4

3
2

1
1

BINARY OPERATION

A=[2,8]

A={x/x[2,8]}

B=[-4,3]

INEQUALITY
x-1=4

x-1<4

x-1>4

x(5,)

OR

5<x<

x2 -5x +6 =0
(x-2)(x-3)=0

(x-2)>0 x>2

x2 -5x +6 <0
(2, 3)
x (2,3)
(x- 2)(x- 3)<0
(x-2)

(x-3)

OR x(2, ) OR 2<x< OR >x>2

x2 -5x +6 >0

(x-2)(x-3)>0
(x-2)

(x-3)

x (-, 2) OR x (3, )
(-, 2) U (3, ) i.e., x (-, 2) U (3, )

(-,2)

(x-1)(x2 -5x +6) <0

(x-1)(x2 -5x +6) >0

2 (2,3) 3 (3,)

(-,1)

1 (1,2) 2 (2,3) 3

(x-1)(x2 -5x +6) <0

(x-1) (x-2)(x-3)<0

++-

(2,3)

---

(-,1)
(-,1) U (2,3)

(3,)

(1,2) U (3,)

(x-1)(x2 -5x +6) >0

(x-1) (x-2)(x-3)>0

+++ (3,)
+-- (1,2)

(1,2) U (3,)

FUNCTION
In mathematics, a binary relation on a set A is a collection of ordered pairs of elements of A. In
other words, it is a subset of the Cartesian product A2 = A A. More generally, a binary
relation between two sets A and B is a subset of A B.

Definition: Let A and B be nonempty sets. A binary relation (or just relation) from A to B is a subset
R A B.

A relation is a set of inputs and outputs, often written as ordered pairs (input, output). We can also
represent a relation as a mapping diagram or a graph.
A={a,b}

B={1,2}

AxB={(a,1),(a,2),(b,1),(b,2)}
R1=

R2={(a,1)}

R3={(a,2)}

R4={(b,1)}

R5={(b,2)}

R6={(a,1),(a,2)}

R7={(a,1),(b,1)}

R8={(a,1),(b,2)}

R9={(a,2),(b,1)}

R10={(a,2),(b,2)}

R11={(b,1),(b,2)}

R12={(a,1),(a,2),(b,1)}

R13={(a,1),(a,2),(b,2)}

R14={(a,1),(b,1),(b,2)}

R15={(a,2),(b,1),(b,2)}

R16={(a,1),(a,2),(b,1),(b,2)}

Dom(R6)={a}

Range(R6)={1,2}

Dom(R7)={a,b}

Range(R7)={1}

Dom(R8)={a,b}

Range(R8)={1,2}

Dom(R12)={a,b}

Range(R12)={1,2}

A function is a relation in which each input x (domain) has only one output y(range).
Examine whether the following is a function or not

A={0,2}

A={1,2,3}

B={3,4,5}

R={(1,3),(2,4),(3,4)}

A={1,2,3}

B={1,2,3}

R={(1,1),(2,3),(3,2)}

A={0,2}

B={x, y, t}

B={4,6,8,10}

R={(0,x),(2,y)}

R={(0,4),(0,6),(2,8)}

The mapping diagram of the relation

To check if a relation is a function, given a mapping diagram of the relation, use the following criterion:
1. each input has a connecting line (i.e., no input is left unconnected) and
2. each input has only one line connected to it,
then the outputs are a function of the inputs.

The above diagram does not represent a function with domain {1, 2, 3}, codomain {A, B, C, D} and set of
ordered pairs {(1,D), (2,B),(2,C), (3,C)}. The image is {B,C,D}.

The above diagram represents a function with domain {1, 2, 3}, codomain {A, B, C, D} and set of ordered pairs
{(1,D), (2,C), (3,C)}. The image is {C,D}.

However, this second diagram does not represent a function. One reason is that 2 is the first element in more
than one ordered pair. In particular, (2,B) and (2,C) are both elements of the set of ordered pairs. Another
reason, sufficient by itself, is that 3 is not the first element (input) for any ordered pair. A third reason, likewise,
is that 4 is not the first element of any ordered pair.

In order to avoid the use of the informally defined concepts of "rules" and "associates", the above
intuitive explanation of functions is completed with a

This is a function. You can tell by tracing from each x to

each y. There is only one y for each x; there is only one
arrow coming from each x.

Ha! Bet I fooled some of you on this one! This is a

function! There is only one arrow coming from each x;
there is only one y for each x. It just so happens that it's
always the same y for each x, but it is only that one y. So
this is a function; it's just an extremely boring function!

This one is not a function: there are two arrows coming

from the number 1; the number 1 is associated with
twodifferent range elements. So this is a relation, but it is
not a function.

Okay, this one's a trick question. Each element of the

domain that has a pair in the range is nicely well-behaved.
But what about that 16? It is in the domain, but it has no
range element that corresponds to it! This won't work! So
then this is not a function. Heck, it ain't even a relation!

The Vertical Line Test for Graphs

To determine whether y is a function of x, given a graph of a relation, use the following criterion: if every
vertical line you can draw goes through only 1 point, y is a function of x. If you can draw a vertical line
that goes through 2 or more points, y is not a function of x. This is called the vertical line test.

A={1,2,5}

B={1,2,3,4}

R ={(1,2),(2,1),(5,2)}
4
3
2

1
1

R is a function
R ={(1,2),(2,1) ,(2,2),(5,2)}
4
3
2

R is not a function

y=2x+5
X

11

f(x)=2x+5,

f(1)=7,

f(2)=9,

f(3)=11

R={(x,y)/ x+y=11, x,y }

R={(x,y)/ x+y<11, x,y }

R={(x,y)/ y2=x, x,y }

R={(x,y)/ y2=x, x +,y }

R={(x,y)/ y=

, x,y }

R={(x,y)/ y=

, x +,y }

R={(x,y)/ y=-

R={(x,y)/ y=x2, x,y }

y=11-x, A=(-,),B=(-,),R={,(-2,13),,(1,10),,(5,6),}

, x +,y }

Limit of a Function

f(1)=3
f(3)=5
f(2) is undefined

(3-x)

(3+x)>0

1.1

3.1

2.9

4.9

1.5

3.5

2.5

4.5

1.9

3.9

2.1

4.1

1.99

3.99

2.01

4.01

1.999

3.999

2.001

4.001

Continuous Function
A function is continuous at x=c if
(i) f(c) is defined
(ii)

exists

(iii) f(c)=

Example#

f(c)

undefined

Discontinuous

does not exist

Discontinuous

undefined

does not exist

Discontinuous

does not exist

Discontinuous

Continuous

f(x)

x+5

Continuity

Equation of a Straight Line in different forms

(i) Slope-Intercept form

The equation of a straight line having slope m and making an intercept c on y-axis is
y = m x +c

(ii) Point-slope form

The equation of a straight line passing through the fixed point (x1, y1) and having slope m is
y -y1 = m (x -x1)

(iii) Two-point form

The equation of the line passing through two fixed points A (x1, y1) and B (x2,y2) is
y-y1=

y 2 y1
x 2 x1

(x-x1)

(iv) Intercept form

The equation of the line cutting off intercepts a and b on the axes is
x
a

by 1

(v) General form

Every straight line can be represented by an equation of the first degree in x and y, and conversely every
first degree equation in x, y represents a straight line.
The equation A x +B y +C = 0 (where at least one of A and B is non-zero) is called the general form.

a=2, b=c=3, m=-3/2, P1(2,0) P2(1,3/2), P3(0,3) A=3, B=2, C=-6

for m=-3/2, c=3, the form y=mx+c gives
y=-3/2x+3

for m=-3/2, P1(2,0), the form y-y1=m(x-x1) gives

y-0=-3/2(x-2)
or y=-3/2x+3

for P1(2,0) and P2(1,3/2), the form y-y1=

y-0= 3 1/ 220 (x-2)
or y=-3/2(x-2)
or y=-3/2x+3

y 2 y1
x 2 x1

(x-x1) gives

for m=-3/2, c=3, the form y=mx+c gives

y=-3/2x+3

The cost of 10 units is Rs. 7500 and the cost of 20 units is Rs. 13900. Find the cost line
Given:

P1(10,7500)

P2(20,13900)

Cost Line
y=640x+1100
Change Change
in x
in y

Units

Cost

1100

1740

640

2380

640

4300

1920

10

7500

3200

15

10700 5

3200

20

13900 5

3200

Polynomial Function
y=a0+ a1x+ a2x2+ a3 x3+ +an xn
y= an xn ++ a3 x3+ a2x2+ a1x+ a0
y= a1x+a0
y= a2x2+ a1x+a0
y= a3 x3 +a2x2+ a1x+a0

Quadratic Equation (Parabola)

y= ax2+ b x+ c
y= x2- 5x+6
(i) y= x2- 8x+20
x2- 5x+6=0
x2- 8x+20=h

20

13

13

20

29

(ii) y=- x2+ 6x+2

10

11

10

(iii) y=4x2-20x+29

-5

-3

-1

11

229

125

53

(i) a=1,b=-8,c=20 V(4,4)

(ii) a=-1, b=6, c=2 V(3,11)
(iii) a=4, b=-20, c=29 V(5/2, 4)

13

29

85

173

293

Parabola: y=ax2+bx+c
Mirror Image: y= (-ax2-bx+c) - b2/2a
Allied Parabolae: y=a (x-h)2 + k,
where h=-b/2a and k=-(b2-4ac)/4a

Consider a parabola f(x)=ax2+bx+c.

Substitution of f(x)=h in the equation of the parabola results in
ax2+bx+c = h
or ax2+bx+c-h = 0
Solving for x gives

The coordinates of vertex of the parabola is

V(

and the equation of the tangent line to the vertex is

h(x) =

Now for a>0 and a point p(x, h) for h

h(x) =

(i.e. the point on or above the line

) or for a<0 and a point p(x, h) for h

below the line h(x) =

(i.e. the point on or

), the value of b2 is greater than or equal to 4a(c-h) and

therefore the values of x are real where as for a>0 and a point p(x, h) for h <
(i.e. the point below the line
h>

h(x) =

(i.e. the point above the line h(x) =

) or for a<0 and a point p(x, h) for

), the value of b2 is less than

4a(c-h) and therefore the values of x are non-real. Such non real values of x can be
written as:

or x=m n ,
where m =

and n

Definition: A non-real coordinate can be defined as a coordinate, either of whose

abscissa or ordinate, but not both, is a non-real.
So the coordinates of points for such non-real values of x are non-real i.e., the
coordinates are (m n , h), which cannot be located in any plane.
The equation of the mirror image of the parabola f(x)=ax2+bx+c about an axis of
reflection h(x) =

(which is the tangent line to the vertex) can be computed

as follow:
Ordinate of a point on mirror image = 2 ordinate of the vertex (ax+bx+c)
or y= 2

- (ax + bx+ c)

which is the equation of the mirror image.

Now substituting g(x)=h (the value of h for which the values of x of the parabola is
non-real) in the equation of the mirror image of the parabola results in

or 4ah=-b+4ac-4ax-4abx-b
or 4ax+4abx+4ah+2b-4ac=0
or 2ax+2abx+2ah+b-2ac=0
Solving for x gives

or x= m n
and therefore the coordinates of points on the mirror image are real for the value of h
for which the coordinates of the parabola are non-real and are of the form ( mn, h). The
coordinates of points on mirror image can therefore be obtained from the coordinates of

the parabola by removing from the abscissa of the coordinates of the parabola(or it can
be obtained using the transformation, derived below):
Derivation of Linear Transformation T:

(in terms of coordinates) for which

T(m n , h) = (m n, h)
Let

be the matrix of linear transformation then

=

which gives
a (m + n ) + bh = m +

_________________________________________

c (m + n ) + dh = h
and

_________________________________________

(1)
(2)

which gives
a (m - n ) + bh = m -

_________________________________________

c (m - n ) + dh = h

_________________________________________

Subtracting (3) from (1) gives

a (m + n ) + bh - a (m - n ) - bh = m + - m +
or am + an am + an = 2n
or 2an = 2n
or a = 1
or a =

or a = Adding (1) and (3) gives

a (m + n ) + bh + a (m - n ) + bh = m +
or am + an + bh + am an + bh = 2m
or 2am + 2bh = 2m
or am + bh = m
Substituting the value of a gives
m(- ) + bh = m
or bh = m + m
or bh = m(1 + )
or b =
Subtracting (4) from (2) gives
c (m + n )- c (m - n )+ dh dh = h h

+m-

(3)
(4)

or cm + cn - cm+ cn = 0
or 2 cn = 0
or c = 0
Adding (2) and (4) gives
c (m + n )+ c (m - n )+ dh + dh = h +h
or 2cm + 2dh = 2h
or cm + dh =
Substituting the value of c gives
0 + dh = h
or d = 1
Since a = - , b =

, c = 0 and d = 1, so the matrix of linear transformation can be

written as

and therefore
T(x,y) =
or
T(x,y) = (-ix +

y , y)

is the required transformation in terms of coordinates

So it can be concluded that the non-real coordinates of the parabola f(x)=ax2+bx+c i.e.,
(m ni, h) follow the rule given below:
Rule: correspond to each non-real coordinate (m + n , h) or (m - n , h) for a
parabola f(x)=ax2+bx+c, there exists a real coordinate(m+n,h) or (m-n,h) on its
mirror image about an axis of

reflection h(x) =

Following examples elaborate the above discussion:

Let us take as an example the parabola f(x)= x2 - 8x+ 20 having a=1 (a>0) and vertex
V(4,4). The equation of the tangent line to the vertex is therefore h(x)=4.

Suppose we are interested to know the values of x-intercepts of the parabola. For this,
we substitute zero for f(x) in the equation that gives
x=
or x=4 2i
The values are non-real( since a>0 and the point p(x, 0) having h=0 which is less than 4
i.e., the point p(x,0) is below the tangent line h(x)=4). We interprete this result as the
parabola f(x)= x2 - 8x+ 20 does not cut the x-axis. Let us interprete it in another way. For
this, we can consider real values 4 2 correspond to the complex values 4 2i and say
that the mirror image of this parabola about the axis of reflection h(x)=4, cuts the x-axis
at x = 4 2, i.e., at x =2 or x =6 so that the co-ordinates of the x-intercepts of the mirror
image are (2, 0) and (6, 0).(see columns 7 and 11 of table 1 and the related graph)
The equation of the mirror image of the parabola f(x)= x2 - 8x+ 20 (with a = 1, b= -8 and
c=20) can be obtained using

as

or g(x) = -x+8x-12
The result above which says that the mirror image of the parabola cuts the x-axis at
x=2 or x=6 can be verified by substituting the value g(x)=0 in the equation of the mirror
image

g(x) = -x+8x-12 i.e.,

0= -x+8x-12 which gives

x=2 or x=6 so that the co-ordinates of the x-intercepts of the mirror image are (2, 0) and
(6, 0).
These real coordinates of the mirror image i.e., (2,0) and (6,0) are correspond to the
non-real coordinates of the parabola i.e., (4-2 ,0) and (4+2 ,0) respectively and for m=4,
n=2 and h=0, these are of the form (m-n, h) and (m+n, h) correspond to (m-n , h) and
(m+n , h) respectively, i.e., it follow the rule above. Similarly the other non-real values
of x of columns 5 and 13 for m=4, n=4 and h= -12, columns 6 and 12 for m=4, n=3 and h=
-5 and columns 8 and 10 for m=4, n=1 and h=3 also follow the rule.
So the rule leads to a new definition, a definition of an Allied Parabolae
Definition: Allied Parabolae in two dimensional space are two congruent
parabolae lying in the same plane such that each of them is the mirror image of the
other about a line tangent to their common vertex.

This definition allows to define a function that enables us to skip the non-real values of
x by combining the allied parabola.
For real values of x, a function that combines the allied parabolae is given as follow:
1. For a>0

ax+bx+c,

for a plane on or above the axis of reflection

ax+bx+c,

for a plane on or below the axis of reflection

y=

2. For

a<0

y=

In the above example, a=1 (a>0), therefore the function that combines the allied
parabola for the real values of x is:

x-8x+20, for the plane on or above the axis of reflection h(x)=4

x is real for the parabola

but non-real for its mirror
image
col. no.
x (parabola)

x(mirror image)

h= f(x) = g(x)

x is
real
for
both
9

4-4i

4-3i

4-2i

4-i

4-4

4-3

4-2

4-1

=0

=1

=2

=3

4-4i

4-3i

4-2i

4-i

20

13

x is non-real for the

parabola but real for its
mirror image

4-4

4-3

4-2

4-1

=0

=1

=2

=3

-12

-5

x is non-real for the

parabola but real for its
mirror image

x is real for the parabola

but non-real for its mirror
image

10

11

12

13

14

4+i

4+2i

4+3i

4+4i

4+1

4+2

4+3

4+4

=5

=6

=7

=8

-5

-12

Table 1
The combined graph of the allied parabolae is plotted below using table 1

15

16

17

4+1

4+2

4+3

4+4

=5

=6

=7

=8

4+i

4+2i

4+3i

4+4i

13

20

Take as an another example the parabola f(x) = -x2 +8x-25 having a=-1(a<0) and vertex
V(4,-9). Here the equation of the tangent line to the vertex is h(x) = -9.
For this parabola
x=
or x=43i are the values for x-intercepts and are non-real. We can interprete the result as
the parabola g(x)= x2 -8x+7, which is the mirror image of the parabola f(x)= -x2 +8x-25

about the axis of reflection h(x) =-9, cuts the x-axis at x=43 i.e., at x=1 or x=7.The
coordinates of the x-intercepts of the mirror image are therefore (1, 0) and (7, 0) (see
columns 6 and 12 of table 2 and the related graph)
In the second example, a=-1 (a<0), therefore the function that combines the allied
parabola for the real values of x is:

- x + 8x-25, for the plane on or below the axis of reflection h(x) =-9

x is real for the parabola

but non-real for its mirror
image
col. no.
x (parabola)

x(mirror image)

h= f(x) = g(x)

x is
real
for
both
9

4-4i

4-3i

4-2i

4-i

4-4

4-3

4-2

4-1

=0

=1

=2

=3

4-4i

4-3i

4-2i

4-i

-25

-18

-13

-10

x is non-real for the

parabola but real for its
mirror image

4-4

4-3

4-2

4-1

=0

=1

=2

=3

-5

-8

-9

x is non-real for the

parabola but real for its
mirror image

x is real for the parabola

but non-real for its mirror
image

10

11

12

13

14

4+i

4+2i

4+3i

4+4i

4+1

4+2

4+3

4+4

=5

=6

=7

=8

-8

-5

Table 2
The combined graph of the allied parabolae is plotted below using table 2

15

16

17

4+1

4+2

4+3

4+4

=5

=6

=7

=8

4+i

4+2i

4+3i

4+4i

-10

-13

-18

-25

0
(0o)
Sin
Cos
Tan

0
1
0

/6
(30o)
1/2
3/2
1/3

/4
(45o)
1/2
1/2
1

/3
(60o)
3/2

/2
(90o)
1
0

Wk=r1/n[Cos{(+2k)/n}+i Sin{(+2k)/n}]

2/3
(120o)
3/2
-1/2
-3

3/4
(135o)
1/2
-1/2
-1

5/6
(150o)
1/2
-3/2
-1/3

(180o)
0
-1
0