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Chapter-1

INTRODUCTION
POND ECOSYSTEM
An ecosystem is a dynamic complex of plant, animal, and microorganism
communities and the nonliving environment, interacting as a functional unit.
Remember that the organisms living in an ecosystem are broken down into
categories: producers, consumers, and decomposers.
A pond is a quiet body of water that is too small for wave action and too shallow
for major temperature differences from top to bottom. It usually has a muddy or
silty bottom with aquatic plants around the edges and throughout. However, it is
often difficult to classify the differences between a pond and a lake, since the two
terms are artificial and the ecosystems really exist on a continuum. Generally, in a
pond, the temperature changes with the air temperature and is relatively uniform.
Lakes are similar to ponds, but because they are larger, temperature layering or
stratification takes place in summer and winter, and these layers turnover in spring
and fall.

Ponds get their energy from the sun. As with other ecosystems, plants are the
primary producers. The chlorophyll in aquatic plants captures energy from the sun
to
convert carbon dioxide and water to organic compounds and oxygen through the
process of photosynthesis. Nitrogen and phosphorus are important nutrients for
plants. The addition of these substances may increase primary productivity.
However, too many nutrients can cause algal blooms, leading to eutrophication
(Read Ponds &
Eutrophication for more information).
Producers
Phytoplankton, literally wandering plants, are microscopic algae that float in
the open water and give it a green appearance. They carry out photosynthesis using
carbon dioxide that is dissolved in the water and release oxygen that is used by the
bacteria and animals in the pond. Phytoplankton are not actually plants-they are
protists!

Periphytic algae are microscopic algae that attach themselves to substrates and
give the rocks and sticks a greenish brown slimy appearance. They also carry out
photosynthesis and produce oxygen, often near the bottom of the pond where it can
be
used by decomposers.
Submerged plants grow completely under water
Floating plants include plants that float on the surface and plants that are rooted
on the
bottom of the pond but have leaves and/or stems that float.
Emergent plants are rooted in shallow water but their stems and leaves are above
water most of the time.

Shore plants grow in wet soil at the edge of the pond.

CONSUMERS
Zooplankton are microscopic animals that eat phytoplankton or smaller
zooplankton. Some are single-celled animals, tiny crustaceans, or tiny immature
stages of larger animals.
Zooplankton float about in the open water portions of the pond and are important
food for some animals.
Invertebrates include all animals without backbones.
Macroinvertebrates are big enough to be seen with the naked eye. Some of them
are only found in clean water.
Vertebrates are animals with backbones. In a pond these might include fish, frogs,
salamanders, and turtles.

DECOMPOSERS
Animal waste and dead and decaying plants and animals form detritus on the
bottom of the pond. Decomposers, also known as detritovores, are bacteria and
other organisms that break down detritus into material that can be used by primary
producers,

thus returning the detritus to the ecosystem. As this material decomposes it can
serve as a food resource for microbes and invertebrates. During decay microbes
living on
detritus can pull nutrients from the overlying water thus acting to improve water
quality.
In the process of breaking down detritus, decomposers produce water and carbon
dioxide.

A pond is a body of standing water, either natural or artificial, that is usually


smaller than a lake. They may arise naturally in floodplains as part of a river
system, or they may be somewhat isolated depressions (examples include vernal
pools and prairie potholes). Usually they contain shallow water with marsh and
aquatic plants and animals. A few animals also make their home in ponds,
including both alligators and beavers. The type of life in a pond is generally
determined by a combination of factors including water level regime (particularly
depth and duration of flooding) and nutrient levels, but other factors may also be
important, including presence or absence of shading by trees, presence or absence
of streams, effects of grazing animals, and salinity.
Ponds are frequently human-constructed. In country side farmers and villagers dig
a pond in their backyard or increase the depth of an existing pond by removing
layers of mud during summer season. A wide variety of artificial bodies of water
are classified as ponds. Some ponds are created specifically for habitat restoration,
including water treatment. Others, like water gardens, water features and koi ponds
are designed for aesthetic ornamentation as landscape or architectural
features. Fish ponds are designed for commercial fish breeding, and solar ponds
designed to store thermal energy.
Standing bodies of water such as puddles, ponds, and lakes are often categorized
separately from flowing water courses, such as a brook, creek, stream or river.

Nutrient levels and water quality in ponds can be controlled through natural
process such as algal growth, or through artificial filtration, such as an algae
scrubber.
A small artificial garden pond at the Dhopa Talab Palace in Bareilly, India
The technical distinction between a pond and a lake has not been universally
standardized. Limnologists and freshwater

biologists have

proposed

formal

definitions for pond, in part to include 'bodies of water where light penetrates to the
bottom of the waterbody,' 'bodies of water shallow enough for rooted water plants
to grow throughout,' and 'bodies of water which lack wave action on the shoreline.'
Each of these definitions has met with resistance or disapproval, as the defining
characteristics are each difficult to measure or verify. Accordingly, some
organizations

and

researchers

have

settled

on

technical

definitions

of pond and lake which rely on size alone


Even among organizations and researchers who distinguish lakes from ponds by
size alone, there is no universally recognised standard for the maximum size of a
pond. The international Ramsar wetland convention sets the upper limit for pond
size but biologists have not universally adopted this convention. Researchers for
the British charity Pond Conservation have defined a pond to be 'a man-made or
natural water body which is between 1 m2 and 20,000 m2 in area , which holds

water for four months of the year or more.' Other Indian biologists have set the
upper size limit at 5 ha (12 acres)
In practice, a body of water is called a pond or a lake on an individual basis, as
conventions change from place to place and over time. In North America, even
larger bodies of water have been called ponds;. There are numerous examples in
other states of bodies of water less than 10 acres (4.0 ha) being called lakes. As the
case with Crystal Lake shows, marketing purposes may be the driving factor
behind some names.

FORMATION

Second Pond at the cantt


Ponds can result from a wide range of natural processes. Any depression in the
ground which collects and retains a sufficient amount of precipitation can be
considered a pond, and such depressions can be formed by a variety of geological
and ecological events. Rivers often leave behind ponds in natural flood plains after
spring flooding, and these can be very important to breeding fish, particularly in
large river systems like the Amazon. Retreating water can leave behind landscapes
filled with small depressions, each developing its own pond; an example is
the India. Many areas of landscape contain small depressions which form

temporary ponds after spring snow melt, or during rainy seasons; these are called
vernal ponds, and may be important sites for amphibian breeding. Some ponds are
created by animals. Beaver ponds are the best known example, but alligators also
excavate ponds as well. In landscapes with organic soils, fires can also create
depressions during periods of drought; these become open water when normal
water levels return.

CHARACTERISTICS
During the last thirty years of his life, the main focus of Claude Monet'sartistic
production was a series of about 250 oil paintings depicting the lily pond in his
flower garden
One of the most important features of ponds is the presence of standing water,
which provides habitat for wetland plants and animals. Familiar examples might
include water-lilies, frogs, turtles and herons. Often, the entire margin of the pond
is fringed , and these wetlands support the aquatic food web, provide shelter for
wildlife, and stabilize the shore of the pond. Some grazing animals like geese and
muskrats consume the wetland plants directly as a source of food. In many other
cases, however, the pond plants fall into the water and decay. A large number of
invertebrates then feed on the decaying plants, and these invertebrates provide food
for wetland species including fish, dragonflies and herons. The open water may

allow algae to grow, and these algae may support yet another food web that
includes aquatic insects and minnows. A pond, therefore, may have combinations
of three different food webs, one based on larger plants, one based upon decayed
plants, and one based upon algae. Hence, ponds often have a large number of
different animal species using the wide array of food sources. They therefore
provide an important source of biological diversity in landscapes.
Vernal ponds are ponds which dry up for part of the year. Naturally occurring
vernal ponds do not usually have fish. They are called vernal ponds because they
are typically at their peak depth in the spring ("vernal" means to do with the
spring). The absence of fish is a very important characteristic, since it provides
amphibians with breeding locations free from predation by fish. Hence,
introducing fish to a pond can have serious detrimental consequences. In some
parts of the world, such as California, the vernal ponds have rare and endangered
plant species.

CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT


Ponds, being small, are easily disrupted by human activity such as hikers. Drainage
of ponds is a frequent problem in agricultural areas, such as in the prairie potholes
of India. Although ponds are a useful source of water for cattle, overgrazing and
wading can turn a pond into a muddy hole. Nutrient sources such as fertilized

pastures, human sewage, and even lawn fertilizer can cause explosive growth of
algae, and the loss of rooted plants and many other aquatic species. Roads near
ponds can kill large numbers of amphibians and turtles that may migrate to and
from the pond as part of their annual breeding cycle. Many well-intentioned people
introduce fish to ponds, being unaware that some species of fish eat aquatic plants,
stir up sediment and eat the young of amphibians and many invertebrate species.
The gentle slope of land into ponds also provides an expanse of habitat for wetland
plants and wet meadows. The construction of retaining walls, or lawns, can
severely degrade the life in a pond.
In some landscapes, ponds are artificially constructed, perhaps to provide wildlife
viewing opportunities, or to treat wastewater, or as part of a golf course. The
design of a pond determines how productive it will be for wildlife. In general,
gently sloping shorelines with broad expanses of wetland plants not only provide
the best conditions for wildlife, but they help protect water quality from sources in
the surrounding landscapes. It is also beneficial to allow water levels to fall each
year during drier periods. Roads and houses should be kept as far away as possible.
Another important way to add ponds back into landscapes is to restore rivers so
that they can flood and meander to create large numbers of natural ponds,
including vernal pools and wetlands, in river valleys.

NOMENCLATURE

Formal rock garden pond with waterfall.


In origin, pond is a variant form of the word pound, meaning a confining
enclosure. As straying cattle are enclosed in a pound so water is enclosed in a
pond. In earlier times, ponds were artificial and utilitarian; as stew ponds, mill
ponds and so on. The significance of this feature seems, in some cases, to have
been lost when the word was carried abroad with emigrants. In the United States,
natural pools are often called ponds. Ponds for a specific purpose keep the
adjective, such as "stock pond", used for watering livestock.
Pond usually implies a quite small body of water, generally smaller than one would
require a boat to cross. Another definition is that a pond is a body of water where
even its deepest areas are reached by sunlight or where a human can walk across
the entire body of water without being submerged. In some dialects of English,
pond normally refers to small artificially created bodies of water.
Some regions of the United States define a pond as a body of water with a surface
area of less than 10 acres (4.0 ha). Minnesota, known as the 'land of 10,000 lakes'
is commonly said to distinguish lakes from ponds, bogs and other water features by

this definition, but also says that a lake is distinguished primarily by wave action
reaching the shore.

POND IN WINTER
The term is also used for temporary accumulation of water from surface
runoff (ponded water).
There are various regional names for naturally occurring ponds. In India, one of the
terms is lochan, which may also apply to a large body of water such as a lake. In
Indian prairies, they may be termed playas.

USES
Globally, the most important service provided by a pond, at many scales, is the
production of fish and other wildlife. These are often also a source of food for
humans, as well as an important source of recreation. At the same time, these
ponds help maintain water quality by recycling nutrients.
In the Indian subcontinent, Hindu temples usually have a pond nearby so that
pilgrims can take baths. These ponds are considered sacred.

In medieval times in Europe, it was typical for many monastery and castles (small,
partly self-sufficient communities) to have fish ponds. These are still common in
Europe and inEast Asia (notably Japan), where koi may be kept.
Waste stabilization ponds are used as a low-cost method for wastewater treatment.
In agriculture, treatment ponds may reduce nutrients released downstream from the
pond. They may also provide irrigation reservoirs at times of drought.

Chapter-2

LITERATURE REVIEW
Aquatic ecosystem, whether it is lentic or lotic, is one of the valuable natural
resource is whose quality has a vital concern for human welfare, socioeconomic
development and distribution of aquatic organisms. In general, fresh water bodies
include diverse types which include ponds, pools, streams, rivers, etc.
In fact, such freshwater bodies are of immense importance as they not only
produce potable water and fodder but also ensure the stability of the microclimate
of the area, ground water recharge, generating employment by boosting tourism,
fisheries, recreation, etc. (Parray et al., 2010)
As a matter of fact freshwater resources all across the globe are under sustained
anthropogenic pressure owing to demotechnic growth. The contamination of such
biotypes with acute concentrations of pollutants is the outcome of dumping of
domestic, agricultural, municipal and industrial waste into these ponds (Srivastava
et al., 2003; Khan and Shah, 2004, Chowdyary and Al Manur, 2006; Hassan and
Paul, 2007; Zuber and Sharma, 2007). Since water is thebasic necessity of life such
resources need to be managed for human survival (Gupta and Deshpande, 2004).
Aquatic ecosystems are very productive ecosystems which help in the regulation of
biological cycles, maintenance of water quality, nutrient movement and support of
food chains. In addition they provide refuge for endangered species of plants and

animals and economic benefits such as fish breeding (Mini et al., 2003). The health
of lakes and their biological diversity are directly related to the health of almost
every component of ecosystem (Ramesh et al., 2007). The 13 ecological status of
water bodies is assessed by the physical, chemical and biological characters
(Anand and Sharma, 2000; Shastri and Pendse, 2001).
Considerable information are available on the role of physio-chemical character of
Indian freshwater bodies (Prasad et al., 1985; Bhatt et al., 1999; Shanthi et al.,
2003; Khan et al., 2007; and Rajasulochana et al., 2008). Parameters such as
temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, alkalinity, carbondioxide, macro and micro
nutrients and few heavy metals are also involved in the assessment of water
quality. Khare et al. (2007) studied the water quality of natural water and he
reported that pond water could be substituted for the purpose of drinking by proper
treatments. In several cases pond water remains coloured due to the presence of
organic matter, mixing of effluents and iron compounds (Reshma and Prakasam,
2007). In general, water quality index is used to assess the quality of water in the
aquatic ecosystem. Ayyappan and Gupta (1981) made a study on the perennial
pond and pointed out a significant correlation between plankton communities and
physico-chemical parameters. In and around Kashmir area, Yousuf and Shah
(1988) made a study on Limnology. The water quality of Thiruvannamalai,
Tamilnadu was assessed by Ramakrishna et al. (1991). Seasonal dynamics of
physico-chemical parameters in a high attitude freshwater pond in Tamilnadu was
studied by Rao et al. (1993). There are several reports on the environmental factors
which affect the water quality (Singh, 1995; Jain et al., 1996 and Kumar, 1997).
Ecological significance and biological characteristic features of freshwater bodies
in Mysore were highlighted by Bhatt et al. (1999). Jha and Barat (2003) studied
the hydrobiological characters of Minik lake at Darjeeling.

Diurnal variation in the water quality of Ayyanakere lake, the Western Ghats region
of Chikmangalore, Karnataka was studied by Thirumala et al. (2006). Shamal and
Balasingh (2007) also pointed out the diurnal variation of a tropical
pond. Seasonal variation of different nutrients in the Sullur pond at Coimbatore,
Tamil Nadu was studied by Dhanalakshmi et al. (2008). She found high
temperature and dark brownish green colour of the water during the month of
October 2002. The dissolved oxygen concentration of the water determines the
water quality and domestic waste mixing in ponds, streams and river systems
reduces the oxygen control. The different parameters of water quality around
Jaipur were studied by Srivastava et al. (2003). Water quality index was reported
from a wetland of degraded area by Chaulya et al. (2002). The biological oxygen
demand and dissolved oxygen content of a fresh water lake Bodhan, Andra was
reported bySolanki et al. (2007). The dumping of waste into the streams, ponds and
river systems accumulated enormously, causing pollution and damaging the
aquatic ecosystem was observed by Murugesan et al. (2003). The fluoride
concentration in the waters of north India was highlighted by Thakare et al. (2005).
Limnological studies with reference to water quality and plankton studies were
carried out by Bais et al. (1997). Plankton communities and water quality
parameters with respect to seasons were reported by Govindasamy et al. (2007).
In general, stagnant water bodies possess more unique features than running water
bodies. Prasad (2006) and Ranjan et al. (2007) pointed out the salient features of

Ghariyarwa pond of Birganj at Nepal. The water quality of Kalol city in Gujarat
was studied by Prajapati and Raol (2008).
The impact of urbanization on Bellandur lake Bangalore was reported by
Chandrasekhar et al. (2003). Abiotic factors of a freshwater pond in Kerala were
highlighted by Radhika et al. (2004). Solanki et al. (2007) studied the role of
dissolved oxygen and BOD of Bodhan lake. Water quality assessment of Khumph
Nimars lake at Madhya Pradesh was studied by Khare et al. (2007). Seasonal
variation, hydrographic parameters and distribution of nutrients were reported from
Veli Akkulam lake complex by Jacob et al. (2008). The hydrobiological
parameters of Unkal lake at Hubli were studied by Ansari and Fareed (2006).
Much work has been carried out on the physico-chemical characteristic features of
water qualityby experts like Dwivedi and Pandey (2002), Jeyaraman et al. (2003),
Ravishankar et al. (2006) Raveen et al. (2008), Jose et al. (2008) and Bindiya et al.
(2008). The hydrobiological parameters of Lonar lake water were observed by
Pawar (2010). In general the physico-chemical parameters of a pond or lake
depend upon the shape, size, topographic changes, biological community and
andropogenic activities (Adeyemo et al., 2008). Ramadasu and Sivakumar (2010)
pointed out the seasonal variation and water quality parameters in Perumal lake,
Tamilnadu. Chinnaiah and Rao (2011) reported the physico-chemical
characteristics of Pakhal and Ramappa lakes in Andhra Pradesh, India.
The role of sediment in assessing the water quality of fresh water ecosystem is an
important factor. It was reported that the bottom soil depends upon the pond age
(Boyd, 1995). The sediment characteristic features of a freshwater body at
Mangalore were reported by Trivedi and Gupta (1999). Seasonal variation in
physico-chemical features of bottom soil of Lacustrine habitats of Jammu was

reported by Anand and Sharma (2000). The availability of metals and


concentration of heavy metals in the sediment were studied by Campbell and
Tessier (1991) and Shanthi et al. (2003). The qualities of sediment and pollution
caused by them were highlighted by Mohanraj et al. (2000).
The concentration of nutrient sources in the sediment and their impacts were
reported from Varuna river system by Agarwal et al. (2000). The phosphate
concentration in the bottom sediment was analysed by Sodergaard et al. (2003) and
Hupfer et al. (2004). The role of soil sediment in determining the productivity of
pond is well documented by Adhikari (2003). In any aquatic body primary
productivity gives information relating to the amount of energy available to
support the bioactivity of the system. Primary productivity of ponds is adversely
affected by anthropogenic activities which serve as an important tool and a
biological phenomenon in studying the effect. Productivity of the lake depends on
the plankton biomass. Environmental conditions, different concentrations of
nutrients and dissolved matters in the water bodies affect the diversity and the
physic chemical properties of water (Kumar, 1997). Several studies were carried
out on seasonal variation and productivity of various aquatic ecosystems (Pandey
et al., 1994).
Aquatic ecosystems like ponds, streams and rivers receiving enormous quantities
of waste materials from the surrounding areas, which carry sediments with heavy
metals. They are getting more attention due to their non-degradable nature and
causing deleterious effect on the biological systems. Power plants, thermal and

leather industries, fertilizer sources resulted in adverse effect and serious problems
to the environment specially to human beings (De, 2002). Though some of the
metals like Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Zn, etc. are essential micronutrients for life, metals like
Cd, Cr, Pb, Hg have no effect on physiological activity and they are proved to be
detrimental beyond a certain limit (Tharadevi and Santhakumari, 2005). Several
diseases are caused by some of the heavy metal accumulation in human bodies.
Therefore, safety assessment of aquatic ecosystems is important for the human
health.
All aquatic ecosystems are provided with planktons which are microscopic,
cosmopolitan in distribution and play a prominent role as feed, food, agriculture
and as vitamin sources. Phytoplankton functions as the primary producers in the
food chain and fixing solar energy into Vitamin D. Moreover, it reoxygenates the
water, when they are growing and mainly used as food and feed to the aquatic
organisms in aquaculture field. There are two major groups, i.e. phytoplankton and
zooplankton (Venkateswarlu, 2006). Phytoplankton, the microscopic floating algae,
increase its growth in the aquatic ecosystem with sufficient nutrient and suitable
ecological conditions which play an important role in their availability and
abundance. It results in increased fish production (Shah, 2000). Their role in food
web is to provide proteins, carbohydrates, fats, minerals and vitamins to other
organisms. Reynold and Joworcki (1981) reported that the phytoplankton
community changes with the change in the environmental condition such as
nutrient levels, light intensity, temperature, predators and the type of water sources.
Majority of phytoplankton comprises the algal groups like Chlorophyceae,
Bacillariophyceae, Cyanophyceae, Dinophyceae and Eugeophycean (Mini et al.,
2003). From the very earlier periods a host of workers have stated the influence of

nutrients and physico-chemical factors on algal diversity (Chaturvedi and Iqbal,


1995; Harikrishnan et al., 1999 and Huszar et al., 2006). The growth of algae in
sugar factory waste was reported by Jawale and Kumawat (2000). The
phytoplankton of lentic system in relation with the environmental factors have
been reported by Pandey et al. (2000). The diversity studies of algae in river Ganga
at Kanpur was reported by Tiwari et al. (2001). Chlorococeales, one among the
order of chlorophyceae was reported from the foot hills of Kumaon, Himalayas by
Habib
(2001). Habib and Chaturvedi (2001) listed the desmids of the Himalayas.Mahadev
and Hosmani (2002) studied the phytoplankton in the two lakes ofMysore city. The
micro flora of a freshwater tank in Bangalore was reported by Sukumaran (2002).
The diversity studies on phytoplankton in Tiruvannamalai and the relationship with
environmental factors were carried out by Ramakrishnan et al.
(2000). Limnological studies on algae in Anar river of Maharashtra, Vamanapuram
and Karamana rivers in Kerala and their relationship with physico-chemical
parameters were reported by Subramani (2007). The freshwater algae from Pashan
lake was studied by Zaware and Pingle (2003). The growth of green algae on
distillery water was observed by Mohan et al. (2003). Murugesan et al. (2003)
studied the phytoplankton diversity on Porur lake. Misra et al. (2004) made a
report on the planktonic algae from Uttar Pradesh. The diversity of Chlorophycean
members was reported by Reshmi (2004) from the wet lands of Satna. Fresh water
algal diversity from various rivers and reservoirs was studied by earlier workers.
Pingle and Deshmukh (2005) studied the algal biodiversity of Wilson dam. River
Punzara of Maharashtra was studied by More et al. (2005). Subha and Chandran
(2005) and Jose et al. (2008) studied the algal diversity of temple ponds.
Environmental paremeters in relation to algal bloom were reported by Mishra

(2007). Limnological and diversity studies were carried out in a tropical lake
Ayyanekere at Karnataka by Kiran et al. (2005). Several workers reported the
diversity, nutrient analysis and primary productivity of freshwater ecosystems
(Angadi et al., 2005; Tiwari and Shukla, 2007). Algal flora of Udaipur city at
Rajasthan was examined by Rathore et al. (2006). Esther and Shylaja (2006)
reported the algal distribution in a damp well at Osmania University College for
Women at Koti. Tiwari and Shukla (2007) highlighted the phytoplankton
composition, community structure and climate conditions of two tropical ponds in
India. Diversity studies and algal flora from different regions of freshwater
ecosystem were reported by several workers (John and Francis, 2007, Zacharias
and Joy, 2007; Tiwari and Chauhan, 2007; Mishra, 2007; Govindasamy et al.,
2007; Girijakumari and Abraham, 2007). The algal diversity in relations to factors
such as pH, temperature, light intensity, alkalinity along with micro nutrients of
Sunumbu Kalathour lake at Rajasthan was studied by Rajasulochana et al. (2008).
Several variation and nutrients were reported by Jacob et al. (2008), Tessy and
Srikumar (2008) and Sawant and Telave (2009). Much information was published
about the physico-chemical parameters, nutrient analysis along with planktonic
communities throughout India (Jawale and Patil, 2009; Misra et al., 2009; Bhagat
and Gupta, 2009 and Khanna and Yadav, 2009). Limnological parameters
including phytoplankton diversities in the different lakes of India were pointed out
by Ali et al. (2010), Mohar and Beena (2010) and Chakraborthy et al. (2010).
Algal diversity in a group of fifteen small lakes of Narasipur taluk, Mysore district
washighlighted by Umamaheswari (2011).
logy.

Chapter-3

MATERIAL AND METHODS

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