Water
Most abundant inorganic compound
Vital properties
Definition
Water
Earths surface is covered by 71% water
Essential for life can survive only a few days without water
A watershed describes the total area contributing drainage to a stream or
river
May be applied to many scales
A large watershed is made up of many small watersheds
Unit Measurement
Parameter
Value
Dissolved oxygen
mg/L or ppm
Water temperature
Degrees C or F
pH
Total ammonia nitrogen
mg/L or ppm
Nitrite
mg/L or ppm
Alkalinity/Hardness
Salinity
ppm: Most dissolved substances found in water are measured in parts per million
(ppm) or even smaller amounts. This means that for every one million parts (units)
of water there is a certain number of parts of the substance.
Concentration: Concentrations of certain substances are also measured in
parts per billion, parts per trillion and so on. These are very small amounts
but certain substances can be harmful even at these very low concentrations.
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10
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Industrial
Wastes
Non-Point Sources
Agric. runoff
Urban runoff
Oxygen-demanding
material
Nutrients
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Pathogens
Suspended solids
/sediments
Salts
Toxic metals
Toxic organic chemicals
Heat
X
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Heat :
Sources : Industrial processes, power plants etc
Effect : increases rate of oxygen depletion, reduces aquatic life
of fish.
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Effects of Nitrogen :
Effects of Phosphorus :
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units
CLASSES
IIA
IIB
III
IV
DO
mg/L
5-7
5-7
3-5
<3
<1
COD
mg/L
10
25
25
50
100
>100
BOD
mg/L
12
>12
Total
dissolved
solids
mg/L
500
1000
4000
Total
suspended
solids
mg/L
25
50
50
150
300
>300
Faecal
coliform
counts/
100ml
10
100
400
5000
5000
Total
coliform
counts/
100ml
100
5000
5000
5000
5000
>50000
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USES
Represents water bodies of excellent quality. Standards sets for the conservation of natural
environment in its undisturbed state. Water bodies such as those in the national park areas,
fountain heads, inland and in undisturbed areas come under this category where strictly no
discharges of any kind is permitted. Water bodies in this category meets the most stringent
requirements for human health and aquatic life protection.
II
Represents water bodies of good quality. Most existing raw water supply sources come under
this category. In practice, no body contact activity is allowed in this water for the prevention of
probable human pathogens. There is a need to introduce another class for water bodies not
used for water supply but similar quality which may be referred to as Class IIB. The
determination of Class IIB standards is based on criteria for recreational use and protection of
sensitive aquatic species
III
Is defined with the primary objectives of protecting common and moderately tolerant aquatic
species of economic value. Water under this classification may be used for water supply with
extensive/advanced treatment. This class of water is also defined to suit livestock drinking
needs.
IV
Defined water required for major agricultural activities which may not cover minor application to
sensitive crops
Represent other water which do not meet any of the above uses
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20
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TSS is related to
turbidity.
Sediments suspended in
the water increase
turbidity.
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Color
Surface water, Swampy areas are coloured
:not acceptable for domestic or industrial uses
Colouring Materials: Humic Substances
(organic debris ), leaves, needles of conifers
and wood
Iron sometimes present as ferric humate and
produces a colour of high potency
Natural colour exists as negatively charged
colloidal particles
Its removal can be made easily by coagulation
withtrivalent metallic ion, e.g., Al3+, Fe3+
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Color
Apparent colour: Caused by
suspended matters
True colour: Caused by vegetable (or)
organic extracts that are colloidal
It is important to differentiate b/t
apparent and true colour
Colour intensity with pH: it should be
measured
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ColourCause
Pollution : dyeing/ Textile/paper and
pulp
Lignin: Resistant to biological attack
Waternatural colour are yellowbrownish
in appearance
Potassium chloroplatinate (K2PtCl6) tinted
with cobalt chloride
Spectrometer analysis: 400 nm to 800
nm
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Turbidity
Turbid: water containing suspended matter
that interferes with the passage of light through
the water
Turbidity: caused by wide variety of
suspended materials that range in size from
colloidal to coarse dispersions, depending
upon the degree of turbulence
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Environmental Significance
Aesthetics
Filterability: difficult, costly, shortens filter runs
Disinfection: Turbid water has harmful
organism,Chlorine dioxide, chlorine, Ozone, UV
Giardia lamblia
Turbidity in treated water must never exceed 1
Nephelometric Turbidity Unit (NTU)
WHO guideline 5 NTU to prevent consumer
complaints 1mgSiO2/L = 1 unit of turbidity
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Biological Parameter:
Pathogens
Capable of infecting and transmitting diseases to human
Bacteria:
Virus: smallest microorganisms with sizes range from
0.01 to 0.3 m. Could cause certain disease like
hepatitis, flu, jaundice, polio
Protozoa: simplest animal species. Infection are
usually characterized by gastrointestinal disorders.
Fungi: can produce musty taste and odour as well as
colour and turbidity.
Algae: Increase the level of DO in water. But too
much of algae, will affect taste and smell and can
reduce the intensity of light penetration.
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15
31
10
29
27
summer
25
0
6 a.m.
noon
6 p.m.
midnight
6 a.m.
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Epilimnion
High temperature
High dissolved oxygen
Thermocline
Hypolimnion
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alkalinity
Total titratable bases
bicarbonate
carbonate
HCO3CO3--
Calcium bicarbonate
Ca( HCO3 )2
Calcium carbonate
CaCO3
Magnesium
bicarbonate
Magnesium
carbonate
Mg( HCO3 )2
MgCO3
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Fluoride
Occurs naturally
Long term consumption above permissible level can cause
dental flurosis (molting of teeth)
Skeletal flurosis
Acceptable limit 1 mg / l
Maximum permissible limit 1.5 mg / l
Remedy 1) Deflouridation
2) Mixing Fluoride free water
3) Intake of vitamin C,D, calcium, antioxidants
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Arsenic
Occur in ground water
Industrial waste, agricultural insecticide
High arsenic causes 1) various type of dermatological lesions, muscular
weakness, paralysis of lower limbs, can also cause skin and lung cancer
Acceptable limit 0.05 mg / l
Heavy Metal
Present as mineral in soil and rocks of earth
Human activities
Battery Lead & Nickel
Textile - Copper
Photography Silver
Steel production Iron
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Calculating BOD
sample size
Dilution factor P
BODt
x100
DOb ,t DOs ,t
P
DOb ,t dissolve oxygen concentrat ion in blank after t day of incubation , mg / L
DOs ,t dissolve oxygen concentrat ion in sample after t day of incubation , mg / L
P dilution factor
( DOs ,i DOs ,t ) ( DOb ,i DOb ,t ) f
BODt
P
DOs ,i initial dissolve oxygen of sample
DOb ,i initial dissolve oxygen of blank
f ratio of seed in diluted sample to blank
(volume of seed in diluted sample) /( volume of blank )
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50
dL
kL
dt
L oxygen equivalent of the organic chemicals remaining
k reaction rate constant(in days-1 )
dL
kdt
L
Lt
t
dL
Lo L k 0 dt
ln
Lt
kt
Lo
or
Lt L0 e kt
Lo oxygen equivalent of organics at time , t o(mg/L)
Lt oxygen equivalent of the organic chemicals remaining at time , t (mg/L)
BODt Lo Lt
Lo Lo e kt
BODt amount of oxygen used in the consumption of organics
Lo ultimate BOD i.e. the maximum oxygen consumption possible when the waste has been completely degraded
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T= temperature of interest , 0C
kT= BOD rate constant at the
temperature of interest ( in days-1)
K20= BOD rate constant determined
at 200 C ( in days-1)
= Temperature coefficient. For
typical domestic wastewater this
varies from 1.135 for 4 0C to 20 0C
And 1.056 for 20 0C to 300C
kT k 20 ( )
T 20
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There are thousands of naturally occurring organic compounds, and not all of
them can be degraded;
Simple sugars and starches are rapidly degraded and will therefore have a
very large BOD rate constant.
The BOD rate constant for a complex waste depends very much on the
relative proportions of the various components.
The lower rate constants for treated sewage compared with raw sewage
result from the fact that easily degradable organics are more completely
removed than less readily degradable organics during wastewater treatment.
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LABORATORY MEASUREMENT OF
BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND
Standard BOD Test: the standard BOD test is outlined
with emphasis placed on the reason for each step rather
than the details.
Step 1.
A special 300 mL BOD bottle (Figure 5-4) is completely
filled with a sample of water that has been appropriately
diluted and inoculated with microorganisms.
Samples require dilution because the only oxygen
available to the organisms is dissolved in the water.
The most oxygen that can dissolve is about 9 mg/L so
the BOD of the diluted sample should be between 2 and
6 mg/L.
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Step 2.
Blank samples containing only the
inoculated dilution water are also placed in
BOD bottles and stoppered.
Blanks are required to estimate the
amount of oxygen consumed by the added
inoculum in the absence of the sample.
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After the desired number of days has elapsed, the samples and
blanks are removed from the incubator and the dissolved oxygen
concentration in each bottle is measured.
The BOD of the undiluted sample is then calculated using the
following equation:
BODt
( DOb,t DOs ,t )
P
P = dilution factor
BODt
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Acids
Proton donors (H+)
Acids contain hydrogen and produce positive
ions (H+) when dissolved in water
Acids = good electrolytes
Examples of acids:
Lemon Juice
Citric Acid
Carbonic Acid
HCl
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Bases
Proton acceptors
Bases contain hydroxide ions (OH-) when
mixed with water.
Bases = weak electrolytes
Examples of bases:
Ammonia
Soap
Bleach (chlorine)
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H+ + OH-
Acid
Base
Ex. HCl +
NaOH
HOH + Salt
water
H2O + NaCl
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pH
Measures relative
concentration of
hydrogen ions
pH 7 = neutral
pH below 7 = acidic
pH above 7 = basic
Buffers
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