Parts of the Respiratory System and their Function

Introduction to parts of the respiratory system and their function

Respiratory system consists of the organs that help to breathe. Respiration also known as breathing
is the process which delivers oxygen from the external atmosphere to the body and removes the
carbon dioxide from body and expels out. The main parts of the respiratory system and their
functions are as follows

The nostrils

Trachea

Bronchi

Lungs

Alveolus

Diaphragm

Fig1:Parts of the respiratory system

Main Parts of the Respiratory System and their

Function
The nostrils: Nostrils are involved in air intake, i.e. they bring air into the nose, where air is warmed
and humidified. The tiny hairs called cilia filters out dust and other particles present in the air and
protects the nasal passage and other regions of the respiratory tract.
Trachea: The trachea is also known as windpipe. The trachea filters the air we inhale and branches
into the bronchi.
Bronchi: The bronchi are the two air tubes that branch off of from the trachea and carry atmospheric
air directly into the lungs.
Lungs: The main organ of the respiratory system is lungs. Lungs are the site in body where oxygen
is taken into and carbon dioxide is expelled out. The red blood cells present in the blood picks up the
oxygen in the lungs and carry and distribute the oxygen to all body cells that need it. The red blood
cells donate the oxygen to the cells and picks up the carbon dioxide produced by the cells.
Alveolus: Alveolus is the tiny sac like structure present in the lungs which the gaseous exchange
takes place.
Diaphragm: Breathing begins with a dome-shaped muscle located at the bottom of the lungs which
is known as diaphragm. When we breathe in the diaphragm contracts and flatten out and pull
downward. Due to this movement the space in the lungs increases and pulls air into the lungs. When
we breathe out, the diaphragm expands and reduces the amount of space for the lungs and forces
air out.

Diseases Associated with Respiratory System

Diseases associated with respiratory system are asthma, bronchiolitis, chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD), cystic fibrosis, pneumonia, etc.

The circulatory system is a vast network of organs and vessels that is responsible for
the flow of blood, nutrients, hormones, oxygen and other gases to and from cells.
Without the circulatory system, the body would not be able to fight disease or maintain a
stable internal environment such as proper temperature and pH known as
homeostasis.

Description of the circulatory system

While many view the circulatory system, also known as the cardiovascular system, as
simply a highway for blood, it is made up of three independent systems that work
together: the heart (cardiovascular); lungs (pulmonary); and arteries, veins, coronary
and portal vessels (systemic), according to the U.S National Library of Medicine (NLM).
In the average human, about 2,000 gallons (7,572 liters) of blood travel daily through
about 60,000 miles (96,560 kilometers) of blood vessels, according to the Arkansas
Heart Hospital. An average adult has 5 to 6 quarts (4.7 to 5.6 liters) of blood, which is
made up of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. In addition to blood,
the circulatory system moves lymph, which is a clear fluid that helps rid the body of
unwanted material.
The heart, blood, and blood vessels make up the cardiovascular component of the
circulatory system. It includes the pulmonary circulation, a "loop" through the lungs
where blood is oxygenated. It also incorporates the systemic circulation, which runs
through the rest of the body to provide oxygenated blood, according to NLM.
[Top 10 Amazing Facts About Your Heart]
The pulmonary circulatory system sends oxygen-depleted blood away from the heart
through the pulmonary artery to the lungs and returns oxygenated blood to the heart
through the pulmonary veins, according to the Mayo Clinic.
Oxygen-deprived blood enters the right atrium of the heart and flows through the
tricuspid valve (right atrioventricular valve) into the right ventricle. From there it is
pumped through the pulmonary semilunar valve into the pulmonary artery on its way to
the lungs. When it gets to the lungs, carbon dioxide is released from the blood and
oxygen is absorbed. The pulmonary vein sends the oxygen-rich blood back to the heart,
according to NLM.

The systemic circulation is the portion of the circulatory system is the network of veins,
arteries and blood vessels that transports blood from heart, services the body's cells
and then re-enters the heart, the Mayo Clinic noted.

Diseases of the circulatory system

According to the American Heart Association, cardiovascular disease is the leading
cause of death in the United States. Because of its vastness and critical nature, it is one
of the systems of the body most prone to disease.

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One of the most common diseases of the circulatory system is arteriosclerosis, in which
the fatty deposits in the arteries causes the walls to stiffen and thicken the walls.
According to the Mayo Clinic, the causes are a buildup of fat, cholesterol and other
material in the artery walls. This can restrict blood flow or in severe cases stop it all
together, resulting in a heart attack or stroke.
Stroke involves blockage of the blood vessels to the brain and is another major
condition of the circulatory system, according to Mitchell Weinberg of the North ShoreLIJ Health System. Risk factors include smoking, diabetes and high cholesterol, he
noted.
Another circulatory disease, hypertension commonly called high blood pressure
causes the heart to work harder and can lead to such complications as a heart attack, a
stroke, or kidney failure, the NLM noted.
An aortic aneurysm occurs when the aorta is damaged and starts to bulge or eventually
tear, which can cause severe internal bleeding. This weakness can be present at birth
or the result of atherosclerosis, obesity, high blood pressure or a combination of these
conditions, according to Weinberg.
Peripheral arterial disease (also known as PAD) typically involves areas of narrowing or
blockage within an artery, according to Jay Radhakrishnan, an interventional radiologist
in Houston, Texas. In addition, chronic venous insufficiency (also known as CVI)
involves areas reflux (or backward flow) within the superficial veins of the lower
extremities.

PAD is diagnosed with noninvasive testing including ultrasound, CT scan, and/or MRI.
Ultrasound is the least expensive of these methods, but also gives the least amount of
detail, as CT and MRI show a much higher degree of anatomic detail when identifying
areas of narrowing/blockage within an artery. CVI is diagnosed with ultrasound as the
venous reflux can be measured accurately by ultrasound, which ultimately guides
treatment.

Study of the circulatory system

Cardiologists are specialists who are certified to diagnose, treat and prevent disease of
the heart, arteries and veins. Cardiologists are certified by the American Board of
Internal Medicine (ABIM) after meeting educational and practice requirements. Before
being certified as cardiologists, those aspiring to the specialty must be certified in
internal medicine.
Then cardiologists can become certified in one of several cardiology subspecialties,
including transplant cardiology, cardiovascular disease, clinical cardiac
electrophysiology and interventional cardiology.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system is a complex collection of nerves and specialized cells known as
neurons that transmit signals between different parts of the body. It is essentially the
bodys electrical wiring.
Structurally, the nervous system has two components: the central nervous system and
the peripheral nervous system. According to the National Institutes of Health, the central
nervous system is made up of the brain, spinal cord and nerves. The peripheral nervous
system consists of sensory neurons, ganglia (clusters of neurons) and nerves that
connect to one another and to the central nervous system.
Functionally, the nervous system has two main subdivisions: the somatic, or voluntary,
component; and the autonomic, or involuntary, component. The autonomic nervous
system regulates certain body processes, such as blood pressure and the rate of

breathing, that work without conscious effort, according to Merck Manuals. The somatic
system consists of nerves that connect the brain and spinal cord with muscles and
sensory receptors in the skin.

Description of the nervous system

Nerves are cylindrical bundles of fibers that start at the brain and central cord and
branch out to every other part of the body, according to the University of Michigan
Medical School.
Neurons send signals to other cells through thin fibers called axons, which cause
chemicals known as neurotransmitters to be released at junctions called synapses, the
NIH noted. A synapse gives a command to the cell and the entire communication
process typically takes only a fraction of a millisecond.
Sensory neurons react to physical stimuli such as light, sound and touch and send
feedback to the central nervous system about the bodys surrounding environment,
according to the American Psychological Association. Motor neurons, located in the
central nervous system or in peripheral ganglia, transmit signals to activate the muscles
or glands.
Glial cells, derived from the Greek word for "glue," are specialized cells that support,
protect or nourish nerve cells, according to the National Institute on Aging. [Related: 10
Things You Didn't Know About the Brain]

Find out about the workings of the brain and nerves.

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Diagnosing nervous system conditions

There are a number of tests and procedures to diagnose conditions involving the
nervous system. In addition to the traditional X-ray, a specialized X-ray called a
fluoroscopy examines the body in motion, such as blood flowing through arteries,
according to the NIH.
Other standard neurological exams include an MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), CT
scan, and an electroencephalogram (EEG), which records the brain's continuous
electrical activity. Positron emission tomography (PET) is a procedure that measures
cell or tissue metabolism and brain activity to detect tumors or diseased tissue or
tumors, the NIH noted.
A spinal tap places a needle into the spinal canal to drain a small amount of cerebral
spinal fluid that is tested for infection or other abnormalities, according to the NIH.

Diseases of the nervous system

Of all the diseases of the nervous system, the most common difficulty that people have
is pain, and much of that is nerve-related, according to Dr. Shai Gozani, founder and
CEO of NeuroMetrix, a medical device company. There are 100 million people who live
with chronic pain.
According to the Mayo Clinic, patients with nerve disorders experience functional
difficulties, which result in conditions such as:

Epilepsy, in which abnormal electrical discharges from brain cells cause

seizures

Parkinson's disease, which is a progressive nerve disease that affects movement

Multiple sclerosis (MS), in which the protective lining of the nerves is attacked by
the bodys immune system

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also known as Lou Gehrig's disease, is a

motor neuron disease which weakens the muscles and progressively hampers
physical function

Huntington's disease, which is an inherited condition that cause the nerve cells in
the brain to degenerate

Alzheimer's disease, which covers a wide range of disorders that impacts mental
functions, particularly memory.

Mayo Clinic also noted that the nervous system can also be affected by vascular
disorders such as:

Stroke, which occurs when there is bleeding on the brain or the blow flow to the
brain is obstructed;

Transient ischemic attack (TIA), which are mini-type strokes that last a shorter
period of time but mimic stroke symptoms; and

Subarachnoid hemorrhage, which is specifically bleeding in the space between

your brain and the surrounding membrane that can be the result of a trauma or
rupturing of a weak blood vessel;

Infections such as meningitis, encephalitis, polio, and epidural abscess can also affect
the nervous system, the NIH noted.
Treatments vary from anti inflammatory medications and pain medications such as
opiates , to implanted nerve stimulators and wearable devices, Gozani said. Many
people also turn to herbal and holistic methods to reduce pain, such as acupuncture.

Study of the nervous system

The branch of medicine that studies and treats the nervous system is called neurology,
and doctors who practice in this field of medicine are called neurologists. Once they
have completed medical training, neurologists complete additional training for their
specialty and are certified by the American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology (ABPN).
There are also physiatrists, who are physicians who work to rehabilitate patients who
have experienced disease or injury to their nervous systems that impact their ability to
function, according to the ABPN.

Neurosurgeons perform surgeries involving the nervous system and are certified by
the American Association of Neurological Surgeons.

MUSCULAR SYSTEM
While most people associate muscles with strength, they do more than assist in lifting
heavy objects. The 650 muscles in the body not only support movement controlling
walking, talking, sitting, standing, eating and other daily functions that people
consciously perform but also help to maintain posture and circulate blood and other
substances throughout the body, among other functions.
Muscles are often associated with activities of the legs, arms and other appendages,
but muscles also produce more subtle movements, such as facial expressions, eye
movements and respiration, according to theNational Institutes of Health (NIH).

Three types of muscles

The muscular system can be broken down into three types of muscles: skeletal, smooth
and cardiac, according to the NIH.
Skeletal muscles are the only voluntary muscle tissue in the human body and control
every action that a person consciously performs. Most skeletal muscles are attached to
two bones across a joint, so the muscle serves to move parts of those bones closer to
each other, according toThe Merck Manual.
Visceral, or smooth, muscle is found inside organs such as the stomach and intestines,
as well as in blood vessels. It is called a smooth muscle because, unlike skeletal
muscle, it does not have the banded appearance of skeletal or cardiac muscle. The
weakest of all muscle tissues, visceral muscles contract to move substances through
the organ, according to The Merck Manual. Because visceral muscle is controlled by
the unconscious part of the brain, it is known as involuntary muscle, as it cannot be
controlled by the conscious mind.

Found only in the heart, cardiac muscle is an involuntary muscle responsible for
pumping blood throughout the body, according to The Merck Manual. The heart's
natural pacemaker is made of cardiac muscle that signals other cardiac muscles to
contract. Like visceral muscles, cardiac muscle tissue is controlled involuntarily. While
hormones and signals from the brain adjust the rate of contraction, cardiac muscle
stimulates itself to contract.

Muscle shapes
Muscles are further classified by their shape, size and direction, according to the NIH.
The deltoids, or shoulder muscles, have a triangular shape. The serratus muscle, which
originates on the surface of the second to ninth ribs at the side of the chest, and runs
along the entire anterior length of the scapula (shoulder blades), has a distinctive
sawlike shape. The rhomboid major, which attaches the scapula to the spinal column, is
a diamond shape.
Size can be used to differentiate similar muscles in the same region. The gluteal region
(the buttocks) contains three muscles differentiated by size: the gluteus maximus
(large), gluteus medius (medium) and gluteus minimus (smallest), the NIH noted.
The direction in which the muscle fibers run can be used to identify a muscle. In the
abdominal region, there are several sets of wide, flat muscles, according to the NIH.
The muscles whose fibers run straight up and down are the rectus abdominis, the ones
running transversely (left to right) are the transverse abdominis and the ones running at
an angle are the obliques. As any exercise enthusiast knows, obliques are among the
hardest muscles to develop to achieve "six-pack" abs.
Muscles also can be identified by their function. The flexor group of the forearm flexes
the wrist and the fingers. The supinator is a muscle that allows you to roll your wrist over
to face palm up. Adductor muscles in the legs adduct, or pull together, the limbs,
according to the NIH.

Diseases of the muscular system

There is no single type of doctor that treats muscular diseases and disorders.
Rheumatologists, orthopedists and neurologists may all treat conditions that affect the
muscles, according to the American Medical Association.

There are a number of common neuromuscular disorders, according to Dr. Robert

Schabbing, chief of neurology at Kaiser Permanente in Denver.
Common primary muscle disorders include inflammatory myopathies, including
polymyositis, which is characterized by inflammation and progressive weakening of the
skeletal muscles; dermatomyositis, which is polymyositis accompanied by a skin rash;
and inclusion body myositis, which is characterized by progressive muscle weakness
and wasting. Other common disorders are muscular dystrophies and metabolic muscle
disorders, he said. Muscular dystrophy affects muscle fibers. Metabolic muscle
disorders interfere with chemical reactions involved in drawing energy from
food.Neuromuscular junction disorders impair the transmission of nerve signals to
muscles, Schabbing noted.
The most common neuromuscular junction disorder is myasthenia gravis, which is
characterized by varying degrees of weakness of the skeletal muscles. Schabbing said.
"There are many types of peripheral neuropathies that can be secondary to other
medical conditions, such as diabetes, or due to a variety of other causes, including
toxins, inflammation and hereditary causes," he said.
Motor neuron disorders affect the nerve cells that supply muscles, Schabbing said. The
most recognizable motor neuron disease is amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, or ALS,
commonly known as Lou Gehrig's disease.

Learn about the muscles that move your body and keep you alive.
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Symptoms, diagnosis and treatment

The most common symptom or sign of a muscle disorder is weakness, although muscle
disorders can cause a number of symptoms, according to Schabbing. In addition to
weakness, symptoms include abnormal fatigue with activity, as well as muscle spasms,
cramping or twitching. Neuromuscular disorders affecting the eyes or mouth can cause
drooping eyelids or double vision, slurred speech, difficulty swallowing or, sometimes,
difficulty breathing.
Electromyography commonly referred to as an EMG is often used to diagnose
muscular disorders. An EMG helps characterize causes of nerve and muscle disorders
by stimulating nerves and recording responses, Schabbing noted. Rarely, nerve or
muscle biopsies are needed.
Steroids and other medications can help to reduce spasms and cramping. Milder forms
of chemotherapy can help treat many muscular disorders, according to Dr. Ricardo
Roda, an assistant professor of neurology, neuroscience and physiology at NYU
Langone Medical Center.

SKELETAL SYSTEM
The adult human skeletal system consists of 206 bones, as well as a network of
tendons, ligaments and cartilage that connects them. The skeletal system performs vital
functions support, movement, protection, blood cell production, calcium storage and
endocrine regulation that enable us to survive.
Animals with internal skeletons made of bone, called vertebrates, are actually the
minority, as 98 percent of all animals are invertebrates, meaning they do not have
internal skeletons or backbones. Human infants are born with about 270 bones, some of

which fuse together as the body develops. By the time we reach adulthood, we have
206 bones, according to Arizona State Universitys School of Life Sciences.

The skeletons of adult males and females have some variation, primarily to
accommodate childbirth. The female pelvis is flatter, more rounded and proportionally
larger. A male's pelvis is about 90 degrees or less of angle, whereas a female's is 100
degrees or more.
While they become brittle when outside of the body, bones are very much alive inside
the body, being fed by a network of blood vessels from the circulatory system and
nerves from the nervous system, according to Healthline.
A typical bone has a dense and tough outer layer. Next is a layer of spongy bone, which
lighter and slightly flexible. In the middle of some bones is jelly-like bone marrow, where
new cells are constantly being produced for blood, the Merck Manuals noted.
Teeth are considered part of the skeletal system but they are not counted as bones.
Teeth are made of dentin and enamel, which is strongest substance in your body. Teeth
also play a key role in thedigestive system.
The skeletal system has two distinctive parts: the axial skeleton and the appendicular
skeleton, according to the U.S National Library of Medicine(NLM).
The axial skeleton, with a total of 80 bones, consists of the vertebral column, the rib
cage and the skull. The axial skeleton transmits the weight from the head, the trunk and
the upper extremities down to the lower extremities at the hip joints, which help humans
maintain our upright posture, the NLM noted.
The appendicular skeleton has a total of 126 bones, and is formed by the pectoral
girdles, the upper limbs, the pelvic girdle and the lower limbs, according to the NLM.
Their functions are to make walking, running and other movement possible and to
protect the major organs responsible for digestion, excretion and reproduction.

Diseases of the skeletal system

X-rays, MRIs, bone density tests and arthroscopy are some of the primary diagnostic
tools used to detect diseases and deformities of the skeletal system. Bone scans and
bone marrow biopsies are used to diagnose cancer, according to the Merck Manuals.
The primary skeletal conditions are metabolic bone diseases such as osteoporosis,
osteomalacia, and a few other rarer conditions, said Dr. Nathan Wei of the Arthritis
Treatment Center.

Osteoporosis is a prevalent disease, particularly among the elderly, resulting in the loss
of bone tissue. In osteoporosis, bone loses calcium, becomes thinner and may
disappear completely, according to Wei.Osteomalacia is a softening of the bones,
according to the Mayo Clinic. It is often caused by a vitamin D deficiency and results
from a defect in the bone-building process. Osteoporosis, on the other hand, develops
in previously constructed bones.
Arthritis is a group of more than 100 inflammatory diseases that damage joints and their
surrounding structures. Arthritis can attack joints, joint capsules, the surrounding tissue,
or throughout the body. It usually affects the joints of the neck, shoulders, hands, lower
back, hips, or knees. The diagnosis is suspected by a careful history and physical
exam and confirmed through laboratory and imaging studies. Treatment depends on the
type of arthritis, Wei said.
Also common is scoliosis, a side-to-side curve in the back or spine, often creating a
pronounced "C" or "S" shape when viewed on an x-ray of the spine. This condition is
typically becomes evident during adolescence, the Merck Manuals noted.
About 90 percent of people will experience lower back pain at some point in their lives,
according to Dr. James Nace of LifeBridge Health. Patients can often be helped with
things such as anti-inflammatory medications, but in some cases may need treatments
such as topical medications, patches or electrical stimulation.
One of the much rarer diseases of the skeletal system is bone cancer. It may originate
in the bones or spread there from another part of the body. In the United States, primary
bone cancers accounts for less than 1 percent of all cancer cases, according to
the American Cancer Society. Cancers that metastasize originate from other parts of
the body and then spread to the bones are much more common than primary bone
cancer.
Bone cancer is a malignancy arising in the bones and supporting structures such as
cartilage, according to Dr. Robert Christie, medical oncologist and hematologist
at Virginia Cancer Specialists, a practice inThe U.S. Oncology Network. Unfortunately,
these bone cancers are often seen in younger patients in their 20s and 30s versus lung
cancer and breast cancer which are typically diagnosed later in life.
While leukemia is a cancer that primarily affects the blood, the skeletal system is
involved as the cancer starts in the marrow of the bone. With this type of cancer,
abnormal white blood cells multiply uncontrollably, affecting the production of normal
white blood cells and red blood cells, according to the American Cancer Society.

Bursitis is a disorder that most commonly affects the shoulder and hip joints, Nace said.
It is caused by an inflammation of the bursa, small fluid-filled bags that act as lubricating
surfaces for muscles to move over bones.
The skeletal system is also susceptible to breaks, strains and fractures. While bones
are meant to protect the bodys vital organs, it takes about 10 to 16 pounds of pressure
to break an average bone. Bones such as the skull and femur are much tougher to
break.

Study of the skeletal system

Orthopedics is the medical specialty responsible for treating entire skeletal system. In
the United States, orthopedic surgeons have typically completed four years of
undergraduate education and four years of medical school. They then undergo
residency training in orthopedic surgery. The American Board of Orthopaedic Surgery
oversees the certification process for this specialty. Many go on to further specialize in
specific areas, such as the spine, hand or sports injuries.
Humans have been dealing with injuries and disease from the beginning of time. Some
important milestones in the history of orthopedics include:

Hippocrates, the ancient Greek father of medicine, develops splints for fractures
of the tibia.

During the Roman era, Galen (199-129 B.C.) describes the skeletal system and
the surrounding muscles. Medical experts of the time also develop the first
artificial prostheses.

Ambroise Pare (1510-1590), the father of French surgery, develops techniques

for amputations and artificial limbs.

Antonius Mathysen (1805-1878), a Dutch military surgeon, in 1851 invents the

plaster of Paris (POP) bandage. A POP cast remains the primary method of
fracture immobilization today.

In 1895, Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen accidentally discovers an image cast from his
cathode ray generator, projected far beyond the possible range of the cathode
rays. He wins the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1901 for his discovery of X-rays.

Sir Reginald Watson-Jones (1902-1972) publishes Fractures and Joint Injuries

in 1940, which remains a standard reference for several decades.

In 1949, H. Lowry Rush (1879-1965) uses stainless steel pins to treat long bone
fractures.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The endocrine system is the collection of glands that produce hormones that regulate
metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, sexual function, reproduction,
sleep, and mood, among other things.
The endocrine system is made up of the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid
glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries (in females) and testicles (in males), the
Mayo Clinic notes.
The word endocrine derives from the Greek words "endo," meaning within, and "crinis,"
meaning to secrete, according to Health Mentor Online. In general, a gland selects and
removes materials from the blood, processes them and secretes the finished chemical
product for use somewhere in the body. The endocrine system affects almost every
organ and cell in the body, according to the Merck Manual.
Although the hormones circulate throughout the body, each type of hormone is targeted
toward certain organs and tissues, the Merck Manual notes. The endocrine system gets
some help from organs such as the kidney, liver, heart and gonads, which have
secondary endocrine functions. The kidney, for example, secretes hormones such as
erythropoietin and renin.

Diseases of the endocrine system

Hormone levels that are too high or too low indicate a problem with the endocrine
system. Hormone diseases also occur if your body does not respond to hormones in the
appropriate ways. Stress, infection, and changes in the blood's fluid and electrolyte
balance can also influence hormone levels, according to the National Institutes of
Health.

The most common endocrine disease in the United States is diabetes, a condition in
which the body does not properly process glucose, a simple sugar. This is due to the
lack of insulin or, if the body is producing insulin, because the body is not working
effectively, according to Dr. Jennifer Loh, chief of the department of endocrinology
for Kaiser Permanente in Hawaii.
Hormone imbalances can have a significant impact on the reproductive system,
particularly in women, Loh explained.
Another disorder, hypothyroidism, occurs when the thyroid gland does not produce
enough thyroid hormone to meet the bodys needs. Loh noted that insufficient thyroid
hormone can cause many of the body's functions to slow or shut down completely.
Thyroid cancer begins in the thyroid gland and starts when the cells in the thyroid begin
to change, grow uncontrollably and eventually form a tumor, according to Loh.
Hypoglycemia, also called low blood glucose or low blood sugar, occurs when blood
glucose drops below normal levels. This typically happens as a result of treatment for
diabetes when too much insulin is taken. While Loh noted that the condition can occur
in people not undergoing treatment for diabetes, such an occurrence is fairly rare.

Causes and treatment of endocrine diseases

Diabetes, the most common disease of the endocrine system, can be linked to obesity,
diet and family history, according to Dr. Alyson Myers of North Shore-LIJ Health System.
"To diagnose diabetes, we do an oral glucose tolerance test with fasting."
It is also important to understand the patient's health history as well as the family
history, Myers noted.
Tumors both benign and cancerous can also disrupt the functions of the endocrine
system, Myers explained. Infections and medications such as blood thinners can also
cause adrenal deficiencies.
Diabetes is treated with pills or insulin injections. Managing other endocrine disorders
typically involves stabilizing hormone levels with medication or, if a tumor is causing an
overproduction of a hormone, by removing the tumor. Treating endocrine disorders
takes a very careful and personalized approach, Myers said, as adjusting the levels of
one hormone can impact the balance of other hormones.

What is an endocrinologist?
After completing four years of medical school, people who want to be endocrinologists
then spend three or four years in an internship and residency program. These specialty
programs cover internal medicine, pediatrics, or obstetrics and gynecology, according to
the American Board of Internal Medicine.
Endocrinologists-in-training then spend two or three more years learning how to
diagnose and treat hormone conditions. Overall, an endocrinologist's training will take
more than 10 years after the undergraduate degree. They are certified by the American
Board of Internal Medicine. Endocrinologists typically specialize in one or two areas of
endocrinology, such as diabetes or infertility. These specialists treat patients with fertility
issues and also assess and treat patients with health concerns surrounding
menstruation and menopause, Loh noted.

The Endocrine System

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Milestones in the study of the endocrine

system
200 B.C.: The Chinese begin isolating sex and pituitary hormones from human urine
and using them for medicinal purposes
1025: In medieval Persia, the writer Avicenna (980-1037) provides a detailed account
on diabetes mellitus in "The Canon of Medicine" (c. 1025), describing the abnormal
appetite, the collapse of sexual functions and the sweet taste of diabetic urine.
1835: Irish doctor Robert James Graves describes a case of goiter with bulging eyes
(exophthalmos). The thyroid condition "Graves' disease" was later named after the
doctor.
1902: William Bayliss and Ernest Starling perform an experiment in which they observe
that acid instilled into the duodenum (part of the small intestine) causes the pancreas to
begin secretion, even after they had removed all nervous connections between the two
organs.
1889: Joseph von Mering and Oskar Minkowski observe that surgically removing the
pancreas results in an increase of blood sugar, followed by a coma and eventual death.
1921: Otto Loewi in 1921 discovers neurohormones by incubating a frog's heart in a
saline bath.
1922: Leonard Thompson, at age 14, is the first person with diabetes to receive insulin.
Drugmaker Eli Lilly soon starts mass production of insulin.

URINARY SYSTEM

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The urinary system, also known as the renal system, produces, stores and eliminates
urine, the fluid waste excreted by the kidneys. The kidneys make urine by filtering
wastes and extra water from blood. Urine travels from the kidneys through two thin
tubes called ureters and fills the bladder. When the bladder is full, a person urinates
through the urethra to eliminate the waste.
The urinary system is susceptible to a variety of infections and other problems, including
blockages and injuries. These can be treated by a urologist or another health care
professional who specializes in the renal system.

Description of the urinary system

The urinary system works with the lungs, skin and intestines to maintain the balance of
chemicals and water in the body. Adults eliminate about 27 to 68 fluid ounces (800 to
2,000 milliliters) per day based on typical daily fluid intake of 68 ounces (2
liters), National Institutes of Health(NIH). Other factors in urinary system function
include fluid lost through perspiring and breathing. In addition, certain types of
medications, such as diuretics that are sometimes used to treat high blood pressure,
can also affect the amount of urine a person produces and eliminates. Some
beverages, such as coffee and alcohol, can also cause increased urination in some
people.
The primary organs of the urinary system are the kidneys, which are bean-shaped
organs that are located just below the rib cage in the middle of the back. The kidneys
remove urea waste product formed by the breakdown of proteins from the blood
through small filtering units called nephrons, according to the Cleveland Clinic. Each
nephron consists of a ball formed of small blood capillaries, called a glomerulus, and a
small tube called a renal tubule. Urea, together with water and other waste substances,
forms the urine as it passes through the nephrons and down the renal tubules of the
kidney.
From the kidneys, urine travels down two thin tubes, called ureters, to the bladder. The
ureters are about 8 to 10 inches long (20 to 25 centimeters), according to the Cleveland
Clinic.
Muscles in the ureter walls continuously tighten and relax to force urine away from the
kidneys, according to the NIH. A backup of urine can cause a kidney infection. Small
amounts of urine are emptied into the bladder from the ureters about every 10 to 15
seconds.
The bladder is a hollow, balloon-shaped organ that is located in the pelvis. It is held in
place by ligaments attached to other organs and the pelvic bones, according to
the Kidney & Urology Foundation of America. The bladder stores urine until the brain
signals the bladder that the person is ready to empty it. A normal, healthy bladder can
hold up to 16 ounces (almost half a liter) of urine comfortably for two to five hours.
To prevent leakage, circular muscles called sphincters close tightly around the opening
of the bladder into the urethra, the tube that allows urine to pass outside the body. The
only difference between the female and male urinary system is the length of the urethra,
according to Merck Manuals. In females, the urethra is about 1.5 inches (3.8 cm) to 2
inches (5.1 cm) long and sits between the clitoris and the vagina. In males, it runs the

length of the penis, is about 8 inches (20 cm) long and opens at the end of the penis.
The male urethra is used to eliminate urine as well as semen during ejaculation.

Diseases of the urinary system

Different specialists treat urinary system ailments. Nephrologists treatkidney diseases,
while urologists treat problems with the urinary tract, including the kidneys, adrenal
glands, ureters, bladder and urethra, according to the American Urological
Association (AUA). Urologists also treat the male reproductive organs, while
gynecologists often treat urinary diseases or disorders in females, including yeast
infections. Nephrologists and urologists often work with endocrinologists or oncologists,
depending on the disease.
Urinary tract infections (UTIs) occur when bacteria enters the urinary tract and can
affect the urethra, bladder or even the kidneys. While UTIs are more common in
women, they can occur in men. UTIs are typically treated with antibiotics, according
to Dr. Oscar Aguirre, a urogynecologist in Denver.
Incontinence is another common disease of the urinary system. It can come in the form
of a pelvic prolapse, which can result in leakage and can be the result of a vaginal
delivery. Then there is the overactive bladder, which we see a lot and is not related to
having children or trauma, Aguirre said. A third condition involves overflow, in which the
bladder does not completely empty.
Some common treatments involve medications, physical therapy and pelvic mesh
surgery, Aguirre noted. Vaginal laser surgery is also becoming a viable treatment option,
he explained. In another 10 to 15 years, vaginal laser surgery will be another common
option for the treatment of urinary conditions.
Interstitial cystitis (IC), also called painful bladder syndrome, is a chronic bladder
condition, primarily in women, that causes bladder pressure and pain and, sometimes,
pelvic pain to varying degrees, according to the Mayo Clinic. It can cause bladder
scarring, and can make the bladder less elastic. While the cause isnt known, many
people with the condition also have a defect in their epithelium, the protective lining of
the bladder.
Prostatitis is a swelling of the prostate gland and, therefore, can only occur in men.
Often caused by advanced age, symptoms include urinary urgency and frequency,
pelvic pain and pain during urination, the Mayo Clinic noted.

Kidney stones are clumps of calcium oxalate that can be found anywhere in the urinary
tract. Kidney stones form when chemicals in the urine become concentrated enough to
form a solid mass, according to the Cleveland Clinic. They can cause pain in the back
and sides, as well as blood in the urine. Many kidney stones can be treated with
minimally invasive therapy, such as extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy, which
disintegrates the kidney stones with shock waves.
Kidney failure, also called renal failure and chronic kidney disease, can be a temporary
(often acute) condition or can become a chronic condition resulting in the inability of the
kidneys to filter waste from the blood. Other conditions, such as diabetes and
hypertension, can cause chronic kidney disease, according to the Mayo Clinic. Acute
cases may be caused by trauma or other damage, and may improve over time with
treatment. However, renal disease may lead to chronic kidney failure, which may require
dialysis treatments or even a kidney transplant.
Bladder cancer is diagnosed in about 75,000 Americans each year and is more frequent
in men and the elderly according to the American Cancer Society. The symptoms,
including back or pelvic pain, difficulty urinating and urgent/and or frequent urination,
mimic other diseases or disorders of the urinary system

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

An illustration of a sperm cell penetrating an egg.

Credit: Jezper, Shutterstock

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The reproductive system is a collection of internal and external organs in both males
and females that work together for the purpose of procreating, according to
the Cleveland Clinic. Due to its vital role in the survival of the species, many scientists
argue that the reproductive system is among the most important systems in the entire
body.

The male reproductive system

Credit: National Institute of Health
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The male reproductive system consists of two major parts: the testes, where sperm are
produced, and the penis, according to Merck Manuals. The penis and urethra belong to
both the urinary and reproductive systems in males. The testes are carried in an
external pouch known as the scrotum, where they normally remain slightly cooler than
body temperature to facilitate sperm production.
The external structures of the female reproductive system include the clitoris, labia
minora, labia majora and Bartholins glands, according to the Cleveland Clinic. The
major internal organs of the female reproductive system include the vagina and uterus
which act as the receptacle for semen and the ovaries, which produce the
female's ova. The vagina is attached to the uterus through the cervix, while the fallopian
tubes connect the uterus to the ovaries. In response to hormonal changes, one ovum,
or egg or more in the case of multiple births is released and sent down the
fallopian tube during ovulation. If not fertilized, this egg is eliminated as a result of
menstruation.

The female reproductive system.

Credit: National Institute of Health
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Fertilization occurs if a sperm enters the fallopian tube and burrows into the egg,
according to WebMD. While the fertilization usually occurs in the oviducts, it can also
happen in the uterus itself. The egg then becomes implanted in the lining of the uterus,
where it begins the processes of embryogenesis (in which the embryo forms) and
morphogenesis (in which the fetus begins to take shape). When the fetus is mature
enough to survive outside of the womb, the cervix dilates and contractions of the uterus
propel it through the birth canal.

Diseases of the female reproductive

system
Many parts of the male and female reproductive systems can be affected by cancer. In
females, cancer can attack the uterus, ovaries, breast and cervix, among other organs,
according to the American Cancer Society.
Many experts have seen what they refer to as the Angelina Jolie effect, where women
are taking proactive measures by having breasts and internal reproductive organs
removed if they have a family history of cancer before there are signs of the disease.
With better genetic testing and screening, we have seen a number of women who are
being more proactive about their reproductive health, said Dr. Shana Wingo, who
specializes on gynecologic oncology at Arizona Oncology.
Ovarian cancer tends to have a poorer outcome than other gynecological cancers, Ross
noted, because it is not typically diagnosed until it has progressed significantly. There is
no standard screening available for ovarian cancer, so it is very difficult to identify it
early.

Tests to detect ovarian cancer, as well as cancer of the fallopian tube, and primary
peritoneal cancer are currently being studied, according to the National Cancer
Institute.
There are two tests used to screen for cervical cancer. The Pap test screens for cellular
changes in the cervix called cytology, while the genital human papillomavirus (HPV) test
identifies the presence of infection with high risk HPV, the strains that are linked to
cervical cancer, according to Dr. Charles Dubin, an OB/GYN in Santa Monica, Calif.
A recent study published by Cancer Cytopathology, found that HPV-only screening
misses more cervical cancer in women than Pap-only or co-testing, based on
approximately 8.6 million women ages 30 to 65. There is approximately a three-fold
improvement in the cancer detection rate of co-testing compared to HPV only.
Current guidelines recommend that women first start getting the Pap test alone when
they turn 21 and repeat every three years if the test is normal until age 30. A Pap-plusHPV test, or co-testing, is recommended for women ages 30 to 65, and if both are
negative repeated every five years, regardless of whether they have received HPV
vaccination. However, there is compelling scientific evidence that co-testing every three
years misses less cases of cancer and pre-cancer than every five year co-testing,
Dubin noted.
While genital HPV is typically associated with females, it is the most common sexually
transmitted infection. The majority of sexually active people in the United States male
and female will have HPV at some time in their lives, but most will not experience
any symptoms. In a small portion of women it can result in cervical cancer and genital
warts and in men it can cause penile and anal cancer and genital warts, according to
the NIH.
Both genders can develop sexually transmitted diseases, including genital herpes,
gonorrhea and syphilis, according to the National Institutes of Health (NIH). HIV/AIDS, a
disease of the immune system, is not exclusively transmitted through sexual contact;
sexual activity is one of the ways that the HIV virus is spread.
For females, severe menstrual cramping, or dysmenorrheal, is the most common
disease of the reproductive system occurs with a womans monthly menstrual period,
according to Dr. Sheryl Ross, OB/GYN and Womens Health Specialist at Providence
Saint Johns Health Center. Ross was also a medical consultant on the books
Expecting Fitness and Two at a Time.

Severe pain before or during your period can last anywhere from one to seven days
and disrupt your normal day-to-day routines at school, work and socially, Ross noted.
Diagnosis is made by the patients medical history and a pelvic exam. The best
treatment includes medications that block the effects of prostaglandins and include
ibuprofen and naproxen. The birth control pill also works well in treating dysmenorrhea
by decreasing the blood flow, Ross noted.
Another common disorder of the female reproductive system is a vaginal yeast
infection, which is caused by a yeast fungus in the vagina. Most can be successfully
treated with over-the-counter medications, according to WebMD.
Endometriosis is a condition where that normally lines the inside of your uterus the
endometrium ends up outside of uterus, most commonly in the ovaries, bowel or the
tissue lining your pelvis. The endometrial tissue becomes trapped, causing pain,
according to the Mayo Clinic.
Pelvic inflammatory disease can involve an infection of any of the female reproductive
organs, including the uterus and ovaries. Sexually transmitted diseases, such as
gonorrhea and chlamydia, are typical causes of pelvic inflammatory disease, according
to the NIH. Any of these STIs can cause serious and potentially long term reproductive
problems that include chronic pelvic pain and infertility, Ross said.

Diseases of the male reproductive system

Of male-specific diseases of the reproductive system, prostate cancer is the most
common, but men can also suffer from testicular and penile cancer, according to the
American Cancer Society.
Treatment for prostate cancer depends on the age, severity of the disease and other
health conditions of the patient. The usual treatments for prostate cancer are surgery,
radiation therapy, watchful waiting, and hormonal treatment, according to the Cleveland
Clinic.
Erectile dysfunction is a common condition that affects about one in 10 males on a longterm basis, the Cleveland Clinic noted. It can be linked to vascular disease, neurological
disorders such as Multiple Sclerosis, trauma and psychological episodes.

Prostatitis typically involves swelling or inflammation of the prostate gland, according to

the Mayo Clinic, and can cause painful or difficult urination and ejaculation. Nearly half
of all men experience symptoms of prostatitis at some point during their lives.

Defining and treating infertility

Infertility is defined as a couple's inability to conceive after one year of unprotected
intercourse. It can be caused by a condition in one partner or a combination of
circumstances, according to the Mayo Clinic.
In males, infertility is a condition in which they produce no sperm cells (azoospermia) or
too few sperm cells (oligospermia), or their sperm cells are abnormal or die before they
can reach the egg. Causes range from chromosomal defects to hormonal imbalance to
tumors. Lifestyle factors, such as drug and alcohol use, can also play role. In rare
cases, infertility in men is caused by an inherited condition, such as cystic fibrosis,
according to the Mayo Clinic.
In women, infertility is defined as a disorder of the reproductive system that hinders the
body's ability to ovulate, conceive, or carry an infant to term.
Reproductive conditions are treated by a variety of specialists. In women, many issues
are treated by obstetricians/gynecologists and for males urologists handle many
disorders of their reproductive systems. There are also infertility experts that treat
couples who are unable to conceive and endocrinologists who treat hormonal disorders.