at all. Though
of the ultimate
and perhaps
the essence
realityis unknown,
and
this is
unknowable, its existence is certainly known,
probably what Spencer meant, when he declared it to be of
all things most
certain, though inconsistentlycallingit unknown
and unknowable.
is therefore a known
There
positive
basis both for science and religion,
which
reconciled
are
by
other

ultimate, not the unknown.

the known

Spencer
of inner

defines

relations

definition is the
Life
to

the

whether

life thus:

is the

active

or

relations."

outer

continual
A

more

adjustment
complete

following:

outer, and
outer

to

*'Life is

which

cause

the

outer

inner, to

any

adjusts the
the

to
or

inner, and

inner
each

to all the others.

relations

relation,

PHILOSOPHICAL

412

THEORIES

thus: "Evolution
is
Spencer's definition of evolution runs
of
and
concomitant
matter
of
integratiorr
dissipation
an
the
from
which
matter
motion; during
an
indefinite,
passes
definite
incoherent
coherent
to
a
homogeneity
heterogeneity;
the
which
retained
motion
and
during
undergoes a parallel

transformation.

"

motion, and
matter,
interpretationof all phenomena
What

force?

are

in terms

Spencer

"The

says:

of matter,

motion

than the reduction

of our
nothing more
complex
the
symbols of thought to the simplest symbols; and when
equation has been brought to its lowest terms, the symbols
remain
symbols still." Again, Spencer says of Spirit and
of his First Principles:"the
in the last sentence
matter,
one
is no
less than
the other to be regarded as a sign of the Unknown
reminds
of
This
Reality,which underlies both."
us
of which
mind
and matter
butes.
attriare
Spinoza's One Substance
force are
but
If "matter, motion, and
symbols of
the Unknown
Reality," does not this reality reveal itself
to us
extent
at least,
through these symbols, and, to some
known?
From
be
the order of the universe, it may
become
inferred that the ultimate realityis intelligent
fested
manipower
in matter, mind, force, and motion.
"A
of which
the nature
mains
reAgain, Spencer says:
power
and
in
forever inconceivable,
to which
limits
Time
no
in
works
be
These
certain
effects.
us
or
imagined,
Space can
effects have
likeness of kind, the most
general of which we
of matter, motion
and force.
class together under the names
of matter,
This reduction
motion, and force to subjective
like what
effects wrought in us, looks
Spencer calls "the
If effects
be
insanity of idealism.
can
wrought in us
far forth, is not
that cause,
logicallyreferred to any cause,
so
fit to call it unknown,
wholly unknown, though Spencer may
see
known.
and
be
We
it
not
wholly
yet
may
may
do not know
how it can
be.
know
that it is,though we
religion he thus expressed:
Spencer's attitude towards
all of the existingreligbe any
"However
untenable
ious
or
may
and

force

is

"

"

creeds, however

gross

absurdities

the

associated

with

forth in their
irrational
the arguments
set
them, however
hood,
must
not
defense, we
ignore the verity which, in all likelilies hidden

that

within

widely spread beliefs

them.
are

not

general probability
absolutelybaseless is, in

The

OF

PHILOSOPHY

this

enforced

case,

by

We
.

rehgions,

though

of

adumbrations

all

The
the

line

and

of

the

possessed
readable,

are

his

in

seen

of

presence
omni-

therefore,

sure,

actually

true,

rendered

He

clear

was

yet

are

that

so

drift

science

is

in

generalizer,

great

The
all

bring

to

mankind

statement,

instructive.

as

attempt

be

has

Ethics.

power

well

as

them

Spencer
and

Sociology

be

the

to

truth."

the

service

greatest

due

may

of

none

even

413

probability

further

behefs.

the

of

EVOLUTION

his

of

under

books

his

mind

the

law

is
of

evolution.
held

Spencer

in

developed
human

The

is

reality,
ability

to

experience

it

must

is

Space
a

cause;

of

the

by

therefore,

the
now

apprehend,
time
be

must

mate
ulti-

an

though

can

infinite;

an

up

acquired

he

there

doubt,

sion,
apprehen-

necessity

has,

that

of

ages

built

individual,

the

been

no

and

gradually

so

long

clearer

individual

intuition,

have

the

has

have,

and

as

to

The

principles:

the

system,

further

been

has

race.

rational

the

event

every

the

of

axiomatic,

for

intuitive

now

intuition

intuition

nervous

truth,

apprehend
of

power

brain

the

of

the

rational

through

acts

fundamental

that

so

evolution

modified

in

basis

of

power

by

man

action,

organic

the

the

experience.

reflex

by

that

is

as

infinite;
ultimate

an

reality.

Note:

it

has

been

original
best
appear.

Philosophy

to

assiduously

thinkers;
defer

has

but,

entering

cultivated
at

into

least

this

in

votaries

many

for

by
the

America,

field, however

of

number

good

present,

where

it

is

inviting

thought
it

may

INDEX

Abelard,

Aristophanes,

124

Absolute,

269,

Academic

School,

Aenesidemus,
Aeons,

Aristocles,

407

83,

82

Ariston,

96

Aristotle,
Arius,

105

Aetiology, 84,
Agnosticism,
Agnostic,

106

84
84

Albertus

Magnus,

Alexander,

the

Alfarabi,

Algazel,
Alison,

169

Association,

321

Athanasius,

112

Atomists,

130

Great,

261
27

Augustine,

63

Averroes,

127

128

Avicenna,

128

127

Ambrose,

113

Ammonius,

Ampere,

127

Bacon,

Fr., 144

Bacon,

R.,

Bain,

99

348

Bayle,

63
25

Bentham,

Anaxarchus,

30

Berkeley,

Anaximander,

10

141

Boehme,

Andronicus,

64

Boethius,
Bona

of Pure

Antiochus,

Apologists,

Brown,

300

Bruno,

142
384

331

109

82,

Cabanis,

127

368

Campanella,

94

50

Aristippus,

139

Ventura,

Butler,

64

254

74

Biichner,

50

Philosophy,

Arcesilaus,

242

97

Antisthenes,

Apellicon,

Reason,

208,
139

11

Antinomies

323

Bernard,

Anaximines,

122

105

184

Anaxagoras,

Anselm,

127

Basilides,

370

Amyntas,

Arete,

113

298

Alkendi,

Arabic

63

111

Atheism,

Agrippa,

53

53

Amauld,

93

42

Cardanus,
49

Carneades,
415

143

142
95

INDEX

416

Categories of the Understanding,239

Eckhart,

Cato,

Eclecticism,97

95

Cause, 16, 26, 219,

Ego,

239

199

Eleatic

Celsus, 111
104,
Christianity,

140

Philosophy,13

Empedocles,

107

23

Chrysippus, 76

Empiricism, 321

Cicero,

98

Epictetus,74

Clarke,

203

Epicurus, 71

Cleanthes, 75

Epistemology, 409

Clement, 105,

Erigena, 118,

110

Eubulides,

Sense, 294

Common

Compte,

375

Conceptualism, 120,
Condillac,

Euclid

of Megara,

Euclid

of Alexandria, 47

Evolution,

368

Consciousness,

243

145

Fatalism, 261
Fechner,

Crantor, 94

391

Ferrier, 310

Crates, 73,

75

Cudworth,

188

Fichte, 250,

255

of the Will, 155

Freedom

Cumberland,

190

Cynic School,

Fox, 141

50

Cyrenaic School,

49

Gassendi, 169

385

Genus

and

Germain,

D'Alembert,
Darwin,

Species,124
273

368

Geulincx, 166, 176,

253

402

Gilbert, 124

Deduction,
Definition

67

Glanvill, 167
of

Democritus,

Philosophy,5,

10, 26

Diderot,

God, Proofs of Existence,

Gorgias,38

361

Diodorus,

Diogenes

Gnostics, 104

28

Descartes, 158, 176, 253

Grote, 32
48

Guyon,
of

ApoUonia,

Diogenes, the Cynic,

Diogenes, Laertius,

141

11

51

84

Haeckel,

385

Hamilton,

304, 409

Dionysius of Syracuse, 53

Hartley, 321

Dionysius,the

Hartmann,

Areopagite,118

287

Dogmatists, 86

Hegel, 267

394
Diihring,

Helvetius, 360

Duns

47

402

of God,

Existence

302

Cousin, 372

Czolbe,

48

Eusebius, 112

358

Condorcet,

Cooke,

125

138

Scotus,

132

Heraclitus, 18,

57

243

INDEX

418

Philipof Macedon,

Scotus

63

Erigena, 118,

Philo, 106

Self,199

Philolaus, 20

Seneca,

Plato, 53, 56, 57

Sensational

Plotinus, 100

Sextus

Polemo,

Socrates, 42,

73

81

110

Poly carp,

Philosophy, 37

Empiricus, 84

Socratic

Polus, 41

Sophists,32
Space, 233,

Porphyry,

Spencer, 405

101

Royal Logic, 169

Stewart,

Positivism, 367, 377

St. Martin,

Harmony,

Pre-established

182

Principleof Contradiction, 183,

Principleof Identity,187,

310

Spinoza, 172,

Posidonius, 74

254

297
141

Stilpo,73
196

265.

Sufficient Reason,

Principleof

62

Schools, 47

Polytheism, 102
Port

138

Stirner, 498

Stoics,74
183,

Substance,

199

Syllogism,66,

187

342

Proclus, 103
Prodicus, 37

Telesius, 142

Protagoras,33

TertuUian,

Pyrrho,

Thalis, 9

82

Pythagoras, 20,

110

Theodicy, 81,

58

183

Theology, 104, 107,

Quadrivium,

Theophrastus, 64

117

Realism, 59, 120,

Reid,

124

Thomas

Aquinas,

Thomas

Relativityof Knowledge,

406

of St. Victor, 139

Time,
Timon,

83

Toland,

Rousseau,

Trivium,

Ruysbroeck,

117
117

Tropis, 84

141

Tyrannion,
Saint-Simon,

41

235

Roscellinus, 120
365

131

Kempis,

Thrasymachus,

293

Richard

64

374

Scepticism,82

Unconscious,

Schelling,264

Universals, 120, 130

Scholasticism, 117, 127

Utilitarianism, 341

Schopenhauer,
Scotism,
Scottish

V.

287

284

Duns

School.

117

Scotus, 132
293

^'alentinus, 105
Victorines, 139

141

INDEX

Voet,

Vogt,

419

Wundt,

161

396

383

Voltaire,

Xenocrates,

351

73

Xenophanes,
Whewell,
Will.

Xenophon,

67

Freedom

of,

William

of

Champeaux,

William

of

Occam,

Wolff,

187

13

42

155

122

134

Zeller,
Zeno

Zeno,

57

of
the

Elea,
Stoic,

16

73