22
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you will be able to:
Enumerate the various types of machine foundations and the conditions under which they are suitable
for a given type of machine.
Explain the various methods of dynamic analysis of machine foundations.
Enumerate and define dynamic properties of soil and their interrelationship.
Know the in situ and laboratory methods of determination of dynamic properties of soil.
Outline the procedure for dynamic analysis of a machine foundation.
Specify the general design criteria for a machine foundation.
Specify the design criteria for various types of machine foundations.
Outline the measures for vibration isolation and control.
22.1Introduction
Machines are subjected to dynamic loads and vibrations, which are transmitted to the foundation and the supporting soil mass. Foundations supporting various machines such as reciprocating engines, compressors, turbines,
large electric motors, generators and punch presses, are subject to vibrations caused by unbalanced machine forces
as well as the static weight of the machine. Foundations may also be subjected to dynamic loads other than those
caused by machine vibrations, such as those due to earthquakes, blasting, pile driving, drilling for soil exploration,
and action of wind or water.
Soil dynamics is the branch of soil mechanics which deals with the study of the soil behavior subjected to
dynamic loads. It involves the principles of soil mechanics and dynamics of engineering mechanics. It has basically
two broad applications: firstly the design of safe and economical foundations for various types of machines, which
transmit vibrations to the foundationsoil system; secondly the dynamic analysis of soils subjected to vibrations
due to dynamic forces such as due to earth quakes, construction equipment etc., to ensure stability of structures
supported by the soil mass in the affected region. This chapter deals exclusively with the dynamic analysis of
machine foundations and for dynamic analysis of foundation soil subjected to earthquakes and other dynamic
loads, reference may be made to other sources.
Vibrations of machines may cause the following effects of varying degree:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The vibrations cause displacement of the foundation and the soil, which is sinusoidal function of time. The displacement increases with time, reaches a maximum value, known as amplitude, and then decreases to zero. It then
occurs in the opposite direction, reaching the maximum negative value, thereby becoming zero. Thus, vibrations
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C h a p t e r 2 2 S o i l D y n a m i cs a n d M a c h i n e F o u n d at i o n s
of the foundationsoil system can be represented by the classical simple harmonic motion. The number of cycles of
vibration per unit time is known as frequency. The machine foundationsoil system may fail under the following
two conditions:
1. When the frequency of the foundationsoil system is equal to the frequency of vibration of the machine, a dangerous condition known as resonance occurs, during which the amplitude will be maximum, causing the
failure of the foundationsoil system.
2. When the amplitude of vibration of the foundationsoil system is too high even in non-resonance condition,
it may endanger the stability of the foundationsoil system.
The dynamic response of foundations and structures depends on:
1. The magnitude, frequency, direction, and location of the dynamic loads.
2. Geometry of the foundationsoil system.
3. Dynamic properties of the supporting soils and structures.
The dynamic analysis of the foundationsoil system is done by using a mass-springdashpot model, in which
the foundation along with the machine is mathematically represented by a mass and the soil by spring. The energy
causing vibrations decreases due to the resistance offered by the soil known as damping and represented by the
dashpot in the mass-springdashpot model. Experience has indicated that this model gives reasonably accurate
results, even though the physical system may not resemble the mathematical model.
The design of foundations for control of vibrations was often done by increasing the mass of the foundation
and/or strengthening the soil beneath the foundation base by using piles. This procedure generally works; however, the early designers recognized that this often resulted in considerable overdesign. By the 1950s, a few foundation engineers began to use vibration analyses, usually based on the theory of surface load on an elastic half-space.
In the 1960s, the lumped mass approach was introduced, the elastic half-space theory was refined, and both methods were validated.
SMFE_Chapter_22.indd 928
1.
Low
<25
2.
Medium
2550
3.
High
50
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2 2 . 3 T y p e s o f M a c h i n e F o u n d at i o n s
Block foundation.
Box foundation.
Wall foundation.
Framed foundation.
Figure 22.1(a) shows a block foundation, which consists of a massive RCC block, supported on a spread footing.
Block foundations are the common type of foundations suitable for most types of machines, especially for those
producing periodic and impulsive forces.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Steel frame
Vibration
isolator
(e)
Spring
Block foundation
(f)
Pier
Pile cap
(g)
(h)
Figure 22.1 Types of machine foundations: (a) Block foundation, (b) box foundation, (c) wall foundation,
(d) framed foundation, (e) framed foundation with vibration isolators (ACI-351), (f) spring-mounted
block foundation (ACI-351), (g) flexible foundation, and (h) pile foundation (ACI-351).
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C h a p t e r 2 2 S o i l D y n a m i cs a n d M a c h i n e F o u n d at i o n s
A box foundation is a hollow block foundation as shown in Fig. 22.1(b) and attempts to save the mass concrete
and is suitable for machines subjected to small loads causing relatively low amplitude vibrations. In wall foundations, shown in Fig. 22.1(c), small machines are supported on walls, which are in turn supported on RCC mat like
foundations. Combined blocks are used to support closely spaced machines.
In framed foundation, the machine is supported on a framed structure consisting of top slab on which the
machine is placed and beams and columns, which are in turn supported on bottom beams and pad footing. Framed
foundations are generally more economical than block foundations due to large saving in mass concrete. However
additional measures should be adopted to provide damping of the vibrations. The space made available by exclusion of mass concrete is used to accommodate ducts, piping, and ancillary items to be located below the equipment.
A framed foundation is also referred to as a Table top foundation and a typical framed foundation is shown in
Fig.22.1(d).
Figure 22.1(e) shows a framed foundation with vibration isolators. Isolators (springs and dampers) are provided
at the top of supporting columns to absorb the vibrations and to minimize their transfer to the foundation. The
effectiveness of isolators depends on the machine speed and the natural frequency of the foundation. Machines can
also be mounted on springs to absorb the machine vibrations. The springs are in turn supported on a block foundation. Figure 22.1(f) shows a typical spring-mounted block foundation.
A flexible foundation is more economical than other type of machine foundations. When a flexible foundation is provided to the machines, the vibrations are more or less completely transmitted to the foundation soil.
However, the vibrations transmitted to the foundationsoil system may endanger the stability, life and operation of the machine itself. A machine can be supported on a flexible foundation, in case there is no danger if the
dynamic loads and vibrations are transmitted to the foundation soil. Figure 22.1(g) shows typical flexible machine
foundation.
Machine foundations are to be supported on pile foundation, when the soil at shallow depth is weak and/or
highly compressible. Figure 22.1(h) shows typical block foundation supported on piles.
z = Asin (t ) (22.1)
where z is the displacement, A the amplitude, w the angular velocity, t the time, and f the phase angle.
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p
O
z=0
W
+z
Static equilibrium
position
2A
p
z
p
W
Zmax = A
O
= Double
amplitude
Displacement, z
2 2 . 4 M e t h o ds o f D y n a m i c A n a ly s i s
wt = p/2
3p/2
2p
5p/2
3p
p
t
wt = 2p
T = 2p/w
(a)
(b)
Figure 22.2 (a) Vibration and (b) simple harmonic motion of a springmass system.
The displacements described by Eq. (22.4) will continue oscillating forever. In reality, the amplitude of the
motions will decay over time due to the phenomenon called damping. It is of two types:
1. Viscous damping: Viscous damping is similar to that caused by a dashpot with constant viscosity in which the
amplitude decays exponentially with time. It is called as linearly viscous damping.
2. Friction damping: In friction damping the amplitude decays linearly with time similar to that caused by a constant coefficient of friction. It is said to be linearly hysteric damping.
Let us consider dynamic analysis with a single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) system illustrated in Fig. 22.3(a). Amass
is attached to a linear spring and a linear dashpot. If the mass m is accelerating, the force causing this acceleration
(Fa) must be
d2 z
= mz (22.2)
dt 2
The dots are used to indicate differentiation with respect to time, which simplifies writing the equations. The restoring
force (Fd) exerted by linear dashpot is proportional to the velocity of motion and acts in the opposite sense. This means
=
Fa ma
= m
dz
= cz (22.3)
dt
Finally, there may be some force P, which is a function of time, applied directly to the mass. Adding the three
forces together, setting the sum equal to m, and rearranging terms give the basic equation for an SDOF system,
we get
Fd = c
In most practical cases, the mass m and the stiffness k can be determined physically. It is often possible to
measure them directly. On the contrary, damping is a mathematical abstraction used to represent the fact that the
vibration energy does decay. It is difficult, if not impossible, to measure directly and in some cases to be discussed
in the following list, it describes the effects of geometry and has nothing to do with the energy absorbing properties
of the material.
U
Undamped system
U (Displacement)
K
Damped system
P (Force)
C
t
x
(a)
(b)
Figure 22.3 Single degree of freedom: (a) Mass-springdashpot model and (b) amplitude of vibrations.
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C h a p t e r 2 2 S o i l D y n a m i cs a n d M a c h i n e F o u n d at i o n s
1. Free vibrations without damping: In case of no external force and no damping, the motion of the mass will be
the simple harmonic motion. The frequency will be
o =
1
2
k
(22.5)
m
2. Free vibrations with damping: If damping is not zero and the mass is simply released from an initial displacement zo with no external force, the motion will be as shown in Fig. 22.3(b). The frequency of the oscillations will be
2
c
e2 = o2
(22.6)
2m
When, c = 2 km, there will be no oscillation, but the mass will simply creep back at the rest position at infinite
time. This is called critical damping, and it is written as ccr. The ratio of the actual damping to the critical damping is called the critical damping ratio D. It can be represented as
D=
c
(22.7)
ccr
P
(22.8)
m
= o (1 D2 ) (22.9)
In almost all practical cases, D is much less than 1. For example, a heavily damped system might have a D of 0.2
or 20%. In this case, w is 98% of wo, so little error is introduced by using the undamped frequency wo in place of
the damped frequency w.
3. Forced vibrations with damping: If now the SDOF system is driven by a sinusoidally varying force, the right
side of Eq. (22.4) becomes
R = F cos(t) (22.10)
F
= As (22.11)
k
In Eq. (22.12), M is called the dynamic amplification factor or magnification factor and f is the phase angle. The
magnification factor is the ratio of the amplitude of the dynamic steady-state response to the static response and
describes how effectively the SDOF amplifies or de-amplifies the input. The phase angle f indicates how much the
response lags the input.
Through suitable mathematical manipulation, the magnification factor is given as
and
M=
1
{(1 2 / o2 )2 + [2D( / o )]2 }
(22.13)
2D( / o )
= tan 1
(22.14)
2
2
(1 / o )
The magnification factor M is plotted as a function of the frequency ratio in Fig. 22.4.
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2 2 . 4 M e t h o ds o f D y n a m i c A n a ly s i s
50
40
30
D = 0.01
20
Static displacement
10
8
6
5
4
3
0.05
0.10
0.20
As
M=
Amax
Dynamic displacement
0.02
0.30
1
0.8
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.40
0.50
0.2
0.1
0.60
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
f/fn
F = Fo sin wt
Figure 22.4 Response curves for SDOF system with viscous damping.
In case of rotary type machinery, the amplitude of the driving force is proportional to the frequency of the rotating machinery. If e is the eccentricity of the rotating mass and me is its mass, then the amplitude of the driving force
becomes
F = me e 2 (22.15)
In this case, the driving force vanishes when the frequency becomes zero, so it does not make sense to talk about
a static response. However, at very high frequencies, the acceleration dominates; hence, it is possible to define the
high-frequency response amplitude, R and can be represented as
e
R = me (22.16)
M
As in the case of the sinusoidal loading, the equations can be solved to give an amplification ratio, which is the ratio
of the amplitude of the response to the high-frequency response R. The curve is plotted in Fig. 22.5.
An important point is that the response ratio gives the amplitude of the displacement response for either case.
To find the amplitude of the velocity response, the displacement response is multiplied by w (or 2pf). To find the
amplitude of the acceleration response, the displacement response is multiplied by w2 (or 4p 2f 2).
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C h a p t e r 2 2 S o i l D y n a m i cs a n d M a c h i n e F o u n d at i o n s
50
Amax
20
Amax
Amax
0.02
0.5
10
Response ratio,
D = 0.01
me
0.10
5
0.20
0.30
2
1
0.40
0.5
0.50
0.60
0.2
0.1
Transl. :
Rotal. :
me e
m
me eh
R=
I
R=
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4
f/fn
F = me e w 2 sinwt
Figure 22.5 Response curves for SDOF system with viscous damping.
Elastic half-space theory for vertical vibrations was first developed by Reissner in 1936. The assumptions used
in the analysis are not realistic but the method serves as a useful guide for determination of spring and damping
constants that are used in the elastic half-space analog method.
ao = ro
ro
=
(22.17)
g Vs
bo =
(1 ) m
3 (22.18)
4
ro
SMFE_Chapter_22.indd 934
k=
4Gro
(22.19)
(1 )
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935
2 2 . 4 M e t h o ds o f D y n a m i c A n a ly s i s
3.4 ro2
G (22.20)
(1 )
The damping ratio is the ratio of damping constant and the critical damping coefficient, given by
D=
c
(22.22)
cc
k(1 D2 )
(22.23)
m
1
2
The following expressions are given by Barkan for determination of spring constants under various modes of
vibration:
For vertical vibration, we get
kz =
G z
(22.24)
(1 )
kx = 2G x (1 + ) bl (22.25)
k =
G bl 2
(1 )
(22.26)
where b is the width of the foundation along the axis of rotation, l the length of the foundation perpendicular to the
axis of rotation, and bz, bx, and bf the shape factors that are functions of l/b.
The resonant frequency for the vertical mode of vibrations as per Barkans method is given by
f nz =
1
2
Cu A
(22.27)
m
SMFE_Chapter_22.indd 935
f nx =
1
2
C A
(22.28)
m
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C h a p t e r 2 2 S o i l D y n a m i cs a n d M a c h i n e F o u n d at i o n s
1
2
C I
Im
(22.29)
1
2
C I p
I mz
(22.30)
where I is the moment of inertia of the base of the foundation about the axis of rotation, Ip is the polar moment of
inertia of the base of the foundation about the axis of rotation, Im is the mass moment of inertia about the axis of
rotation, and Imz the mass moment of inertia about the vertical axis of rotation.
M = Mo sin(t) (22.32)
or
where w, the operating frequency (rad/s), is 2pf, f is the operating frequency (cycle/s), Fo or Mo the amplitude of
exciting force or moment (constant), F or M the exciting force or moment, and t the time.
The exciting force F or moment M may depend on the frequency and the eccentric mass. In this case
Fo = me 2 (22.33)
Mo = me 2 L (22.34)
or
where me is the eccentric mass, e the eccentric radius from the center of rotation to the center of gravity, and Lthe
moment arm.
Table 22.2 Determination of lumped mass parameters
Mode
SMFE_Chapter_22.indd 936
Mass Ratio
Damping Coefficient
Spring Constant
Damping Ratio
Vertical
Bz =
m(1 )
4 ro3
Cz =
3.4 ro2 G
(2 )
kz =
4Gro
(1 )
Dz =
Cz
kz m
Horizontal
Bx =
m(7 8 )
32(1 ) ro3
Cx =
4.6 ro2 G
(2 )
kx =
32(1 )Gro
(7 8 )
Dx =
Cx
kx m
Rocking
B =
C =
0.8 ro4 G
(1 )(1 + B )
k =
8Gro3
3(1 )
D =
Torsional
B =
k =
16Gro3
3
D =
3 I m(1 )
4 ro5
I
ro5
C =
4 B G
(1 2B )
C
k m
C
k m
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2 2 . 5 P r o c e d u r e f o r D y n a m i c A n a ly s i s o f M a c h i n e F o u n d at i o n
937
Translation (Z)
Pz, Zz
Mz, fz
Mx, fx
Yawing
Rocking
My, fy
Px, Zx
Translation (X)
X
Pitching
Py, Zy
Translation (Y)
Y
or
fn =
1
2
k
(22.35)
m
fn =
1
2
k
(22.36)
I
where k = kz for vertical mode, kx for horizontal mode, ky for rocking mode; kq for torsional mode; m is the mass
of foundation and equipment for vertical and horizontal modes; I = Iy the mass moment of inertia around the
axis of rotation in rocking mode; and Iq the mass moment of inertia around the axis of rotation in torsional mode.
Thus, for vertical mode, we get
fn =
1
2
kz
(22.37)
m
fn =
1
2
kx
(22.38)
m
fn =
1
2
kq
fn =
1
2
ky
Iq
(22.39)
Iy
(22.40)
4. Compute the mass ratio B and damping ratio D for the modes analyzed using the equations in Table 22.2. Note
that the damping terms are functions of mass and geometry and not of the internal damping in the soil. This
damping is called radiation damping and represents the fact that energy is transmitted away from the foundation toward the distant boundaries of the soil.
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C h a p t e r 2 2 S o i l D y n a m i cs a n d M a c h i n e F o u n d at i o n s
Fo
(22.41)
k
s =
Mo
(22.42)
k
max = M s (22.44)
9. If the amplitudes are not acceptable, modify design and repeat Steps (3)(8).
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939
Geometric damping reflects energy dissipation through propagation of elastic waves away from the immediate
vicinity of a foundation. It is also called as radiation damping. It results from the semi-infinite nature of the soil
medium, and it is close to viscous in character.
Many practitioners use a material damping ratio of 0.05, or 5%, instead of an experimental determination. The
material damping ratio is fairly constant for small strains but increases with strain due to the nonlinear behavior of
soils. The term material or hysteretic damping implies frequency independent damping. Experiments indicate that
frequency independent hysteretic damping is much more typical of soils than viscous damping because the area of
the hysteretic loop does not grow in proportion to the frequency.
Cu = 1.5 C to 2 C (22.45)
C = 3.46C (22.46)
C = 1.5C (22.47)
Due to variations inherent in the determination of dynamic shear modulus, it may be appropriate to perform more
than one foundation analysis. One analysis should be done with the minimum possible value and another using the
maximum possible value, and then additional analyses may be done with intermediate values.
In the case of very stiff soils, the value of Cu may be so high that the natural frequency of the foundation soil
system may not be reached because of limitations of the vibration exciting equipment. The frequency response
curves in such cases may be extrapolated to obtain the resonant frequency of the foundation soil system.
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C h a p t e r 2 2 S o i l D y n a m i cs a n d M a c h i n e F o u n d at i o n s
1. Compression (primary, P) waves: Compression waves are transmitted through soil by a volume change associated with compressive and tensile stresses. Compression waves are the fastest of the three stress waves and they
are also called as primary waves or P-waves.
2. Shear (secondary, S) waves: Shear waves are transmitted through soil by the distortion associated with shear
stresses in the soil and are slower than compression waves. No volume change occurs in the soil due to shear
waves and they are also called as secondary waves or S-waves.
3. Rayleigh (surface) waves: Rayleigh waves occur at the free surface of an elastic body; typically, this is the
ground surface. Rayleigh waves have components that are both perpendicular to the free surface and parallel to
the free surface and are slightly slower than shear waves.
Most techniques measure the S-waves because the P-waves waves are dominated by the response of the pore fluid
in saturated soils. Direct measurement for soil or rock stiffness in the field has the advantage of minimal material
disturbance. The modulus is measured where the soil exists. Furthermore, the measurements are not constrained
by the size of a sample.
The shear modulus is determined from the velocity of the S-waves using
G = Vs2 (22.48)
where G is the dynamic shear modulus of the soil, (N/m2); Vs the shear wave velocity of the soil, (m/s); and r the
soil mass density, (kg/m3).
Several methods are available for measuring wave velocities of the in-place soil, and these are explained as follows.
A. Seismic Cross-Hole Method
In the cross-hole method (see Fig. 22.7), two boreholes are drilled to some depth, preferably on each side of the base
location so that the shear wave can be measured between the two holes and across the base zone. A signal generator
is placed in one hole at some depth and a sensor is placed in the other at the same depth. An impulse signal is generated in one hole, and the waves travel horizontally from the source to the receiving holes. The time taken by the shear
wave to travel from the signal generator to the sensor is measured. The distance divided by the travel time yields the
shear wave velocity. The cross-hole method can be used to determine the dynamic shear modulus at different depths.
As it can be difficult to establish the exact triggering time, the most accurate measurements are obtained from
the difference of arrival times at two or more receiving holes rather than from the time between the triggering and
the arrival at single hole.
The original cross-hole velocity measurement methods used explosives as the source of energy, and these were
rich in compression energy and poor in shear energy. Since P-waves travel faster than S-waves, the sensors will
already be excited by the P-waves when the S-waves arrive, which makes it difficult to pick out the arrival of the
S-wave. For this reason, explosives should not be used as energy sources for cross-hole S-wave velocity measurements. To overcome this difficulty, it is desirable to use an energy source that is rich in the vertical shear component
of motion and relatively poor in compressive motion.
B. Seismic Down-Hole Method
In the seismic down-hole method, only one vertical borehole is drilled. A signal generator is placed at the ground
surface some distance away from the borehole, and a sensor is placed at various depths in the borehole. A source
rich in S-waves should be used. This technique does not require as many borings as the cross-hole method, but
the waves travel through several layers from the source to the sensors. Thus, the measured travel time reflects
the cumulative travel through layers with different wave velocities, and interpreting the data requires sorting
out the contribution of the each soil layer. The travel time divided by the distance yields the shear wave velocity.
This method can be run on different times, with the signal generator located at different distances from the
borehole each time. This permits the measuring of soil properties at several locations, which can then be averaged
to determine an average shear wave velocity (Fig. 22.8). The seismo-cone version of the cone penetration test is one
example of the down-hole method.
C. Seismic Up-Hole Method
The principle and procedure for conducting the seismic up-hole test are the same as those for the seismic down-hole
test, except for the difference that the source of energy is placed at some depth in the borehole and the sensors are
above it at the ground surface.
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941
Trigger
Oscilloscope
Capacitive
circuit
Expander
pump
Hammer
Transducer
Rubber
expander
Shear wave
Impulse
rod
Weight
Trigger
geophone
Back plate
Recorder
Wooden
hammer
Wooden
plate
Three-component
geophone
4 S
(22.49)
+ 2(1 2 )
where, l is the wavelength in centimeters, S the measured distance between geophones in centimeters, l1 the phase
shift of geophones with respect to wave nearer to concrete block at the frequency of the propagating vibrations in
radians, and l2 the phase shift of the other geophone at the frequency of the propagating vibrations in radians.
The velocity of shear waves Vs is given by
Vs = f (22.50)
where f is the frequency of vibration at which the wavelength has been measured.
When the test is conducted using a phase meter, the phase angle corresponding to different distances between
the geophones should be recorded and a curve should be plotted between the phase angle and the distance. From
the curve, the distance S between the geophones for a phase difference of 90 should be determined. The steadystate vibration test is useful to determine the shear wave velocity near the ground surface, but it cannot easily provide detailed resolution of highly variable velocity profiles. For this reason, the steady-state vibration test has been
replaced by the spectral analysis of the surface wave test.
E. Spectral Analysis of Surface Waves Method
The spectral analysis of surface waves (SASW) method is a recently developed technique that does not require borings. The basis of the SASW method is the dispersive characteristic of Rayleigh waves when travelling through a
layered medium. The dispersion curve is a plot of velocity of Rayleigh wave as a function of wavelength. Rayleigh
wave velocity is determined by the material properties of the sub-surface up to a depth of approximately 12
wavelengths. Longer wavelengths penetrate deeper and their velocity is affected by the material properties at
greater depth, as shown in Figs. 22.9(a) and (b).
The dispersion curve, shown in Fig. 22.9(c), in this method, is obtained by the use of digital data acquisition and
signal processing equipment and hence the method is known as SASW method. This method is, therefore, more
effective and less time-consuming. This technique uses sensors that are spread out along a line at the surface, and
the source of energy is a hammer or tamper also at the surface. The surface excitation generates surface waves, in
particular Rayleigh waves. The particles move in retrograde ellipses, whose amplitudes decay from the surface.
The test results are interpreted by recording the signals at each of the receiving stations (see Fig. 22.10) and by
performing spectral analysis of the data. Computer programs have been developed that can determine shear wave
velocities from the results of the spectral analysis.
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C h a p t e r 2 2 S o i l D y n a m i cs a n d M a c h i n e F o u n d at i o n s
Air
Layer 3
Short
wavelength
(a)
Longer
wavelength
Wavelength
Depth
Layer 1
Layer 2
10
100
1000
(b)
(c)
Figure 22.9 Principle of SASW method (Geo-vision): (a) Soil profile, (b) penetration of Rayleigh wave, and
(c) dispersion curve.
d1 - forward
Reverse configuration
d2
d1 - reverse
The SASW method offers significant advantages, particularly for study of dynamic soil properties near ground
surface. In contrast to borehole measurements that are point estimates, SASW testing is a global measurement, that
is, a much larger volume of the sub-surface is sampled. The resulting profile is representative of the sub-surface
properties averaged over distances of up to several hundred metres. To increase the depth of the measurements,
the energy at the source must be increased. Measurements for the few meters below the surface, which may be
adequate for evaluating pavements, can be accomplished with a sledge hammer as a source of energy, but deeper
measurements require track-mounted seismic pingers. The SASW method works best in cases where the stiffness
of the soils and rocks increases with depth. If there are soft layers lying under stiff ones, the interpretation may be
ambiguous. A soft layer lying between stiff ones can cause problems for the cross-hole method as well because the
waves will travel faster through the stiff layers and the soft layer may be masked. The method is more or less similar
to Seismic refraction method used in preliminary soil investigations for static analysis.
The cross-hole technique employs waves with horizontal particle motion, and the down-hole and up-hole methods use waves whose particle motions are vertical or nearly so; and the surface waves in the SASW method have
particle motions in all sensors. Therefore, a combination of these techniques can be expected to give a more reliable
picture of the shear modulus than any one used alone.
F. Seismic Cone Method
Seismic cone method is similar to the seismic down-hole test, except that no borehole is required but a seismic cone
is used. This method directly measures the shear wave velocity by incorporating a small velocity seismometer (an
electronic pickup device) inside the cone penetrometer. The test essentially consists of pushing the seismic cone to
some depth and then applying a shock at the ground surface, using a hammer and a striking plate. This device has
the advantage of not requiring a borehole. It requires that the site soil be suitable for a CPT, that is, the soil should
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943
be fine-grained, with little to no gravel. The seismic cone test is more efficient than the down-hole test and hence is
more commonly used.
G. Block Vibration Test
Block vibration test is an in situ model test recommended by IS:5249 1992 for the determination of the coefficient
of elastic uniform compression and the damping coefficient of the soil using either the forced vibration test or the
free vibration test. The following is the procedure for conducting the test:
1. Test pit: A test pit of suitable size depending upon the size of the block is made. For a block size of 1 m
1 m 1.5 m, the size of the pit may be 3 m 6 m at the bottom and a depth preferably equal to the proposed
depth of foundation. The bottom of the pit should be level and horizontal, and the sides of the pit should be at
a stable slope or may be kept vertical, where possible. The test should be conducted above the groundwater
table. In the case of a rock, the test may be performed on the surface of the rock bed itself.
2. Test block: A plain concrete block of grade M-15 is constructed in the test pit as shown in Fig. 22.11. The size of
the block is selected depending upon the sub-soil conditions. In ordinary soils, it may be 1 m 1 m 1.5 m; in
dense soils, it may be 0.75 m 0.75 m 1 m. In boulder deposits, the height may be increased suitably. The block
size is so adjusted that the mass ratio, given as follows, is always more than unity:
Bz =
(1 ) M
3 (22.51)
4
ro
where Bz is the mass ratio, m is the Poissons ratio of soil, M is the mass of the block, and rro is the equivalent
radius of the base.
The concrete block is cured for at least 15 days before testing. Foundation bolts are embedded into the concrete
block at the time of testing for fixing the oscillator assembly. Details of the test block are shown in Fig. 22.11(a).
3. Test setup: Vibration exciter is fixed on the concrete block, and suitable connection between the power supply
and the speed control unit is made as shown in Fig. 22.11(b). Any suitable electronic instrumentation may be
used to measure the frequency and amplitude of vibrations.
4. Procedure: The block vibration test may be conducted using the following two methods:
Forced vibration test: The forced vibration test conducted in vertical vibration mode is explained in this section. Vibration pickups are fixed at the top of the block, as shown in Fig. 22.11(a), such that they sense vertical
motion of the block. The vibration exciter is mounted on the block in such a way that it generates purely
Meter
C.C.Block
Pick-ups
d1
d2
(a)
Motor and
oscillator
Block
Amplifier
Oscillograph
Pick up/
transducer
(b)
Figure 22.11 Block vibration test: (a) Test setup and (b) schematic diagram.
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C h a p t e r 2 2 S o i l D y n a m i cs a n d M a c h i n e F o u n d at i o n s
vertical sinusoidal vibrations, and the line of the action of vibrating force passes through the center of gravity
of the block. The exciter is operated at a constant frequency. The signal of the vibration pickups are fed into a
suitable electronic circuit to measure the frequency and amplitude of vibration. The frequency of the exciter
is increased in steps of small values, (l4 cycles/s) up to a maximum frequency of the exciter and the signals
measured. The same procedure is repeated, if necessary, for different excitation levels. The dynamic force
should never exceed 20% of the total mass of the block and exciter assembly.
Amplitude versus frequency curve is plotted for each excitation level to obtain the natural frequency of
the soil and the foundation block tested. A typical plot is shown in Fig. 22.12.
(a) Determination of coefficient of elastic uniform compression of soil: The coefficient of elastic uniform compression of soil for the test block (Cut) is determined from
Cut =
2
M
4 2 f nz
(22.52)
At
where fnz is the natural frequency; M the mass of the block, exciter, and motor; and At the contact area of
the test block with the soil.
From the value of Cut obtained for the test block, the value of Cuf for the foundation may be obtained
from Eq.(22.53) as
At
Cuf = Cut
(22.53)
Af
where Af is the area of the foundation at the base. This relation is valid for small variations in the base area
of the foundations and may be used for an area up to 10 m2.
For actual foundation areas larger than 10 m2, the value of Cuf obtained for 10 m2 may be used.
(b) Determination of damping coefficient of soil: In the case of the vertical vibration test, the value of the damping
coefficient e of soil is determined using Eq. (22.54) as
f 2 f1
(22.54)
2 f nz
A =
Am
(22.55)
2
where f1 and f2 are the two frequencies at which the amplitude is equal to Ae; Ae the amplitude as given
by Eq. (22.55); Am the maximum amplitude, and fnz the frequency at which the amplitude is maximum
(resonant frequency), as shown in Fig. 22.13.
Free vibration test: In free vibration test, the block is excited into free vertical vibrations by the impact of a
sledge hammer or any suitable device, as near to the center of the top face of the block as possible. The vibrations
Peak amplitude
Am
3.0
Amplitude, (A)
Amplitude, mm
4.0
2.0
1.0
0
fn
0
15
20
25
30
35
Frequency, cps
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Am
2
f2
fnz
f1
Frequency, cps
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945
are recorded on a pen recorder or suitable device to measure the frequency and amplitude of vibration. The
test may be repeated 34 times.
(a)Determination of coefficient of elastic uniform compression of soil: In the case of the free vertical vibration tests,
the value of CU is obtained from the natural frequency of the free vertical vibration using Eq. (22.53). The
damping coefficient may be obtained from the free vibration tests using
A
1
log e m (22.56)
2
Am+1
d1 ( d2 d1 )
e
(22.57)
d2
where A1 is the amplitude at distance d1, A2 the amplitude at distance d2 and a the coefficient of attenuation. Typical values of a are given in Table 22.3.
H. Cyclic Plate Load Test
The cyclic plate load test is used to determine the coefficient of elastic uniform compression and is similar to plate
load test discussed in Sec.19.7 of Chapter 19. The procedure for conducting the test consists of loading a rigid test
plate at foundation level in increments and in several cycles and measuring settlement of the plate under each load
increment and in each cycle.
A(m1), wdt(m1)
Am, wdtm
A(m+1), wdt(m+1)
wdt
2p
2p
0.1
0.04
SMFE_Chapter_22.indd 945
a (m-l)
0.040.12
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C h a p t e r 2 2 S o i l D y n a m i cs a n d M a c h i n e F o u n d at i o n s
1. Equipment: Suitable arrangement for providing reaction of adequate magnitude depending upon the size of the
plate employed is made. The load mechanism should have the facility to apply and remove the loads quickly.
Ahydraulic jack or any other suitable equipment may be used.
2. Test procedure:
The equipment for the test is assembled according to the details given in IS:18881982 (see sec. 19.7 of
Chapter 19). The plate should be located at a depth equal to the depth of the proposed foundation in a pit
excavated.
After the setup has been arranged, the initial readings of the dial gauges are noted, and the first increment of
static load is applied to the plate. This load should be maintained constantly throughout for a period till no
further settlement occurs or the rate of settlement becomes negligible. The final readings of the dial gauges
are then recorded.
The entire load is then removed quickly but gradually, and the plate is allowed to rebound. When no further
rebound occurs or the rate of rebound becomes negligible, the readings of the dial gauges are again noted.
The load should be increased gradually till its magnitude reaches a value equal to the proposed next load
increment, which should be maintained constant and the final dial gauge readings are noted as mentioned
earlier. The entire load should then be reduced to zero, and the final dial gauge readings should be recorded
when the rate of rebound becomes negligible.
The cycles of loading, unloading, and reloading are continued till the estimated ultimate load has been
reached, the final values of dial gauge readings being noted each time.
The magnitude of the load increment should be such that the ultimate load is reached in 56 increments.
The initial loading and unloading cycles up to the safe bearing capacity of the soil should be with smaller
increments in load. The duration of each loading and unloading cycle depends upon the type of soil under
investigation.
(a) Determination of coefficient of elastic uniform compression from cyclic plate load test: From the data obtained
during cyclic plate load test, the elastic rebound of the plate corresponding to each intensity of loading
is obtained as shown in Fig. 22.15. The load intensity versus elastic rebound data is plotted as shown in
Fig.22.16. The value of Cu is calculated by
P
Cu =
(22.58)
Se
where Cu is the coefficient of elastic uniform compression in kgf/cm3 and Se the elastic rebound in centimeters, corresponding to the load intensity P in kgf/cm2.
Limitations of In Situ Methods
The dynamic properties measured in the field correspond to very small strains. Although some procedures for
measuring moduli at large strain have been proposed, none has been found fully satisfactory. Field techniques have
Load
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
Se
4
SMFE_Chapter_22.indd 946
Load
Settlement
Elastic rebound
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947
also failed to prove effective in measuring material damping, since the dissipation of energy during strain, which is
called material damping, requires significant strains to occur.
Soil specimen
Active-end platen
Torsional spring
Torsional dashpot
Longitudinal spring
Longitudinal dashpot
Excitation device
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C h a p t e r 2 2 S o i l D y n a m i cs a n d M a c h i n e F o u n d at i o n s
vibration-measuring devices include acceleration, velocity or displacement transducers that can be attached to and
become a part of the active- and passive-end platens. One transducer is mounted on each platen to produce a calibrated electrical output that is proportional to the longitudinal acceleration, velocity or displacement of that platen.
The vibration apparatus and the specimen may be enclosed in a triaxial chamber and subjected to an all-around
pressure and axial load. Transducers are used to measure the vibration amplitudes for each type of motion at the
active end and also at the passive end if it is not rigidly fixed.
The frequency is varied until resonance occurs. The dynamic soil modulus can be calculated based on the frequency, the length of the soil sample, the end conditions of the soil sample, and the density of the soil sample. From
the frequency and amplitude at resonance, the modulus and damping of the soil can be calculated. Youngs modulus,
E, is determined from the longitudinal vibration, and shear modulus, G, is determined from the torsional vibration.
The dynamic Youngs modulus is calculated as,
2
f
E = (2 l) L (22.59)
FL
2
where, r = is the mass density of the soil specimen, fL the resonant frequency for longitudinal motion, FL the frequency factor, and l the length of the soil specimen.
The shear modulus is calculated as,
2
f
G = (2 l) T (22.60)
FT
2
where, fT is the resonant frequency for torsional motion and FT the frequency factor.
For longitudinal motion, the damping factor is calculated as
DL = DA (2 f L M ) (22.61)
where DA is the damping coefficient of the apparatus for longitudinal motion, fL the resonant frequency for longitudinal motion, and M the mass of the soil specimen.
For torsional motion, the damping factor is calculated as
DT = DAT (2 f T J ) (22.62)
where DAT is the damping coefficient of the apparatus for torsional motion, fT the resonant frequency for torsional
motion, J the rotational inertia about axis of rotation (Md2/8), and d the diameter of the soil specimen.
There are several types of resonant-column devices that have been developed. These devices provide measurements of both the modulus and the damping at low-strain levels. Although the strains can sometimes be raised by
a few percent, these devices remain essentially low-strain.
The modulus and damping of a given soil, as measured by the resonant-column technique, depend upon the
strain amplitude of vibration, the ambient state of effective stress, the void ratio of the soil, temperature, time, etc.
Since the application and control of the ambient stresses and the void ratio are not prescribed in these methods, the
applicability of the results to field conditions will depend on the degree to which the application and control of the
ambient stresses and the void ratio, as well as other parameters such as soil structure, simulate field conditions. For
further information on the test, the ASTM D 4015: Resonant-column method may be referred.
B. Cyclic Triaxial Test
The most widely used cyclic loading laboratory test is the cyclic triaxial test. In this test, a cyclic load is applied to a
column of soil over a number of cycles slowly enough that inertial effects do not occur. The response at one amplitude
of the load is observed, and the test is repeated at a higher load. Figure 22.18(a) shows the typical pattern of stress and
strain, expressed as shear stress and shear strain. The shear modulus is the slope of the secant line inside the loop.
The critical damping ratio, D, is given by
D=
Al
(22.63)
4 AT
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949
t
G0
A1 = Area of loop
AT
D=
A1
4 p AT
(a)
G
G0
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
D
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0
0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01
0.1
0
0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01
(b)
(c)
0.1
Figure 22.18 Determination of dynamic soil properties in the laboratory: (a) Variation of shear stress,
(b) G/Go vs cyclic shear strain, and (c) initial damping ratio vs cyclic shear strain.
Other types of cyclic loading devices also exist, including cyclic simple shear devices. Their results are interpreted similarly. These devices load the sample to levels of strain much larger than those attainable in resonant-column devices. A major problem in both resonant-column and cyclic devices is the difficulty of obtaining undisturbed
samples. This is especially true for small-strain data because the effects of sample disturbance are particularly
apparent at small strains.
The results of laboratory tests are often presented in a form similar to Figs. 22.18(b) and (c). In Fig. 22.18(b), the
ordinate is the secant modulus divided by the modulus at small strains. In Fig. 22.18(c), the ordinate is the value of
the initial damping ratio. Both are plotted against the logarithm of the cyclic strain level.
Correlation to Other Soil Properties
Correlation is another method for determining dynamic soil properties. Correlation methods should be used with
caution because these are generally the least-accurate methods. The most appropriate time to consider using these
methods is when deciding on the preliminary design or small non-critical applications with small dynamic loads.
Correlation to other soil properties should be considered as providing a range of possible values, not providing a
single exact value.
In general, relative density in sand is proportional to the void ratio. Seed and Idriss (1970) provide guidance for
correlating dynamic shear modulus to relative density in sand, along with the confining pressure.
G = 6920 K 2 o (22.64)
where K2 is a parameter that depends on void ratio and strain amplitude, and Table 22.4 provides values of K2 with
respect to relative density of the soil.
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C h a p t e r 2 2 S o i l D y n a m i cs a n d M a c h i n e F o u n d at i o n s
K2
90
70
75
52
45
43
40
40
30
34
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2 2 . 7 D e s i g n C r i t e r i a o f M a c h i n e F o u n d at i o n s
2.5
1.25
an
ge
Li
m
fo
to
hi
ac
rm
ne
ou
Tr
st
ru
ct
st
ur
ru
es
ct
s
on
ers
s
op
d
e t rson
an ever
e
S
op
ble
ur
es
m
so
0.25
et
si
Ea
0.125
ly
to
l
re
rs
pe
Ba
y
0.025
tic
ea
e
ea
tic
bl
no
to
pe
to
o
rs
e
bl
s
tion
nda
fou
s
on
no
on
ns
s
on
rs
pe
0.0050
ne
chi
Ma
e
bl
ea
tic
no
0.050
Amplitude of vibration, mm
tio
it
0.50
0.0125
rt
au
0.0025
100
200
500
1000 2000
5000
10000
Frequency, cpm
11. Before placing a new layer of concrete, the previously laid surface should be roughened, thoroughly cleaned,
washed by a jet of water and then covered by a 2 cm thick layer of 1:2 cement grout. Concrete should be placed
within 2 h of laying the grout.
12. The groundwater level should be as low as possible, and it should be at least deeper by one-fourth of the width
of the foundation below the base of the foundation. To achieve this condition, the zone of soil around the
machine foundation should be made water proof. Adequate drainage measures should be adopted to divert
groundwater or rain water away from the machine foundation.
13. The machine foundation should be taken to a level lower than the level of the foundations of adjacent buildings.
14. Any steam or hot air pipes, embedded in the foundation must be properly isolated.
15. The foundation must be protected from machine oil by means of an acid-resistant coating or suitable chemical
treatment.
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C h a p t e r 2 2 S o i l D y n a m i cs a n d M a c h i n e F o u n d at i o n s
250
200 A B
150
100
75
50
25
20
15
10
7.5
5.0
D
C
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.25
10 20 30 50 100160 (Hz)
Disturbing frequency
Line ADD' limit to avoid damage to buildings; line ACC' limit to avoid serious discomfort to
persons; line ABB' limit to ensure reasonable comfort to persons.
The mass of the foundation should be greater than that of the machine.
The eccentricity of the foundation system should not exceed 5% of the width of the corresponding side of
the contact area. In addition, the center of gravity of the machine and the foundation should be below the
top of the foundation block.
The allowable bearing pressure for dynamic loads is usually taken as 80% of that for static loads.
2. Construction:
RCC block foundations are generally provided for reciprocating machines. Cellular foundations may be
used in special cases where it is necessary to maintain the rigidity of a block foundation at the same time
facilitating mass saving of concrete.
To ensure reasonable stability in the case of vertical machines, the total width of the foundation (measured at
right angles to the shaft) should be at least equal to the distance from the center of the shaft to the bottom of
the foundation. In the case of horizontal machines, where cylinders are arranged laterally, the width should
be greater.
The minimum reinforcement in a concrete block is 25 kgf/m3. For machine, requiring special design considerations of foundations, such as machines pumping explosive gases, the reinforcement should not be less
than 40 kgf/m3.
The minimum reinforcement in a block should usually consist of 12 mm bars spaced at 200250 mm center
to center, extending both vertically and horizontally near all the faces of the foundation block.
Reinforcement should be used at all faces. If the height of the foundation block exceeds 1 m, shrinkage reinforcement should be placed at suitable spacing in all three directions.
Reinforcements should be provided around all pits and openings equal to 0.50%0.75% of the cross-sectional
area of the opening.
The concrete grade should be at least M-l5. The foundation block should preferably be cast in a single continuous operation.
When it is impracticable to design a foundation consisting of a simple concrete block resting on natural
soils, anti-vibration mountings should be used to reduce the transmitted vibrations to acceptable levels.
The anti-vibration mounting may be used between the machinery and the foundation, and between a foundation block and the supporting soil.
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2 2 . 7 D e s i g n C r i t e r i a o f M a c h i n e F o u n d at i o n s
Pile foundations may be used in cases when (a) the soil conditions are unsuitable to support block foundation, (b) the natural frequency of block foundations needs to be raised when it is impossible to alter dimensions, or (c) when amplitudes or settlement or both need to be reduced.
The minimum thickness of pile caps for pile foundations is 0.6 m.
Minimum Thickness of
Foundation Block (m)
<1.0
1.00
1.02.0
1.25
<1
13
>3
2.04.0
1.75
Foundation block
1.5
4.06.0
2.25
Anvil
34
>60
2.50
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C h a p t e r 2 2 S o i l D y n a m i cs a n d M a c h i n e F o u n d at i o n s
22.7.5 Foundations for Rotary Type Machines (Medium and High Frequency)
The design criteria for foundations of rotary type machines of low frequency are also applicable for foundations
of rotary type machines of medium and high frequency as well. The criteria covered under this section, as per
IS:2974 (Part 3)1992, are over and above those applicable for foundations of low frequency rotary type machines.
Examples of rotary type machines of medium and high frequency include turbo-generators, turbo-compressors,
boiler feed pumps etc. Figure 22.21 shows a typical framed foundation for a turbo-generator.
1. Design:
The geometric layout of the foundation, the shape of the girder cross sections and columns shall be arranged,
as far as possible, symmetrically with respect to the vertical plane passing through the longitudinal axis of
the machine.
The foundation structure shall be isolated from the main building and also from other structures in the plant.
An air gap shall be provided between the foundation and adjoining structures at all levels above the base mat
to avoid the transfer of vibrations to the adjoining structures.
For rafts supported directly on soil, the thickness of the base raft should not be less than 0.07 L4/3 , where L is
the average of the two adjacent clear spans for the initial sizing of the raft.
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2 2 . 7 D e s i g n C r i t e r i a o f M a c h i n e F o u n d at i o n s
Transverse beams
Longitudinal beam
Top deck
Columns
Base mat
Damping should be assumed to be 2% of critical damping under normal operating loads. A higher damping
of 5% may be used under emergency loads such as blade failure, short circuit, and bearing failure.
The bearing pressure on soil or the load on the heaviest loaded pile should not exceed 80% of the net allowable bearing pressure or the safe load capacity of the piles.
A fatigue factor of 2 should be used for the dynamic forces caused by normal unbalance.
The following guidelines may be followed for column sizing:
(a) As far as possible, pairs of columns should be provided under each transverse girder.
(b) Compressive stresses and elastic shortening should be kept uniform in all the columns as far as possible.
(c) The first two natural frequencies of the column with its top and bottom ends fixed should be away from
the operating frequency of the turbo-generator by at least 20%.
2. Construction:
Minimum M-20 grade of concrete should be used. For turbo-generator foundations of capacities higher than
100 MW, the minimum grade of concrete for the end columns should be M-25.
The minimum diameter of reinforcement bars used as the main reinforcement should be 12 mm. Minimum
reinforcement should be provided as given in Table 22.7.
The maximum spacing of the reinforcement bars shall not exceed 300 mm and the minimum spacing shall
not be less than 150 mm. The minimum clear cover to reinforcement should be 50 mm for the top deck and
columns and 100 mm for the base mat.
The clear spacing between bars should be at least 5 mm more than the sum of the aggregate size and the
largest bar diameter used.
Description
Minimum Reinforcement
0.25A
Sides
0.1A
Longitudinal reinforcement
0.8A
0.12A
0.06A
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C h a p t e r 2 2 S o i l D y n a m i cs a n d M a c h i n e F o u n d at i o n s
r1
(22.65)
r2
where A1 is the computed or measured amplitude at distance r1 from the vibration source, A2 the amplitudes at
distance r2, r2 > r1 and a the coefficient of attenuation depending on soil properties and vibration frequency.
f
= 50 (22.66)
50
a50 is the coefficient of attenuation at a frequency of 50 Hz (3000 rpm) as given in Table 22.8.
22.8.2Transmissibility
The ratio of the vibration transmitted after isolation to the disturbing vibration is described as transmissibility and
is expressed in its basic form as
T=
1
(22.67)
(rf )2 1
SMFE_Chapter_22.indd 956
Type of Soil
a50
1.
0.06
2.
0.02
3.
0.06
4.
0.003
5.
0.002
6.
0.00004
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2 2 . 8 V i b r at i o n a n d S h o c k Is o l at i o n
X(t)
Machine
Machine
P(t)
a(t)
Foundation
F(t)
Isolator
Foundation
Isolator
Support
structure
F(t)
Support
structure
F(t)
(a)
(b)
F(t) = Original vibration before isolation
F(t) = Damped vibration after isolation
Figure 22.22 Types of vibration isolation: (a) Active isolation and (b)passiveisolation.
rf =
fd
(22.68)
fn
where rf is the frequency ratio defined by Eq. (22.68), fd the disturbing frequency, and fn the natural frequency of the
isolator.
When considering the property of damping, Eq. (22.67) is rewritten as Eq. (22.69)
T=
1 + (2 rf )2
(22.69)
[1 (rf )2 ]2 + (2 rf )2
c
(22.70)
2mn
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C h a p t e r 2 2 S o i l D y n a m i cs a n d M a c h i n e F o u n d at i o n s
6. Eliminate vibration short circuits: Any mechanical connection between the machine and the foundation that
bypasses the isolators, such as pipes, conduits, binding springs, poorly adjusted snubbers, or mechanical stops,
should be eliminated.
7. Fail safe operation: If a spring breaks or becomes deflated, mechanical supports must be available to rest the
machine without tipping.
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O b j e c t i v e Q u e s t i o n s V i b r at i o n a n d S h o c k Is o l at i o n
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Additional methods available include the installation of open or slurry-filled trenches, sheet pile walls,
and concrete walls. These techniques have been applied with mixed results. Analytical results suggest that for
trenches to be effective, their depth should be 0.67 L or larger, where L is the wavelength for a Rayleigh wave and
is approximately equal to Vs/w, where w is the angular velocity of vibration in rad/s, and Vs is the shear wave
velocity of the soil.
Summary
Foundations supporting machines are subjected to
dynamic stresses due to vibration or impact caused by the
machinery in addition to the stresses due to static loads.
Proper design of machine foundations is essential to
ensure stability of the machine, the foundations, the structure housing the machine, and adjacent structures and
their foundations as well as to ensure effective operation
of the machine itself and to avoid excessive discomfort
to the people working in the vicinity. The main principle
of dynamic analysis of machine foundations is to model
the machine-foundationsoil system into a mass-spring
dashpot system and to determine the natural frequency
and amplitude of vibration of the machine foundation.
The machine foundation may undergo vibrations under
six modes about x, y, and z axes, and dynamic analysis is
Objective Questions
1. Resonance is the condition that occurs when the
natural frequency of foundationsoil system is
(a) Less than operating frequency of the machine.
(b) Equal to the operating frequency of the machine.
(c) Greater than operating frequency of the machine.
(d) All of the above.
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2
km
(c) 2
k
.
m
(d) 2
m
.
k
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(d) /Vs2 .
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Review Questions
At
.
Af
At
.
Af
Af
.
At
Af
.
At
(c) 1 mm.
(d) 1.2 mm.
26. The allowable bearing pressure for machine foundations is usually taken as
(a) 50% of that for static loads.
(b) 75% of that for static loads.
(c) 80% of that for static loads.
(d) 90% of that for static loads.
27. The minimum reinforcement for foundations of
reciprocating and impact type machines as per
IS:2974 (Part II)1980 is
(a) 25 kgf/m3.
(c) 40 kgf/m3.
3
(b) 35 kgf/m .
(d) 50 kgf/m3.
28. The minimum grade of concrete that should be
used for foundations of impact type machines as
per IS:2974 (Part II)1980 is
(a) M-15.
(c) M-25.
(b) M-20.
(d) M-35.
29. The minimum grade of concrete that should be used
for framed foundations of rotary type machines as
per IS:2974 (Part IV)1979 is
(a) M-15.
(c) M-25.
(b) M-20.
(d) M-35.
30. The natural frequency of foundations for rotary type
machines as per IS:2974 (Part4)1992 should NOT be
within ______ of the operating speed of the machine.
Choose the correct answer to fill in the blank.
(a) 20%.
(c) 30%.
(b) 25%.
(d) 40%.
Review Questions
1. Draw a neat sketch of a typical arrangement of a
hammer foundation with a frame.
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Answers
Objective Questions
1. (b)
11. (c)
21. (b)
2. (b)
12. (a)
22. (a)
3. (c)
13. (b)
23. (c)
4. (b)
14. (a)
24. (a)
5. (c)
15. (a)
25. (b)
6. (a)
16. (c)
26. (c)
7. (c)
17. (b)
27. (a)
8. (d)
18. (b)
28. (a)
9. (d)
19. (b)
29. (b)
10. (c)
20. (d)
30. (a)
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