Wear 221 Ž1998.

1–8

Automobile engine tribology—design considerations for efficiency and

durability
)
C.M. Taylor
School of Mechanical Engineering, The UniÕersity of Leeds, Woodhouse Lane, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK

Received 19 June 1998; accepted 19 June 1998

Abstract

In the United Kingdom, the Technology Foresight Programme wHMSO, Progress Through Partnership 1 Ž1995. 126 pp.x, through its
Transport Panel, revealed the requirement for key generic technologies and scientific research in relation to automobiles. One of the
‘three major development opportunities which will help accommodate increased demand in a sustainable way’ was identified as ‘ vehicles
with greater efficiency and reduced environmental impact’. In addition, further studies in ‘fuel efficiency’ and ‘simulation and modelling’
were recommended. The total scope of tribological considerations with regard to the above prospective research themes is immense and
the present paper will focus upon the major frictional components of the automobile engine, that is, the bearings, the valve train and the
piston assembly. In particular, the current position surrounding the modelling of these components will be reviewed and future
possibilities identified. Prediction of overall engine friction will be addressed and the specific issues of modelling of lubricant behaviour
and the role of surface topography touched upon. q 1998 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Tribology; Efficiency; Durability

1. Introduction being dissipated as heat. In addition, the IC engine con-

Recent UK Government statistics w1x revealed that in
1994, there were 25 million vehicles registered for use,
85% petrol-fuelled and 15% diesel, with a very small gas-,
liquefied petroleum gas- and electricity-powered group.
The reciprocating internal combustion engine accounts for
the vast majority of power units used in petrol and diesel
engines, and whilst it is remarkably reliable and versatile,
it does have drawbacks. These drawbacks can have enor-
mous influences on national and international economies.
The UK road vehicle figures mentioned above are re-
flected in even more impressive global statistics with the
USA, Europe and Asia having some 500 million motor
vehicles in 1993.
The drawbacks of the internal combustion engine in-
clude relatively low thermal and mechanical efficiencies
with a very significant proportion of the energy of the fuel
)
Fax: q44-1132424611; E-mail: c.m.taylor@leeds.ac.uk
tributes to environmental pollution through particulate,
nitrous oxide and hydrocarbon emissions and to the green-
house effect via carbon dioxide emissions.
Fig. 1 shows in the broadest sense the manner in which
the energy of the fuel is distributed. About 60% of the
energy is dissipated in the form of heat, either from the
engine surfaces or down the exhaust pipe. Mechanical
actions may account for a further frictional loss of the
order of 15%, leaving only a quarter of the original energy
in terms of brake power. In a similar spirit, Fig. 2 de-
scribes the breakdown of the mechanical losses in the
engine with the piston assembly being responsible for the
lions share, approaching one-half. It will be noted that
other losses associated with accessories and pumping can
be 20% or more of the mechanical losses. It is clear that
the energy distribution and mechanical loss distribution
will vary with engine type and operating conditions. In-
deed, an oil pump in say, a 1600 cm3 modern day petrol
engine can absorb some 2–3 kW at the limiting engine
speed, whilst the corresponding figure for a formula 1
racing car can be 20 kW.

0043-1648r98r$ - see front matter q 1998 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 4 3 - 1 6 4 8 Ž 9 8 . 0 0 2 5 3 - 1
2 C.M. Taylorr Wear 221 (1998) 1–8

Fig. 3 represents data provided by Anderson Ž1991. w2x

identifying the distribution of fuel energy in a passenger
car during an urban driving cycle.
These data reveal that only 12% of the available power
finds its way to the driving wheels, whilst 73% is lost to
coolingrexhaust and pumping and 15% to mechanical
losses. It is possible to do some amusing and alarming
sums on the basis of this as indicated below.

The automobile
Power to wheels 12%
during city driving
Cost of wasted $0.88
powerrl Ž$1rl
petrol, UK.
Total cost to $40 billion
Fig. 1. Typical fuel energy distribution in an internal combustion engine.
UKryear Ž25
million vehicles, 10,000
mileryear, 5.5 mile rl.
Total worldwide $1 trillion
The laws of thermodynamics indicate that with the costryear Ž625
Carnot cycle, an ideal engine could achieve a maximum million vehicles.
efficiency of about 85% for typical heat generation and
rejection temperatures. The low heat rejection and the high From the information in Fig. 3, it will be noted that a
thermal efficiency cannot be achieved in practice for a reduction in the mechanical losses of, say, 10% would lead
number of reasons. Quite naturally, the substantial thermal to a reduction in the fuel consumption of 1.5%. For an
losses which are encountered have led to engineers and average vehicle lifetime, driving a distance of 125,000
researchers devoting enormous energies to improving the miles, using the data in the box above, this would amount
efficiency of the IC engine, particularly since the energy to a fuel saving of 340 l of petrol during the lifetime of the
crisis of the mid 1970s. In particular there, have been car, equating to about $340, quite apart from environmen-
intense studies of the combustion process and engine tal gains due to reduced emissions. On a worldwide scale,
designrfuelling development improvements linked to this.
Further, low heat loss rejection engines have received
attention and maximum brake efficiencies of over 45%
have been reported. However, it has been recognised that
worthwhile efficiency gains might be effectively had by
paying attention to the more modest mechanical losses.

Fig. 2. Mechanical losses distribution in an internal combustion engine. Fig. 3. Power distribution in an automobile during city driving.
 C.M. Taylorr Wear 221 (1998) 1–8
the potential economies, in the round, are clearly substan-
tial.
In order to address the durability and frictional losses in
the major tribological components of an automobile en-
gine, it is necessary to have a clear understanding of the
engineering science underpinning their operation. Cur-
rently, the ability to achieve improved modelling of com-
ponents and deliver reliable predictions of behaviour, be-
fore cutting metal in a prototype, is a major objective of all
industrial sectors including the automotive field. This is
being made possibly by the spectacular advance in compu-
tational power now available on the desktop of the engi-
neering designer, coupled with substantive developments
in the powerful solvers needed to secure solutions to the
complex equations arising in the modelling. The remainder
of this paper will examine the major tribological engine
components from this standpoint, investigating the current
position and prospective developments, and will identify
some important developments and possible contributions.
In interpreting this, it is important to have an understand-
ing of the basic aspects of lubrication as reflected in the
sketch version of the Stribeck diagram shown in Fig. 4.
In summary the modes of lubrication shown in Fig. 4
are the following.
Ža. Hydrodynamic—in which the surfaces are com-
pletely separated by a film of lubricant, and the generation
of pressures in the film to carry the load is achieved by
classical hydrodynamic action, in which the dynamic vis-
cosity of the lubricant is the prime lubricant characteristic.
Fig. 4. The Stribeck diagram identifying the regimes of lubrication as
conventionally associated with specific lubricated engine components.
3
Žb. Elastohydrodynamic—in which the surfaces are also
in theory separated, but the contact is much more concen-
trated, the films are thinner and other physical phenomena
Želastic distortion of the surfaces and the effect of pressure
on dynamic viscosity. are influential.
Žc. Mixed—in which a lubricated contact experiences
some degree of asperity contact between surfaces and the
overall behavioural characteristics and load capacity are
defined by both Želasto. hydrodynamic and boundary Žsee
below. influences.
Žd. Boundary—in which it is the physical, and in
particular chemical, actions of thin films attached to the
surfaces which define performance—lubricant dynamic
viscosity is not important but the additive package will
have a significant role.
Fig. 4 reflects the enormous challenge facing the lubri-
cant technologist with regard to the use of a single product
in an engine. The tribological components rely upon differ-
ent lubrication mechanisms at different times, and the oil
specification will be a compromise in terms of durability,
energy efficiency and emission requirements.
2. Automobile engine tribological components
2.1. Engine bearings
The modern day analysis of engine bearings dates back
to the mid 1960s and is associated primarily with the
method developed by Booker w3,4x. In this approach, now
computerized, the applied bearing loading which is taken
to be known a priori, is balanced by the load capacity
generated by hydrodynamic action in the thin fluid film.
The method yields the important design parameter, the
minimum film thickness, together with an estimate of
maximum lubricant pressure and other parameters as de-
sired. The Mobility Method developed by Booker has
become a remarkably robust and reliable design tool for
engine bearing design. As with the other engine friction
components, its predictions are, however, only benchmark
because of the assumptions made in the analysis. The list
below is helpful in scoping the conditions typically en-
countered in a modern day main or big end bearing w5x.
Conditions in an automobile engine bearing
Minimum lubricant film thickness 1 mm
Maximum shear rate Žup to. 10 8rs
Maximum bearing temperature 120–1508C
Specific loading Žup to. 60 MPa
Maximum film pressure 250 MPa
Lubricant dynamic viscosity 2.5 = 10y3 Pa s
Power loss per bearing Žhigh speed. 0.25 kW
Flow rate per bearing Žtypically. 0.015 lrs
The assumptions made in the mobility analysis are quite
restrictive and these are listed below, with a corresponding
4 C.M. Taylorr Wear 221 (1998) 1–8

indication of some instances where these have been re- of view. For the last 20 years, almost all the major
laxed by researchers. automobile manufacturers have experienced cam and fol-
lower failures and problems persist.
There are, of course, a wide variety of valve train
Mobility method Relaxation of assumption—
mechanisms Že.g., push rod, pivoted follower, direct act-
of analysis of engine design challenges
ing, roller follower, desmodromic, etc.. and general con-
bearings—assumptions
siderations of cam and follower lubrication may be found
Short-bearing Full width-bearing analysis in Taylor w19,20x. A cam and follower contact is a form of
analysis straightforwardly possible, but concentrated contact Žnotionally elastohydrodynamic.
at substantial cost in analysis which is traditionally reflected as operating in the bound-
complexity and time. ary lubrication regime Žsee Fig. 4.. That is, the viscosity of
Circumferential Analysis of groovingrhole the lubricant is seen to be unimportant in the lubrication
symmetry effects emerging w6,7x but process, but the establishment of thin surface films of
complex. molecular proportions due to physical and chemical ac-
Rigid surfaces Elastic and thermal effects tions linked to the additive package, are seen to be crucial.
being considered w8–12x, but This is indeed the case, though more recent studies Žsee
complex and difficult to derive Ref. w19x. have already evidenced the contribution of elas-
generalised design data. tohydrodynamic lubrication and the importance of effec-
Perfect Misalignment rarely considered. tive mechanical design to establish the best lubrication
alignment conditions possible. Forms of zinc dialkyldithiophosphate
Lubricant Oil film history effects possible ŽZDDP. are the most common extreme pressure additive
freely available now, with computational effort used in oils to establish the thin films required; however,
becoming reasonable w13,6,7x. the prospect of the emission of zinc and phosphorous
Newtonian Consideration of shear thinning being seen as unacceptable for an environmental stand-
lubricant and pressure viscosity effects point is a real one. The additive to replace ZDDP is not
beginning to emerge w14,15x. apparent at the current time.
No vibrational Neglect of component inertia In the broadest sense, the valve train presents a wide
instability reasonable but little considera- spectrum of contacts to interest the tribological designer—
tion of bearing stiffness and the camsrfollowers, camshaft bearings, valve guides, lash
damping on overall vibrational adjusters, bucket guides, pivots and belt drives. Even if
characteristic of engine bearings. one restricts interest to the most important couple, the cam
Isothermal Few studies of thermal effects and follower, the range of tribological interests are exten-
in bearings w16,17x or total sive— metallurgyrfailurerwear, geometryrleftrkine-
engine thermal environment. matics, dynamicsrvibrationsrshockrnoise, additive pack-
agerboundary lubricationrsurface layers, friction, variable
Studies of the performance of engine bearings, which valve timing, fluid film lubrication and design philosophy.
were so active in the 1960s and 1970s, have taken second The design of a cam and follower from a tribological
place to development of the tribological understanding of context has improved significantly in the last 20 years, and
piston ringsrpiston assemblies and the valve train. How- has lead to the development of straightforward and sound
ever, evidence is beginning to emerge that with the contin- procedures and software Že.g., Ref. w18x.. The steps are:
ued development of smaller engines, with higher power Ø Kinematic considerations using standard methods of
outputs and speeds, that bearing problems are re-emerging. differential geometry;
Increasing attention to engine bearing design in all its Ø Load calculation, normally considering only inertia and
aspects is a priority for the future. spring effects;
Ø Film thickness evaluation from standard elastohydrody-
2.2. ValÕe train namic formulae;
Ø Stress calculations from Hertzian theory;
Valve train lubrication problems have presented diffi- Ø Friction and power calculations with a limiting traction
culties to engine designers throughout the century. How- assumption.
ever, the introduction of the overhead camshaft in the early Although such design procedures do not address di-
1970s led to increased difficulties. OHC arrangements rectly boundary lubrication effects and the failure mecha-
allowed improved production arrangements since the cylin- nisms which are encountered—pitting, scuffing and polish-
der head could be assembled separately from the block. In ing wear—they do enable sound decisions as to mechani-
addition, they operated better at high speeds and proved to cal design which contribute extensively to the production
be less expensive w18x. It is unfortunate that OHC designs of effective mechanisms. The figures below will help to
were found to be inherently poor from a tribological point enable a feel for the operating conditions of the cam and
 C.M. Taylorr Wear 221 (1998) 1–8
follower in a modern, four-cylinder, 1.8 l, four valvesrcyl-
inder IC engine with double overhead camshafts w21x.
Conditions in the cam and follower of a modern IC
petrol engine with a direct acting cam and follower
Camshaft speed
750 rpm 1500 rpm 2250 rpm
Film thickness 0.08 mm 0.13 mm 0.18 mm
Žat the nose.
Hertzian stress 635 MPa 609 MPa 570 MPa
Žat the nose.
Power loss 160 W 320 W 430 W
Ž8 camsrfollowers. —
intake camshaft
Power loss 170 W 350 W 500 W
Žintake valve
train total.
The trends in the usage of types of valve trains on a
global scale are interesting and an effective way of infer-
ring design problems and potential solutions. In Europe, 20
years ago, the use of direct acting cams and followers in
medium class automobile petrol engines was not extensive.
With increasing specific power outputs, smaller and faster
engines and the tribological problems associated with piv-
oted follower valve trains, there has been a strong move to
the use of direct acting followers. It is also clear that roller
follower valve trains are now receiving much closer atten-
tion in Europe. In the USA and Japan, the use of roller
follower valve trains has been much more extensive, though
there is a discernible trend towards an increasing use of
direct acting followers in North America.
The satisfactory lubrication of the cam and follower
contact in IC engines has proved to be the most difficult of
all the tribological components. To this day, extensive
problems persist for many manufacturers, both in the mass
and higher quality markets. Attention is drawn below to a
range of issues which will challenge the cam and follower
designer in the coming years and lead to improved durabil-
ity and efficacy.
Tribological design challenges for the automotive cam and
follower
v Improved surface profile, surface roughness and mixed
lubrication considerations.
v Development of a linkage between lubrication
mechanics and chemical mechanics, with a better
understanding of the role of additives in reaction films.
v Consolidation of the developments in the understanding
of lubricant rheology to make more effective design
prognostications.
v Wear modelling Že.g., Ref. w22x. linking to failure,
materials, lubrication and thermal considerations.
v Satisfactory provision of lubricant.
5
2.3. Piston assembly
For over 25 years, tribological studies of the piston
assembly, particularly the piston ringrcylinder liner con-
tact, have dominated the interest of researchers in the
fields of lubrication, friction and wear as linked to IC
engine components. The learned society literature abounds
with publications and the reader is referred to two Proceed-
ings of the Leeds-Lyon Symposium on Tribology for
initial background reading w24,25x. Studies of the hydrody-
namic lubrication of a single, flooded ring, critically de-
pendent on the ring face profile, have been expanded to
embrace both compression and oil control rings in a pack,
with consideration of lubricant continuity and ring starva-
tion. In the vicinity of the dead centres, where the entrain-
ing velocity of the lubricant into the ringrliner interface is
zero, consideration of elastohydrodynamic lubrication and
squeeze film effects have been undertaken and the impor-
tance of boundary lubrication in preserving satisfactory
performance has become evident.
Considerations of piston ring friction were originally
based upon viscous shear calculations but have now been
extended to incorporate mixed lubrication conditions. The
use of statistical models incorporating surface topography
effects has rendered encouraging agreement with regard to
power loss predictions and markedly influenced the views
on lubricant flow effects. There are increasing studies of
the variety of lubricant transport mechanisms with the aim
of understanding oil consumption and emission effects.
The range of factors which can influence the tribological
behaviour of the piston assembly is alarmingly extensive
and whilst some have received research attention much
remains to be done. The following list will serve to
indicate the scope of the problem:
Ø Ring dynamics including torsional effects
Ø Gas pressure variations
Ø Ringrgroove clearance
Ø Groove flank profile
Ø Ring flankrgroove interaction
Ø Piston motion
Ø Elastic and thermal deformation effects
Ø Non-axisymmetric considerations including non-cir-
cular bores
Ø Ring and cylinder liner wear
Ø Surface topography influences
Ø Ring and piston mechanical design
Ø Integration of piston and ring dynamics
Ø Materials consideration—piston and ring materials,
coatings and treatments
Ø Lubricant properties and lubricant degradation
Ø Lubricant fuel dilution
Ø Crevice volume
Ø Cavitation considerations.
The extent of issues outlined above is not complete but
it does indicate that there is still a long way to go towards
achieving optimum designs. Of course, the operating tribo-
6 C.M. Taylorr Wear 221 (1998) 1–8
logical conditions of a piston ring can vary widely with a
host of influential parameters. However, the details below
will once again give an engineering feel for the scale of
important factors. On this occasion, the data are represen-
tative of modern, 2-l, four-cylinder petrol engine with fuel
injection, four valvesrcylinder and a double overhead
camshaft w26x.
Conditions associated with the piston ring and cylinder
liner contact of a modern IC petrol engine
Engine speed 2500 rpm; maximum cylinder pressure 4
MPa; ISO VG 100 lubricant; oil inlet and water
outlet temperature 808C; BMEP 0.5 MPa
Piston land temperature above ring 1 2008C
Piston land temperature below ring 3 1908C
Žoil control ring.
TDC Žring 1. mean cylinder liner 1258C
temperature
Minimum oil film thickness ŽTDC ring 1. 0.9 mm
Minimum oil film thickness Žring 3. 0.5 mm
Mid-stroke oil film thickness Žring 1. 1.6 mm
Ring 1 friction Žrun in. 0.15 kW
Ring pack friction Žrun in. 0.49 kW
Some particularly interesting developments surrounding
piston assembly analysis include consideration of hydro-
carbon emission effects Že.g., Ref. w27x. and the linkage for
the first time of piston ring lubrication and wear models
w26x. The latter aspect will be touched upon later in this
paper but the following will serve to identify a range of
important potential design and analytical considerations for
piston assemblies in the future.
Future piston assembly research and design challenges
v Enhanced ring and liner wear modelling linked to
lubrication model and engine life history predictions
v Integrated piston and piston ring analyses
v Improved materialsrcoating considerations linked to
durability and failure
v Improved understanding of lubricant transport
mechanisms
v Influence of surface topography and mixed lubrication
v Three dimensional analysis improvements, including
non-circular borerpiston considerations
v Lubricant characteristicsrdegradation and their
influences
v Lubricant chemistryrreaction film studies
3. Other considerations
It is proposed to touch briefly upon two specific aspects
of engine tribology which merit particular focus at the
current time—lubricant modelling and surface topography.
3.1. Lubricant modelling
A recent paper w28x has described practical applications
of lubricant modelling to IC engines. The adoption of wear
models linked to lubrication conditions has already been
touched upon in the present paper and Coy referred to such
studies at the Shell Thornton Research Centre, UK in
relation to camrfollower and piston ringrcylinder liner
contacts. He also commented upon engine bearing wear,
considerations of which will be an important area for
development in the not too distant future. In particular,
though, his paper drew attention to the importance of
improved modelling of the lubricant. Typically, lubrication
analyses have taken dynamic viscosity Žas a function of
operating temperature. to be the significant lubricant char-
acteristic. For elastohydrodynamic conditions, the effect of
pressure on viscosity has also been considered. Coy identi-
fied that we are now in a position to be more extensive in
incorporating a range of lubricant characteristic behaviours
in analyses. Such considerations have already begun in
relation to the prediction of the performance of the individ-
ual engine tribological components, and upon engine fric-
tion and durability in particular. The improved incorpora-
tion of lubricant behaviour is an important area for auto-
motive engine tribology and the box below identifies
current and prospective rheological considerations.
Lubricant rheological analytical considerations in relation
to automotive engine tribology
v Temperature on dynamic viscosity
v Pressure on dynamic viscosity
v Shear rate on dynamic viscosity a
v Viscoelastic effects for engine bearingsa
a
With relaxation time effects as influenced by molecular
structure, temperature- and pressure-dependent viscosity
and density
3.2. Surface topography
In its broadest context, the ability to influence the
behaviour of a lubricated contact by careful consideration
of surface topography influences, and thus achieve a de-
sired optimum performance, is a vibrant area of research at
the current time. By surface topography influences, the
potential effect of both profile and surface finish are
implied. The area is a vast one upon which to comment
and it is only possible to draw out a few examples with
regard to the frictional elements of the internal combustion
engine.
3.3. Engine bearings
The remarkably thin films which are predicted to occur
in automobile engine bearings are suggesting that mixed
 C.M. Taylorr Wear 221 (1998) 1–8 7

lubrication conditions may be encountered. This is, how-

ever, still a matter for contention and overall behaviour is
clearly affected by thermal and elastic distortions. There is
better evidence that the machining process for a big end-
bearing crankpin, creating a lobed shaft, can be significant
in leading to premature failure. Mehenny et al. w29x have
considered this issue. The analytical problem is one of
circumferential lobing on a shaft with different amplitudes
and frequencies possible. Prospectively, the reduction in
lubricant film thickness may accelerate wear, whilst in-
creases in the amplitude and frequency of the fluctuations
in pressure can promote fatigue of the bearing surface. In
Fig. 5, the effect of lobing on the pressure distribution with
a nine lobed shaft is shown. In this sketch presentation, the Fig. 6. Average surface roughness values on the cams of a direct acting
load has rotated through 48 and the unusual form of the mechanism.
pressure distributions will give rise to minimum film thick-
ness and pressure changes which can be significant in wear
and failure. Some modest correlation with experimental It can be seen that on the cam flanks, there was little
data has been achieved for shafts with different numbers of change in roughness, reflecting healthy oil film thickness
lobes and different amplitudes. at these sites. The cam and follower were mechanically
separated over the base circle and hence, there was no
3.4. ValÕe train change in this region. Over the base region, there was
evidence on the rougher cams of an improvement in
Wear modelling of cams and followers has been men- surface finish reflecting removal of asperity tips and sur-
tioned previously w22x. This has led to some impressive face flattening. It will be noted that the smoother cam
agreements between measured and predicted profile wear. roughened up, and there was a tendency for the final
However, little has been reported in the literature relating roughness at the nose to move towards the same value
to the influence of surface finish of cam and follower irrespective of initial roughness. It is worthy of note that in
components on wear. Roylance et al. w23x have presented another series of tests, the temperature of the bulk appara-
details of the use of surface profilometry to measure wear tus was varied up to 1208C, but this did not appear to be an
during running in on pivoted followers, with surface finish influential factor.
and hardness varied. Harrison w30x and Zhu w31x used a
laboratory test apparatus to examine a direct acting mecha- 3.5. Piston assembly
nism. The cams were steel, induction hardened to 2.5 mm
depth, stress relieved, ground and phosphated. In the first The influence of the surface topography of piston rings
series of tests, cams with different initial surface roughness and cylinder liners upon their behaviour has been known
were run against nominally similar followers under the for many decades. Running-in of the engine, with an
same conditions. Average Ž R a . surface roughness changes appreciable reduction in friction due to ring profile changes,
are recorded in Fig. 6. Each test was of 100 h at a fixed has been recognised for some time. The importance of the
camshaft speed of 1200 rpm and apparatus temperature
508C.

Fig. 5. Effect of shaft lobing Žhere nine lobes. on mean hydrodynamic Fig. 7. Predicted ring profile after 120 h as compared with the measured
pressure in an automotive bearing. profiles.
8 C.M. Taylorr Wear 221 (1998) 1–8
honing process in finishing cylinder liners in order to
promote satisfactory lubrication and avoid scuffing has
been recognised, if not understood.
Past research on piston ringrcylinder liner tribological
performance has concentrated entirely on the lubrication of
the contact. Surface topography effects have been incorpo-
rated into lubrication analysis on the basis of statistical
influences, using flow and friction factors associated with
the lubrication equations. However, there is currently a
proposition that a sound appreciation of the tribological
performance of piston rings in an IC engine can only be
achieved by combining lubrication and wear analyses. The
sensitivity of ring performance to its profile has been
shown in previous studies and the ability to predict wear of
the rings and integrate this into the lubrication analysis has
been recently achieved by Priest w26x. He used a simple
wear model, analogous to that adopted for camsrfollowers
by Colgan ad Bell w22x. Fig. 7 shows a comparison of
measured and predicted results for the top compression
ring of a Caterpillar IY73 single cylinder diesel engine.
The predicted profile after 120 h of running compares well
with the measure profile, both in shape and quantity of
material worn away. The latter has been determined in two
ways—the ‘geometric’ profile has been achieved by over-
laying measured traces such that unworn portions corre-
lated well, whilst the ‘mass’ profile was determined by
measuring ring weight loss and assuming this was achieved
by equal wear around the ring circumference. The more
detailed research data presented by Priest is an encourag-
ing step forward.
4. Conclusions
Ža. The importance of the tribological design of the
major frictional components of the automotive internal
combustion engine has been emphasised from the point of
view of efficiency, durability and emissions.
Žb. The current operating conditions of engine bearings,
amsrfollowers and piston ringsrcylinder liners have been
reviewed and the state of the art of analytical design
procedures explored. Challenges for the future in the de-
sign procedures for each machine element have been iden-
tified.
Žc. Particular attention has been drawn to the impor-
tance of improved modelling of lubricant behaviour and to
the enormous prospect for optimised design based on
surface profiles and surface finish considerations.
Žd. The field of automotive engine tribology represents
a rich and varied environment for researcher and practi-
tioner, with potentially significant influence upon wealth
creation and quality of life.
References
w1x HMSO Transport Statistics Great Britain 2 Ž1995. 57-58.
w2x B.S. Andersson, Vehicle tribology, 17th Leeds-Lyon Symposium on
Tribology, Elsevier Tribology Series 18 Ž1991. 503–506.
w3x J.F. Booker, Trans. ASME J. Basic Eng. 187 ŽD. Ž1965. 537–546.
w4x J.F. Booker, Trans. ASME J. Lub. Tech. 91 ŽF. Ž1969. 534–543.
w5x C.M. Taylor, ŽEd.., Engine tribology, Elsevier Series 26 Ž1993. 301
pp.
w6x C.K.K. Lai, PhD Thesis, Univ Leeds UK, 1993, 285 pp.
w7x D.S. Mehenny, PhD Thesis, Univ. Leeds UK, 1997, 269 pp.
w8x B. Fantino, M. Godet, J. Frene, Studies of Engine Bearings and
Lubrication SAE 539 Ž1983. 23–32.
w9x B. Fantino, J. Frene, Trans. ASME J. Lub. Tech., 505–515.
w10x H.H. Priebsch, J. Krasser, Elastohydrodynamics ’96, 23rd Leeds-
Lyon Symposium on Tribology, Elsevier Tribology Series 32 Ž1996.
651–659.
w11x H. Xu, Elstohydrodynamics ’96, 23rd Leeds-Lyon Symposium on
Tribology, Elsevier Tribology Series 32 Ž1996. 641–650.
w12x H. Xu, E.H. Smith, Proc. IMechE 204 Ž1990. 187–196, Part C.
w13x G.J. Jones, Tribology of reciprocating engines, 9th Leeds-Lyon
Symposium on Tribology, 1983, pp. 88–98.
w14x D. Han, PhD Thesis, Univ. Leeds, UK, 1993, 240 pp.
w15x D. Han, C.M. Taylor, Abstracts World Tribology Conference, Lon-
don, 1997, p. 91.
w16x J.M. Conway-Jones, R. Gojon, Vehicle tribology, 17th Leeds-Lyon
Symposium on Tribology, Elsevier Tribology Series 18 Ž1991.
33–42.
w17x A.O. Mian, G.J. Jones, The third body concept, 22nd Leeds-Lyon
Symposium on Tribology, Elsevier Tribology Series 31 Ž1996.
291–298.
w18x A.D. Ball et al., Tribological design of machine elements, 15th
Leeds-Lyon Symposium on Tribology, Elsevier Tribology Series 14
Ž1989. 111–130.
w19x C.M. Taylor, Vehicle tribology, 17th Leeds-Lyon Symposium on
Tribology, Elsevier Tribology Series 18 Ž1991. 119–131.
w20x C.M. Taylor, Proc. IMechE 208 Ž1994. 221–234, Part J.
w21x L.S. Yang, PhD Thesis, Univ. Leeds, UK, 1992, 230 pp.
w22x T. Colgan, J.C. Bell, Int. Trib. Conf., Nagoya, Japan 2 Ž1990.
1231–1235.
w23x B.J. Roylance et al., Vehicle tribology, 17th Leeds-Lyon Sympo-
sium on Tribology, Elsevier Tribology Series 18 Ž1991. 143–143.
w24x Tribology of reciprocating engines, 9th Leeds-Lyon Symposium on
Tribology, 1983, 348 pp.
w25x Vehicle tribology, 17th Leeds-Lyon Symposium on Tribology, Else-
vier Tribology Series 18 Ž1991. 526 pp.
w26x M. Priest, PhD Thesis, Univ. Leeds, 1996, 246 pp.
w27x A. Thomson, C.D. Radcliffe, C.M. Tayor, Proc. IMechE 211 Ž1997.
223–233, Part J.
w28x R.C. Coy, New directions in tribology, World Tribology Confer-
ence, London, MEP, 1997, pp. 197–209.
w29x D.S. Mehenny, C.M. Taylor, G.J. Jones, H. Xu, SAE Technical
Series Paper 970216 Ž1997. 9 pp.
w30x P. Harrison, PhD Thesis, Univ. Leeds, UK, 1988, 281 pp.
w31x G. Zhu, PhD Thesis, Univ. Leeds, 1988, 236 pp.