PRACTICAL NO.

5
Aim of Experiment: Study of Cellular Architecture.
Software Used: MS Office
Hardware Used: Standard PC
Pre Condition: Study the mobile cellular system
Post Condition: Cellular system studied.
Introduction:The design of early mobile system was to achieve a large area by using a single high
power transmitter with an antenna mounted on a tail tower. While this approach
achieved very good coverage it also meant that it was impossible to reuse the same
frequency throughout system. Since any attempt to achieve frequency reuse would
result in interference.
The cellular concept was a major break through in solving the problem of spectral
congestion and user capacity it offers very high capacity in a linked spectrum allocation
without any major technological changes.
Features of Cellular System:-

1. Each transmitter typically called a base station covers a radio certain area Cell.
Cell ranges can vary from tens of meter in buildings and100s of meters in city.
The shape of cells are never perfect circles are hexagon, but depend on
environment, whether conditions and some times even on system load.

2. The cellular concept is a system level idea which calls for replacing a single high
power transmitter with many low power transmitters, each providing coverage to
only a small portion of service area.
3. Each base station is allocated a portion of total no. of channels available to the
entire system and nearby base station are assigned to different groups of channels.
So that all the available channels are assigned to a relatively small no. of
neighboring base station.
4. Neighboring base stations are assigned different groups of channels. So that
interference between base stations is minimize.
5. Systematic spacing between base station and their channels group throughout a
market, the available channels are distributed throughout the geographic region
and may be reused as many times as necessary. So long as the interference
between the co-channels stations is kept below acceptable level.

B
G

C
A

CLUSTER D
E

Frequency Reuse:The design process of selecting and allocating channels groups for all the cellular base
station within the system is called frequency reuse or frequency planning. For example if
2

s channels are divided among N cells into unique and disjoint groups, which each have
same no. of channels, the total no. of available radio channels can be expressed as:S=KN

(1)

The N cells which collectively used the complete cell available frequency is called a
Cluster. If a cluster is replicated M times with a system, the total no. of duplex channels
can be used to measure capacity and is given by:
C=MKN
C=MS

(from eq 1)

The capacity of a cellular system is directly proportional to the no. of times a cluster is
replicated in a fixed service area. The factor is called the cellular size and is typically
equal to 4, 7 or 12.
If the cellular size N is reduced while the cell size kept constant, more clusters are
required to cover a given coverage area and hence more capacity is achieved. The value
of N is a function of how much interference a mobile or base station can be tolerate while
maintaining sufficient quality of communication. The smallest possible value of N is
desirable in order to maximize the capacity over a given coverage area. The frequency
reuse factor is given by 1/N. Since each cell with in the cluster is only assigned 1/N of the
total available channels in a system.
Hand-Off:When a mobile user is engaged in a conversation the mobile station is connected to a base
station via a radio linked. If the mobile user moves to coverage area of another base
station the radio link to the old base station is eventually disconnected and a radio link to
the new base station should be established to continue the conversation, this process is
termed as handover, Hand-Off and Automatic Link Transfer (ATL). Hand-Off is the
process of changing the channels (frequency, time-slots, spreading codes or combination
of them) associated with current connection while a call is in progress.
3

Types Of Hand-Off:1. Hard Hand-Off:- break before make means current resources before allocating
new resources.
2. Soft Hand-Off:- make before break means current resources are released after
allocation of new resources.
Three strategies have been proposed from the decision point of view:
1. Mobile Controlled Hand-Off (MCHO):- In this the mobile station continuously
monitors the signals of the surrounding base station and initiates the hand-off
process when some hand-off criteria are met.
2. Network Controlled Hand-Off (NCHO):- The surrounding base station measures
the signals from the mobile station and network initiates the hand-off process
when some hand-off criteria are met.
3. Mobile Assisted Hand-Off (MAHO):- In MAHO, every mobile station measure
the received power from surrounding base station and continuously reports the
results of these measurements to serving the base station. A Hand-Off is initiated
when the power received from the base station of a neighboring cell exceeds from
the power received from the current base station.
Co-Channel Interference:Frequency reuse implies that in a given coverage area there are several cells that use the
same set of frequency, these cells are called the co-channels and the interference between
signals from these cells is called the Co-Channel Interference. To reduce the co-channel
interference is:
4

Q = D/R = (3N)
Where, R is the radius of the cell. D is the distance between the cells and Q is

called

the Co-channel reuse ratio for hexagon geometry.

A small value of q provides larger capacity since cluster size N is small where as larger
value of Q improves the transmission quality due to smaller level co-channel interference
a trade-off must be made between these two objectives in actual cellular design.
Propagation measurement in two mobile radio channels show the average signal cell of
any points decades as a power law of the distance of separation between a transmitter and
a receiver.
Pr = Po(D/D0)-n
Where Pr is average received power, D is the distance, Po is the power received of close
in reference point in the far field region of the antenna at a small distance D0 from the
transmitting antenna and n is the path loss exponent.
As the demand of wireless service increases, the no. of channels is assigned to a cell
eventually becomes in sufficient to support the required no. of users at his point. Cellular
design techniques are needed to provide more channels per unit coverage area.
Techniques that are used in practice to expand the capacity of cellular system are such
as:1. Cell Splitting
2. Cell Sectoring
Cell Splitting:-

Cell splitting is the process of subdividing a congested cell into smaller cells each with its
own base station and a corresponding reduction in antenna height and transmitter power.
Cell splitting increases the capacity of a cellular system since it increases the no. of times
that channels are reused. This is done by defining new cells which have a smaller radius
than the original cell and installing these smaller cells between the existing cells.
Capacity increases due to the additional no. of channels per unit area.

A
B
C

F
G
A
A
A
D
A

Cell Splitting
Smaller cells were added in such a way so as to presence the frequency reuse of the
system. For the new cell to be smaller in the size, the transmitted power of the cells must
be reduced the transmitter of the new cell with radius half of the original cells can be
found by examining the received power Pr at the new and the old cell boundaries and
setting them equal to each other.
In practice not all the cell split at the same time and same size so this causes difficulties
as follows:
1. If the larger transmit power is used for all the cells, some channels used by the
smaller cells would not be sufficiently separated from co-channels cells.
6

2. If smaller transmit power s used for all cells they would be part of larger cells left
without being served.
For this reason the channels in the old cell must be broken down into two channel groups,
one that correspond to the smaller cell reuse requirements and the other that corresponds
to that larger cell reuse requirements. The larger cell is usually dedicated to high speed
traffic so that hand-off occurs less frequently.
Cell Sectoring:When sectoring technique is used in cellular systems, the channels used in a particular
sector are actually broken down into sectored groups, which are only used inside a
particular sector. With 7-cell reuse pattern and 120 degree sectors, the number of
interfering cells in the neighboring tier is brought down from six to two. Cell sectoring
also improves the signal-to-interference ratio, thereby increasing the capacity of a cellular
system. This method of cell sectoring is very efficient, because it utilized the existing
system structures. Cell sectoring also minimized the co-channel interference, with the use
of directional antennas, a particular cell will get interference and transmit only a fraction
of the available co-channel cells.

Cell Sectoring
Conclusion:- Cellular Architecture has been studied.
7

PRACTICAL NO. 6
Aim: Write a practical to divide the given area into equal hexagons and create clusters
using given set of frequencies.
Software/Hardware required: Standard PC and MS-Office
Pre-requisites: Knowledge of frequency reuse.
Post-requisites: Frequency reuse has been studied.
Description:
The design process of selecting and allocating channels groups for all the cellular base
station within the system is called frequency reuse or frequency planning.
The ability of reusing the frequency means to expand the total system capacity without
need to employ high power antenna. The key characteristic of cellular network is the
ability to reuse the frequency to increase coverage or capacity.
In a cellular system frequency reuse is achieved by assigning a subset of total number of
channels available to the base station and controlling power output.

If a given set of frequencies or radio channels can be reused without increasing antenna
then the large geographical area as covered by a single high power transmitter and
geographical area can be divided into number of small areas each allocated a subset of
frequencies provided that the separation of two cells is sufficiently wide so that same
subset of frequencies can be used. This concept of reusing the set of frequencies is known
as the frequency reuse.
For example if s channels are divided among N cells into unique and disjoint groups,
which each have same no. of channels, the total no. of available radio channels can be
expressed as:S=KN

(1)

The N cells which collectively used the complete cell available frequency is called a
Cluster. If a cluster is replicated M times with a system, the total no. of duplex channels
can be used to measure capacity and is given by:
C=MKN
C=MS

(from eq 1)

The capacity of a cellular system is directly proportional to the no. of times a cluster is
replicated in a fixed service area. The factor is called the cellular size and is typically
equal to 4, 7 or 12.
If the cellular size N is reduced while the cell size kept constant, more clusters are
required to cover a given coverage area and hence more capacity is achieved. The value
of N is a function of how much interference a mobile or base station can be tolerate while
maintaining sufficient quality of communication. The smallest possible value of N is
desirable in order to maximize the capacity over a given coverage area. The frequency
reuse factor is given by 1/N. Since each cell with in the cluster is only assigned 1/N of the
total available channels in a system.
Cellular system for mobile communication implements SDM. Each transmitter typically
called a base station covers a certain area called a cell. However to avoid interference
between transmitters which are within each others interference range, we use FDM. The
9

general goal is never use the same frequency at the same time within the interference
range. In order to do this, cell is grouped in to disjoint frequency units called clusters. The
number of different frequencies used in a cluster is termed as frequency reuse factor N.
We select frequency reuse factor N such a way that, the following condition satisfied.
N = i2 + i*j + j2
For example: If i = 1 and j = 1 then N = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3
2

j steps

2
3

1d
2
3

3
ps 1
i st e

1
2

3
1

Types of frequency reuse:

Frequency reuse is of the following two types:1. Fixed frequency reuse:
Fixed frequency reuse is where each channel has pre determined number of channels and
if all the channels are used then the cell is blocked and no service is provided.
2. Dynamic frequency reuse:
Dynamic frequency reuse involves no permanent allocation of frequency channels to the
cells and frequency bands are requested from MSC which assigns the band channels to
cell using the re-used distance.
In this way cellular network increases the capacity i.e. total number of available channels
to users.
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Result: Frequency reuse has been studied.

PRACTICAL NO.7
Aim: Design a prototype that implements the cache management for a mobile computing
environment.
Software/Hardware required: Standard PC and MS-Office
Pre-requisites: One server with Cache Manager and many clients.
Post-requisites: Cache manger prototype is built.
Introduction:
With the explosive growth of wireless techniques and mobile devices such as laptops,
personal digital assistants, people with battery powered mobile devices wish to access
various kinds of services at any time any place. However, existing wireless services are
limited by the constraints of wireless networks such as narrow bandwidth, frequent
disconnections, and limitations of the battery technology.
Caching frequently accessed data items on the client side is an effective technique to
improve performance in mobile environment Average data access latency is reduced as
some data access requests can be satisfied from the local cache thereby obviating the
need for data transmission over the scarce wireless links. Due to the limitations of the
cache size, it is impossible to hold all the accessed data items in the cache.
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The System Models :Mobile Computing Model: In a mobile computing system, the geographical area is divided into small regions, called
cells. Each cell has a base station (BS) and a number of mobile terminals (MTs). Intercell and intra-cell communications are managed by the BSs. The MTs communicate with
the BS by wireless links. The mobile computing platform can be effectively described
under the client/server paradigm. A data item is the basic unit for update and query. MTs
only issue simple requests to read the most recent copy of a data item. There may be one
or more processes running on an MT. These processes are referred to as clients. In order
to serve a request sent from a client, the BS needs to communicate with the database
server to retrieve the data items.
The Cache Invalidation Model: Frequently accessed data items are cached on the client side. To ensure cache consistency,
a cache management algorithm is necessary.As a solution, we use the IR-based cache
invalidation approach to maintain cache consistency.
In this approach, the server periodically broadcasts an Invalidation Report (IR) in which
the changed data items are indicated. Rather than querying the server directly regarding
the validation of cached copies, the client can listen to these IRs over wireless channels
and use the information to invalidate its local cache. The IR consists of the current
timestamp Ti

and a list of tuples (dx,tx) such that tx>(Ti-w*L)_, where dx _ is the data

item id, tx is the most recent update timestamp of dx , and w is the invalidation broadcast
window size.
The Caching Scenarios:

12

Caching recently accessed data in the server can significantly improve the performance of
a mobile computing system. There are three caching scenarios are considered in this
study. The first one is to access cache data in the server (FLB). Since the server processes
the transactions from mobile users, the buffer of the server contains recently used data.
Second, one may utilize a coordinator buffer to cache data for the mobile computing
system.
It has been reported that a FCB is useful in improving the system performance and
scalability. The third scheme is to access cache data from the prior server of running
transactions (FPS).

Figure 1: A cache retrieval problem in mobile computing system.

In the beginning, served by server A, mobile user 1 submits a transaction to server A.
According to the transaction properties, server A will use either FCB or FLB to pre-cache
some data when the transaction starts to process. Suppose that server A uses FCB to precache data and mobile user 1 moves to a new service area which is covered by server B.
The running applications of mobile user 1 will be transferred to server B which use one
of the three schemes: FPS, FCB and FLB for cache access.
Cache Retrieval Methods:

13

In a mobile computing system, mobile users submit transactions to the servers for
execution, and the transactions request data pages from servers to process. In some
applications, if data pages are referenced by transactions, these data pages have a
tendency of being referenced again soon. This property is called temporal locality. For
applications with temporal locality, the data pages which these transactions access can be
further divided into two types of pages, pages with intra transaction locality and pages
with inter-transaction locality. Intra-transaction locality refers to the feature that the same
data pages are usually referenced within a transaction boundary.In contrast, intertransaction locality refers to the feature that the same data pages are usually shared by
some consecutive transactions.
Description of Three Caching Methods:-We now describe three caching methods. As
can be seen later, depending on the transaction properties, FLB, FPS and FCB have their
own advantages.
i) FLB (Caching from Local Buffer)Since the server has its own local buffer, it could get cache data from its local buffer
directly.The server will fetch cache data due to cache miss in the beginning of transaction
execution.
ii) FPS (Caching from the Previous Server)For a transaction with higher intra-transaction locality and lower inter-transaction
locality, getting the cache data from the previous server is useful and effective for mobile
computing. Let server SA contains the cache pages 44, 26 and 17, and the coordinator
contains the cache pages 44, 39 and 40 after server SC writes its cache buffer. These
transactions also share one page 44. Under the assumption that the characteristics of
workload are of high temporal locality and with few common pages, the mobile user
requests the cache pages 44, 26 and 18.

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iii) FCB (Caching from Coordinator Buffer)If the transaction property is update-intensive and transactions possess higher intertransaction locality, getting cache data from the coordinator buffer will be cost-effective.
Let the sharing pages are 44 and 39. Assume that the mobile user is using the data pages
44, 39 and 18. When server SB which the mobile user is with gets the cache data from the
coordinator, server SB will have the most recent pages 44 and 39, and only incur one
cache miss for page 18 and one cache replacement for page 40. Clearly, FCB performs
better than FPS in this case.
Three Phases of a Transaction:
The transaction processing can be divided into three phases, namely the initial phase, the
execution phase and the termination phaseDuring the initial phase, the transaction sets up the processing environment. The server
creates the cache entry table, and two cache methods, FCB and FLB, will be
considered.
The second phase is the execution phase when the server is processing the transaction. If
the server needs to do the service handoff when a mobile unit enters a new service area,
the running transactions will migrate to a new server. As the new server sets up the
running environment, cache data will be retrieved by the new server using three schemes:
FLB, FCB and FPS.
The last phase of a transaction is the termination phase. In this termination phase, as the
transaction execution finishes, the transaction will do the coordinator buffer write as well
as activate the cache invalidation scheme to invalidate other caches in this mobile system.
Dynamic and Adaptive Cache Retrieval SchemesIn this section, Cache retrieval methods for the initial phase are examined in Section 1
and those for the execution phase are examined in Section 2. Decision rules for DAR are
derived in Section 3.
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1. Caching Schemes for the Initial PhaseConsider the example scenario where a short transaction is executed by a mobile
computer. The transaction properties are taken into consideration to decide which scheme
to use. Since the transaction is update-intensive and has inter-transaction locality, FCB
tends to perform better.
Due to the inter-transaction locality, the buffer in the coordinator maintains many sharing
pages and the server is thus very likely able to get pages from the coordinator buffer. On
the other hand, when intertransaction locality is absent, FLB tends to perform better than
FCB because that cache retrieved from FCB will incur cache replacement, which does
not happen when FLB is used.
2. Caching Schemes for the Execution PhaseWe now consider caching schemes for a transaction in the execution phase. With the
transaction execution time being long enough, the transaction processing will migrate to a
new server due to the movement of a mobile unit.
3. Deriving Decision Rules for DARBy taking into consideration the transaction properties and the costs of cache miss and
cache replacement, DAR will select an appropriate method in each phase of transaction
processing.
Intra-transaction page probability represents the percentage of pages that demonstrate the
intra-transaction locality, whereas inter-transaction page probability represents the
percentage of pages that demonstrate the inter-transaction locality. The attributes of
intertransaction page, such as read or update, depend on the update probability for intertransaction pages. Each transaction is assumed to process an average of T pages. Also, the
size of cache in the server buffer is S. CM and CR denotes the cache miss and the cache
replacement cost of each page, respectively. A description of symbols is given below:
16

Figure 2: Decision Rule for the Initial phase

The number of inter-transaction pages among transactions can be expressed as T*. Then
we consider the cache miss and cache replacement cost between FCB and FLB. Clearly,
the FLB has CM*T caches miss cost.
On the other hand, using FCB to retrieve cache, the cache contains T inter-transaction
pages and some other pages, which are not available in the cache. Clearly, accessing these
pages incurs cache miss and replacement cost. This cost can be expressed as (CM+CR)
(T-T ). To facilitate our presentation, we denote the minimal number of inter-transaction
pages as , and use as a threshold to determine whether FCB or FLB should be used.
Formally, is determined from following formula:
(CM+CR)(T-)< CM*T
The minimal number of inter-transaction pages indicates that if the T is larger than ,
one should use FCB. Otherwise FLB should be used. In brief, the decision rule is as
follows.
1. Decision Rule for the Initial Phase:
Determine the minimal number of inter-transaction pages from
(CM+CR)(T-)< CM*T
17

If (T >) then
Using FCB
else
Using FLB.
2. Decision Rules for the Execution phase
According to the transaction properties, we evaluate the FPS and FCB to decide which
one to employ. Specifically, the number of intra-transaction pages in a transaction is T
and the number of inter-transaction pages in a transaction is T . We denote the minimal
number of pages with temporal locality as . In general, if T+T is less than ,
meaning that temporal locality are not prominent, FLB is used. However, if the
transaction property has prominent temporal locality, we shall select the schemes from
FCB or FPS. Specifically, use FPS if /> and use FCB if /< . Hence, the extra page
access incurs cache miss and replacement cost. Therefore,we can determine as follows.
(T-)(CM+CR)<CM*T

3. Decision Rule for the Execution Phase

Determine the minimal number of temporal locality pages from

(CM+CR)(T-)< CM*T
If ( T+T ) >) then
Using FLB
else

/>_=> using FPS

18

/<=> using FCB

Conclusion:- We examined in this several cache retrieval schemes to improve the
efficiency of cache retrieval. In particular, we analyzed the impact of using a coordinator
buffer to improve the overall performance of cache retrieval. In light of the temporal
locality of transactions, we devised a DAR that can adopt proper cache methods based on
some specific criteria devised to deal with the service handoff situation in a mobile
computing environment. The performance of these cache retrieval schemes was analyzed
and a system simulator was developed to validate our results.
Specifically, FPS performed best for transactions with prominent intertransaction locality
whereas FCB outperformed others for transactions with prominent inter-transaction
locality.

19