CARPENTRY SHOP

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Carpentry is a skilled trade in which the primary work performed is the cutting,
shaping and installation of building materials during the construction
of buildings, ships, timber bridges, concrete formwork, etc. Carpenters traditionally
worked with natural wood and did the rougher work such as framing, but today
many other materials are also used and sometimes the finer trades of
cabinetmaking and furniture building are considered carpentry.
1.2 MATERIAL USED
Carpenters traditionally worked with natural wood which has been called lumber
(American English) or timber (British English). Today there are many building
materials a carpenter may use which are typically prepared by others and delivered
to the job site. Tasks performed by union carpenters include installing ,flooring,
windows, doors, interior trim, cabinetry, solid surface, roofing, framing, siding,
flooring, insulation, drywall, acoustical ceilings, computer-access flooring, metal
framing, wall partitions, office furniture systems and both custom or factoryproduced materials, trim and molding, cabinetry, ceiling treatments, doors,
windows, exposed columns and beams, displays, mantels, staircases, metal studs,
metal lath, and drywall.
Mainly carpentry material used in carpentry can be classified as follow
1.2.1 TIMBER
1.2.2 ENGINEERING WOOD
1.2.1.1 TIMBER
Wood suitable for construction and other engineering purposes is called timber.
Timber is obtained from well grown trees. The trees are cut, sawn into various sizes
to suit building purposes.
1.2.1.2 Timber sizes
Timber sold in the market is in various sizes and shapes. The following are the
common shapes and sizes.
a Log - The trunk of the tree which is free from branches.
b Balk- The log, sawn to have roughly square cross section.
c Post- A timber piece, round or square in cross section, having its diameter or side
from 175 to 300mm.
d Plank- A sawn timber piece, with more than 275 mm in width, 50 to 150 mm in
thickness and 2.5 to 6.5 meters in length.
e Board- A sawn timber piece, below 175 mm in width and 30 to 50 mm in
thickness.
f Reapers - Sawn timber pieces of assorted and non-standard sizes, which do not
confirm to the above shapes and sizes.
1.2.1.3 Characteristics of Good Timber
The good timber must possess the following characteristics
a. It should have minimum moisture content, i.e. the timber should be well
seasoned.
b. The grains of wood should be straight and long.

c. It must retain its straightness after seasoning.

d. It should produce near metallic sound on hammering.
E .It should be free from knots or cracks.
f. It should be of uniform color, throughout the part of the wood.
g. It should respond well to the finishing and polishing operations.
h. During driving the nails and screw, it should not split easily.
1.2.1.4 Wood Structure of Timber Tree
Cross section of a timber tree is shown in fig
a. Pith or Medulla
It is core of the tree. It feeds sap from the roots to the growing tree in the early age.
Wood surrounding the pith is called juvenile wood, which is not suitable as timber.
b. Heart Wood
This portion of wood is near and around the pith. It is darker in color than remaining
wood in the tree. It gives strength and support to the tree and provides the most
durable wood for conversion in to timber.
c. Sapwood
It is outer active part of the tree which, receives and conducts sap from the roots to
the leaves. As this part of the tree matures, it gradually becomes heartwood. As
compared to heart wood, it is softer, weaker and lighter in color and carriage high
percentage of moisture content. It is less suitable for timber. After seasoning, we
can use as timber.

Figure: 1.1 Section through the stem/trunk

d. Cambium Layer
A thin layer of cells located between the sapwood and the bast (phloem). These

cells are responsible for the trees growth. With the passing of time it is gradually
converted into sap wood whereas a fresh annual ring is formed outside it, which
becomes the cambium layer.
e. Inner Bark (Bast or Phloem)
Conduct food throughout the whole of the tree, from the leaves to the roots.
f. Bark (Cortex)
The outer sheath of the tree. It functions as:
a moisture barrier,
a thermal insulator, against extremes in temperature-both hot or cold
an armor plate against extremes
g. Annual Rings (Growth Ring)
Wood cells that have formed around the circumference of the tree during its
growing season. The climate and time of year dictate the growth pattern. Each ring
is often seen as two distinct bands, known as earlywood (springwood) and latewood
(summerwood). Latewood is denser than earlywood and darker in appearance. They
enable to decide timber suitability in engineering purpose.
h. Medullary Rings (Rays)
It is often used to describe this strip of cells that allow to sap to percolate
transversely through the wood. They also store excess food.
They help in binding the annual rings together to provide a solid structure to the
tree.
1.2.1.5 Classification of timber wood
Woods in general are divided into two broad categories: Soft woods and hard
woods.
Soft woods are obtained from conifers, kair, deodar, chir, walnut and seemal. Woods
obtained from teak, sal, oak, shisham, beach, ash mango, neem and babul are
known as hard wood, but it is highly durable.
Comparison chart
Hardwood
Softwood
Definition
Comes from
Conifer/
gymnosperm
deciduous/angiosperm
trees
(needle
shape
trees(broad shape leaves)
leaves)
Examples
Mahogany ,chir, teak, walnut, kair, deodar, chir and
oak, ash, maple and sheesham seemal etc
etc.
Cost
Expensive than softwood
Less
expensive
than
hardwood
Growth
Slower growth rate
Faster growth rate
Density
Higher density and usually harder Lower density
than softwood
Shedding
of Hardwood shed their leaves over Softwood tend to keep
leaves
a period of time
their leaves throughout
the year
Color
Dark
Light
Annual ring
No distinct
Distinct
Weight
Heavy
Light

Strength

Structure
Fire resistance

Strong in compression ,tension

and shear (strong along and
across the grains)
Non-resinous and closed grained
More

Strong in tension but weak

in shear (strong along the
grains)
Resinous and splits easy
poor

1.2.1.6 TYPES OF COMMON TIMBERS, THEIR QUALITIES AND USES

The common types of well recognized timbers available in India are Shisham, Sal,
Teak, Deodar, Mango, Mahogany, Kail, Chid, Babul, Fir wood, Walnut and Haldu,. Out
of these, Deodar, Chid, Kail, Fir wood and Haldu fall in the categories of softwoods
and Shisham, Sal, Teak, Kiker, Mango, Walnut fall in the categories of hardwoods.
Some of the other foreign timbers commonly used in India are Ash, Burma, Hickory,
Oak and Pine.
a. Shisham or Indian Rosewood is dark brown in color and it possesses golden and
dark brow stripes. It is very hard to work and generally wears or blunts the sharp
edge of cutting tool very soon. It is available in India in Himalayan range at heights
from 1000-1500 meters and in deep forests. It is recognized as highly strong and
durable wood and it is mainly used for making good variety of furniture, tool
handles, beds, cabinets, bridge piles, plywood etc.
b. Sal exists in rose brown color which slowly turns into dark brown. This wood is
commonly available in India in Himalayas, M.P and U.P. It is free from attack of white
ants insects and it is very difficult to work. It has poor finish and therefore is not
used for decorative furniture. It finds tremendous applications in making doors,
windows, cots, wooden handles, furniture and railway sleepers etc.
c. Teak wood is hard, very costly and it possesses wide applications. It is available
in golden yellow or dark brown color. Special stripes on it add to its beauty. In India,
it is found in M.P. It is very strong, durable and it maintains good polish. It is mainly
used for making good quality furniture, plywood, ships etc.
d. Deodar is white in color when soft. But when it is hard, its color turns toward
light yellow. It is strong and durable. It provides fragrance when smelled. It is not
easily attacked by insects as it has some quantity of oil in it. It is commonly
available in Himalayas at a height from 1500 to 3000 meters. It is used for
manufacturing of doors, furniture, patterns, railway sleepers etc.
e. Mango is brown in color and it can be easily shaped in various products. It is
widely used in India as a cheap wood for making doors, packing cases, toys and
inferior furniture.
f. Mahogany is reddish brown in color which is highly durable when dry. It also
contains some oil in it that prevents it from the attack of insects. It is commonly
utilized for manufacturing cabinet, fine furniture, pattern making work etc.
g. Kail wood possesses too many knots in it. This wood is commonly found in
Himalayas of India. It yields a close grained, moderately hard and durable wood
which can be easily painted. It is commonly utilized for making cheap furniture,
wooden doors, packing case etc.

h. Chid is also known as Chir. Its color is dark brown when is soft, but it is reddish
brown when hard. It has stripes of dark brown color. It has oily smell and is used for
interior work in the house.
i. Babul is close grained tough and pale red colored wood and is used for making
tool handles etc.
j. Fir wood is light brown in color when soft but harder variety is found in dark
brown color. It can be easily attacked by insects. It is commonly utilized for making
drawers, packing cases, doors etc.
k. Walnut is a good variety of wood which resists the attack of white ants. It can be
polished easily in a better way. This wood is generally used for making musical
instruments, furniture, cabinet work, decoration work etc.
l) Haldu is white in color at the time of cutting, but once cut, its color becomes
yellow. It can be dried and polished satisfactorily. It is widely used for making small
objects such as stool, picture frames, trays, cabinet etc.
1.2.1.7 Conversion method of wood in to timber
The way in which the log is cut will depend on the following factors
Type of sawing machine
Log size (diameter)
Type of wood
Condition of wood-structural defects
Proportion of heartwood to sapwood
Future use-structural, decorative, or both
a. Through-and-Through-sawn:
In this method of conversion, parallel cuts are made down the length of the log,
producing a number of quarter and tangential sawn boards. The first and last cuts
leave a portion of wood called a slab. This is simple and least expensive.
Cuts may be made vertically or horizontally depending on the type of machine.

Figure 1.2.1.7(a): Through-and-through-sawn

b) Tangential-Sawn (Plain sawn):

Figure shows that by starting with a squared log, tangential-sawn boards are
produced by working round the log, by turning it to produce boards, all of
which (except the center) have their growth rings across the boards width.
Although tangential-sawn sections are subjected to cupping (becoming
hollow across the width) when they dry, they are the most suitable sections
for softwood beams i.e. floor joists, roof rafter, etc. , which rely on the
position of the growth ring to give greater strength to the beams depth.

Figure 1.2.1.7(b): Tangential-Sawn (plain sawn)

c) Quarter (Radial) or Rift-sawnThis method of conversion can be wasteful and expensive, although it is
necessary where a large number of radial or near radial-sawn boards are
required.
Quarter-sawn boards retain their shape better than tangential-sawn boards
and tend to shrink less, making them well suited to good-class joinery work
and quality flooring.

Figure Quarter (radial) or rift-sawn

1.2.1.8 Seasoning of Wood
A newly felled tree contains considerable moisture content and has a very high
moisture content approx. 50%. If this is not removed, the timber is likely to wrap,
shrink, crack or decay. Seasoning is the art of extracting the moisture content under
controlled conditions, at a uniform rate, from all the parts of the timber. Only
seasoned wood should be used for all carpentry works. Seasoning makes the wood
resilient and lighter. Further, it ensures that the wood will not distort after it is made
into an object.
a. Reasons for Seasoning
Seasoning is the controlled process of reducing the moisture content (MC) of the
timber.
Wood will dry naturally so seasoning helps us to control the process
and keep the timber more stable and more useful.
Prevents splitting
Prevents a lot of fungal and insect attacks
It is less lightly to distort or warp later
After seasoning timber is easier to work with, because it is lighter,
harder and stronger.
b. Moisture content
% moisture content

Condition

22%-20%
20%
16%
12%-14%
11%-13%
9%-11%

Limit of air seasoned wood.

Limit for occurance of dry rot.
Outdoor furniture.
Occasionally heated areas.
Heated areas.
Very heated areas.

c. Influence of Relative Humidity

Relative Humidity: the amount of moisture (water vapour) in the air at
a given temperature, compared with the maximum amount of moisture
the air could hold at the same temperature
Wood will continue to shrink or grow (HYDROSCOPIC) to reach
equilibrium moisture content. This means that it acclimatizes to its
surrounding environment. For example if a piece of timber with a
moisture content of 12% is placed in a room with a moisture content of
20% the moisture level in the timber will rise until it reaches 20%.
1.2.1.8.1 Types of Seasoning
a. Natural / Air Seasoning
b. Kiln Seasoning
a. Air Seasoning
With this process the timber is roughly sawn to size and stacked using
spacers called stickers, with the timber stacked in the open air.

 Vertical spacing achieved by using timber battens (25mm) of the same

species. The piling sticks should be spaced close enough to prevent
bowing (600 to 900 mm centers) this allows the free movement of air.
The stack should be protected from the direct influence of the
elements.
The ends of the beams must be painted to prevent splitting.
Advantages
No expensive equipment needed
Small labor cost once stack is made
Environmentally friendly- uses little energy
Disadvantages
Slow drying rate
Large area of space required for a lot of timber
Only dries the timber to approximately 20% M.C. so leaving it open to
some insect and fungal attacks while it is only suitable for outdoor
joinery

Figure 1.2.1.8.1(a): air seasoning

b. Kiln Seasoning
There are two main types of kiln used in artificial seasoning
(i) Compartmental Kilns
(ii) Progressive Kilns.
Both methods rely on the controlled environment to dry out the timber
and require the following factors:
Forced air circulation by using large fans, blowers, etc.
Heat of some form provided by piped steam.
Humidity control provided by steam jets.
The amount and duration of air, heat and humidity again depends on
species, size, quantity, etc. In general, the atmosphere in the kiln at
first will be cool and moist. The temperature is gradually increased and
the humidity reduced until the required moisture content is achieved.
i. Compartmental Kilns
This kiln is a single enclose container or building, etc.The timber is stacked same

manner as air seasoning

Whole stack is seasoned using a program of settings (temperature and humidity)
until the whole stack is reduced to the MC required.
ii. Progressive Kilns
A progressive kiln has the stack on trolleys that progressively travel
through a sequence of chambers.
Each chamber has varying atmospheres that change the MC of the
timber stack as it travels through.
Advantages of this system- has a continuous flow of seasoned timber coming of

line
Figure 1.2.1.8.1(b) progressive kiln seasoning
Advantages

Quicker due to higher temperatures, ventilation and air circulation

Achieve a lower moisture content
Defects associated with drying can be controlled
Allows more precise rates of drying for various timber species and
thickness of boards
Disadvantages
Is expensive
Requires supervision by a skilled operator
Uses a lot of energy
Finding the MC
A moisture meter is most commonly used to establish the MC of a
particular batch of timber. These meters are usually attached to two
probes which send an electrical signal through the wood. Water is a
conductor of electricity and therefore the more water present the
higher the conductivity and this can be read from the display.
Another method of establishing the MC is to remove random samples
from the stack. Each of the samples are placed on a micro scales and
their weight recorded. The samples are then placed in an oven or
microwave until the moisture has evaporated. The samples are then
weighted again and their dry weight recorded. The %MC is obtained by
the formulae Wet weight dry weight X 100 = %MC dry weight
1.2.1.9 WOOD PROPERTIES
Main properties of timber wood on which its quality is assessed are following
a. Wood Density
Wood density and wood specific gravity both indicate the amount of actual wood

substance present in a unit volume of wood. Wood density is not a simple

characteristic. It is afected by
the cell wall thickness, the cell diameter, the earlywood to latewood ratio and the
chemical content of the wood.
Specific Gravity - the ratio of the density of a material divided by the density of
water at 4C.
Calculation of Density
=W/V
Where (rho) = density
W = weight V = volume ;Wood density is calculated using weight and volume at
time of measurement
- Weight and volume are both a function of MC
- Commonly expressed as g/cm3, kg/m3, or lb/ft3
Wood density increases with increasing wood MC.
- Both weight and volume are a function of MC, but as MC increases, weight
increases at a greater rate than volume, therefore, the density increases.
However, there is an
Inflection point at the FSP because for MC>FSP, volume does not change.
MC= moisture content OD= oven dry
b. Modulus Rupture
Modulus of Rupture, frequently abbreviated as MOR, (bending strength/ fracture
strength/ Flexural strength), is a measure of a specimens strength before rupture. It
can be used to determine a wood species overall strength; unlike the modulus of
elasticity, which measures the woods deflection, but not its ultimate strength. (That
is to say, some species of wood will bow under stress, but not easily break.)

Figure (b): Bending test

MOR is expressed in pounds-force per square inch (lbf/in2) or mega paschal (MPa).
This number is given for wood that has been dried to 12% moisture content, unless
otherwise noted.
c. Elastic Modulus
Young's modulus, also known as the tensile modulus or elastic modulus, is a
measure of the stifness of an elastic material and is a quantity used to characterize
materials. It is defined as the ratio of the stress along an axis over the strain along
that axis in the range of stress in which Hooke's law holds. In solid mechanics, the
slope of the stress-strain curve at any point is called the tangent modulus. The
tangent modulus of the initial, linear portion of a stress-strain curve is called Young's
modulus. It can be experimentally determined from the slope of a stress-strain
curve created during tensile tests conducted on a sample of the material. In
anisotropic materials, Young's modulus may have diferent values depending on the
direction of the applied force with respect to the material's structure.
It is measured on universal testing machine. A standard specimen is clamped
between machines grips and tensile force is applied. A transducer is convert force

into electronic signal, which is processed and calculated. Final result appears in
computer display.
d. Crushing Strength
Sometimes known as Compression Strength parallel to the grain, this is a
measurement of the woods maximum crushing strength when weight is applied to
the ends of the wood (compression is parallel to the grain).

Figure (d): compression test

This number is a good indicator of the woods strength in applications such as deck
posts, chair legs, or other circumstances where the load being applied is parallel
rather than perpendicular to the grain. This test is also carried out on universal
testing machine.
e. Grain Direction
To take full advantage of a woods strength, pay attention to the grain direction.
Wood is a natural polymer parallel strands of cellulose fibers held together by a
lignin binder. These long chains of fibers make the wood exceptionally strong
they resist stress and spread the load over the length of the board. Furthermore,
cellulose is tougher than lignin. Its easier to split a board with the grain (separating
the lignin) than it is to break it across the grain (separating the cellulose fibers).
Remember this when you lay out the parts of a project. Always orient the grain so
the fibers support the load. Whenever possible, cut the parts so the grain is
continuous, running the length of the board. This also applies to wood joinery! When
cutting a tenon, for example, the wood grain must run the length of the tenon and
the board so the grain is continuous.

Figure (e): Grain direction

f. Shrinkage Test
Dimensional changes, shrinkage, and swelling in wood take place below the fiber
saturation point (FSP) where all of the water exists only within the cell wall. For
simplicity , shrinkage and swelling will be combined and referred to collectively as
shrinkage here. Shrinkage is proportional to the amount of water exchanged
between a piece of wood and its environment.
Wood is an anisotropic material; that is, its dimensions change diferently in three
directions: tangentially, radially, and longitudinally. Tangential dimensional change
has the highest rate of change due to parallel orientation of microfibrils along the
axis of the cell wall. Shrinkage in the radial direction is the second largest, while
longitudinal shrinkage is negligible for most practical applications. A schematic
approach to the swelling of a block in three directions is shown in Figure . In
general, dimensional change is expressed as percent and can be calculated using
the following formula:
Shrinkage or swelling (%) = Change in dimension or volume x 100
Initial dimension or volume
Dimensional changes can also be estimated based on the following equation:
DC = OD x SV x (CMC FSP) x 100
Where DC is dimensional change due to change in moisture content (CMC),
OD is original dimension, SV is shrinkage value from green to oven dry moisture
content, and
FSP is fiber saturation point, which is considered 28% for practical purposes.

Figure (f): Swelling of a block in three directions

g Wood Hardness
Wood hardness is measure by Janka hardness test. The Janka hardness test
measures the resistance of a sample of wood to denting and wear. It measures the
force required to embed an 11.28mm (.444 in) steel ball into wood to half the ball's
diameter. This method leaves an indentation. A common use of Janka hardness
ratings is to determine whether a species is suitable for use as flooring.
The hardness of wood varies with the direction of the wood grain. Testing on the
surface of a plank, perpendicular to the grain is said to be of "side hardness".
Testing the cut surface of a stump is called a test of "end hardness".
The results are stated in various ways, which can lead to confusion, especially when
the name of the actual units employed is often not attached. In the United States,
the measurement is in pounds-force (lbf). In Sweden it is in kilograms-force (kgf),
and in Australia, either in newtons (N) or kilonewtons (kN). Sometimes the results
are treated as units, for example "660 Janka".

Figure(g) janka hardness test

The Janka Hardness test results tabulated below were done in accordance with
ASTM D 1037-7 testing methods. Lumber stocks tested ranges from 1" to 2" thick.

The tabulated Janka Hardness numbers are an average. There is a standard

deviation associated with each species, but these values are not given. It is
important to note no testing was done on actual flooring. Other factors afect how
flooring performs: the type of core for engineered flooring such as pine, HDF, poplar,
oak, birch; grain direction and thickness; floor or top wear surface, etc. The chart is
not to be considered an absolute; it is meant to help people understand which
woods are harder than others.
Wood
Janka hardness
Shisham
6,720 N
Teak
4,740 N
Mango
4,980 N
1.2.1.10 DEFECTS IN TIMBER
Defects in timber may be broadly classified into three major categories
a. Due to abnormal growth of trees
b. Due to conversion or seasoning and
c .Due to fungi and insects.
The defects in each category are described as under.
1.2.1.10.1 Defects Due to Abnormal Growth of Trees
Defects due to abnormal growth of trees are natural in nature and they are knots,
stakes, twisted fiber and rind galls.
Knots are too much frequent in many trees. They break the continuity of fiber and
weaken the timber. These defects may of dead or live kind. Figure 1.2.1.10.1
shows a knot defect.
A dead knot will come out of the wooden piece leaving a knot hole. It is produced
when a branch is broken of before the tree has finished growing.
A live knot occurs when a branch separates from the tree after felling of the tree.
Live knot will not become loose and fall out of its position but may tend to crack.
Dead knots in timber make the wood unsuitable for structural use.

Figure 1.2.1.10.1 Knot defect in timber

Shakes in timber are splits in the grain and often arise as a result of uneven
seasoning. They may be of radial, heart, star, cup and upset kind. An upset or
rupture is a shake in which the fracture occurs across the grain. This is thought to
be caused by violet jarring of the timber during felling and is often found in
mahogany.
Sometimes, the fibers of a tree may get twisted due to wind action in branches. This
defect is known as twisted fibers defect in timber. The fibers of wood have
diferent inclinations with its axis. They are no more parallel to the axis of the wood.
Twisted fibers in timber ofer difficulty in working and a smooth surface cannot be
obtained.
Rind gall is the defects due to abnormal growth of trees. It is the wound created on
the tree while a branch breaks and parts of or gets cut. Decay may occur at that
point.

1.2.1.10.2 Defects Due to Conversion and Seasoning

Defects due to conversion and seasoning of timber involve shakes, warping, bowing,
twist, diamonding, casehardening and honey combing. Some of such important
defects are discussed as under.
Warping is a kind of variation from a true or plain surface and may include a one or
combination of cup, bow, crook and twist. Warping board which is tangentially sawn
may invariably warp. This takes the form of a hollowing or cupping across the face
of the boardand when wide flat boards are required this will act as a serious
drawback.
Wind or twist defect occurs when thin boards are cut from a log having curved
longitudinal grain. This tendency is for the board distort spirally.
Diamonding in timber is the tendency of square cut pieces to become diamond
shaped when cut from certain areas of the log. This happens when the piece has
been cut with growth rings running diagonally, causing the unequal shrinkage
between summer and spring growth to pull it out of shape.
1.2.1.10.3 Defects due to Fungi and Insects
Defects due to fungi and insects in timber involve fungi, dryrot, and wetrot which
are discussed as under.
Fungi in timber use the wood as their food and destroy the same. It acts on the
wood tissues and cells and cause decay. There are two types of defects in wood
because of fungi and insects which are known as dry rot and wet rot.
Dry rot is a type of fungus on dry wood which feeds on damp wood and breaks it
down. Dry rot is so called because infected wood eventually becomes lighter in
weight and takes on the appearance of being badly charred by fire, except that it is
brown in color instead of black and crumbles under slight pressure. This fungus
cannot develop in wood which has a sap content of less than 20% so that to prevent
it, all that is really necessary is to use seasoned timber and to keep it dry.
Wet rot in timber is the decay due to dampness. The wood looks wet due to fungi
attack on living trees. The efected positions of wood are reduced to a gray brown
powder. Well seasoned wood, protected by painting etc., will avoid wet rot. Insects
such as beetles, borers and white ant attack the wood and render it of no use.
1.2.2 ENGINEERED WOOD
Engineered wood, also called composite wood, man-made wood, or manufactured
board; includes a range of derivative wood products which are manufactured by
binding the strands, particles, fibers, or veneers of wood, together with adhesives,
to form composite materials. These products are engineered to precise design
specifications which are tested to meet national or international standards.
Engineered wood products are used in a variety of applications, from home
construction to commercial buildings to industrial products. The products can be
used for joists and beams that replace steel in many building projects.
Typically, engineered wood products are made from the same hardwoods and
softwoods used to manufacture lumber. Sawmill scraps and other wood waste can
be used for engineered wood composed of wood particles or fibers, but whole logs
are usually used for veneers, such as plywood, MDF or particle board. Some
engineered wood products, like oriented strand board (OSB), can use trees from the
poplar family, a common but non-structural species.
Types of engineered wood
1.2.2.1 MAIN PROPERTIES
a. Dimensional Stability

Timber expands and contracts across its grain as it takes in and loses moisture to
the atmosphere This gives plywood excellent two way dimensional stability which is
advantageous in applications such as large areas of flooring or concrete formwork.
b. Strength and Stiffness/Weight Ratio
The cross laminated structure further enhances timbers high strength and stifness
to weight which is a major reason plywood is used in such applications as formwork,
flooring, fabricated beams, road transport and
c. Split Resistance
The cross lamination controls any tendency for splitting along the grain and thus
enables nailing or screwing very close to all panel edges. Additionally, plywood is
highly resistant to edge damage when compared to other panels. These two
properties combine to make plywood a rugged building panel.
d. Panel Shear or Shear through Thickness Capacity
Panel shear capacity is the ability to resist loads in the plane of the panel. As
plywoods cross laminated structure prevents the tendency to split along the grain it
has double the panel shear capacity of timber. This makes plywood an excellent
material for bracing for residential wall framing, floor, wall and roof diaphragms, the
webs in box, C or I-beams, and for gusset plates in timber portal frames.
e. Resistance to Concentrated Loads
Plywoods cross lamination spreads loads sideways and gives plywood its excellent
ability to carry high concentrated and impact loads that would break or shatter
many other materials.
f. Resilience, Impact and Fatigue Resistance
As the structure of the timber is maintained and the fibers not smashed during
plywood manufacture these closely related properties are all derived from the
parent wood. Timber has high short term load capacity, and is able to elastically
spring back or recover its original shape after shock or impact loads. Plywoods
structure further enhances this high resilience and impact resistance.
Plywood, being an organic cellulose material is not subject to the fatigue failure of
crystalline materials, e.g. metals and plastics. Plywood thus can endure cyclic
stresses much longer than this crystalline material which means it is able to
maintain its strength under repeated loading.
g. Thermal Insulation with Low Thermal Mass
Plywood, like its parent wood is a good thermal insulator plus it has a relatively low
specific heat when compared to other building materials. These two properties can
be utilised for thermally efficient floor, wall and roof construction.
h Chemical Resistance
Plywood reacts to chemical exposure much the same as wood, in that it has
reasonable resistance to acid (pH 2) and alkaline (pH 10) conditions. Thus it can
safely be used in most areas exposed to chemicals, for example in heated indoor
swimming pool enclosures.
Plywood performs very well in seaside applications under exposure to salt mist, thus
preservative treated plywood makes an excellent external cladding for beachside
housing. The preservation being to protect the wood from fungal attack. In fact,
plywood cladding has a low vapour permeance thus it is also a good vapor barrier.
i. Sound Reflectance
Plywoods ability to reflect sound is used to reflect traffic noise from highways, and
in theatres as a lining to enhance the room acoustics.
j. Workability

Plywood can be worked with the same ease as timber. Sawing, gluing, nailing or
screwing pose no problems
k. Aesthetics
Timber and plywood look great!
Following are diferent types of engineering wood
1.2.2.2 Plywood
Plywood is a manufactured wood panel from the family of manufactured boards
(such as MDF, Chipboard etc.) made from thin sheets of wood veneer. Plywood
layers (called veneers or plys) are glued together, with adjacent plies having their
wood grain rotated relative to adjacent layers up to 90 degrees.
All plywoods bind resin and wood fiber sheets (cellulose cells are long, strong and
thin) to form a composite material. This alternation of the grain is called crossgraining and has several important benefits: it reduces the tendency of wood to
split when nailed at the edges; it reduces expansion and shrinkage, providing
improved dimensional stability; and it makes the strength of the panel consistent
across all directions. There is usually an odd number of plies, so that the sheet is
balancedthis reduces warping. Because plywood is bonded with grains running
against one another and with an odd number of composite parts, it is very hard to
bend it perpendicular to the grain direction of the surface ply.

1.2.2.3 Oriented strand board

is a wood structural panel manufactured from rectangular-shaped strands of wood
that are oriented lengthwise and then arranged in layers, laid up into mats, and
bonded together with moisture-resistant, heat-cured adhesives.
1.2.2.4 Glue laminated timber
is composed of several layers of dimensional timber glued together with moistureresistant adhesives, creating a large, strong, structural member that can be used as
vertical columns or horizontal beams
1.2.2.5 Laminated veneer lumber
is produced by bonding thin wood veneers together in a large billet. The grain of all
veneers in the LVL billet is parallel to the long direction.
1.2.2.6 Cross laminated timber
is a versatile multi-layered panel made of lumber. Each layer of boards is placed
cross-wise to adjacent layers for increased rigidity and strength.
1.2.2.7Parallel strand lumber

consists of long veneer strands laid in parallel formation and bonded together with
an adhesive to form the finished structural section.
1.2.2.8 Laminated strand lumber
and oriented strand lumber (OSL) are manufactured from flaked wood strands that
have a high length-to-thickness ratio. Combined with an adhesive, the strands are
oriented and formed into a large mat or billet and pressed.
1.2.2.9 PLYWOOD FABRICATION PROCESS
Timber is a precious resource and the fact low quality, fast-grown timber can be
used for the manufacture of plywoods means maximum value adding. Plywood from
plantation timber, is an environmentally correct material. The modern structural
plywoods have all the above advantages and can be used both aesthetically and
structurally.
A. Veneer Manufacture
a. Log Preparation
The logs are first debarked after delivery from the plantation. This is achieved by a
machine which mechanically scrapes the bark from the log.
It is good practice to condition the log before peeling. This can be achieved by
water sprays, immersing in cold or heated water, or by steam treatment. This
ensures the log is at a high and consistent moisture content throughout which
facilitates peeling and helps yield smooth veneer with less tendency to split or tear.
Heating the log softens the timber fibers and further improves veneer quality and
yield.
Before peeling the logs need to be docked or cut into blocks or billets around
100mm longer than the finished plywood panel, i.e. usually 2 meters. The log is
now ready to be conveyed into the plant for peeling.
b. Peeling
The initial process in peeling is to load and center the peeler block in the spindles of
the veneer lathe. The peeler block must be centered with the axis of the log along
the center line of the lathe spindles to obtain maximum veneer recovery. This can
be done manually, but is best achieved by an x - y charging system. This system
uses a laser scanner to measure the block three dimensionally and uses a computer
to calculate the largest perfect cylinder within the block. The system then locates
the block in the best position for the lathe.
The lathe efectively rotates the block against the lathe blade or knife which peels
the veneer of in long continuous veneer ribbon of consistent thickness

.
c. Clipping
The ribbon of veneer passes from the lathe through manual or automated clipping
machines which cut or clip the veneer to size, or into smaller strips if defective
material has been removed. In some mills producing high quality thin veneer,
clipping is done after the continuous ribbons of veneer have been dried so as to
maximise the number of full sheets obtained.
d. Drying
The wet veneer is fed through a drier to reduce its moisture content to about 8%
from the green moisture content of between 40-140%. The optimum moisture
content for gluing depends on the species and density of the veneer, and the
adhesive and gluing procedures being used. In mechanical driers the veneer is
conveyed through a long chamber in which hot air is circulated Driers can have one,
or as many as five separate conveyors, one above the other. The drying time is
regulated by adjusting the speed of the conveyors and/or the temperature of the
hot air.
Jointing or Veneer Repair
Small strips of veneer may be jointed into full size sheets by edge gluing, stitching
or using perforated tape. Open defects may be repaired by using plugs to upgrade
the veneer.
e. Crossbands
The core veneers that run across the panels at right angles to the face veneers are
termed cross bands. In a 2400mm x 1200mm panel the cross bands can be
produced by a smaller lathe, or by cutting full sheets of veneer into two.
f. Grading
The dried, clipped and perhaps jointed or repaired veneers are graded in
preparation for use in plywood manufacture
B. Plywood Fabrication
a. Lay-up
The dried, graded veneers are usually assembled in two bundles in preparation for
the spreading operation. In one bundle the graded faces and long bands are
assembled and the other consists of the crossbands or in the case of three ply, the
cores. It is these crossbands or cores which are run through the glue spreader.
Diferent grades of plywood are made from various grades of faces, backs,
crossbands and cores. In a three ply construction only the center veneer passes
through the glue spreader. The glue is transferred to the adjacent veneers in the
pressing operations.

b. Glue Mixing
The adhesives currently used for plywood manufacture are based on synthetic
resins and are all thermo-setting, i.e. they are cured by heat and are not
replasticised by subsequent heating. The adhesives have a defined series of bond
tests and are grouped as shown below on the basis of their durability.
A Bond
Phenol, Resorcinol or Tannin Formaldehyde
Fully weather resistant
B Bond
Melamine fortified Urea Formaldehyde
Partially weather resistant (2-5 years exposed)
C Bond
Urea Formaldehyde
Interior glue - high humidity applications
D Bond
Extended Urea formaldehyde
Interior glue - low humidity applications
In glue mixing, fillers, a little water and perhaps some caustic soda are added and
thoroughly mixed with the synthetic resin. The fillers normally used are nutshell
and/or wheatflour and are used to bulk up the glue, improve the initial tack of the
glue, improve the transfer of the glue from the spread to the unspread veneer, and
lower the glue costs by reducing the amount of resin required.
c. Glue Spreading
In the glue spreading operation it is usual to spread glue on both sides of the
crossbands simultaneously by passing them through the glue spreader rollers. The
plywood sheet is then assembled with the spread crossbands between the
longbands and/or the face veneers. The resultant assembly is known as the lay-up.

d. Prepressing
The packs of spread veneers are now ready for the pressing operation. They can
either go directly to the hot press or more usually they first undergo a prepressing
operation. The prepressing is carried out in a cold press which has one large
daylight (or opening). A pack of spread veneers, usually enough for two or three hot
press loads, is placed under pressure at normal atmospheric conditions. The aims of
this process are to transfer the adhesive from the spread to the unspread surface of
the veneer to obtain a better glue bond and to develop some strength (using the
initial tack) in individual panels to make subsequent loading of the hot press easier.
This decreases the amount of degrade due to handling between spreading and hot
pressing.

e. Hot Pressing
The spread assemblies are bonded together under high temperature and pressure in
a large multi-opening hydraulic hot press. The normal hot press has from six to fifty
daylights, operating at a press temperature around 140C and a pressure of around
1MPa. The packs remain under the prescribed conditions of temperature and
pressure until curing of the glue takes place.
f. Trimming, Filling and Sanding
Finally the plywood is trimmed to size. Those panels requiring it may be filled or
repaired and most plywood is then sanded. After stamping with the required brands
the plywood is packed ready for dispatch.
1.3. MARKING AND MEASURING TOOLS
Accurate marking and measurement is very essential in carpentry work, to produce
parts to exact size. To transfer dimensions onto the work; the following are the
marking and measuring tools that are required in a carpentry shop.
1.3.1Steel rule and Steel tape
Steel rule is a simple measuring instrument consisting of a long, thin metal strip
with a marked scale of unit divisions. It is an important tool for linear measurement.
Steel tape is used for large measurements, such as marking on boards and checking
the overall dimensions of the work.

Steel rule

Steel tape
Figure1.3.1

1.3.2 Marking gauge

It is a tool used to mark lines parallel to the edge of a wooden piece. It consists of a
square wooden stem with a sliding wooden stock (head) on it. On the stem is fitted
a marking pin, made of steel. The stock is set at any desired distance from the
marking point and fixed in position by a screw. It must be ensured that the marking
pin projects through the stem, about 3 mm and the end are sharp enough to make a
very fine line. A mortise gauge consists of two pins. In this, it is possible to adjust
the distance between the pins, to draw two parallel lines on the stock.

a. Marking gauge
gauge

b. Mortise

Figure1.3.2: Marking gauges

1.3.3 Try-square
It is used for marking and testing the squareness and straightness of planed
surfaces. It consists of a steel blade, fitted in a cast iron stock. It is also used for
checking the planed surfaces for flatness. Its size varies from 150 to 300 mm,
according to the length of the blade. It is less accurate when compared to the trysquare used in the fitting shop.

Figure1.3.3: Try square

1.3.4 Compass and divider
Compass and divider, are used for marking arcs and circles on the planed surfaces
of the wood.
1.3.5 Scriber or marking knife
It is used for marking on timber. It is made of steel having one end pointed and the
other end formed into a sharp cutting edge.
1.3.5 Bevel Protector
It is used for laying-out and checking angles. The blade of the bevel is adjustable
and may be held in place by a thumb screw. After it is set to the desired angle, it
can be used in much the same way as a try-square. A good way to set it to the
required angle is to mark the angle on a surface and then adjust the blade to fit the
angle.

Figure 1.3.4: Compass and Divider

1.4 HOLDING TOOLS
1.4.1 Carpenter's vice

Figure1.3.5: Scriber and Bevel

Figure shows the carpenter's bench vice, used as a work holding device in a
carpenter shop. Its one jaw is fixed to the side of the table while the other is
movable by means of a screw and a handle. The Carpenter's vice jaws are lined
with hard wooden' faces.

Figure 1.4.1:

Carpenters vice

Figure 1.4.2:

C-clamp

1.4.2 C-clamp
Figure 1.4.2 shows a C-clamp, which is used for holding small works.
1.4.3 Bar cramp / T- bar clamp
Figure 1.4.3 shows a bar cramp. It is made of steel bar of T-section, with malleable
iron fittings and a steel screw. It is used for holding wide works such as frames or
tops.

Figure 1.4.3: Bar cramp

1.5 PLANING TOOLS
Planing is the operation used to produce flat surfaces on wood. A plane is a hand
tool used for this purpose. The cutting blade used in a plane is very similar to a
chisel. The blade of a plane is fitted in a wooden or metallic block, at an angle.
1.5.1 Jack plane It is the most commonly used general purpose plane. It is about
35 cm long. The cutting iron (blade) should have a cutting edge of slight curvature.
It is used for quick removal of material on rough work and is also used in oblique
planning.
1.5.2 Smoothing plane
It is used for finishing work and hence, the blade should have a straight cutting
edge. It is about 20 to 25 cm long. Being short, it can follow even the slight
depressions in the stock, better than the jack plane. It is used after using the jack
plane.
1.5.3 Rebate plane
It is used for making a rebate. A rebate is a recess along the edge of a piece of
wood, which is generally used for positioning glass in frames and doors.
1.5.4 Plough plane

It is used to cut grooves, which are used to fix panels in a door. Figure 2.9 shows
the various types of planes mentioned above.

Figure:1.5.4 Types of planes

1.6 CUTTING TOOLS
1.6.1 Saws
A saw is used to cut wood into pieces. There are diferent types of saws, designed
to suit diferent purposes. A saw is specified by the length of its toothed edge.
1.6.2 Cross-cut or hand saw is used to cut across the grains of the stock. The
teeth are so set that the saw kerf will be wider than the blade thickness. This allows
the blade to move freely in the cut, without sticking.
1.6.3 Rip saw is used for cutting the stock along the grains. The cutting edge of
this saw makes a steeper angle, i.e., about 60 whereas that of cross cut saw makes
an angle of 45 with the surface of the stock.
1.6.4 Tenon saw is used for cutting the stock either along or across the grains. It
is used for cutting tenons and in fine cabinet work. However, it is used for small and
thin cuts. The blade of this saw is very thin and so it is stifened with a thick back
steel strip. Hence, this is sometimes called as back-saw. In this, the teeth are
shaped like those of cross-cut saw.
1.6.5 Compass saw has a narrow, longer and stronger tapering blade, which is
used for heavy works (Fig. ). It is mostly used in radius cutting. The blade of this
saw is fitted with an open type wooden handle.

Figure 1.6.5: Types of saws

1.6.6 Chisels
Chisels are used for cutting and shaping wood accurately. Wood chisels are made in
various blade widths, ranging from 3 to 50 mm. They are also made in diferent
blade lengths. Most of the wood chisels are made into tang type, having a steel
shank which fits inside the handle. These are made of forged steel or tool steel
blades.

Figure1.6.6.1: Parts of chisel

1.6.6.1 Firmer chisel
The word 'firmer' means 'stronger' and hence firmer chisel is stronger than other
chisels. It is a general purpose chisel and is used either by hand pressure or by a
mallet. The blade of a firmer chisel is flat, as shown in Figure 2.12 a.
1.6.6.2 Dovetail chisel
It has a blade with a beveled back, as shown in Figure, due to which it can enter
sharp comers for finishing, as in dovetail joints.
1.6.6.3 Mortise chisel
It is used for cutting mortises and chipping inside holes, etc. The cross-section of
the mortise chisel is proportioned to withstand heavy blows during mortising.
Further, the cross-section is made stronger near the shank.

Figure1.6.6.1: Firmer
Figure1.6.6.3 : Mortise

Figure1.6.6.2: dovetail
Types of chisels

1.7 DRILLING AND BORING TOOLS

1.7.1 Carpenters brace
It is used for rotating auger bits, twist drills, etc., to produce holes in wood. In some
designs, braces are made with ratchet device. With this, holes may be made in a
corner where complete revolution of the handle cannot be made. The size of a
brace is determined by its sweep.
1.7.2 Auger bit
It is the most common tool used for making holes in wood. During drilling, the lead
screw of the bit guides into the wood, necessitating only moderate pressure on the
brace. The helical flutes on the surface carry the chips to the outer surface.
1.7.3 Hand drill
Carpenter's brace is used to make relatively large size holes; whereas hand drill is
used for drilling small holes. A straight shank drill is used with this tool. It is small,
light in weight and may be conveniently used than the brace. The drill bit is
clamped in the chuck at its end and is rotated by a handle attached to gear and
pinion arrangement.
1.7.4 Gimlet
It has cutting edges like a twist drill. It is used for drilling large diameter holes with
the hand pressure.

Figure1.7: Drilling tools

1.8 MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS

1.8.1Mallet
It is used to drive the chisel, when considerable force is to be applied, which may be
the case in making deep rough cuts. Steel hammer should not be used for the
purpose, as it may damage the chisel handle. Further, for better control, it is better
to apply a series of light taps with the mallet rather than a heavy single blow.
1.8.2 Pincer
It is made of two forged steel arms with a hinged joint and is used for pulling-out
small nails from wood. The inner faces of the pincer jaws are beveled and the outer
faces are plain. The end of one arm has a ball and the other has a claw. The beveled
jaws and the claw are used for pulling out small nails, pins and screws from the
wood.
1.8.3 Claw hammer
It has a striking flat face at one end and the claw at the other, as shown in figure.
The face is used to drive nails into wood and for other striking purposes and the
claw for extracting relatively large nails out of wood. It is made of cast steel and
weighs from 0.25 kg to 0.75 kg.
1.8.4 Screw driver
It is used for driving screws into wood or unscrewing them. The screw driver of a
carpenter is diferent from the other common types, as shown in figure.
The length of a screw driver is determined by the length of the blade. As the length
of the blade increases, the width and thickness of the tip also increase.
1.8.5 Wood rasp file
It is a finishing tool used to make the wood surface smooth, remove sharp edges,
finish fillet and other interior surfaces. Sharp cutting teeth are provided on its
surface for the purpose. This file is exclusively used in wood work.

1.8.6 Bradawl
It is a hand operated tool, used to bore small holes for starting a screw or
large nail.

a. Mallet

c.Claw hammer

e. Bradawl
Figure1.8: Miscellaneous tools

b. Pincer

d. Wood rasp file

f. Screw driver

1.9 WOODWORKING HAND POWER TOOLS

This category is for hand-held power tools used in woodworking, where the tool is
moved over the work. These tools are powered by electricity. General introduction
about them is given below.
1.9.1 Circular Saw
The circular saw is a machine using a toothed metal cutting disc or blade. The term
is also loosely used for the blade itself. The blade is a tool for cutting wood or other
materials and may be hand-held or table-mounted. It can also be used to make
narrow slots (dados). Most of these saws are designed with a blade to cut wood but
may also be equipped with a blade designed to cut masonry, plastic, or metal.
There are also purpose-made circular saws specially designed for particular
materials.
Cutting speed is kept about 4000-5000RPM for wood cutting. Cutting depth varies
according to thickness of wood to be cut. Bevel capacity (blade tilting) is generally

45 degree.
Figure1.9.1: circular saw
1.9.2 Portable Drilling Machine
A drill is a tool fitted with a cutting tool attachment or driving tool attachment,
usually a drill bit or driver bit, used for boring holes in various materials or fastening
various materials together with the use of fasteners. The attachment is gripped by a
chuck at one end of the drill and rotated while pressed against the target material.
Cutting speed (RPM) for drilling in wood is in range of 750-3000 RPM.
Drills are commonly used in woodworking, metalworking, construction and do-ityourself projects. Specially designed drills are also used in medicine, space missions
and other applications. Drills are available with a wide variety of performance

Figure1.9.2: Portable drilling machine

1.9.3 Electric Planer
A hand plane is a tool for shaping wood. When powered by electricity, the tool may
be called a planer. Planes are used to flatten, reduce the thickness of, and impart a
smooth surface to a rough piece of lumber or timber. Planing is used to produce
horizontal, vertical, or inclined flat surfaces on workpieces usually too large for
shaping. Special types of planers are designed to cut joints or decorative mouldings.

Figure1.9.3: Electric planer

1.9.4 Jig Saw
A jigsaw is a tool used for cutting arbitrary curves, such as stenciled designs or
other custom shapes, into a piece of wood, metal, or other material. It can be used
in a more artistic fashion than other saws, which typically cut in straight lines only.
In this way, it is similar to the rasp and the chisel. Although a jigsaw can be used to
cut arbitrary patterns, making a straight cut is more difficult. Stroke per minute for
ideal woodworking applications is vary from 850-3000.
jigsaws are power tools, made up of an electric motor and a reciprocating saw
blade.

Figure1.9.4: Jigsaw
1.9.5 Angle Grinder
An angle grinder, also known as a side grinder or disc grinder, is a handheld power
tool used for cutting ,grinding and polishing. Angle grinders can be powered by an
electric motor. The motor drives a geared head at a right-angle on which is mounted
an abrasive disc or a thinner cut-of disc, either of which can be replaced when
worn. Angle grinders typically have an adjustable guard and a side-handle for twohanded operation. Certain angle grinders, depending on their speed range, can be
used as sanders, employing a sanding disc with a backing pad or disc. The backing
system is typically made of hard plastic, phenolic resin, or medium-hard rubber
depending on the amount of flexibility desired.

Figure1.9.5: Angle grinder

1.9.6: Router
A router is a tool used to rout out (hollow out) an area in the face of a relatively hard
workpiece, typically of wood or plastic. The main application of routers is in
woodworking, especially cabinetry.
The hand tool form of router is the original form. It is a specialized type of hand
plane with a broad base and a narrow blade projecting well beyond its base plate
(gaining it the nickname old woman's tooth). Today the power tool form of router,
with an electric-motor-driven spindle, is the more common form, and the hand tool
is now often called a router plane.
Router is a smaller, lighter version designed specifically for trimming laminates. It
can be used for smaller general routing work. For example, with an appropriate jig it
can be used for recessing door hinges and recessing lock faceplates. Even rotary
tools can be used as routers when the right bits and accessories (such as a plastic
router base) are attached.

Figure1.9.6 Profiles made

in wood by several
common router bits.

Figure1.9.6: Router

1.10 WOOD JOINTS

There are many kinds of joints used to connect wood stock. Each joint has a definite
use and requires lay in-out, cutting them together. The strength of the joint depends
upon amount of contact area. If a particular joint does not have much contact area,
then it must be reinforced with nails, screws or dowels. The figure 2.15 shows some
commonly used wood joints.

a. Butt

b. Dowell

e. Lap

c. Dado

f. Mortise and tenon

d. Rabbet

g.

Miter
Figure: Common wood joints
1.10.1 Lap joints
In lap joints, an equal amount of wood is removed from each piece, as shown in
figure 2.16. Lap joints are easy to layout, using a try-square and a marking gauge.
Follow the procedure suggested for sawing and removing the waste stock. If the
joint is found to be too tight, it is better to reduce the width of the mating piece,
instead of trimming the shoulder of the joint. This type of joint is used for small
boxes to large pieces of furniture.

Figure: Lap joints

1.10.2 Mortise and Tenon Joints
It is used in the construction of quality furniture. It results in a strong joint and
requires considerable skill to make it. The following are the stages involved in the

work.
a Mark the mortise and tenon layouts.
b Cut the mortise first by drilling series of holes within the layout line, chiseling out
the waste stock and trimming the corners and sides.
c Prepare the tenon by cutting and chiseling.
d Check the tenon size against the mortise that has been prepared and adjust it if
necessary.

Figure1.10.2: Mortise and Tenon joints

1.10.3 Bridle joint
This is the reverse of mortise and tenon joint in form. The marking-out of the joint is
the same as for mortise and tenon joint. This joint is used where the members are of
square or near square section and unsuitable for mortise and tenon joint.

Figure1.10.4: Bridle joint

SAFE PRACTICE
The following are some of the safe and correct work practices in carpentry shop,
with respect to the tools used
1 Tools that are not being used should always be kept at their proper places.
2 Make sure that your hands are not in front of sharp edged tools while you are
using them.
3 Use only sharp tools. A dull tool requires excessive pressure, causing the tool to
slip.

4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13

Wooden pieces with nails, should never be allowed to remain on the floor.
Be careful when you are using your thumb as a guide in cross-cutting and
ripping.
Test the sharpness of the cutting edge of chisel on wood or paper, but not on
your hand.
Never chisel towards any part of the body.
Do not use chisels where nails are present. Do not use chisel as a screw driver.
Do not use a saw with a loose handle.
Always use triangular file for sharpening the teeth.
Do not use a saw on metallic substances.
Do not use mallet to strike nails.
Do not use plane at the places, where a nail is driven in the wood.

Reference
1.http://en.wikipedia.org/
2.NREM-5009webpdf
3. file:///D:/new/carpentry/5.%20timber%20seasoning.htm
4.
http://workshopcompanion.com/KnowHow/Design/Nature_of_Wood/3_Wood_Strength
/3_Wood_Strength.htm
5. http://www.wood-database.com
6. www.pngfp.com
7. Carpentry and Joinery:Third Edition Brian Porter LCG, FIOC
(Formerly of Leeds College of Building )
8.Introduction
to
basic
manufacturing
processes
and
workshop
technology:Rajender Singh, Professor, Deptt. Of Mechanical Engineering
CRSCE, Murthal, Haryana.
9