50

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1

GENERAL
Groundwater is an important source of water supply for

municipalities, agriculture and industry. Therefore the capability to predict the

behavior of chemical contaminates in flowing groundwater is of vital
importance for a). the reliable assessment of hazardous or risks arising from
groundwater contamination problems, and b) the design of efficient and
effective techniques to mitigate them. There are several studies reported in this
filed. Reliable and quantitative prediction of contaminant movement can be
made only if we understand the processes controlling the transport of
contaminants. These include a) advection, b) hydrodynamic dispersion and c)
physical, chemical and biological reactions that affect their soluble
concentrations in groundwater.
The most challenging problems associated with groundwater
contamination are: a). to prevent the introduction of contaminants in an
aquifer; b). to predict their movement if they are introduced; and c). to remove
them, to some extent in order to protect the biosphere effectively.
Groundwater contamination studies generally include.
i.

the scientific understanding of physical, chemical, and biological

processes controlling the fate and movement of contaminants in the
subsurface environment;

ii.

the mathematical representation in the transport models to predict the

contaminant movement;

51

iii.

the determination of different model parameters in the field and the

laboratory using different methods;

iv.

the development of transport models to predict contaminant movement

if they are introduced;

v.

the development of management models to control and/or prevent the

introduction of contaminants in the aquifer and to determine the
methodology for the safe disposal of hazardous wastes, and

vi.

the development of methodology for the removal of contaminates to the

extent necessary to effectively protect the biosphere.

2.2

GROUNDWATER QUALITY MODELING STUDY

The earliest observation of the dispersion phenomena was reported

by Slichter (1905) who used an electrolyte as a tracer to study the movement

of groundwater. Remarkable studies on related processes in groundwater flow
and contamination transport in 1950 and gradually received the increasing
attention of researchers. Bachmat et al. (1980) conducted a survey of
numerical models mainly related to groundwater management. His report
contained a list of 138 flow models and 39 mass transport models in 14
countries. Naymik (1987) presented a systematic review of 44 technically
advanced articles on mathematical modeling of solute transport in the
subsurface system. His review covers the period 1980-1985 only. Another
comprehensive review paper on modeling of solute transport in groundwater
was presented by Abriola (1987). She reviewed models reported upto 1986.
Many models have been developed to assess traditional surface
water loading impacts of NPS pollution. Some include groundwater recharge
for baseflow generation purposes, but exclude the detailed vadose zone
modeling necessary for assessing potential leaching of agricultural chemicals.
Typical models include CREAMS (Krisel etal 1980). HSPF (Donigian et al

52

1983), ANSWERS (Beasley et al 1977), and WLF (Haith and Shoemaker

1987). However, these models will not be adequately address in areas where
groundwater may locally or regionally be impacted. Hazardous waste
management research has greatly advanced modeling capability to predict
hazardous waste plumes and plan or assess remedial action efforts. These
models often emphasize transport in the saturated zone and deal with localized
(point) sources. Several models have been developed to specifically address
the NPS pollution problem that include unsaturated zone modeling with
varying degrees of complexity and emphasis eg. Chemical movement in soil
(CMIS) is a simple continuous simulation model that locates the leading edge
of non-polor organic chemicals in the unsaturated zone (Nofziger et al 1983,
Nofziger and Hornsby 1985). Groundwater Loading Effects of Agricultural
Management Systems (GLEAMS) is a continuous daily simulation model
developed to predict movement of agricultural chemicals in and from root
zone (Leonard et al 1986). Leaching Estimation and Chemistry ModelPesticides (LEACHMP) - Simulates non-volatile pesticides in the unsaturated
zone (Wagenet and Hutson, 1986). Method of Underground Solute Evaluation
(MOUSE) is a simplified model developed for tracking soluble chemical
movement in both the saturated and unsaturated zone (Pacenka and Steenhuis
1984). Pesticide Analytical Model (PESTAN) - It is used for estimating
organic chemical movement in unsaturated zone - USEPA. Seasonal Soil
Compartment Model (SESOIL) - Long term simulations of pesticide transport
by advection, diffusion and volatilization (Foster et al 1980).
Angelakis et al (1987) described simultaneous transformation and
transport of two solutes with different dispersion coefficients by two onedimensional partial differential equations. They used the linear equilibrium
adsorption-desorption relationship for both solutes and irreversible microbial
first-order kinetics as an overall transformational mechanism. Analytical

53

solutions were obtained using Laplace transformation for zero initial

conditions, pulse input conditions, and semi-infinite media.
Hassanizadeh and Leijinse (1988) worked on modeling of brine
transport in porous media. They discussed certain important physical and
mathematical differences between low and high concentrations situations.
They solved a set of two nonlinear coupled partial differential equations
obtained from a modified formulation of Darcys and Ficks laws by means of
iterative methods. Lassey (1988) derived an analytical solution to the
advection-dispersion equation for one-dimensional solute or tracer transport
including sorption and first-order loss. Miller and Weber (1988) described
laboratory investigations and mathematical modeling of the sorption of
hydrophobic

solutes

by

aquifer

materials.

They

obtained

accurate

representations of the sorpotion process with either a dual resistance diffusion

model or an equilibrium/first-order sorption rate model.
A three dimensional mixing cell solute transport model on the
principles of conservation of mass for water and solute was developed by
Bhasker Rao and Hathaway. As a first approximation to solute transport
phenomenon, dispersion introduced as an artifact of the solution procedure
represents physical dispersion in the results obtained from the model. The
numerical dispersion can be controlled to some extent. The simplicity of
principles on which the model is based makes it easy to understand and use.
The formulation is used in conjunction with the McDonald and Harbaugh
ground-water flow model. The model has been applied to an aquifer located in
Southern New Mexico and Texas to predict chlorine concentration changes
resulting from proposed future pumping to supply municipal water for the city
of EI Paso, Texas. The calculated historical trend of changes in chloride
concentration lies within the range of estimates of the observed trend. A

54

relationship between future drawdown and chloride concentration has been

developed.
Pesticide movement in groundwater by way modeling was
described by Shoemaker et al (1990). The assessment of agricultural impacts
on water quality is now being redirected to include both groundwater and
surface water. Agricultural Non Point Source (NPS) pollution has several
unique characteristics. Agricultural production generally takes place in an
uncontrolled environment involving vast land areas with pollutant losses
affected by the complex interrelationships of meteorology, management and
cropping practices, geology, topography, and soils. NPS pollution is a diffuse
source phenomena affecting water on filed, watershed, or regional scale.
Because NPS pollution is derived from unpredictable climatic events, it must
be treated as stochastic problem with consideration for long-term risks.
Possible groundwater pollutants from agricultural production activities include
nitrogen, pesticides and their inherent compounds. Surface water pollutants
include phosphorous and sediment. If agricultural waste management is
considered- involving the application of animal manures to croplandadditional

pollutant

include

bacteria,

other

microorganisms,

biodegradable, oxygen-demanding organic substances

and

(eg. fecal matter).

Pollution control requires a diverse collection of chemical, managerial, and

structural (eg. terraces, diversions, and other soil conservation structure)
practices. The economic implications (cost benefit ratio) of each management
practice, or combinations thereof should be considered in assessing any NPS
pollution alternative. Because of the complexity of NPS pollution, the
development of abatement techniques is not a simple process. Only two
methods for assessing the effectiveness of NPS management techniques
currently exist: (1) actual field testing of alternatives, or (2) computer
modeling of various management scenarios. Field testing is limited to the

55

number of locations and scenarios that can be feasibly examined and requires
several years of observations to collect valid data that reflect climate
variability. Thus, computer models are the preferred alternative in examining a
greater diversity of management scenarios and locals (Baker 1985, Donigian
and Carsel 1986). Computer models can also address the problem of
meteorological variability (Leonard et al. 1986, Pacenka and Steenhuis 1984).
Long-term rainfall records and rainfall generation techniques can be used to
examine the interactions between meteorology and management alternatives.
Process models also can be linked to economic models to determine the
economically optimal management solutions (Crowder et al 1985, Roka 1988,
Roka et al. 1989).
GIS based urban groundwater recharge pollutant flux model was
given by Abraham Thomas et al (1991). They presented the use of GIS in
assessing the spatial distribution of pollutant fluxes reaching an urban
unconfined aquifer system in Birmingham, UK. Urban groundwater recharge
and pollution is a complex and poorly understood process. No suitable method
is available for assessing the amount of recharge and pollutant fluxes reaching
in urban aquifer sustainability, a desktop GIS (Arc View GIS and Arc View
Spatial Analyst extension)-based runoff-rechargepollutant flux model has
been developed to estimate the potential recharge and pollutant fluxes to an
urban unconfined aquifer system. The authors explained how an integrated
approach (involving analysis of various thematic maps and other attribute
information of a UK urban area using the above desktop GIS-based recharge
pollutant flux model could help in assessing the amount of groundwater
recharge and pollutant fluxes (currently a few chosen pollutant species such as
nitrate, chloride, and BTEX compounds) reaching to the groundwater of the
Birmingham area.

56

A ground-water flow modeling study was performed by Haitjema

(1992) for the Four County Landfill (FCL) in Fulton County, Indiana. The
modeling was performed with the relatively new analytic element method. The
new method employs superposition of closed form analytic solutions, rather
than a grid or element network, and proved an effective tool in answering
some unresolved hydrogeological questions. The study results demonstrate
substantially higher regional and local hydraulic conductivities than suggested
by the landfill consultants, well-connected upper and lower aquifer zones at
the site, and potential ground-water travel times from the landfill to the nearby
Tippecanoe River of less than 15 years.
Tedaldi and Loehr (1992) made a comprehensive assessment of the
environmental impact of a full-scale, operating overland flow (OLF) land
treatment system at the Campbell Soup (Texas), Inc. facility in Paris, Texas.
The system treats over 16,000 m3/d of waste water and has been in operation
for over 25 years. Field samples of soil, waste water, OLF runoff, and ground
water collected during the study and detailed long-term process records
maintained by Campbell Soup were used as part of the evaluation.
Geochemical data indicated that sulfate-chloride facies were dominant for the
ground water collected at the OLF site. Field data and calculations indicated
that the evapotranspirative concentration of salts in the applied waste water
would be insufficient to produce the measured concentrations in the ground
water. A pattern of increasing ionic concentration over time (1968 to 1989)
with small changes in ionic ratios suggested a trend toward the dissolution and
concentration of naturally present minerals (such as gypsum and sodium
chloride) in the slow moving ground water. Predictions made with the aid of
MINTEQA2, a thermodynamic equilibrium model, indicated that precipitation
of carbonates and simultaneous ion exchange on clays could represent a
significant mechanism for the removal of calcium and magnesium from

57

solution and the addition of sodium. The development of a slightly saline,

semiconfined aquifer was strongly suggested by the ground-water geochemical
data, soil data, the estimated rate of infiltration, field hydraulic conductivity,
MINTEQA2 model predictions and the magnitude of the volume of waste
water applied.
It was reported by Goode (1992) that during unsteady or transient
ground-water flow, the fluid mass per unit volume of aquifer changes as the
potentiometric head changes, and solute transport is affected by this change in
fluid storage. Three widely applied numerical models of two-dimensional
transport partially account for the effects of transient flow by removing terms
corresponding to the fluid continuity equation from the transport equation,
resulting in a simpler governing equation. However, fluid-storage terms
remaining in the transport equation that change during transient flow are, in
certain cases, held constant in time in these models. For the case of increasing
heads, this approximation, which is unacknowledged in these models'
documentation, leads to transport velocities that are too high and increased
concentration at fluid and solute sources. If heads are dropping in time,
computed transport velocities are too low. Using parameters that somewhat
exaggerate the effects of this approximation, an example numerical simulation
indicates solute travel time error of about 14 percent but only minor errors due
to incorrect dilution volume. For horizontal flow and transport models that
assume fluid density is constant, the product of porosity and aquifer thickness
changes in time: initial porosity times initial thickness plus the change in head
times the storage coefficient. This formula reduces to the saturated thickness in
unconfined aquifers if porosity is assumed to be constant and equal to specific
yield. The computational cost of this more accurate representation is
insignificant and is easily incorporated in numerical models of solute
transport.

58

Wilson et al (1996) applied GIS based solute transport modeling to

study the scale effects of soil and climate data input. The weather generator
(WGEN) and chemical movement through layered soils (CMLS) computer
models were modified and combined with two sets of soil and climate inputs
to evaluate the impact of input data map resolution on model predictions. The
basic soil and climate inputs required by WGEN and CMLS were acquired
from either; (i) the USDA-NRCS State soil geographic (STATSGO) database;
(ii) the USDA-NRCS (County) soil survey geographic (SSURGO) database;
(iii) the Montana agricultural potential system (MAPS) database which divides
Montana into approximately 18,000 twenty square kilometer cells and stores
more than 200 different land and climate characteristics for each of these cells;
and (iv) a series of fine-scale monthly climate surfaces developed by the
authors (0.55km2 cell size) using thin-plate splices, published climate station
records, and USGS digital elevation models (DEMs). Fifteen years of daily
precipitation and evapotranspiration (ET) values were generated and combined
with soil and pesticide inputs in CMLS to estimate the depth of picloram (4amino-3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinecarboxylic acid) movement at the end of the
growing season for every unique combination (polygon) of soil and climate in
a 320 km2 area in Teton County, Montana. Results indicate that: (i) the mean
depths of picloram movement predicted for the study area with the SSUGO
(county) soils and MAPS (coarse-scale) climate information and the two
model runs using the fine-scale climate data were significantly different from
the values predicted with the STATSGO (state) soils and MAPS climate data
based on a new variable containing the differences between the depths of
leaching predicted with the different input data by soil / climate map unit and
testing whether the mean difference was significantly different from zero at
the 0.01 significance level; and (ii) CMLS identified numerous (small) areas
where the mean center of the picloram solute front was likely to leach beyond
the root zone when the county soils information was used. This last measure

59

may help to identify areas where potential chemical applications are likely to
contaminate groundwater.
Effects of land use on ground water quality in the Anoka sand plain
aquifer of Mimmesota was studied by Trojan et al (1996) to compare ground
water quality under irrigated and non irrigated agriculture, sewered and non
sewered residential developments, industrial, and non developed land uses.
Twenty-three monitoring wells were selected in the unconfined sand aquifer.
Sampling were carried out and analyzed for major ions, trace inorganic
chemicals, volatile organic compounds (VOC), herbicides and herbicide
degrades. They also collected samples for polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons,
perchlorate and coliform bacteria. They observed significant differences in
water chemistry beneath different land uses. Concentrations of several trace
inorganic chemicals were greatest under sewered urban areas. VOC detections
were 100% in commercial areas, 52% in sewered residential area, and < 10%
for other land uses. Median nitrate concentrations were greatest under irrigated
agriculture

(15,350g/L)

and

non

sewered

residential

area

(6080g/L).Herbicides and degrades of acetanilide and triazine herbicides

were detected in 86 % of samples from irrigated agriculture areas, 68 % of
samples from nonirrigated areas and < 10% of samples from other land uses.
Degrades accounted for 96% of the reported herbicide mass. They did not
observe seasonal difference in water chemistry, but observed trends in water
chemistry when land use changes occurred. Their result shows land use is the
dominate factor affecting shallow ground water quality.
Gregorauskas et al (1999) carried out a model on groundwater flow
and contaminant transport at Klaipeda oil terminal, Lithuania and found that
water table aquifer in the area of Klaipeda oil terminal is polluted with
hydrocarbons (oil products) dissolved in water. Above this aquifer, there is a
layer containing oil and reaching 0.5 m in thickness. These pollutants do not

60

threaten drinking water sources, but oil can enter the lagoon of Kursiu Marios
and the Baltic Sea. Groundwater monitoring has been organized, shallow
groundwater investigations have been done, filtration and migration models of
the terminal and adjacent areas have been consulted. Modeling results showed
that the flow of hydrocarbons to the lagoon could be efficiently barred by a
horizontal drain.
Moreno and Sinton explained about groundwater model flow
calibration-comparison of a decision tree approach and automated parameter
estimation for a practical application with limited data. Groundwater modeling
calibration can often result in multiple plausible results, especially in a case
with limited data. Sensitivity analysis varying single parameters may be
unsuccessful in testing the envelope of possible calibrated solutions. The
authors considers alternate approaches to simulating the effects of developing
a new groundwater supply on water levels and river flow rates in a river valley
in the desert Southwest. A 400 square mile model of three aquifers was
prepared. For this application, a range in model predictions from worst
reasonable to best reasonable predictions was required in order to assess
potential long-term environmental impacts. Two alternate approaches were
tested: a decision tree approach in which parameters were applied in worst or
best combinations based on the combined experience of a modeling
committee, and an automated parameter estimation approach. Several
measures of model calibration and behavior were used in assessing the model
simulations of current conditions, and the accumulation of hidden errors in
long-term transient simulations was also evaluated. Most likely predictions
and estimated uncertainty were compared for each approach.
Solute transport model in structured soils and the movement of
chemicals through the soil was reported by Stagnitti et al (2001). He reported
that current models and methods do not adequately describe the leaching of

61

nutrients through soil, often underestimating the risk of groundwater

contamination

by

surface-applied

chemicals,

and

overestimating

the

concentration of resident solutes. This inaccuracy results primarily from

ignoring soil structure and non-equilibrium between soil constitutes, water,
and solutes. A multiple sample percolation system (MSPS), consisting of 25
individual collection wells, was constructed to study the effects of localized
soil heterogeneities on the transport of nutrients (NO3-, Cl-, PO43-) in the
vadose zone of an agricultural soil predominantly dominated by clay. Very
significant variations in drainage patterns across a small spatial scale were
observed (one-way ANOVA, p < 0.001) including considerable heterogeneity
in water flow patterns and nutrient leaching. The authors have used data
collected from the multiple sample percolation experiments and compared the
performance of two mathematical models for predicting solute transport, the
advective-dispersion model with a reaction term (ADR), and a two-region
preferential flow model (TRM) suitable for modeling non-equilibrium
transport. These results have implications for modeling solute transport and
predicting nutrient loading on a larger scale.
Numerical simulations of ground water flow and physical transport
associated with a natural gradient tracer experiment within a heterogeneous
alluvial aquifer of the Natural Attenuation Study (NATS) site near Columbus
Mississippi was carried out by Julian et al (2001). The principal goal of NATS
is to evaluate biogeochemical models that predict the rate and extent of natural
biodegradation under field conditions. They describe the initial phase in the
model evaluation process, i.e calibration of flow and physical transport models
that simulate conservative bromide tracer plume evolution during NATS. An
initial large scale flow model (LSM) is developed encompassing the
experimental site and surrounding region. This model is subsequently scaled
down in telescopic fashion to an intermediate-scale ground water flow model

62

(ISM) covering the tracer-monitoring network, followed by a small-scale

transport model (SSM) focused on the small region of hydrocarbon plume
migration observed during NATS. The LSM uses inferred depositional
features of the site in conjunction with hydraulic conductivity (K) data from
aquifer tests and borehole flowmeter tests to establish large-scale K and flow
field trends in and around the experimental site. The subsequent ISM
incorporates specified flux boundary conditions and large-scale K trends
obtained from the calibrated LSM, while preserving small-scale K structure
based on some 4000 flowmeter data for solute transport modeling. The
configuration of the ISM predicted potentiometric surface approximates that of
the observed surface within a root mean squared error of 0.15 m. The SSM is
based on the dual-domain mass transfer approach.
recognized

difficulties

in

modeling

solute

Despite the well-

transport

in

extremely

heterogeneous media as found at the NATS site, the dual-domain model

adequately reproduced the observed bromide concentration distributions.
Differences in observed and predicted bromide concentration distributions are
attributed to aquifer hetrogenetity at the decimeter (dm) and smaller scales.
The calibrated transport parameters for the SSM (i.e 1:7 for the ratio of
mobile-to-total porosity; 2.5 x 10-3 day-1 for the masstransfer coefficient ; 1 m
for longitudinal dispersivity; and 0.1 m for transverse dispersivity are
consistent with separate numerical simulations of two earlier tracer
experiments at the site. The multiscale modeling approach adopted in the study
permits the incorporation of both large-scale geologic features important for
flow simulation and small scale heterogeneities critical for transport
simulation. In addition, the dual-domain transport model provides a foundation
for multi species reactive transport modeling studies of natural attenuation
hydrocarbons during NATS.

63

One-dimensional

reactive

multi-component

landfill

leachate

transport model coupled to three modules (geochemical equilibrium, kinetic

biodegradation, and kinetic precipitation-dissolution) was developed by Islam
and Singhal (2001) to simulate the migration of contaminants in soils under
landfills. A two-step sequential operator splitting method is applied to solve
the coupled transport equations and the biogeochemical reaction equations.
The geochemical module is based on the equilibrium speciation model
(MINTEQA2), which uses ion-association equilibrium-constant approach to
represent the various geochemical reactions. The biodegradation module
describes the sequential biological degradation of organic compounds by
multiple functional bacterial populations. Analytical equations based on
macroscopic approach are used to model changes in porosity and permeability
caused by biomass accumulation and mineral precipitation in soils. The model
has been evaluated by comparing the model results with widely used onedimensional mixing is applied to a hypothetical landfill to simulate the effect
of biological degradation of organic matter on the local inorganic
geochemistry and also to demonstrate the effect of microbial activity on the
evolution of porosity reduction of soils under the landfill.
Three-dimensional solute transport model with biological reactions
was developed by Braunerand Mark and Widdowson (2001) for simulating the
natural attenuation study (NATS) at the Columbus Air Force Base in eastern
Mississippi. NATS consisted of the release of a petroleum-based non-aqueous
phase liquid (NAPL) and subsequent monitoring of BTEX (benzene, toluene,
ethyl benzene, p-xylene), naphthalene, decane, and bromide in a shallow,
unconfined aquifer. Conceptual and mathematical models were developed for
NAPL source release, sequential aerobic/anaerobic bio-degradation, and
sorption during NATS. A multiple species, solute transport code (SEAM3D)
was used to simulate fully three-dimensional transport and aerobic, nitrate-

64

reducing,

ferrogenic,

and

methanogenic

hydrocarbon

biodegradation.

Simulation results matched individual BTEX concentration distributions

collected five-and nine months following NAPL release. SEAM3D massbalance calculations at t = nine months indicated that 49% of the hydrocarbon
mass that dissolved into the aqueous phase was consumed by biodegradation,
13% of this mass was sorbed, and the remaining 38% was present in the
aqueous phase. Mass calculations at t = nine months further indicated that
aerobic

biodegradation

accounted

for

the

majority

of

hydrocarbon

biodegradation (46% of the biodegraded mass), followed by ferrogenesis

(28%), nitrate-reduction (Fe [III]) concentration, hydrocarbon utilization rates,
initial condition for the anaerobic microbial populations, and dispersivity.
Anne Coudrain et al (2001) carried out a study on subsurface
transfer of chloride after a lake retreat in Central Andes. The area under study
covers 3500 km2 in the upstream part of the closed catchment basin of the salt
crust of Uyuni. This crust is a remnant of the saline lake Tauca, which covered
the area about 15,000 years ago. In the downstream part of the aquifer, the
Chloride concentration of ground water and Cl content in the unsaturated zone
exceed 20 meq/L and 18 kg/m2, respectively. With the present hydrological
conditions under semiarid conditions, the groundwater residence time in the
study are exceeds 3000 years. Transient simulations over 11,000 years were
made using initial conditions as the retreat of Lake Tauca and taking into
account a low recharge during the arid mid-Holocene period. The modeling
simulates groundwater flow, Cl transport, and groundwater residence time. It
includes the evaporation from the aquifer that leads to the accumulation of
chloride in the unsaturated zone. Results of the modeling are consistent with
the observations if it is assumed that the Cl previously accumulated in
unsaturated zone was flushed back into the aquifer around 2000 years B.P.,
contemporaneously with the end of the arid period.

65

Langevin (2002) presented a method for incorporating the hydraulic

effects of vertical fracture zones into two-dimensional cell based continuum
models of ground water flow and particle tracking. High hydraulic
conductivity features are used in the model to represent fracture zones. For
fracture zones that are not coincident with model rows or columns, an
adjustment is required for the hydraulic conductivity value entered into the
model cells to compensate for the longer flow path through the model grid. A
similar adjustment is also required for simulated travel times through model
cells. A travel time error of less than 8% can occur for particles moving
through fractures with certain orientations. The fracture zone continuum model
uses stochastically generated fracture zone networks and Monte Carlo analysis
to quantify uncertainties with simulated advective travel times. An approach is
also presented for converting an equivalent continuum model into a fracture
zone continuum model by establishing the contribution of matrix block
transmissivity to the bulk transmissvity of the aquifer. The methods are used
for a case study in west-central Florida to quantify advective travel times are
assumed to result from the presence of vertical fracture zones, commonly
observed on aerial photographs as photolineaments.
A laboratory experiment on chalk samples from Denmark and Israel
to determine diffusion and distribution coefficients was performed by
Witthuser et al (2003). They used batch tests to define sorption isotherms for
naphthalene and o-xylene. Linear sorption isotherms were observed and
described with Henry-isotherms. Because of the high purity and low content of
clay minerals and organic carbon, Danish and white Israeli chalk generally
have low retardation capacities. Contrarily, gray Israeli chalk, with organic
carbon fractions as high as 1.092%, remarkably retards organic contaminants.
The Koc concept is not applicable to predicting distribution coefficients based
on the organic carbon content in the chalk samples. Effective diffusivities of o-

66

xylene, naphthalene and several artificial tracers were determined using

through-diffusion experiments. Based on measured diffusion coefficients and
available literature values, a chalk specific exponent of 2.36 for Archoes law
was derived, allowing a satisfactory estimate of relative diffusivities in chalk.
A field-scale tracer test with uranine and lithium was performed in the Negev
desert (Israel) to examine the transferability of diffusivities determined on
small rock samples in the laboratory. Due to low recovery rates of the tracer, a
modified single fissure dispersion model was used for inverse modeling of the
breakthrough curves. Resulting diffusivities deviate insignificantly from the
laboratory values, which are considered to be representative for the
investigated part of the aquifer and applicable in transport models.
A large and diverse body of subsurface characterization data was
generated by Scheibe and Chien (2003) at a field research site near Oyster,
Virginia, which provides a unique opportunity to test the impact of
conditioning data of various types on predictions of flow and transport.
Bromide breakthrough curves (BTCs) were measured during a forced-gradient
local-scale injection experiment conducted in 1999. Observed BTCs are
available at 140 sampling points in a three-dimensional array within the
transport domain. A detailed three-dimensional numerical model is used to
simulate breakthrough curves at the same locations as the observed BTCs
under varying assumptions regarding the character of hydraulic conductivity
spatial distributions, and variable amounts and types of conditioning data. We
present comparative results of six cases ranging from simple (deterministic
homogeneous models) to complex (stochastic indicator simulation conditioned
to cross-borehole geophysical observations). Quantitative measures of model
goodness-of-fit are presented. The results show that conditioning to a large
number of small-scale measurements does not significantly improve model
predictions, and may lead to biased or overly confident predictions. However,

67

conditioning to geophysical interpretations with larger spatial support

significantly improves the accuracy and precision of model predictions. In all
cases, the effects of model error appear to be significant in relation to
parameter uncertainty.
Use of nonlinear parameter estimation techniques is now
commonplace in groundwater model calibration. However, there is still ample
room for further development of these techniques in order to extract more
information from calibration datasets, to more thoroughly explore the
uncertainty associated with model predictions, and to make easier to
implement in various modeling contexts. John Doherty (2003) described the
use of "pilot points" as a methodology for spatial hydraulic property
characterization. When used in conjunction with nonlinear parameter
estimation software that incorporates advanced regularization functionality
(such as PEST), use of pilot points can add a great deal of flexibility to the
calibration process at the same time as it makes this process easier to
implement. Pilot points can be used either as a substitute for zones of
piecewise parameter uniformity, or in conjunction with such zones. In either
case, they allow the disposition of areas of high and low hydraulic property
value to be inferred through the calibration process, without the need for the
modeler to guess the geometry of such areas prior to estimating the parameters
that pertain to them. Pilot points and regularization can also be used as an
adjunct to geostatistically based stochastic parameterization methods. Using
the techniques described herein, a series of hydraulic property fields can be
generated, all of which recognize the stochastic characterization of an area at
the same time that they satisfy the constraints imposed on hydraulic property
values by the need to ensure that model outputs match field measurements.
Model predictions can then be made using all of these fields as a mechanism
for exploring predictive uncertainty.

68

Zheng and Gorelick (2003) carried out macrodispersion experiment

(MADE) at a site in Columbus, Mississippi. The experiment indicated that the
relative preferential flowpaths and flow barriers resulting from decimeter-scale
aquifer heterogeneities appear to have a dominant effect on plume-scale solute
transport. Numerical experiments are thus conducted in this study to explore
the key characteristics of solute transport in two-dimensional flow fields
influenced by decimeter-scale preferential flowpaths. A hypothetical but
geologically plausible network of 10 cm wide channels of high hydraulic
conductivity is used to represent the relative preferential flowpaths embedded
in an otherwise homogeneous aquifer. When the hydraulic conductivity in the
channels is 100 times greater than that in the remaining portion of the aquifer,
the calculated concentration distributions under three source configurations all
exhibit highly asymmetrical, non-Gaussian patterns. These patterns, with peak
concentrations close to the source and extensive spreading down gradient,
resemble that observed at the MADE site tracer tests. When the contrast
between the channel and non channel hydraulic conductivities is reduced to
30:1 from 100:1, the calculated mass distribution curve starts to approach a
Gaussian one with the peak concentration near the central portion of the
plume. Additional analysis based on a field scale model demonstrates that the
existence of decimeter-scale preferential flowpaths can have potentially farreaching implications for groundwater remediation. Failure to account for
them in numerical simulation could lead to over-estimation of the
effectiveness of the remedial measure under consideration.
Groundwater quality modeling study of Kancheepuram district,
Tamilnadu was done by Kumar and Venugopal (2003). They studied the
vulnerability of migration of pollutants. Groundwater resources underlying the
ground surface in the district of Kancheepuram is vulnerable to contamination.
Contamination of these ground water resources could be prevented by

69

development of accurate vulnerability models, which could be used to predict

the ground water vulnerability and there by give appropriate recommendations
for decreasing the potential impact of ground water contaminants being
used/applied on the land surface. The authors have carried out a study to test a
vulnerability index equation, using cell based GIS analysis. The vulnerability
index equation incorporates soil characteristics, hydro geologic factors, depth
to ground water and extant of irrigation. The vulnerability index equation is
calibrated to a subset of groundwater analytical results. Spatial representations
of these results are produced which would assist land use planners,
agriculturists in planning and regulating land use in the district with out
harming the quality of ground water resources. The authors have concluded
that the water quality is generally good in this district except in areas where
there is acute pollution due to the discharge of effluents from zari factories and
distilleries into the alluvial belt. These effects spoil not only the water but also
the soil characters. In areas in and around Kancheepuram, and Chengalpattu
require special attention for pollution study. Recommendation for optimum
utilization could be made only at the rate of natural replenishment. The authors
have used DRASTIC model to study the groundwater vulnerability of the
study area.
Solute transport modeling and inverse modeling for parameter
estimation of Mahi right bank canal command area was presented by Rastogi
and Mishra (2003). Sea water intrusion model is also considered for a
synthetic multilayer coastal aquifer. The study finds that a proper formation of
models augmented with adequate data can yield reasonably accurate results.
Together these numerical models are essential for effective groundwater
systems planning and management of regional aquifers. They finds that the
net annual recharge to be 685.93 MCM (GA approach) and 688.45 MCM
(GNM method) by inverse modeling, which are in close agreement with the

70

estimated net annual recharge (614.32 MCM) derived from the mass balance
approach considering the various inflow and outflow data collected from the
field. Stochastic models, fractured rocks modeling, heavy element adsorption
models and aqueous-non aqueous phase (NAPL, DNAPL) models were not
considered which, however, also form a part of the complete GSPM strategies.
GSPM being a multi-disciplinary approach may further be used to work out
the groundwater flow quantities, contamination predictions, and remediation
strategies for real groundwater systems.
Mao et al (2004) applied three-dimensional model for multicomponent reactive transport with variable density groundwater flow and
reported as follows: PHWAT is a new model that couples a geochemical
reaction model (PHREEQC-2) with a density-dependent groundwater flow and
solute transport model (SEAWAT) using the split-operator approach. PHWAT
was developed to simulate multi-component reactive transport in variable
density groundwater flow. Fluid density in PHWAT depends not only the
concentration of a single species as in SEAWAT, but also the concentrations
of other dissolved chemicals that can be subject to reactive process. Simulation
results of PHWAT and PHREEQC-2 were compared in their predictions of
effluent concentrations from a column experiment. Both models produced
identical results, showing that PHWAT has correctly coupled the subpackages. PHWAT was then applied to the simulation of tank experiment in
which seawater intrusion was accompanied by cation exchange. The density
dependence of the intrusion and snow plough effect in the breakthrough curves
were reflected in the model simulations, which were in good agreement with
the measured breakthrough data. Comparison simulations that, in turn,
excluded density effects and reactions allowed to quantify the marked effect of
ignoring these processes. Next, they explored numerical issues involved in the
practical could model physically unstable flow and that numerical instabilities

71

were suppressed. Physical instability developed in the model in accordance

with the increase of the modified Rayleigh number for density-dependent
flow, in agreement with previous research.
Groundwater pollution and its chemical quality in some parts of
Unnao district of Uttar Pradesh State was studied by Mamta Goyal et al
(2006). The study reveals that in the most of the villages the quality of
groundwater is good and suitable for drinking and domestic uses. In few
villages, the quality of groundwater is found to be contaminated as the cations,
anions and fluoride concentrations are found higher than the maximum
permissible limit of drinking water specially in the open wells (shallow
aquifers) where as the groundwater quality of hand pumps (deep aquifers) is
better than of open wells. The higher concentration of cations and anions are
found during pre-monsoon due to evaporation process, and due to dilution
effect through rain fall recharge, the values are found comparatively low in
post-monsoon period. The higher concentration, use of fertilizers, pesticides
and industrial effluents contamination, which leads the pollution of
groundwater.
A water quality index of groundwater in and around Khandaleru
catchments in Nellore district, Andhra Pradesh State was developed by Asadi
et al (2006). The groundwater samples collected at the predetermined locations
are analyzed for physico-chemical parameters for the generation of attribute
database. Based on the results of the analysis maps showing spatial
distribution of selected water quality parameters namely; pH, alkalinity,
chlorides, sulphates, nitrates, hardness, TDS, fluorides and sodium are
prepared using curve-fitting method in GIS software. The analysis of the
physico-chemical properties and computation of WQI are helpful in the
grouping of groundwater samples into excellent, good, poor, very poor and
unfit.

72

Asadi et al (2007) applied remote sensing and GIS techniques for

evaluation of groundwater quality in Municipal Corporation of Hyderabad
(Zone-V). Groundwater quality in Hyderabad has special significance and
needs great attention of all concerned since it is the major alternative source of
domestic, industrial and drinking water supply. The study monitors the
groundwater quality, relates it to the land use / land cover and maps such
quality using remote sensing and GIS techniques for a part of Hyderabad
metropolis. Thematic maps for the study are prepared by visual interpretation
of SOI toposheets and linearly enhanced fused data of IRS-ID PAN and LISSIII imagery on 1:50,000 scale using AutoCAD and ARC/INFO software.
Water Quality Index (WQI) was then calculated to find the suitability of water
for drinking purpose. The overall view of the water quality index of the
present study area revealed that most of the study area with > 50 standard
rating of water quality index exhibited poor, very poor and unfit water quality
except in places like Banjara Hills, Erragadda and Tolichowki. Appropriate
methods for improving the water quality in affected areas have been
suggested.
Emmanuel

et

al

(2007)

explored

the

physico-chemical

characteristics of all drinking water sources of Nalgonda sub-division, Andhra

Pradesh State. About 35 water samples were collected from the various
locations of the study area including bore well, hand pump and analysed pH,
EC, TDS, turbidity, total hardness, fluoride, nitrate and nitrite, sulphates,
phosphates, calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, iron and dissolved
oxygen. On an average, in almost all the samples, one or the other chemical
constituent was beyond the permissible limits. It was concludes water sources
in the study are not fit for drinking as well as agricultural purpose also. The
study indicates the need for periodic monitoring of groundwater in the study
area.

73

Sources and fate of nitrate (NO3-) transport in the Illinois River

from the Chicago area to the rivers confluence with the Mississippi river was
conducted by Panno et al (2008). After two years of study they concluded that
samples from waterways in the Chicago area (Des Plaines River and the
Sanitary and Ship Canal) had relatively high concentrations of nitrogen (N)
species and NO3 isotopic compositions indicative of treated wastewater
(TWW). Downstream of the Brandon Road Lock and Dam, NO3, in tributaries
discharging to the Illinois River primarily as well as drain tiles were indicative
of synthetic fertilizer and/or soil organic matter (SOM) at various stages of
denitrification. Nitrate-N concentrations generally decreased in the Illinois
River with distance from Chicago area primarily due to dilution. The decrease
in NO3-N concentrations was especially conspicuous during the summer, when
there is minimal discharge from drain tiles and NO3-N concentrations in the
tributaries were low. In August 2005, when conditions were very dry, NO3-N
concentrations decreased from 7.4 mg/L in the Chicago area to less than
1mg/L near where the Illinois River discharges to the Mississippi River. The
isotropic composition of NO3 in water samples from the Illinois River were a
mixture of three end members: (1) fertilizer and/or SOM in drain tile water,
typically showing the least amount of denitrification, (2) fertilizer and/or SOM
in deeper ground water, showing the height degree of denitrification, and (3)
TWW. There was seasonal variability depending on the volume of water
flowing in the Illinois River. During high flow periods a greater influence of
TWW was observed in the isotopic composition. A subset of summer samples
from the Chicago waterways had isotopic values plotting near and within the
domain that characterizes manure and sewage. Nitrate in the Chicago area is
primarily derived from TWW, with its isotopic signature evident downstream
at least as far as Pekin during most of the year and all the way to the
Mississippi River during periods of low flow. Denitrification occurs
predominantly in groundwater between and away from drain tiles, although

74

there is evidence that in stream denitification and/or biological uptake of NO3occurs in the Peoria Lake reach of the Illinois River, at least during periods of
low flow in the summer. They calculated that the river was losing about half of
its NO3-N load in Peoria Lake in August 2005 (a period of very low flow), at a
rate of about 7500 kg/day.
A study on a hyperbolic asymptotic function in dispersivity was
carried out by Jui-Sheng Chen et al (2008). The study indicates that the
dispersivity initially increases with travel distance and eventually reaches an
asymptotic value at long travel distance. It is adopted and incorporated into the
general advection-dispersion equation for describing scale-dependent solute
transport in porous media. An analytical technique for solving advectiondispersion

equation

with

hyperbolic

asymptotic

distance-dependent

dispersivity is presented. The analytical solution is derived by applying the

extended power series method coupling with the Laplace transform. The
developed analytical solution is compared with the corresponding numerical
solution to evaluate its accuracy. Results demonstrate that the breakthrough
curves at different locations obtained from the derived power series solution
agree closely with these from the numerical solution.
Hassan et al (2008) evaluated the use of the generalized likelihood
uncertainty estimation (GLUE) methodology in analyzing the results of
stochastic groundwater models. They investigated the ability of the GLUE
methodology to mitigate the effect of the selection of the input parameter prior
distributions on the modeling results. This is important when no prior
information is available or when significantly different priors come from
different sources or experts. The different approaches that can be used to
implement the GLUE methodology in analyzing the stochastic results of such
models and quantifying the uncertainty in model prediction are evaluated.
Recent debates about the GULF methodology and the problem of using less

75

formal likelihood functions are discussed in terms of the applicability of such

issues to groundwater studies in general and a given filed site specifically.
These issues are investigated using a density-driven groundwater flow model
of a nuclear testing site (Milrow) on Amchitka Islan, Alaska. Results of the
analysis highlight the subjectivity of the choice of the shape factor associated
with the GULF likelihood measures. However, the arbitrary choice of this
factor can be tied to the level of confidence one can place on the available
observations. While traditional GULF applications focus on displaying
prediction quantities, GLUE can be used to develop uncertainty bounds that
are qualitatively similar to predictive uncertainty. Interestingly, for the case
study shown the traditional GLUE quantities and the uncertainty bounds are
almost identical. Results also show that the GLUE- based ensemble averaging
yields results that are controlled by the data more than by the prior
distributions. The GLUE developed uncertainty bounds provide conditional
predictions that are free from the artificial smoothing associated with ensemble
averaging.
Groundwater quality management relies more and more on models
in recent years. These models are used to predict the risk of groundwater
contamination for various land uses. Cors van den Brink et al (2008) presented
an assessment of uncertainties and sensitivities to input parameters for a
regional model. The model had been set up to improve and facilitate the
decision-making process between stakeholders and in a groundwater quality
conflict. The stochastic uncertainty and sensitivity analysis comprised a Monte
Carlo simulation technique in combination with a Latin hypercube sampling
procedure. The uncertainty of the calculated concentrations of nitrate leached
into groundwater was assessed for the various combinations of land use, soil
type, and depth of the groundwater table in a vulnerable, sandy region in The
Netherlands. The uncertainties in the shallow groundwater were used to assess

76

the uncertainty of the nitrate concentration in the abstracted groundwater. The

confidence intervals of the calculated nitrate concentration in shallow
groundwater for agricultural land use functions did not overlap with those of
non-agricultural land use such as nature, indicating significantly different
nitrate leaching in these areas. The model results were sensitive for almost all
input parameters analyzed. However, the NSS is considered pretty robust
because no shifts in uncertainty between factors occurred between factors
towards systematic changes in fertilizer and manure inputs of the scenarios. In
view of these results, there is no need to collect more data to allow science
based decision making in this planning process.
Rapid expansion of major cities throughout the world is resulting in
the degradation of water quality in local aquifers. Increased use of road deicers
since the middle of the 20th century in cities in the northern United States,
Canada, and Europe has been linked to degraded ground water quality.
Chicago, Illinois, and its outlying suburban area are used as an example of the
effects of urbanization in a historical context. A statistical study of historical
water quality data was undertaken by Kelly (2008) to determine how
urbanization activities have affected shallow (<60m) ground water quality.
Chloride (Cl-) concentrations have been increasing, particularly in counties
west and south of Chicago. In the majority of shallow public supply wells in
the western and southern counties. Cl- concentrations have been increasing
since the 1960s. About 43% of the wells in these counties have rate increases
greater than 1 mg/L/year, and 15 % have increases greater than 4mg/L/year.
Approximately 24% of the samples collected from public supply wells in the
Chicago area in the 1990s had Cl- concentrations greater than 100 mg/L (35%
in the western and southern counties); medium values were less than 10 mg/L
before 1960. The greater increase in Cl- concentrations in the outer counties is
most likely due to both natural and anthropogenic factors, including the

77

presence of more significant and shallower sand and gravel deposits, less
curbing of major highways and streets, and less development in some parts of
these counties.
Kraft et al (2008) identified that the leakage of pollutants from
agricultural lands to aquifers has increased greatly, driven by increasing
fertilizer and pesticide use. Because this increase is recent, ground water
pollutant concentrations, loads, and exports may also be increasing as
pollutants penetrate more deeply into aquifers. They established in an aquifer
profile a ground water recharge and pollutant leakage chronology in an
agricultural landscape where 30 m of till blankets a 57 m thick sandstone
aquifer. Pollutant concentration increased from older ground water (1963) at
the aquifer base to younger ground water (1985) at its top, a signal of
increasing pollutant leakage. Nitrate load and export could increase from
130% to 230% before reaching a steady state in 20 to 40 years. Chloride
increase and then a leveling corresponding to the timing of product adoption
and leveling of demand. Unlike NO3, projecting pesticide residue steady states
is complicated by the phasing in and out of pesticide products over time; for
example, neither alachlor nor atrazine is currently used in the area, and newer
products, which have not had time to transit to the aquifer, have been adopted.
The circumstances that resulted in the lack of a pollutant steady state are not
rare; thus, the lack of steady states in agricultural region aquifers may not be
uncommon.
Shaoyuan Feng et al (2008) reported that in arid regions, human
activities like agriculture and industry often require large ground water
extractions. Under these circumstances, appropriate ground water management
polices are essential for preventing aquifer overdraft, and thereby protecting
critical ecologic and economic objectives. Identification of such polices
requires accurate simulation capability of the ground water system in response

78

to hydrological, meteorological, and human factors. In their research, artificial

neural networks (ANNs) were developed and applied to investigate the effects
of these factors on ground water levels in the Minqin oasis, located in the
lower reach of Shiyang River Basin, in Northwest China. Using data spanning
1980 through 1997, two ANNs were developed to model and simulate
dynamic ground water levels for the two sub regions of Xinhe and Xiqu. The
ANN models achieved high predictive accuracy, validating to 0.37 m or less
mean absolute error. Sensitivity analysis were conducted with the models
demonstrating that agricultural ground water extraction for irrigation is the
predominant factor responsible for declining ground water levels exacerbated
by a reduction in regional surface water inflows. ANN simulations indicate
that it is necessary to reduce the size of the irrigation is the predominant factor
responsible for indicate that it is necessary to reduce the size of the irrigation
area to mitigate ground water level declines in the oasis. Unlike previous
research, this study demonstrates that ANN modeling can capture important
temporally and spatially distributed human factors like agricultural practices
and water extraction patterns on a regional basin (or sub basin) scale,
providing

both

high-accuracy

prediction

capability

and

enhanced

understanding of the critical factors influencing regional ground water

conditions.
According to Frippiat et al (2008) classical Fickian model for solute
transport in porous media cannot correctly predict the spreading (the
dispersion) of contaminant plumes in a heterogeneous subsurface unless its
structure is completely characterized. Although the required precision is
outside the reach of current filed characterization methods, the advectiondispersion model remains the most widely used model among practitioners.
Two approaches can be adopted to solve the effect of physical heterogeneity
on transport. First, based on a given characterization of the spatial structure of

79

the subsurface, up scaling methods allow the computation of apparent scaledependent parameters (especially longitudinal dispersivity) to be used in the
classical Fickian model. In the second approach, upscaled (non-Fickian)
transport equations with scale-independent parameters are used. Efforts are
made to classify and review up scaling methods for Fickian transport
parameters and non-Fickian upscaled transport equations for solute transport,
with an emphasis on their mathematical properties and their (one-dimensional)
analytical formulations. In particular, their capacity to model scale effects in
apparent longitudinal dispersion is investigated. Upscaling methods and up
scaled models are illustrated in the case of two three-dimensional synthetic
aquifers, with lognormal hydraulic conductivity distributions characterized by
variance values of 2 and 8.
Reduction / oxidation (redox) conditions in 15 principal aquifer
(PA) systems of the United States, and their impact on several water quality
issues was studied by McMahon and Chapelle (2008) from a large data base
collected by the National Water Quality Assessment Program of the USGS.
The logic of these assessments was based on the observed ecological
succession of electron acceptors such as dissolved oxygen, nitrate, and sulfate
and threshold concentrations of these substrates needed to support active
microbial metabolism. Similarly, the utilization of solid-phase electron
acceptors such as Mn (IV) and Fe (III) is indicated by the production of
dissolved manganese and iron. An internally consistent set of threshold
concentration criteria was developed and applied to a large data set of 1692
water samples from the Pas to assess ambient redox conditions. The indicated
redox conditions then were related to the occurrence of selected natural
(arsenic) and anthropogenic (nitrate and volatile organic compounds)
contaminants in ground water. For the natural and anthropogenic contaminants
assessed in this study, considering redox conditions as defined by this

80

framework of redox indicator species and threshold concentrations explained

many water quality trends observed at a regional scale. An important finding
of this study was that samples indicating mixed redox processes provide
information on redox heterogeneity that is useful for assessing common water
quality issues. Given the interpretive power of the redox framework and given
that it is relatively inexpensive and easy to measure the chemical parameters
included in the framework, those parameters should be included in routine
water quality monitoring programs whenever possible.
Influence of spatial variations in aquifer properties on contaminant
transport was studied by Murray Close et al (2008) by constructing two large
scale (9.5 m long, 4.7 m wide, 2.6 m deep), three-dimensional artificial
aquifers. One aquifer was uniformly filled with coarse sand media (0.6 to 2.0
mm) and the other was constructed as a heterogeneous aquifer using blocks of
fine, medium, and coarse sands. The key features of these artificial aquifers are
described. An innovative deaeration tower was constructed to overcome a
problem of the aquifers becoming blocked with excess air from the ground
water source. A series of tracer injection experiments were conducted to test
the homogeneity of the first aquifer that was purposely built as a homogeneous
aquifer and to calculate values of aquifer parameters. Experimental data show
that the aquifer is slightly heterogeneous, and hydraulic conductivity values
are significantly higher down one side of the aquifer compared to the mean
value. There was very good agreement in estimated dispersivity values
between the plume area ratio methods and the curve fitting of tracer
breakthrough curves. Dispersivity estimates from a full aerial sources injection
(12.2 m2) experiment using a 1D analytical model were higher than estimates
from limited source injection (0.2 m2) experiment using a 3D model, possibly
because the 1D model does not take account of the heterogeneity of hydraulic
conductivity in the aquifer, thus overestimating dispersivity. Transverse and

81

vertical dispersivity values were about five times less than the longitudinal
dispersivity. There was slight sorption of Rhodamine WT onto the aquifer
media.
A lumped model known as Tank model for regional groundwater
flows to estimate the groundwater flow system of the Osaka plain aquifer of
Japan was proposed by Shija Kazumba et al (2008). The aquifer is divided into
Tanks within which the average values of the groundwater levels is assumed to
be representative in the Tanks. For each Tank the mass-balance equations
expressing the conservation of water are written. The Quasi-Newton
optimization technique together with Akaikes Information Criterion, AIC, are
employed in order to response and reliability of the parameter estimation. A
stable model is estimated which is believed to be reliable to simulate the
groundwater flow pattern of the Osaka plain seawater to the deeper layers in
the studied period.
Esling et al (2008) reported that the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency has established several methods to delineate wellhead protection area
(WHPAs) around community wells in order to protect them from surface
contamination sources. Delineating a WHPA often requires defining the
capture zone for a well. Generally, analytical models or arbitrary setback zones
have been used to define the capture zone in areas where little is known about
the distribution of hydraulic head, hydraulic conductivity, or recharge.
Numerical modeling, however, even in areas of sparse data, offers distinct
advantages over the more simplified analytical models or arbitrary setback
zones. The systematic approach discussed here calibrates a numerical flow
model to regional topography and then applies a matrix of plausible recharge
to hydraulic conductivity ratios (R/K) to investigate the impact on the size and
shape of the capture zone. This approach does not attempt to determine the
uncertainty of the model but instead yields several possible capture zones, the

82

composite of which is likely to contain the actual capture zone. A WHPA

based on this composite capture zone will protect ground water resources
better than one based on any individual capture zone. An application of the
method to three communities illustrates development of the R/K matrix and
demonstrations that the method is particularly well suited for determining
capture zones in alluvial aquifers.
Model based contaminant source identification plays an important
role in effective site remediation. Alexander Sun (2008) introduced a frame
work called contaminant source identification toolbox (CONSID) for solving
contaminant source identification problems. It is known that the presence of
various types of model uncertainties can severely undermine the performance
of many existing source estimators. The current version of CONSID consists
of two robust estimators for recovering source release histories under model
uncertainty; one was developed in the deterministic framework and the other
in the stochastic framework. To use the robust estimators provided in
CONSID, the user is required to have only modest prior knowledge about the
model uncertainty and be able to estimate the bound of model deviations
resulting from the uncertainty. The toolbox is designed so that other source
estimators can be added easily. A step-by-step guidance for using CONSID
with an example is provided by the author.
A new method for simulating large scale sub-surface contaminant
transport that combines an Analytic Element Method (AEM) groundwater
flow solution with a split-operator Streamline Method for modeling reactive
transport was introduced by Bandilla et al (2009). The key feature of the
method is the manner in which the vertically integrated AEM flow solution is
used to construct three-dimensional particle tracks that define the geometry of
the streamline method. The inherently parallel nature of the algorithm supports
the development of reactive transport models for spatial domains much larger

83

than current gridbased methods. The applicability of the new approach is

verified for cases with negligible transverse dispersion through comparisons to
analytic solutions and existing numerical solutions, and parallel performance is
demonstrated through a realistic test problem based on the regional-scale
transport of agricultural contaminates from spatially distribute sources.
According to Shadab Anwar and Michael Sukop (2009) the flow
transport simulation in karst aquifers remains a significant challenge for the
groundwater modeling community. Darcys law based models cannot simulate
the inertial flow characteristic of many karst aquifers. Eddies in these flows
can strongly affect solute transport. The simple two-region conduit/matrix
paradigm is inadequate for many purposes because it considers only a
capacitance rather than a physical domain. Relatively new Lattice Boltzmann
Methods (LBMs) are capable of solving inertial flows and associated solute
transport in geometrically complex domains involving karst conduits and
heterogeneous matrix rock. LBMs for flow and transport in heterogeneous
porous media, which are needed to make the models applicable to large-scale
problems, are still under development. The authors explore aspects of theses
future LBMs, present simple examples illustrating some of the processes that
can be simulated, and compare the results with available analytical solutions.
Simulations are contrived to mimic simple capacitance-based two-region
models involving conduit (mobile) and matrix (immobile) regions and are
compared against the analytical solution. There is a high correlation between
LBM simulations and the analytical solution for two different mobile region
fractions. In more realistic conduit/matrix simulation, the break through curve
showed classic features and two-region model fit slightly better than the
advection-dispersion equation (ADE). An LBM based anisotropic dispersion
solver is applied to simulate break through curves from a heterogeneous
porous medium, which fit the ADE solution. Finally, breakthrough from a

84

karst-like consisting of a conduit with inertial regime flow in a heterogeneous

aquifer is compared with the advection dispersion and two-region analytical
solutions.
A field study on soil chloride and deep drainage responses to land
clearing for cropping was carried out by Radford et al (2009) at seven sites in
Central Queensland, northern Australia. They summarized as follows: Soil
cones were taken at seven paired sites (native vegetation and adjacent dry land
cropping on cracking clay soils) which had been cropped for 10-65 years in
the Fitzroy Basin in central Queensland, northern Australia. Levels of soil
chloride (Cl-) and nitrate nitrogen (NO3-N) were determined in 0.3 m
increments to a depth of 5m where possible. The amounts of Cl- in the soil (01.5 m depth) under native vegetation were generally high (10-23tha-1 at six of
seven sites). The amounts of Cl- that had leached below 1.5 m depth during
dry land cropping varied from 2.2 to 16.8 tha-1 or 19-91% of the original totals
at 0-1.5 m. Leaching of salt from the crop rooting zone in combination with
higher rates of deep drainage can lead to out breaks of soil salinisation but can
also increase the soil plant available water capacity (PAWC). NO3-N had also
been leached below crop rooting depth at three sites. Such leaching not only
contaminates the groundwater but also wastes crop nutrients. The transient
chloride mass balance approach was used to determine mean annual rates of
deep drainage below crop rooting depth (1.5m). At all seven sites annual deep
drainage was low under native vegetation (0.2-1.7 mm yr-1) but increased
under dry land cropping (1.6-27.5mm yr-1). Drainage losses showed an inverse
relationship with plant available water content (PAWC). Drainage losses waste
the limited supply of water available for dry land cropping but can be reduced
by practicing opportunity cropping or by growing ley (temporary) pastures in
rotation with annual crops.

85

In many hydrological investigations accurate representation of the

spatial distribution of water table depth remains one of the greatest
deficiencies. Buchanan and Triantafilis (2009) used both inverse distance
weighting (IDW) and ordinary Kriging (OK) to interpolate depths. These
methods, however, have major limitations: namely they require large number
of measurements to represent the variation between measurements points.
They address this issue by assessing the benefits of using stepwise multiple
linear regression (MLR) with three different ancillary data sets used are
electromagnetic (EM 34 and EM 38), gamma radio metric: potassium (K),
uranium (eU), thorium (e Th), total count (TC), and morphometric data.
Results show that MLR offers significant precision and accuracy benefits over
OK and IDW. Inclusion of the morphometric data set yielded the greatest
(16%) improvement in prediction accuracy compared with IDW, followed by
the electromagnetic data set (5%). Use of the gamma radiometric data set
showed no improvement. The greatest improvement, however, resulted when
all data sets were combined (37%) increase in prediction accuracy over (IDW).
Significantly, however, the use of MLR also allows for prediction in variations
in water table depth between measurements points, which is crucial for land
management.
2.3

GROUNDWATER QUALITY MODELING STUDY USING

MODFLOW
John Doherty (2001) reported that use of USGS ground water flow

model MODFLOW is often hampered by the occurrence of dry cells. While

MODFLOW allows such cells to rewet in the course of a simulation,
stability of the heads solution process is often problematical with rewetting
functionality operative. In many case of practical interest (particularly in
mining applications), MODFLOW simply fails to converge. However by
making a number of adjustments to the MODFLOW block-centered flow
package, it is possible to overcome this problem in many instances of

86

MODFLOW development. These adjustments are such as to allow a layer to

transmit water, albeit with vastly reduced transmissivity, even if the water
level in that layer is below its base. With these alterations MODFLOW cells
can remain active even if they lie within the unsaturated zone.
Contaminant transport models often use a velocity field derived
from a MODFLOW flow field. Consequently, the accuracy of MODFLOW in
representing a ground water flow filed determines in part the accuracy of the
transport predictions, particularly when advective transport is dominant. Henk
Haitjema et al (2001) compared MODFLOW ground water flow rates and
MODPATH particle traces (advective transport) for a variety of conceptual
models and different grid spacing to exact or approximate analytic solutions.
All of the numerical experiments concerned flow in a single confined or semi
confined aquifer. While MODFLOW appeared robust in terms of both local
and global water balance, they found that ground water flow rates, particle
traces, and associated ground water travel times are accurate only when
sufficiently small cells are used. For instance, a minimum of four or five cells
are required to accurately model total ground water inflow in tributaries or
other narrow surface water bodies that end inside the model domain. Also,
about 50 cells are needed to represent zones of differing transmisivities or an
incorrect flow filed and (locally) inaccurate ground water travel times may
result. Finally, to adequate represent leakage through aquitards or through the
bottom of surface water bodies it was found that the maximum allowable cell
dimensions should not exceed a characteristic leakage length

, which is

defined as the square root of the aquifer transmissvity times the resistance of
the aquitard or stream bottom. In some cases a cell size of one-tenth of

is

necessary to obtain accurate results.

Thiyagarajan

and

Ranghaswami

(2003)

validated

Visual

MODFLOW model using the monthly ground water levels (heads) of 65

87

observation wells of the Gundar river basin recorded over a period of 3 years
from July 1999 to June 2002. These wells were distributed in the regions of
hard rock, sedimentary and alluvial formations of Gundar river basin. The
calculated wellheads by the model in 57 wells showed a deviation of 10 20% from the observed or actual heads. The remaining 8 wells showed a
deviation of 25 to 35%. The error in the computed values of the model
secures to stem from the difference in the direction of groundwater flow,
irrigation practices, variation in recharge rate of aquifer and difference
between the calculation date and actual date of recording data. In all, the
permissible error of 10-20% was observed in 87.3% of computed values by
the model. This value of 87.3% is more than acceptable (80%), particularly for
models dealing with groundwater. Thus the model was validated successfully
and consequently all other outputs generated by the model are also validated.
The groundwater potential is more near the river and it occurs at a depth of
around 23.0 m. It occurs at a depth of 29.0 m, the deepest in the highest
elevated areas of the basin. The water table gradually goes down from the river
to the boundaries within the basin, the contours are wider spaced indicating a
lower hydraulic gradient for the groundwater flow. The groundwater potential
in the basin is poor due to excessive pumping along with poor recharge. To
have an idea about the areas contributing for groundwater recharge, a
groundwater recharge contour map was generated using the model. The
recharge source is surface water from precipitation and to a lesser degree, from
irrigation or artificially constructed recharge ponds or losing streams. In
Gundar river basin, the recharge rate varies from 0.1m/month to 0 m/month.
The recharge structures should be built on the lower boundary of the basin in
order to arrest the water flowing into the adjacent basin and also some
recharge structures in the lower reach of the basin to collect the water flowing
to the sea as surface runoff. The model was used to generate groundwater
scenarios when the northeast monsoon was reduced by 25%, 50%, 75% and

88

100% from the reference rainfall of the year 2001-2002. The water table near
the river reduced by 3m, 6m, 7m and 8m when the northeast monsoon reduced
by 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% respectively. The corresponding water table
depths in the entire basin were 26-32m, 29-34m, 30-36m and 30-40m
respectively. The authors had concluded that groundwater status in the basin is
very poor and hence, suitable recharge methods (natural and artificial) should
be adopted. This can be done by arresting the water flowing towards the sea as
surface runoff by constructing suitable structures at appropriate places.
Groundwater simulation studies in the Hirakud command area was
carried out by Anandha Kumar and Sinha (2003). In the study a mathematical
model had been developed using MODFLOW package of USGS to simulate
hydrogeological condition of the groundwater flow systems in the command
area and to generate alternative management scenario to evolve optimal
conjunctive use strategy. The main objective of the study was to arrest the ever
rising ground water levels as well as to control further extension of water
logged areas, at the same time care had been taken to optimally utilize both the
resources so that more area can be brought under irrigation. The model was
calibrated using filed hydrographs and using the observed and computed water
table contours. The calibrated model had been used to develop different water
use scenarios and their effect on the groundwater regime. The groundwater
simulation studies have shown that the water logging condition prevailing in
part of the Hirakud command area can be controlled by the development of
groundwater in conjunction with surface water without any deterioration to the
groundwater regime. The groundwater simulation studies have shown that the
water logging condition prevailing in part of the Hirakud command area can
be controlled by development of groundwater in conjunction with surface
water without any deterioration to the groundwater regime.

89

Variable density ground water flow models are rarely used to

estimate submarine ground water discharge because of limitations in computer
speed, data availability, and availability of a simulation tool that can minimize
numerical dispersion. Langevin (2003) presented an application of the
SEAWAT code, which is a combined version of MODFLOW and MT3D, to
estimate rates of submarine ground water discharge to a coastal marine
estuary. Discharge rates were estimated for Biscayne Bay, Florida, for the
period from January 1989 to September 1998 using a three-dimensional
variable density ground water flow and transport model. Hydrologic stress in
the 10 layer model include recharge, evapotranspiration, ground water
withdrawal from municipal wellfields, interactions with surface water (canals
in urban areas and wetlands in the Everglades), boundary fluxes, and
submarine ground water discharge to Biscayne Bay. The model was calibrated
by matching groundwater levels in morning wells, base flow to canals, and the
position of the 1995 salt water intrusion line. Results suggest that fresh
submarine ground water discharge to Biscayne Bay may have exceeded
surface water discharge during the 1989, 1990 and 1991 dry seasons, but the
average discharge for the tidal canals intercept fresh ground water that might
otherwise have discharged directly to Biscayne Bay. This application
demonstrates that regional scale variable models are potentially useful tool for
estimating rates of submarine ground water discharge.
Groundwater quality modeling of Chennai Nandanam area was
carried out by Barathi (2004). She simulated groundwater flow using Visual
MODFLOW. The aquifer characteristics, water level data for the observation
wells and rainfall data were used to run the model. The model was run to
simulate water level in 2001 and validated with field data by comparing with
the hydraulic head of observation wells. Other outputs such as ground water
flow and movement were obtained for the period of 2001. The volumetric

90

budget for the model was checked and the changes in storage of groundwater
system were assessed. The computed groundwater storage was compared with
the conventional Theisson polygon method. The model was run to simulate
water level in 2004. The calibrated model was used in determining the
quantity of recharge and the optional location for recharge to improve the
groundwater storage. The author concluded that there is a good agreement
between the computed values and filed data. The variation of predicted water
level with time is almost identical with that of variation of water level in the
filed. This could be possible only if the computed flow components are in
close agreement with the actual flows. The water level is high in central
western part and declining towards the Adyar river. Adyar river acts as a
drainage during November 2001 and March 2004 (monsoon and post monsoon
season), and the only source for recharge is the rainfall. The velocity increases
as the flow moves towards the river. The velocity of flow is high in the central
part and also in the north-east and south-west part indicating recharging in
these areas may drain more quickly into the river and canals. The total inflow
into and outflow from the system are nearly equal with a percentage
discrepancy of 0.03 which indicates proper execution of the model simulation.
The author also recommended that modeling of salt water intrusion into the
coastal aquifer using Visual MODFLOW.
An assessment of groundwater flow and pollutant transport through
modeling for Sulur watershed situated in the Coimbatore District was done by
Ljungberg and Qvist (2004). Most inhabitants in the Sulur water shed are
dependent on agriculture, and as the surface water is limited, groundwater is
the main source of water. Continuous increase in population has lead to
increased demand for water and overexploitation of the water resources. The
Sulur watershed is situated on a plateau surrounded by mountains forming a
rain shadow area that results in a dry climate, which affects the availability. As

91

a measure to reduce the impacts of water scarcity, the Indian Government has
initiated a project of so called percolation ponds that collect rainwater and let
it percolate to the groundwater. To meet the demand for irrigation, water is
also diverted from the river Noyal to the Sulur Big and Small tank. Due to the
discharge of untreated sewage water into the small tank the water has become
unsuitable for irrigation. The contaminated water will also infiltrate to the
groundwater and affect the water quality in the surrounding wells. The Sulur
watershed hence faces a problem of both quantity and quality of water.
Groundwater flow and pollutant transport can be assessed through modeling.
The groundwater flow pattern of Sulur watershed has been established using
the flow model MODFLOW. The spatial distribution of the contaminants from
the Small tank has been assessed with the transport simulation programme
MODPATH. The effects of the constructed percolation ponds have also been
examined during the modeling session. Water samples were taken in the two
tanks and in the surrounding wells in order to assess the general water quality
in the watershed and the potential influence of the Small tank. The results from
the modeling show that the flow pattern in the Sulur watershed is generally
from south to north. The modeling results clearly show the influence of
pumping wells on the flow pattern. In the northeastern part of the watershed, a
large density of wells creates an unnatural discharge area. This is mainly the
result of the poor availability of water in combination with the un
sustainability high withdrawal rates. The results show that under the prevailing
conditions, the water level will continue to decline unless measures are taken.
However, the results show that the water level can be increased by the
introduction of percolation ponds, which gives verification to the Government
project of construction of ponds and consequently gives great importance to
this study. As a result of the small amount of available water, the influence of
the Small tank is restricted to its direct vicinity, which means that only a
relatively small number of wells situated very close to the tank will be

92

affected. The quality of both surface and groundwater in Sulur watershed is

generally poor. The water cannot be used for drinking, and in some cases it is
not even suitable for irrigation. The main problems are high values of salinity,
alkalinity and sodium.
A method to estimate the uncertainty of the location of pathlines in
two-dimensional, steady-state confined or unconfined flow in aquifers due to
the uncertainty of the spatially variable unconditional hydraulic conductivity
or transmissivity filed was proposed by Fritz Stauffer (2005). The method is
based on concepts of the semi analytical first-order theory, which allows
estimates of the lateral second moment (variance) of the location of a moving
particle. However, this method is reformulated in order to account for
nonuniform recharge and nonuniform aquifer thickness. One prominent
application is the uncertainty estimation of the catchment of a pumping well
by considering the boundary pathlines starting at a stagnation point. In this
method, the advective transport of particles is considered, based on the
velocity filed. In the case of a well catchments, backtracking is applied by
using the reversed velocity field. Spatial variability of hydraulic conductivity
or transmissivity is considered by taking into account an isotropic exponential
covariance function of log-transformed values with parameters describing the
variance and correlation length. The method allows post processing of results
from ground water models with respect to uncertainty estimation. The code
PPPath, which was developed for this purpose, provides a post processing of
pathline computations under PMWIN, which is based on MODFLOW. In
order to test the methodology, it was applied to results from Monte Carlo
simulations for catchments of pumping wells. The results correspond well.
Practical applications illustrate the use of the method in aquifers.
Potter et al (2008) mentioned that the primary goals for most
ground water capture systems (i.e. pump-and-treat systems) are that (1) all

93

contaminants within zones of interest will eventually be captured and (2) the
extraction and reinjection wells are best located and operated at optimal flow
rates, creating hydraulically efficient flow systems. A new tool, MODular
ALLocation (MODALL), is presented to aid in the design and assessment of
capture systems. MODALL uses the MODFLOW calculated cell by cell flow
terms to evaluate internodal flow balances to determine the percentage of flow
in each cell which has either originated from a given source(s) or flows to a
specified sinks(s). Output from MODALL can be easily displayed in isopleths
of capture fraction (CF) to indicate the certainty or strength of capture in
various area. MODALL results are compared to the results from an analytical
solution, a pathline analysis using MODPATH, and solute transport simulation
with MT3DMS.
In large mountainous catchments, shallow unconfined alluvial
aquifers play an important role in conveying subsurface runoff to the foreland.
According to Jens Wolf et al (2008) river basin scale models describing the
entire water cycle are necessary in integrated water resources management and
to study the impact of global climate change on ground water resources.
Integrated regional-scale models must use a coarse, fixed discretization and
the geometrical properties of natural systems. Here, an approach to overcome
this discrepancy is discussed using the example of the German-Austrian Upper
Danube catchments, where a coarse ground water flow model was developed
using MODFLOW. The method developed uses a modified concept from a
hydrological catchments drainage analysis in order to adapt the aquifer
geometry such that it respects the numerical requirements of the chosen
discretization, that is, the width and the thickness of cells as well as gradients
and connectivity of the catchment. In order to show the efficiency of the
developed method, it was tested and compared to a finely discretized ground
water model of the Ammer subcatchment . The results of the analysis prove

94

the applicability of the new approach and contribute to the idea of using
physically based ground water models in large catchments.
Concurrent existence of confined and unconfined zones of an
aquifer can arise owing to ground water withdrawal by pumping. Using
Girinskiis potential function, Li-Tang Hu and Chong-Xi Chen (2008)
developed an approximate analytical solution to analyze transient ground
water flow to a pumping well in an aquifer that changes from an initially
confined system to a system with both unconfined and confined regimes. They
presents the details of the Chen model and then compares it with the analytical
model developed by Moench and Prickett (1972) for the same problem.
Hypothetical pumping test examples in which the aquifer undergoes
conversion from confined to water table conditions are solved by the two
analytical models and also a numerical model based on MODFLOW.
Comparison of the results suggests that the solutions of the Chen model give
better results than the Moench and Prickett model except when the radial
distance is very large or aquifer thickness is large compared with drawdown.
Accurate estimation of aquifer parameters such as transmissivity
and specific storage is often an important objective during a ground water
modeling investigation or aquifer resource evaluation. Yan and Burbey (2008)
mentioned that parameter estimation is often accomplished with changes in
hydraulic head data as the key and most abundant type of observation. The
availability and accessibility of global positioning system and interferometric
synthetic aperture radar data in heavily pumped alluvial basins can provide
important subsidence observations that can greatly aid parameter estimation.
The aim of this investigation is to evaluate the value of spatial and temporal
subsidence data for automatically estimating parameters with and without
observation error using UCODE 2005 and MODFLOW 2000. A synthetic
conceptual model (24 separate cases) containing seven transmissivity zones

95

and three zones each for elastic and inelastic skeletal specific storage was used
to simulate subsidence and drawdown in an aquifer with variably thick
interbeds with delayed drainage. Five pumping wells of variable rates were
used to stress the system for up to 15 years. Calibration results indicate that (1)
the inverse of the square of the observation values is a reasonable way to
weight the observations, (2) spatially abundant subsidence data typically
produce superior parameter estimates under constant pumping even with
observation error, (3) only a small number of subsidence observations are
required to achieve accurate parameter estimates, and (4) for seasonal
pumping, accurate parameter estimates for elastic skeletal specific storage
values are largely dependent on the quantity of temporal observational data
and less on the quantity of available spatial data.
Junqi Huang et al (2008) stated that when managing large-scale
ground water contamination problems, it is often necessary to model flow and
transport using finely discretized domains-for instance (1) to simulate flow and
transport near a contamination source area or in the area where a remediation
technology

is

being implemented;

(2)

to

account

for

small-scale

heterogeneities; (3) to represent ground water-surface water interactions; or (4)

some combination of these scenarios. A model with a large domain and finegrid resolution will need extensive computing resources. In this work, a
domain decomposition-based assembly model implemented in a parallel
computing environment is developed, which will allow efficient simulation of
large-scale ground water flow and transport problems using domain-wide grid
refinement. The method employs common ground water flow (MODFLOW)
and transport (RT3D) simulators, enabling the solution of almost all
commonly encountered ground water flow and transport problems. The basic
approach partitions a large model domain into any number of subdomains.
Parallel processors are used to solve the boundaries. For the transport model,

96

an extended numerical array is implemented to permit the exchange of

dispersive and advective flux information across sub domain boundaries. The
model is verified using a conventional single-domain model. Model
simulations demonstrate that the proposed model operated in a parallel
computing environment can result in considerable savings in computer run
times (between 50% and 80%) compared with conventional modeling
approaches and may be used to simulate grid discretizations that were
formerly intractable.
Scott Painter et al (2008) stated that dewatered or dry cells in the
USGS groundwater modeling software MODFLOW may cause non physical
artifacts, trigger convergence failures, or interfere with parameter estimation.
These difficulties can be avoided in two dimensions by modifying the spatial
differencing scheme and the iterative procedure used to resolve nonlinearities.
Specifically, the spatial differencing scheme is modified to use the water level
on the upstream side of a pair of adjacent cells to calculate the saturated
thickness and hence intercell conductance for the pair. This makes it possible
to explicitly constrain the water level in a cell to be at or above the cell bottom
elevation without introducing nonphysical artifacts. Thus constrained, all
initially active cells will remain active throughout the simulation. It was
necessary to replace MODFLOWs Picard iteration method with the NewtonRaphson method to achieve convergence in demanding applications involving
many dry cells. Tests using a MODFLOW variant based on the method
produced results nearly identical to conventional MODFLOW in situations
where conventional MODFLOW converges. The new method is extremely
robust and converged in scenarios where conventional MODFLOW failed to
converge, such as when almost all cells dewatered.
In environments with shallow groundwater elevations, small
changes in the water table can cause significant variations in recharge and

97

evapotranspiration fluxes. Rebecca Doble et al (2009) designed the most

commonly used ground water flow model MODFLOW with a modular
structure with independent packages representing recharge and evaporation
processes. Systems with shallow groundwater, however, may be better
represented using either a recharge function that varies with groundwater
depth or a continuous recharge and evapotranspiration function that is
dependent on depth to water table. In situations where the boundaries between
recharging and non recharging cells change with time, such as near a seepage
zone, a continuous ground water flux relationship allows recharge rates to
change with depth rather than having to calculate them at each stress period.
They described the modification of the MODFLOW 2000 recharge and
segmented evapotransparation packages into a continuous recharge- discharge
function that allows ground water flux to be represented as a continuous
process, dependent on head. The modifications were then used to model long
term recharge and evapotranspiration processes on a saline, semiarid
floodplain in order to understand spatial patterns of salinization and an
overview of this process is given.
Reimann and Hill (2009) mentioned that the USGS recently
developed the MODFLOW-2005 conduit flow process (CFP) (Shoemaker et
al. 2008), which implements the non-Darcian, dual-permeability flow regimes
that are not considered in traditional ground water flow codes based solely on
Darcys Law. MODFLOW-2005 CFP can operate in one of three modes. In
Mode 1, the ground water flow equation is coupled to discrete network of
cylindrical pipes, representing a conduit system. Flow within the pipes is
calculated by the Darcy-Weisbach equation for turbulent flow conditions and
the Hagen-Poiseuille equation for laminar flow. Volume concentration in the
pipe network is implemented according to Kirchhoffs law. Fully and partly
water-filled tubes are considered (Shoemaker et al.2008). CFP Mode 1 is

98

mainly based on the Carbonate Aquifer Void Evolution (CAVE) code (Liedl et
al.2003). In Mode 2, a turbulent form of hydraulic conductivity is computed as
power function of the Reynolds number to simulate horizontal flow that
transitions between laminar and turbulent conditions in preferential flow layers
representing laterally extensive, well-irrigated, conduit networks consisting of
vuggy porosity (Shoemaker et al.2008). In Mode 3, the first two modes are
combined to simultaneously simulate a discrete pipe network and a
preferential flow layer (Shoemaker et al.2008).
2.4

GROUNDWATER
CLUSTER

QUALITY

STUDY

OF

TANNERY

Sundarajan (2000) carried out modeling of groundwater in

Pernampet block, Vellore district using MODFLOW. The model was
calibrated and used for simulation. The aquifer parameters, lithology
particulars, bed rock details, land use map, twenty eight years water level data
of observed wells and rainfall data were used for model calibration. Using the
calibrated model, volumetric budget for the Pernampet block (ie) change in
groundwater storage was obtained and the head vs time, draw down vs time
curves for the wells were plotted by the model. At any stress period difference
between storage in and out was equal to the difference in recharge and
abstraction. Temporal variation of groundwater level indicates the magnitude
of recharge and discharge and aquifer storage co. efficient. The occurrence and
its movement were directly proportional to the rainfall and general geology of
the area. The water requirement due to cropping practices and other
groundwater withdrawal has a link to water flow and fluctuation. Water
balance study reveals that the irrigation abstraction is the main parameter for
groundwater depletion. The total outflow from the volumetric budget was in
higher side than the dynamic groundwater potential obtained from the
Theisson polygon map method. MODFLOW can be effectively used to study
the groundwater flow and fluctuations.

99

Groundwater quality degradation of upper Palar river basin of

Vellore district, due to tanneries and improvement due to CETPs was studied
by Srisathya (2001) using MODFLOW. He collected data on location of
tanneries, their points of discharge into Palar river, the characteristics of
tanneries, CETPs location, aquifer characters, lithology, soil, water level and
water quality data for the period 1997 and 2000 from PCB and CGWA. The
author concluded that groundwater quality has improved after the
commissioning of CETPs and closure of number of tanneries. Velocity vectors
in 1997 and 2000 show considerable change in the flow direction and
magnitude on the western side of the study area. In 2000, the flow from
CETPs is towards the boundaries except from the two CETPs located in the
north eastern side where the particles move towards the river. There is a
drastic change in the water level showing a severe depletion of groundwater in
the year 2000 when compared to 1997. The author also recommended that the
same study area could be used for future predictions of TDS concentration.
The disposal of effluent by the tanneries in Vellore district caused
severe damage to the groundwater quality in the Palar river basin. The
movement of total dissolved solids (TDS) in the groundwater was studied by
Molykutty et al (2003). The model was developed using VISUAL
MODFLOW package. At first, the flow modeling of the basin is developed to
find out the hydraulic heads and velocity of flow of groundwater in the basin.
The calculated values are retrieved in the mass transport package MT3D to
find the concentration of TDS in the groundwater for various scenarios. The
total area of Palar basin is 18270 km2 (IWS report). Palar river basin consists
of crystalline rock masses. Pumping tests conducted in this region by PWD
indicates transmissibility as 2.2 to 145 m2/day for hard rock and 200 to 300
m2/day for alluvium. A number of tanneries are located on both sides of Palar
river and tanneries adopt chrome tanning and vegetable tanning methods. The

100

TDS of the untreated effluents vary from 35,000 25,000 mg/l and that the
treated effluent vary from 20,000 6000 mg/l. The effluent from the industries
find their way to Palar river through small nallas and the pollutants move
through the alluvium below the river bed to the ground water. Water samples
collected from the area show that water is contaminated with high TDS.
Common effluent treatment plants were installed and treated effluent is being
sent since January 1996. The authors used VISUAL MODFLOW for the
prediction of TDS values for the following scenarios. i). when untreated
effluent is discharged till December 1995 and then treated is discharged, ii).
when effluent is discharged without treatment, iii). when no effluent is
discharged since January 1996. They concluded that the first half of the model
area, which include Vaniyambadi, Pernampet, and Ambur are more polluted
than the other areas. It is found that Pernampet block is highly polluted and by
sending the treated effluents from 1996, there is a reduction in the TDS
concentration of ground water in the study area. Since there is a wide variation
of TDS concentration in Pernampet block and the nearby Gudiyatham block,
the spread of pollutants is more in this area. It is also observed that the TDS
concentration is migrating from Pernampet to Gudiyatham block and due to
this, in future there is a chance of increase of TDS concentration in the
Gudiyatham area. In the study area, since the velocity is less, the spread of
pollutants is due to molecular diffusion. In Vaniyambadi and Ambur area,
almost all the places are having more or less same TDS concentration.
Therefore spread of pollutants due to molecular diffusion is also less here.
Hydraulic conductivity is also very less here. The river water depth in this
portion and rainfall recharge are less in this region compared to the down
stream portion. All these factors give rise to a uniform concentration in the
Vaniyambadi-Ambur area.

101

Mohan and Muthukumaran (2004) carried out a modeling of

pollutant transport in groundwater in Palar river basin. Mathematical model
for prediction of pollutant transport in subsurface flow in Palar river basin has
been studied. Palar river flows across North Arcot district which is important
district in the State where there are various types of industries among them
tannery stands dominant. The river Palar is the major drainage system in the
district. The flow in this river is seasonal with water flowing mainly in the
monsoon seasons. There are 600 tanneries in this district. The tanneries in the
district are mainly located at Vaniyambadi, Ambur, Pernambet and Ranipet in
clusters and about 95% of these tanneries are small sector. Excepting a few
industries most of the industries do not have proper effluent treatment measure
and reasons cited for this are inadequate space, finance, non availability of
appropriate treatment technology, and personnel, lack of motivation on the
tanneries part in setting up effluent treatment measures. The impact of
continued discharge of partially treated and mostly untreated effluents from
the tanneries, not only affected the land due to the presence of high amounts of
dissolved oxygen, chromium etc, and leave the water quality much to be
desired. The model was calibrated and validated for its performance with the
actual observed concentrations in the selected reach of Palar basin. The
authors have used the validated model to predict the fate of TDS concentration
over a longer period for the following six different scenarios. i). the same level
of pollution is continued, ii). the tannery effluent is treated to the extant so that
the TDS level is limited to 10000 mg/l from the year 1997, ii). the tannery
effluent is treated to the extant that it adheres to inland surface water standards
prescribed by the TNPCB, i.e, 2100 mg/l from the year 1997, iii). no effluent
discharge into the river Palar basin from the year 1997, iv). the quantum of
effluent is doubled with the TDS concentration value of 2100 mg/l from the
year 1997, v). ground water recharge is increase by 1.5 times from the year

102

1997 with the same conditions as that of scenario ii). The authors have
summarized as below:
i.

Mass transport modeling simulation can effectively be used for

studying the pollutant migration in a river basin. Thus the role of water
quality models in the filed of groundwater quality and pollutant
transport in subsurface studies is fully affirmed.

ii.

The model parameters can be effectively estimated by solving the

inverse problem.

iii.

The study area which is one of the most critically polluted area needs
immediate attention and measures so that the contamination of the
entire alluvial aquifer can be avoided. The effect of recharge of
groundwater is significant as the contamination development in the
aquifer getting very much reduced if the recharge rate is increased.

iv.

The model results show that the effect of contamination will be there
for a quite long time even if there is no effluent discharge into the
aquifer which infers that remediation measures are to be employed to
remove the pollutants from contaminated aquifers.

v.

The tanneries that are the major pollutants have to be thoroughly

monitored for quality and quantity of effluent discharge. Stringent
measures are to be adopted to ensure that the discharged effluent is
treated properly and it adheres to the discharge standards prescribed by
the TNPCB in order to avoid further deterioration of the existing
condition.
Groundwater in and around Dindigul town of Tamilnadu State is

polluted due to discharge of untreated effluents from 80 functional tanneries.

Total dissolved solids (TDS) in about 100 km2 area are observed ranging from
2000 to 30,573 mg/l in open dug wells. A mass transport model was
constructed by Mondal, and Singh (2005) to study pollutant migration. The

103

study area covering 240 km2 was chosen to construct the groundwater flow
model in the weathered part of unconfined aquifer system. The shallow
groundwater potential field computed through the flow model was then used
as input to the mass transport model. MT3D computer code was used to
simulate mass transport in groundwater. The mass transport model was
calibrated with filed observations. The available database was, however, quite
sparse. Not with standing, efforts were made to arrive at reasonable
guesstimates of the characteristic parameters. Sensitivity analysis, an integral
part of calibration was carried out whereby model parameters, viz.
transmissivity, dispersivity etc., were altered slightly and the effect on
calibration statistics was observed. This study strive role than dispersivity,
indicating that the migration phenomenon is mainly through advection rather
than dispersion. The study also indicated that even if the pollutant sources
were reduced to 50% of the present level, TDS concentration level in the
groundwater, even after 20 years, would not be reduced below 50% of present
level.
Thangarajan (2008) reported that Palar river basin, a crystalline
rock region in Vellore district (Tamil Nadu), India, possesses vast groundwater
potential along and near the river course and its lands are fertile. Serious
contamination of both surface water and groundwater has been reported in this
basin as a result of uncontrolled discharge of untreated effluents by the tanning
industries for the last three decades. The health of the rural farming
community and people working in the tanning industries has been seriously
affected and they are suffering from occupational diseases such as asthma,
chromium ulcers and skin diseases. About 11000 hectares area of fertile land
has lost its fertility. Total dissolved solids (TDS) concentration in groundwater
at some pockets varies from 3000 to 10000 mg/l. As the discharge of effluents
is continuing, a prognosis of further pollutant migration is carried out using a

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mathematical model. A numerical model of the Upper Palar river basin was
developed using the finite difference technique coupled with method of
characteristics and used to predict TDS migration for the next 20 years.
Sensitivity analysis was carried out to identify the parameters which are
influencing the contaminant migration. Sensitivity analysis shows that
advection and not dispersion is the predominant mode of solute migration in
Palar basin. Prognosis using the model confirms that the polluted area zone as
well as the concentration of pollutants in the groundwater will continue to
increase in future. The study also indicated that even if the pollutant sources
are reduced to 25% of the present level, the TDS concentration level in the
groundwater, even after 20 years, will not be reduced below 50% of its 1992
level.
2.5

GROUNDWATER QUALITY STUDY OF DYEING UNITS

CLUSTER
The development of bleaching and dyeing industries in and around

Tiruppur block of Tamil Nadu State has led to groundwater pollution. A

simulation study on groundwater pollution in Tiruppur block using VISUAL
MODFLOW was carried by Viswanathan (2002). He reported that samples
were collected from 20 wells and analyzed for TDS concentration. The
location of industries, their effluent characteristics and lithology were
collected. The model was run with these inputs. The velocity vectors, pathlines
and contaminant transport were obtained for selected locations for a specified
time period. From the waterlevel and velocity vectors it is inferred that there is
depletion of groundwater in some areas where there is pumping of
groundwater for agricultural purpose and from groundwater flow pattern it is
clear that Noyyal river act as source of recharge for groundwater and
Chinnakarai river and Nallar river act as drainage. In present condition, the
industries discharge their effluents with high TDS concentration. An attempt is
made to simulate for 2003 considering if there is a decrease in TDS

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concentration.

The

simulated

concentration

indicated

considerable

improvement in the groundwater quality. The above result encourages the

utilization of models in decision making in groundwater management.
2.6

GROUNDWATER QUALITY STUDY IN PULP & PAPER

INDUSTRY AREA
Selvakumar and Ranghaswami (2003) assessed the characteristics

of recharge water and its impacts on aquifers in ground water recharge project.
They carried out a study to assess the groundwater quality changes due to
recharge by treated effluent irrigation from Viscose pulp plant of M/s SIV
Industries in Coimbatore (The factory is not in operation since 2000). The
study area falls with in the Bhavani river basin, located on the south bank of
Bhavani on the foreshore of Lower Bhavani Project reservoir. The effluent
(10,000 m3/day) from SIV Industries pulp mill is treated in the factory located
at Sirumugai village and pumped to the farms located 6 km away for irrigation
in an extant of 565 acres. The major crop cultivated is sugar cane. The
VISUAL MODFLOW (VMF) was used to simulate the three-dimensional
ground water flow and contaminant transport in the effluent irrigated area with
two years filed observations. The application of sustainable option was
demonstrated through the simulated values of future concentration levels for
TDS, chlorides and sulphate. It is observed that the concentration values are on
the increasing trend at all the observation points irrespective of options.
However, the effect is minimized if diluted effluent irrigation was carried out.
At 25 % and 50 % dilution, the reduction in the rate of accumulation was
observed as 2-3 times and 7 times respectively. The application of this
developed model with VMF has created a new platform for the design of ecofriendly management of effluent irrigation schemes.

The authors used the

aquifer parameters as follows: hydraulic conductivity-0.000026 m/sec, storage

co. efficient-0.0000136 m-1, specific yield-0.005. 12 observation well were
used to observe monthly water table depth, pumping rate, and TDS, chlorides

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& sulphate levels in the water. The chemical constituent of treated effluent is
TDS 2080 mg/l, sulpahe 219 mg/l, chlorides 377 mg/l. The authors used
simulation model to predict the groundwater quality under different
management options namely i). same level of irrigation (without dilution), ii).
25 % dilution of effluent irrigation iii). 50 % dilution of effluent irrigation. To
achieve the different management options on filed, only concentration of the
effluent was changed by keeping all other parameters as constant including the
quantity of effluent (10,000 m3/ day in 565 aces). The permissible
concentration of effluent TDS, chlorides and sulphate for sustainable irrigation
should be minimum so that the TDS, chlorides and sulpahte concentration of
ground water can be kept within its limited value. In the present case, it was
found that 50% dilution of effluent irrigation is safe for ground water. Hence,
the effluent from the factory should be treated to reduce the TDS, chloride and
sulpahte concentration of effluent to 50% before irrigation. The above study
indicates that the groundwater contamination can be a controlling factor. The
practical use of this study can be enhanced by a systemic research i.e improved
or new techniques are needed to determine filed value of certain aquifer
properties such as effective porosity and dispersion, which cannot readily be
evaluated. In some areas, the spatial and temporal variation of these
parameters may be important and that should be incorporated in the simulation
model.
Mukherjee (2006) stated that industrial disposal of effluents on land
and subsequent pollution of groundwater and soil of surrounding farmlands-is
relatively new area of research. Environmental and socio-economic aspects of
industrial effluent irrigation have not been studied as extensively as domestic
sewage based irrigation practices, at least for developing countries like India.
Disposal of treated and untreated industrial effluents on land has become a
regular practice for some industries. Industries located in Mettupalayam taluk,

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Tamilnadu dispose their effluents on land, and the farmers of the adjacent
farmlands have complained that their shallow open wells get polluted and also
the salt content of soil has started building up slowly. This study attempts to
capture the environmental and socio-economic impacts of industrial effluent
irrigation in different industrial locations at Mettupalayam taluk through
primary surveys and secondary information. This study found that continuous
disposal of industrial effluents on land, which has limited capacity to
assimilate the pollution load, has led to groundwater pollution. Groundwater
quality of shallow open wells surrounding the industrial locations has
deteriorated, and the application of polluted groundwater for irrigation has
resulted in increased salt content of soils. In some locations drinking water
wells (deep bore wells) also have high concentration of slats. Since the farmers
had already shifted their cropping pattern to salt tolerant crops (like jasmine,
curry leaf, tobacco etc.) and substituted their irrigation source from shallow
open wells to deep bore wells and / or river water, the impact of pollution on
livelihood was minimized. It is observed that with the rise in concentration of
electrical conductivity of groundwater samples, revenue from banana
cultivation has gone down. However blending open well water with the river
water and / or water from deep bore wells has arrested the fall in revenue. For
salt tolerant crop like jasmine, the rise in EC did not seem to have significant
impact on productivity. Since the local administration is supplying drinking
water to households the impact in the domestic sector has been minimized. It
has also been noticed that in some locations industries are supplying drinking
water to the affected households. However, if the pollution continues unabated
it could pose serious problems in the future.
2.7

GROUNDWATER QUALITY STUDY OF MUNICIPAL

SOLID WASTE DUMP AREA
Centre for Environmental Studies, Anna University (2003) carried

out a modeling of groundwater pollution due to solid waste dumping at

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Perungudi, Chennai. Perungudi is a dumpsite, receiving urban solid waste

from Chennai city. In the study, the groundwater pollution due to the dumpsite
was analyzed. With dumpsite at center, around 5km was considered as the
study area. The whole of the area is low-lying, close to sea level and is poorly
drained. The area is occupied by marshland and mud flats, which are
permanently wet and seasonally inundated. The exact dumpsite boundary was
mapped with GPS. The solid waste samples were collected within the
dumpsite and characterized. The TCLP test was conducted to find out the
leachate and characteristics. Water samples were collected from around 36
wells for different seasons and analyzed for pH, TDS, fluoride, COD,
hardness, nitrate and heavy metals such as Fe, Zn, Cd, Cr and Cu. The
influence of dumpsite on various water quality parameters was studied. Water
level fluctuations during the different seasons were also examined. Visual
MODFLOW, a groundwater modeling package was used to model the
groundwater contamination from the dumpsite. With aquifer characteristics as
input to the model, the groundwater flow and the path of contaminant
migration were understood. The model results were calibrated with the filed
observations. Using Iron as a key parameter, the existing dispersion pattern
was found out. Also future scenarios for various pollutant loads were
simulated. The study concluded that the current dumping area is 44.75
hectares, which is doubled in a period of 8 years (20 hectare in 1995), soil
predominates in the solid waste, water level in the study area ranges from 0.05
m and 9.3 m, pH ranges from 6.2 9.2, dumpsite does not have any influence
on fluoride, COD values are always exceeding the drinking standard, majority
of study area has hardness more than 600ppm, nitrate concentration is well
within the standards except few patches, leachate has high concentration of Fe,
Cd and Cr, groundwater flows vertically upto the top layer in all the seasons
(except December) and then horizontally in the second layer, irrespective of
the season the flow is towards dumpsite from north, leachate plume from

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dumpsite is expected to pollute the aquifer system. The study recommends for
waste management options including waste minimization/reduction at source,
material recycling, and waste processing with recovery of resources.
Mohan and Gandhimathi (2009) carried out a study on the
characterization of the solid waste and the effect of the leachate from the major
dumping site in Perungudi, Chennai city, on groundwater. From the study the
authors have come to a conclusion as follows: Various physical and chemical
parameters were estimated, this includes pH, total hardness, electrical
conductivity, and total dissolved solids, major cations such as Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+,
and K+, major anions such as NO3-, Cl- and SO42- and heavy metals such as Pb,
Cu, Mn, Cd, Cr and Zn. Perungudi dumping site receives 1650 tonnes of
municipal solid waste (MSW) daily from Chennai Corporation. The leachate is
a result of anaerobic decomposition of MSW. The chemical analysis shows
that all leachate samples and water samples have high concentration of heavy
metals, especially lead. This would adversely affect aquatic life and ultimately
enter the food chain, the consumption of which can cause adverse health
effects. From the results of the water quality study, it was found that the
groundwater is non-potable because most of the physical and chemical
parameters examined exceed the permissible limits. Therefore dumping site
leachates constitute a serious threat to the local aquifers.
2.8

GROUNDWATER QUALITY STUDY OF CHROMIUM

SLUDGE DUMP SITE
National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI), Hyderabad (2008)

carried out geo-environmental investigations for developing comprehensive

remediation plan in and around Tamilnadu Chromate and Chemicals Ltd,
Ranipet, Vellore district, where approximately 1,60,000 tonnes of chromium
waste was dumped on 2 acres of open land and lying for more than 20 years.
They studied chromium heavy metal transport in groundwater using visual

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MODFLOW. The 17.4 sq.km study area was divided into 71 rows and 46
columns with grid size of 105mX117m and simulated the plume migration for
30 years.
2.9

GROUNDWATER QUALITY STUDY OF SOLID WASTE

DUMP SITE IN COPPER SMELTER PLANT
Ernst & Young (2003) carried out a study on fluoride and heavy

metals transport in groundwater from gypsum pond and effluent treatment

plants sludge secured land fill facility of M/s. Sterlite Industries India
Limited, Thoothukudi. They performed the study using 3D finite difference
groundwater model MODFLOW, the advective transport model PMPATH and
solute transport model MT3D. They developed the model consisting of a
single layer with a depth of 15m. The model covers an area of 6km in northsouth direction (Y co-ordinate) and 12km in east-west direction (X coordinate), with grids size being 100mx100m. However, in the Sterlite Copper
Smelter Plant area, the mesh has been refined for better simulation. The terrain
is considered to be sloping from the west to the east at a gradient of 2m/km.
They simulated the results for different scenarios on rupture of HDPE liners
provided at the bottom of gypsum pond and ETP sludge SLF facility.
2.10

SUMMARY
There are lots of studies conducted on groundwater contaminant

transport by using mathematical model. Mathematical models provide a

framework for understanding the physical, chemical, and biological processes
that determine the cycling of elements and compounds through the
environment.

They provide a basis for relating human activities and

environmental impacts and thus for predicting the changes that might occur in
response to alterations in the activities. It is to be noted that so far no
groundwater quality simulations study has been conducted for Amaravtahi

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river basin of Karur area using mathematical models. The Amaravathi river
and the groundwater in Karur area are severely polluted due to discharge of
effluent by the textile bleaching and dyeing units.

Hence mathematical

modeling study is very essential to the under the system behavior and to take a
decision on corrective and remediation measures. Visual MODFLOW is a well
established tool to study the groundwater flow and contaminant transport. It is
used in the research.