Important Formulas and Units: Chapter 1: Physical World and Measurement

Important Formulas
and Units
Chapter 1: Physical World and Measurement
1. SI unit of luminous intensity is candela (cd).
5. Relative error or fractional error
2. In expressing a physical quantity, we choose a unit and

then find that how many times that unit is contained in
the given physical quantity:
Physical quantity (Q) = Magnitude Unit = n u,

where n is the numerical value and u is the unit. Thus,
while expressing definite amount of physical quantity, it
is clear that as the unit (u) changes, the magnitude (n) will
also change, but their product nu will remain the same:
nu = constant or n1u1 = n2u2 = constant. Therefore,
1
n .
u
3. In science, very large and very small decimal numbers are
conveniently expressed in terms of powers of 10, some of
which are listed below:
103 = 10 10 10 = 1000
102 = 10 10 = 100
10 = 10
1
1
= 0.001
10 10 10
1
= 0.01
10 2 =
10 10
1
10 1 =
= 0.1
10
Mean absolute error a

.
=
Mean value
am
6. Percentage error is expressed as

a
100%.
am
7. Error in sum of quantities is expressed as

( a + b )
100%.
a+b
8. Error in difference of quantities is expressed as

x=
x=
Using powers of 10, we can write the radius of Earth as

6,380,000 m = 6.38 106 m.
4. Mean absolute error is the arithmetic mean of the magnitudes of absolute errors in all the measurements of the
quantity. It is represented by a and is expressed as
| a1 | + | a2 | + | an |
.
n
( a + b )
100%.
ab
9. Error in division of quantities is expressed as

x
a b
=
+ .
a
x
b
10 3 =
10 0 = 1
a =
10. Error in quantity raised to some power is expressed as

x
b
a
= n
+m .
a
x
b
11. Checking whether a given equation is correct or incorrect using dimensional analysis is based on the principle of
homogeneity. According to this principle, the dimensions of
each term on both sides of an equation must be the same.
12. If X = A (BC )2 + DEF , according to the principle of homogeneity, we have
[X] = [A ] = [(BC )2 ] = [ DEF ].
Chapter 2: Motion in a Straight Line

1. For one-dimensional motion, the displacement x is the
difference between vectors x and x0:
x = x x0 .
2. Average velocity is defined as the ratio of the displacement of the object to the time interval
MTPL0139 Formula 1-14.indd 1
v avg =
x x 2 x1
=
.
t t2 t1
3. The average speed involves the total distance covered

and is independent of direction. It is given by the
relation
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Important Formulas and Units

savg =
7. The equations of motion for constant acceleration a are as

follows:
Total distance
t
v = v 0 + at ;
4. Instantaneous velocity is given by

v = lim
t 0
x dx
= .
t dt
1
x x 0 = v 0t + at 2 ;
2
5. Average acceleration is given by

aavg =
v = v 02 + 2a( x x 0 );
v 2 v1 v
.
=
t1 t2 t
1
x x 0 = (v 0 + v )t ;
2
6. The instantaneous acceleration can be expressed in terms

of average acceleration as
a = lim
t 0
v
dv
= lim(aavg ) = .
t t0
dt
1
x x 0 = vt at 2 .
2
8. For a freely falling body, acceleration a = g.
Chapter 3: Motion in a Plane
1. The position vector r at any time t, in terms of twodimensional coordinates x and y is given by

r = x + y ori r = x i + y j,
where the magnitude r = r = x 2 + y 2 .
2. The position vector r at any time t, in terms of threedimensional coordinates x, y, and z is given by

r = x + y + z or r = xi + y j + zk .
where the magnitude r = r = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 .
3. Vector
Vector s is the vector sum of vectors a
addition:

and b : s = a + b .

4. Commutative law: a + b = b + a.

5. Associative law: (a + b ) + c = a + (b + c ).

6. Vector subtraction: d = a b = a + ( b ).
7. If we know a vector in component notation (ax and ay)
and if we want it in magnitude angle notation (a and
q), to transform it, we can use the following equations:
a = a2x + a2y and tan =
ay
ax
8. Unit vectors in the positive directions of the x, y, and

z axes are labeled i, j and k , respectively, where the hat
or cap symbol k ,is used instead of an overhead arrow as
for other vectors. Unit vectors are very useful for expressing
other vectors:
a = ax i + ay j;
b = bx i + by j,
where the quantities ax i and ay j are vectors called
the vector components of a. The quantities ax and ay are
scalars called the scalar components of a.
9. A third way to add vectors is to combine their components

axis by axis:
dx = ax bx, dy = ay by and dz = az bz,
where d = d x i + d y j + d z k .
10. It follows
from
triangle law of vectors that if three vectors
A, B, and C and can be represented completely by the

three sides of a triangle
taken in order, then their vector

sum is zero: A + B + C = 0.
11. When a particle moves, the position vector changes say,
from r1 to r2 during a certain time interval then the
particles displacement r during that time interval is

r = r2 r1.
12. If a particle moves through a displacement r in a time
interval t, its average velocity v avg is expressed as

follows:
r
Displacement
Average velocity =
v avg =
.
t
Time interval
13. When a particles velocity changes from v1 to v 2 in a time
interval t, its average acceleration aavg during the

time interval t is expressed as follows:
Change in velocity
Time interval

v 2 v1 v
aavg =
= .
t
t
Average acceleration =
14. The velocity is otherwise called as instantaneous velocity,

which is given by the limiting value of the average velo
city as the time interval approaches zero:
v = lim
t 0
r dr
= .
t dt
15. In a circular motion, the distance traveled by a particle in

one revolution is just the circumference of the circle (2pr).
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The time for a particle to go around a closed path exactly

once has a special name the period of revolution or
simply the period of the motion. The period is represented with the symbol T, which is expressed as
16. In a circular motion, the total number of revolutions by a

particle in a given time is known as the frequency (n) of
revolution. From the definitions we have given for period
and frequency, they are related by the expression
2 r
.
v
1
= .
T
T=
Chapter 4: Laws of Motion

1. Gravitational field strength (g) is the force of gravity on
a unit of mass, which is a vector quantity. Weight, mass,
and gravitational field strength are related as W = mg.
11. When a body presses against a surface, the surface (even a

seemingly rigid one) deforms and pushes on the body with
a normal force FNN that is perpendicular to the s urface.
2. Newtons first law of motion: Every object continues in

its state of rest or uniform motion unless made to change
by a non-zero net external force: F = ma.
12. Friction is the force applied on the surface of an object

when it is pushed or pulled against the surface of another
object.
3. Momentum is the product of the mass of an object and

its velocity, which is a vector quantity. Momentum (p) of
an object of mass (m) with a velocity (v) is expressed as
p = mv
13. Properties of friction:
Momentum is also the inertia of a body in motion.

4. The SI unit of momentum is kg m/s.
5. Newtons second law of motion: The rate of change of
momentum of an object is directly proportional to the
applied force and takes place in the direction in which the
force acts. Thus, if under the action of a force F for time
interval t, the velocity of a body of mass m changes from
v to v + v, that is, its initial momentum p = mv changes by
p = mv, according to the Newtons second law of

motion, we have
p
F
or F = k
,
t
t
where k is the proportionality constant.
6. Impulse of a force is the product of the force and the time
interval over
which it acts. Impulse is a vector quantity. The
impulse (l ) delivered by a changing force is expressed as

l = Favg t.
7. Newtons third law of motion: Whenever an object
applies a force (an action) on a second object, the second
object applies an equal and opposite force (a reaction)
on the first object Newtons third law is also defined as to
every action there is an equal and opposite reaction and it
takes place on two different bodies.
8. Law of conservation of momentum: If there are no
external forces acting on a system,
total momentum
the

remains constant, that is, if Fnet = 0 , p = 0.
9. An object is said to be in equilibrium when it has zero
acceleration.
10. A gravitational force F g on a body is a certain type ofpull

that is directed toward a second body.
The weight (W) of
a body is equal to the magnitude F g of the gravitational
force on the body.
Property 1: If the
body does not move, then the static
frictional force f s and the component of F that is parallel
to the surface
balance each other. They are equal in mag
nitude and f s is directed opposite that component of F .
Property 2: The magnitude of f s has a maximum value

fs,max that is given by
fs,max = msFN,
where ms is the coefficient of static friction and FN is the
magnitude of the normal force on the body from
the sur
face. If the magnitude of the component of F that is parallel to the surface exceeds fs,max, the body begins to slide
along the surface.
Property 3: If the body begins to slide along the surface,
the magnitude of the frictional force rapidly decreases to
a value fk given by
fk = mkFN,
where m k is the coefficient of kinetic friction.
14. The maximum static friction that a body can exert on the
other body in contact with it is called limiting friction
(Fmax):
fs < Fmax = msR.
where ms is the coefficient of static friction.
15. The coefficient of static friction is always greater than the
coefficient of kinetic friction, that is, ms > mk.
16. The angle of friction (f) is defined as the angle between
the normal reaction N and the resultant of the friction
force f and the normal reaction:
tan =
f
.
N
Since f = mN, tan f = m.

17. The relationship between period T and speed v is given by
v=
2 r
,
T
where 2pr is the circumference of the circle.
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18. Magnitude of centripetal acceleration: The centripetal acceleration of an object moving with a speed v
on a circular path of radius r has a magnitude ac
given by
ac =
19. Magnitude of a centripetal force: The centripetal force

is the name given to the net force required to keep an
object of mass m, moving at a speed v, on a circular path
of radius r, and it has a magnitude of
v2
.
r
Fc =
mv 2
.
r
Chapter 5: Work, Energy, and Power

1. For an object of mass m whose speed v is well below the
speed of light, the kinetic energy is expressed as
1
K = mv 2 .
2
2. The SI unit of kinetic energy is joule (J).
3. The scalar product of two vectors a and b is written as
a b , which is defined as

a b = ab cos ,
where a is the magnitude of a, b is the magnitude of b,
and f is the angle between a and b.

4. A dot product can be regarded as the product of two
quantities: (a) the magnitude of one of the vectors and
(b) the scalar component of the second vector along the
direction of the first vector.
5. If the angle q between two vectors is 0, the component of
one vector along the other is maximum, and so also is the dot
product of the vectors. If, instead, q is 90, the component of
one vector along the other is zero, and so is the dot product.
6. The relationship that relates work to the change in kinetic
energy is known as work energy theorem when a
net external force does work W on an object, the kinetic
energy of the object changes from its initial value (KE0) to
a final value (KEf ), the difference between the two values
being equal to the work:
1
1
W = KE f KE 0 = mv f2 mv 02 .
2
2
7. Work can be expressed as follows: W Fscosq.
8. The SI units of work are units of force (N) times units of
displacement (m) and are called joules (J):
1 J 1 N 1 m 1 J = 1 N m.
9. Work done
by a constant force is expressed as
W = F d.
10. Work done by a gravitational force is expressed as
Wg = mgd cosq.
11. The law of force for a spring is called Hookes law, which is
expressed mathematically as
Fs = kx ,
where k is called the spring constant whose SI unit is the
newton per meter (N/m).
12. Work done by a spring force is expressed as

1
1
Ws = kxi2 kx f2 .
2
2
13. The work done by a variable force is expressed as
xf
W = F ( x ) dx .
xi
14. Gravitational potential energy is the energy stored in an

object as a result of its position relative to another object
to which it is attracted by the force of gravity. Gravitational
potential energy, as a function of height h, is mathematically expressed as
V(h) = mgh.
15. Elastic potential energy is the energy stored in an object
as a result of a reversible change in shape, which is mathematically expressed as
1
V ( x ) = kx 2 .
2
16. Massenergy equivalence: An objects mass m and the
equivalent energy E are related by the equation
E = mc 2,
which is the famous Einsteins equation.
17. If a force does an amount of work W in an amount of time
t, the average power due to the force during that time
interval is
Pavg =
W
.
t
18. The instantaneous power P is the instantaneous time

rate of doing work, which can be expressed as
Pinst =
dW
.
dt
19. The SI unit of power is J/s. This unit is used so often that
it has a special name, watt (W), named after the scientist
James Watt. 1 horse power, another unit of power often
used in automobile industry, is equal to 746 W.
20. Instantaneous power is also expressed in terms of force
and velocity as

P = F v.
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Chapter 6: System of Particles and Rotational Dynamics

1. The center of mass of a system of particles is the point
that moves as though (1) all of the systems mass were
concentrated there and (2) all external forces were applied
there. The center of mass of a system of particles is defined
as the point whose position vector is expressed as
13. The gravitational force Fg on a body that effectively acts at

a single point is called the center of gravity of the body.
1 n
rcom = mi ri ,
M i =1
I = mi ri2 ,
where M is the total mass of the system.

2. The cross product of a vector with itself is a null vector.

A A = ( A)( A)sin 0n = 0.
3. The cross product of two vectors does not obey commutative law.

A B B A.
4. The cross product obeys the distributive law.

A (B + C ) = A B + A C .
5. The (instantaneous) magnitude of angular velocity w is
expressed as
d
= .
dt
6. The unit of angular velocity is commonly the radian per
second (rad/s) or the revolution per second (rev/s).
7. The relationship between angular velocity and linear
velocity is expressed as
v = rw.
8. The linear momentum of a particle is a vector quantity
that is defined as
p = mv ,
in which m is the mass of the particle and v is its

velocity.

9. If a and b areparallel or antiparallel, a b = 0. The mag
nitude of a b , which
can be written as | a b |, is maxi
mum when a and b are perpendicular to each other.
10. The angular momentum of a system of particles is given by

L = r p.
11. The torque acting on the particle relative to the fixed

point O is a vector quantity, which is defined as

= r F.
12. Conditions for equilibrium: (1) Resultant of all the external forces (Fnet ) and external torques ( net ) must be zero.
(2) Center of gravity is the location in the extended body
where we can assume the whole weight of the body to be
concentrated.
14. The moment of inertia of a rigid body about an axis is

expressed as
where ri is the perpendicular distance of the ith point of
the body from the axis. The kinetic energy of rotation is
given by
1
K = I 2 .
2
5. The SI unit of moment of inertia is kilogram square meter
1
(kg m2).
16. Theorem of parallel axes: The moment of inertia of a
body about any axis is equal to the sum of the moments
of inertia of the body about a parallel axis passing through
its center of mass and the product of its mass and the
square of distance between the two parallel axes:
I = Ig + Md 2 .
17. Theorem of perpendicular axes: The moment of inertia
of planar body about an axis perpendicular to its plane is
equal to the sum of its moments of inertia about two perpendicular axes concurrent with perpendicular axis and
lying in the plane of the body:
Iz = I x + I y .
18. In terms of dynamics and kinematics, rotation about a
fixed axis is analogous to linear motion.
19. The angular acceleration of a rigid body which is rotating
about a fixed axis is expressed as
Ia = t.
If the external torque t is zero, the component of angular momentum about the fixed axis Iw of such a rotating
body is constant.
20. For rolling motion without slipping vcom = rw, where vcom
is the velocity of translation, that is, of the center of mass,
r is the radius, and m is the mass of the body. The kinetic
energy of such a rolling body is the sum of kinetic energies of translation and rotation:
2
K = 21 Icom 2 + 21 Mv com
.
21. Law of conservation of angular momentum: If the net

resultant external torque acting on an isolated system is
zero, the total angular momentum L of system should be
conserved.
22. The relation between the arc length s covered by a particle on a rotating rigid body at a distance r from the axis
and the displacement q (in radians) is expressed as
s = rq.
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Chapter 7: Gravitation
1. Newton proposed a force law that we call Newtons law
of gravitation is defined as every particle attracts other
particle with a gravitational force of magnitude
due to gravity at an altitude h above the surface of Earth

is then given by
GME
,
RE2
g=
mm
F = G 12 2 ,
r
where m1 and m2 are the masses of the particles, r is the distance between them, and G is the gravitational constant
(= 6.672 10-11 Nm2/kg2 or = 6.67 10-11 m3/kg s2).
6. Considering Earth be a homogeneous sphere of radius

RE and mass ME and a body be taken to a depth d below
the free surface of the Earth, then the acceleration due to
gravity is gd is given by
2. The SI unit of gravitational constant is Nm2/kg2 and its

dimensional formula is [M-1L3T-2].
3. If we are supposed to find the resultant gravitational force
acting on the particle m due to a number of masses M
1,M2,
Mn, we use the principle of superposition. Let F1 , F2 , Fn

be the individual forces due to the masses M1, M2,.
Mn, which are given by the law of gravitation, then from
the principle of superposition, each of these forces acts
independently and uninfluenced by the other bodies. The
resultant force FR can be expressed in vector addition as
n

FR = F1 + F2 + + Fn = Fi ,
i =1
where is the symbol used for summation.

4. Keplers third law of planetary motion: The square of
the orbital period of a planet is proportional to the cube
of the semi-major axis of the elliptical orbit of the planet,
which is also called law of period, is given by
4 3
T2 =
R ,
GMs
d
gd = g 1 .
RE
7. The gravitational potential energy U of two particles, of
masses M and m, separated by a distance r is given by
U=
The gravitational potential energy decreases when the

separation decreases. Since U = 0 for r = , the potential
energy is negative for any finite separation and becomes
progressively more negative as the particles move closer
together.
8. When an isolated system consists of a particle of mass m
moving with a speed v in the vicinity of a massive body of
mass M, then the total mechanical energy of the particle is
given by
GMm
1
E = mv 2
,
r
2
where T is the period of motion of the planet, R is the

radius of the circular orbit of the planet, Ms is the mass
of the Sun, and G is the universal gravitational constant
(= 6.672 1011 Nm2/kg2). For elliptical orbits, this equation
is valid if R is replaced by the semi-major axis (a).
5. When a body of mass m lying on the surface of the Earth
of mass ME and radius RE, the exact value of acceleration
GMm
,
r
which implies that the total mechanical energy is the sum

of the kinetic and potential energies. The total energy is a
constant of motion.
9. The escape velocity, ve, of a body that is projected from
the Earth is given by
v e = 2gRE ,
which has the value of 11.2 km/s.
Chapter 8: Mechanical Properties of Solids

1. If F is the magnitude of the force applied on the body and
A is the area of cross-section of the body, the magnitude
of stress is given by
Stress =
Restoring force F
= .
Area
A
2. The SI unit of stress is same as that of pressure, that is, N/m2

or pascal (Pa) and its dimensional formula is [ML1T 2 ].
3. The restoring force per unit area developed in a body due to
the applied tangential force is known as tangential stress
or shearing stress. Mathematically, it is expressed as
Shearing stress =
Tangential force
.
Area
4. The ratio of change in configuration to original

configuration is called strain. Mathematically, strain is
written as
Strain =
Change in configuration
.
Original configuration
5. If the deforming force acting on an elastic body produces a

change in only the length of the body, the change in length
per unit original length of the body is known as longitudinal strain, which is mathematically expressed as
Longitudinal strain =
Change in length L
=
.
Original length
L
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6. If the deforming force acting on an elastic body produces
a change in the shape of the body without changing
its volume, the strain produced in the body is known as
shearing strain, which is mathematically expressed as
Shearing strain ( ) =
L
.
L
7. If the deforming force acting on an elastic body produces a change in the volume of the body alone, the
change in volume per unit original volume of the body
is known as volumetric strain, which is mathematically
expressed as
Volumetric strain=
Change in volume V
=
.
Original volume
V
8. According to Hookes law, within elastic limits, stress is

directly proportional to strain,that is, the extension produced in a wire is directly proportional to the load applied
to the wire, which can be expressed as
Stress Strain
Stress = k Strain,
where k is a constant of proportionality and is known as
the modulus of elasticity. Hookes law is applicable to
most of the materials but there are certain materials in
which the relationship between stress and strain is not
linear and they do not obey Hookes law.
9. The ratio of the stress to the corresponding strain produced in a body within the elastic limits is called modulus
of elasticity or coefficient of elasticity. Modulus of elasticity is numerically equal to the ratio of stress and strain
and, therefore, it has same dimensions as stress:
Modulus of elasticity =
Stress
.
Strain
10. The ratio of normal stress to the longitudinal strain within

the elastic limit is called Youngs modulus of elasticity,
which is mathematically expressed as
Y=
Tensile (or compressive) stress

= .
Linear strain
Greater the Youngs modulus of a material, larger is the

elasticity of the material. Therefore, steel is more elastic
than copper because Youngs modulus of steel is greater
than that of copper.
11. Youngs modulus of the material of a wire is expressed as
Y=
MgL
Linear stress Mg / r 2
= =
= 2 ,
L /L
r L
Linear strain
where r is the initial radius of the wire, L is the initial

length of the wire; r 2 is the area of cross-section of the
wire; M is the mass of the weights in the pan at the bottom due to which elongation L is produced in the wire;
the force applied by the mass M on the wire is equal to
its weight, that is, Mg, where g is the acceleration due to
gravity.
12. The ratio of tangential stress to the tangential strain produced in a body within elastic limits is known as shear
modulus or modulus of rigidity, which is mathematically expressed as
Shear modulus (G ) =
Shearing stress F /A
FL
.
= =
=
Shearing strain x /L Ax
13. SI unit of shear modulus is N/m2 or pascals (Pa).

14. The ratio of normal stress to the volumetric strain
produced in the body within the elastic limits is called
bulk modulus of elasticity, which is mathematically
expressed as
Bulkmodulus (B ) =
Hydroststic stress
P
PV
=
=
,
( V / V ) V
V
Volume strain
where the negative sign shows that with increase in

pressure P, the volume of the body decreases, that is, if P
is positive, V is negative. Hence, for a system in equili
brium, the value of bulk modulus should be positive.
15. The SI unit of bulk modulus is N/m2 or pascals (Pa).
16. The reciprocal of the bulk modulus of a material is called
the compressibility of that material and is represented
by the symbol k. Compressibility is defined as the
fractional change in volume per unit increase in pressure. Mathematically, compressibility of a material is
expressed as
Compressibility (k ) =
1
1
V
=
=
.
B ( PV / V ) PV
17. When a deforming force is applied at the free end of a suspended wire, the ratio of lateral strain and the longitudinal strain produced in the wire is called Poissons ratio,
which is mathematically expressed as
Poissons ratio ( ) =
l /l
Lateral strain
R l
=
=
,
Longitudinal strain R /R l R
where l is the initial length and R is the radius of the wire

before applying the deforming force and l and R are the
increase in length and decrease in radius after the wire is
stretched.
18. Applications of elastic behavior of materials: When
loaded at the center and supported near its ends, a bar
(bridge, buildings etc.) sags by a quantity
Wl 3
,
4bd 3Y
where l is the length of the bar, b is the breadth of the bar,

d is the depth of the bar, and Y is the Youngs modulus of
the material. (On increasing the depth d of a bar, unless
the load is exactly at the right place, the deep bar bends,
which effect is known as buckling.)
19. The elastic potential energy stored in a wire is given by
1
U = Youngsmodulus (Strain)2 .
2
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Chapter 9: Mechanical Properties of Fluids

1. The uniform density r of a fluid is expressed as
m
,
V
where m is the mass of the of the fluid and V is the volume

of the fluid.
2. Density is a scalar property; its SI unit is the kilogram per
cubic meter.
3. The pressure at any point in the fluid is the limit of this
ratio as the surface area A of the piston, centered on that
point, is made smaller and smaller. However, if the force is
uniform over a flat area A, pressure of uniform force on flat
area is written as
P=
F
,
A
where F is the magnitude of the normal force on area A.

(When we say a force is uniform over an area, we mean
that the force is evenly distributed over every point of the
area.)
4. The SI unit of pressure is the newton per square meter,
which is given a special name, pascal (Pa), which is same
as N/m2. Pascal is related to some other common (non-SI)
pressure units as follows:
1 atm = 1.01 105 Pa = 760 torr.
5. Pascals law: A change in the pressure applied to an
enclosed incompressible fluid is transmitted undimini
shed to every portion of the fluid and to the walls of its
container.
6. The pressure in a fluid varies with depth (h) as per the
expression
P = Pa + rgh,
where r is the density of the fluid, when it is uniform.
7. For an incompressible fluid passing any point every second in a pipe of non-uniform cross-section, the volume is
the same in the steady flow, that is,
vA= constant,
where v is the velocity and A is the area of cross-section.
8. Archimedes principle: When a body isfully or partially
submerged in a fluid, a buoyant force F b from the surrounding fluid acts on the body. The force is directed
upward and has a magnitude equal to the weight mfg of
the fluid that has been displaced by the body.
9. When a body floats in a fluid, the magnitude Fb of the
buoyant force on the body is equal to the magnitude Fg of
the gravitational force on the body.
10. When a body floats in a fluid, the magnitude Fg of the
gravitational force on the body is equal to the weight mfg
of the fluid that has been displaced by the body.
11. Bernoullis principle: As we move along a streamline, the
sum of the pressure (P), the potential energy per unit volume (rgy), and the kinetic energy per unit volume (rv 2/2)
remains a constant:
P + rv2/2 + rgy = constant,

which is basically the conservation of energy applied to
non-viscous fluid motion in steady state. There is no fluid
that have zero viscosity and hence the above statement is
treated true only approximately. The viscosity is similar to
friction that converts the kinetic energy to heat energy.
12. Torricellis law: Efflux means fluid outflow. Torricelli
discovered that the speed of efflux from an open tank is
expressed by a formula identical to that of a free-falling
body:
v1 = 2gh,
when the tank is exposed to the atmosphere, that is, P = Pa ;
this equation is known as Torricellis law.
13. In a fluid, though shear strain does not require shear stress,
when a shear stress is applied to a fluid, the motion is generated which causes a shear strain growing with time. The
ratio of the shear stress to the time rate of shearing strain
is called coefficient of viscosity (h).
14. The SI unit of coefficient of viscosity is poiseiulle (Pi) or
N s/m2 or Pa s.
15. Force to move a layer of viscous fluid with a con
stant velocity: The magnitude of the tangential force F
required to move a fluid layer at a constant speed v, when
the layer has an area A and is located a perpendicular distance y from an immobile surface, is given by
F=
Av
,
y
where h is the coefficient of viscosity.

16. SI unit of viscosity is Pa s. Common unit of viscosity is
poise (P).
17. Poiseuilles law: A fluid whose viscosity is h, flowing
through a pipe of radius R and length L, has a volume flow
rate Q given by
Q=
R 4 ( P2 P1 )
,
8L
where P1 and P2 are the pressures at the ends of the pipe.

18. According to Stokess law, viscous force F acting on the
sphere varies directly with (1) the coefficient of viscosity
h of the fluid, (2) velocity v of the spherical body, and
(3) radius r of the spherical body. Stokess law the viscous
dragging force is mathematically expressed as
F = 6 av ,
which explains the retarding force which is proportional
to the velocity.
19. Reynolds number: The onset of turbulence in a fluid is
determined by a dimensionless parameter given by
Re =
vd
,
where d is a typical geometrical length associated with

the fluid flow.
4/12/2012 1:08:44 PM

20. Surface tension is a property by virtue of which, the free
surface of a liquid possesses a tendency to contract so as
to acquire a minimum surface area. If F be the force acting
and l the length of the imaginary line, then the surface
tension is given by
F
S= .
l
21. The SI unit of surface tension is N/m. The dimensional formula of surface tension is [ML0T 2].
22. Surface energy: The potential energy per unit area of the
surface film is called the surface energy. It is the amount of
work done in increasing the area of a surface film through

unity under isothermal conditions:
Surface energy =
Work done in increasing the surface area

.
Increase in surface area
23. The SI unit of surface energy is N/m and dimension of surface energy is [MT -2].
24. The angle between tangent to the liquid surface at the
point of contact and solid surface, inside the liquid, is
termed as angle of contact and is denoted by q.
Chapter 10: Thermal Properties of Matter

1. In the SI system, temperature is measured on the Kelvin scale, which is based on the triple point of water
(273.16 K). Other temperatures are then defined by use of
a constant-volume gas the rmometer, in which a sample
of gas is maintained at constant volume so its pressure is
proportional to its temperature. We define the temperature T as measured with a gas thermometer to be
P
T = (273.16 K ) lim ,
gas
0
P3
where T is in kelvins, and P3 and P are the pressures of the gas

at 273.16 K and the measured temperature, r espectively.
2. Liquid water, solid ice, and water vapor (gaseous water)
can coexist, in thermal equilibrium, at only one set of values of pressure and temperature, called the triple point
of water. By international agreement, the triple point of
water has been assigned a value of 273.16 K as the standard fixed-point temperature for the calibration of thermometers.
3. An ideal gas is an idealized model for real gases that
have sufficiently low densities. The condition of low density means that the molecules of the gas are so far apart
that they do not interact (except during collisions that are
effectively elastic). The ideal gas law expresses the relationship between the absolute pressure, the Kelvin temperature, the volume, and the number of moles of the gas,
which is given by
PV = RT ,
where m is the number of moles and R is the universal gas
constant.
4. The Celsius temperature scale is expressed as
TC = T 273.15,
where T is the Kelvin absolute temperature in kelvins and
TC is the Celsius scale. The Fahrenheit temperature scale is
expressed as
9
TF = TC + 32.
5
5. All objects change size with changes in temperature.
For a temperature change T, a change L in any linear
dimension L is given by
L = L T ,
in which a is the coefficient of linear expansion. The
change V in the volume V of a solid or liquid is
V = V T ,
where, b = 3a is the materials coefficient of volume
expansion.
6. Heat (Q) is energy that is transferred from a higher temperature object to a lower-temperature object because of
the difference in their temperatures. It can be measured in
joules(J), calories(cal), kilocalories(Cal or kcal), or British
thermal units(Btu), with
1 cal = 3.968 10 3 Btu = 4.1868 J.
7. The SI unit for heat is joule (J).
8. If heat Q is absorbed by an object, the objects temperature change TfTi is related to Q by
Q = C (Tf Ti ),
in which C is the heat capacity of the object. If the object
has mass m, then
Q = sm(Tf Ti ),
where s is the specific heat of the material making up the
object. The molar specific heat of a material is the heat
capacity per mole, which means per 6.021023elementary
units of the material.
9. Heat absorbed by a material may change the materials
physical state for example, from solid to liquid or from
liquid to gas. The amount of energy required per unit
mass to change the state (but not the temperature) of a
particular material is its heat of transformation L. Thus,
Q = Lm.
10. The heat of vaporization LV is the amount of energy per
unit mass that must be added to vaporize a liquid or that
must be removed to condense a gas. For water at its normal boiling or condensation temperature,
LV = 539 cal/ g = 40.7 kJ/mol = 2256 kJ/kg.
11. The heat of fusion LF is the amount of energy per unit
mass that must be added to melt a solid or that must be
4/12/2012 1:08:47 PM
10

removed to freeze a liquid. For water at its normal freezing
or melting temperature,
energy via thermal radiation is given by the Stefan

Boltzmann law of radiation,
Prad = AT 4 ,
LF = 79.5 cal/ g = 6.01 kJ/mol = 33 kJ/kg.

12. To measure specific heat of a material, we heat a sample
to some known temperature Tm, and keep it in a vessel
containing water of known mass and temperature Tw,
(Tw < T). We then measure the temperature of the water
after equilibrium has been reached. This method is called
calorimetry, and vessel in which this energy transfer
occurs is called calorimeter.
13. The rate Pcond at which energy is conducted through a
slab for which one face is maintained at the higher temperature TH and the other face is maintained at the lower
temperature TC is
Pcond =
where s (= 5.6704 10-8W/m2 K4) is the Stefan Boltzmann constant, e is the emissivity of the objects surface,
A is its surface area, and T is its surface temperature (in
kelvins). The rate Pabs at which an object absorbs energy
via thermal radiation from its environment, which is at the
uniform temperature Tenv (in kelvins), is
4
Pabs = ATenv
,
15. If T1 is the temperature of the surroundings, and T2 is the

temperature of the body, Newtons law of cooling is
stated as the rate of cooling of a body is proportional to the
excess temperature of the body over the surroundings:
Q
T T
= kA H C ,
L
t
Q
= k (T2 T1 ),
t
where each face of the slab has area A, the length of the
slab (the distance between the faces) is L, and k is the
thermal conductivity of the material.
14. Radiation is an energy transfer via the emission of electromagnetic energy. The rate Prad at which an object emits
where k is a positive constant depending upon the area

and nature of the surface of the body, T2 is the temperature of the body, and T1 is the temperature of the surrounding medium. The plot between the temperature of
the body and time is known as the cooling curve.
Chapter 11: Thermodynamics

1. First law of thermodynamics is the common law of
conservation of energy applied to any system in which
the energy transfer from the surroundings, or to the surroundings, (through heat and work) is taken into account.
It states that
Q = U + W,
where Q is the heat supplied to the system, W is the
work done by the system, and U is the change in internal
energy of the system.
2. Specific heat capacity of a substance is expressed as
1 Q
s=
m T
where m is the mass of the substance and Q is the heat
required to change its temperature by an amount T.
3. The molar specific heat capacity of a substance is
expressed as
C=
1 Q
,
where m is the number of moles of the substance [for

a solid, the law of equipartition of energy gives C = 3R
(where R is the universal gas constant), which agrees with
the experiment at ordinary temperatures.
4. Calorie is the old unit of heat. One calorie is the amount of
heat required to increase the temperature of 1 g of water
from 14.5C to 15.5C; 1 cal = 4.186 J.
5. When CP and CV are molar specific heat capacities of an

ideal gas at constant pressure and volume, the simple
equation for the ideal gas is expressed as
CP and CV = R,
where R is the universal gas constant.
6. The relation between the state variables is called the
equation of state. For an ideal gas, the equation of state
is expressed as
PV = mRT,
where m is the number of moles of the substance, R is
the universal gas constant, and P, V, and T are the state
variables.
7. At temperature T, in an isothermal expansion of an ideal
gas from volume V1 to V2, the heat absorbed (Q) is equal to
the work done (W) by the gas, which is expressed as
V
Q = W = RT In 2 .
V1
8. For an adiabatic process, that is, a system which is
insulated from the surroundings and heat absorbed or
released is zero, we have
PV = constant,
where
CP
.
CV
4/12/2012 1:08:49 PM

9. In an isobaric process, the pressure (P) is fixed, in which
case, the work done by the gas is expressed as
W = P(V2 V1 ) = R(T2 T1 ).
10. The efficiency (h) of a heat engine is defined by
11. In a refrigerator (or a heat pump), the system extracts

heat Q2 from the cold reservoir and discharges Q1 amount
of heat to the hot reservoir, with work (W) done on the
system. The coefficient of performance of a refrigerator is
expressed as
W
,
Q1
where and W is the work done on the environment in on

complete cycle and Q1 is the heat input, that is, the heat
absorbed by the system in one complete cycle. According
to the first law of thermodynamics, for one complete cycle,
W = Q1 Q2,
therefore,
= 1
11
Q2
Q2
=
.
W Q1 Q2
12. Carnot engine: A reversible engine operating between

two temperatures (1) source temperature (T1) and
(2) sink temperature (T2) is called Carnot engine, which
consists of two isothermal processes connected by two
adiabatic processes. The efficiency of a Carnot engine is
given by
Q2
.
Q1
= 1
T2
.
T1
Chapter 12: Kinetic Theory

1. Newton, Boyle, and many other scientists tried to describe
the behavior of gases by considering that gases are made
up of very small atomic particles (the size of an atom is
about 1 = 1010 m).
8. When a mixture of non-interacting ideal gases with m1

moles of gas 1, m2 of gas 2, and so on, are kept in an enclosed
area with volume V, temperature T, and pressure P,
the equation of state of mixture is given by
2. In solids, the atoms are tightly packed, which are located

at a distance of few angstroms (2 ) apart.
PV = (m1+ m2)RT or P = m1RT/V + m2RT/V + = P1 + P2 + ,
3. In liquids, although the distance between the atoms is also

approximately 2 , the atoms in liquids are not as strongly
fixed as in solids, and can move around. This is the reason
that the liquids flow.
4. In gases, atoms are located at a distance of tens of
angstroms.
5. Boyles law: At constant temperature, the volume of a
given mass of gas is inversely proportional to pressure,
which is expressed as
1
V .
P
6. Charles law: When pressure of a gas is constant, the volume of a given mass of gas is directly proportional to its
absolute temperature, which is expressed as
V
= constant.
T
7. Ideal gas equation is given by
PV = mRT = kBNT,
where m is the number of moles, N is the number of molecules, and R = 8.314 J/mol/K and kB = R/NA = 1.38 1023 J/K.
The ideal gas equation is satisfied by real gases only approximately that too at low pressures and high temperatures.
The gas that follows the ideal gas equation at all possible
pressures and volumes is called ideal gas.
where P1 = m1RT/V is the pressure the gas 1 that would

exert at same V and T if no other gases were present in the
enclosure. This phenomenon is called Daltons partial
pressures, that is, the total pressure of mixture of different ideal gases is equal to the sum of partial pressures of
individual gases of which mixture is made of.
9. For an ideal gas, the relation of kinetic theory is given by
1
P = nmv 2 ,
3
where n is the density of molecules, m the mass of the
molecule, and v 2 is the mean of squared speed. Along
with the ideal gas equation, this kinetic theory equation
provides the kinetic interpretation of temperature as
follows:
1/2
1 2 3
3kBT
mv = kBT , vrms = v 2 =
.

2
2
m
This implies that the temperature of a gas is an amount of

the average kinetic energy of a molecule, which is independent of the nature of the gas or molecule. At a fixed
temperature, in a mixture of the gases, heavier molecule
has the lower average speed.
10. Law of equipartition of energy is stated as follows:
When a system is in equilibrium at absolute temperature T, the total energy is distributed equally in different
energy modes of absorption, the energy in each mode
being equal to (1/2)kBT. Each translational and rotational
4/12/2012 1:08:52 PM
12

degree of freedom corresponds to one energy mode of
absorption and has energy (1/2)kBT. Each vibrational
frequency has two modes of energy (kinetic energy and
potential energy) with corresponding energy equal to
2 1/ 2 kBT = kBT .
11. The molar specific heat of gases is determined using the

law of equipartition of energy and the resultant values
are in agreement with the experimental values of specific
heats of several gases. The agreement can be improved by
including vibrational modes of motion.
12. Translational kinetic energy of the molecules in a gas is
given by
3
E = kBNT ,
2
which leads to the following equation:
2
PV = E .
3
3. The mean free path l is the average distance covered by a
1
molecule between two successive collisions:
l=
1
,
2n d 2
where n is the density and d is the diameter of the

molecule.
Chapter 13: Oscillations

1. The SI unit of period is second (s).
2. The total number of repetitions that occur per unit time
of a periodic motion is represented by the reciprocal of its
period T, which is represented by the symbol n. This quantity is called the frequency of the periodic motion:
1
= .
T
3. The unit of frequency is s1 or Hertz (Hz).
4. In a simple harmonic motion, the displacement x(t) of a
particle from its equilibrium position is expressed as
x (t ) = A cos( t + )
where A is the amplitude of the displacement, the quantity (t + ) is the phase of the motion, and is the
phase constant. The angular frequency w is related to
the period and frequency of the motion by
2
= 2 .
T
5. The SI unit of angular frequency is radians (rad).

6. As functions of time, the particle velocity [n(t)] and acceleration [a(t)] during SHM, respectively, are expressed as
v (t ) = A sin(t + );
(t ) = 2 A cos(t + ) (t ) = 2 x (t ).
It is shown that both velocity and acceleration of a body
executing SHM motion are periodic functions, having the
velocity amplitude vm = A and acceleration amplitude
am = 2 A, respectively.
7. At any time, a particle executing SHM has potential
energy U = (1/2)kx2 and kinetic energy K = (1/2)mn 2. If no
friction exists, the mechanical energy of the system, that
is, E = K + U always remains constant despite the fact that
K and U change with time.
8. A particle of mass m oscillating under the influence of a
Hookes law restoring force given by
F = kx,
where k is the force constant, exhibits simple harmonic

motion with the following angular frequency (w) and
period (T):
k
;
m
T = 2
m
.
k
9. The unit of force constant is N/m and its dimension is

[MT2].
10. The motion of a simple pendulum moving back and
forth through small angles is considered approximately
to be simple harmonic and its period of oscillation is
expressed as
T = 2
l
.
g
11. In damped oscillations, although the energy of the system

is continuously dissipated, the oscillations remain apparently periodic.
12. For a SHM, when the damping force is given by
Fd = bv,
where v is the velocity of the oscillator and b is a damping constant, then the displacement of the oscillator is
expressed as
x (t ) = A e bt /2 m cos( + ),
where the angular frequency of the damped oscillator, w,
is expressed as
k
b2
.
m 4 m2
When the damping constant is small, then , where

w is the angular frequency of the undamped oscillator.
The mechanical energy (E) of the damped oscillator is
expressed as
1
E (t ) = kA2 e bt /m .
2
4/12/2012 1:08:56 PM

13. When an external force with angular frequency, wd, acts
on an oscillating system with natural angular frequency,
w, the system oscillates with angular frequency wd.
13
The amplitude of oscillations is the highest when

wd = w, which is a condition known as resonance of the
oscillation.
Chapter 14: Waves

1. The displacement relation for a sinusoidal wave propagating in the positive x-direction is expressed as
displacement of any element of the medium is the

algebraic sum of the displacements due to each wave:
y ( x , t ) = a sin(kx t + ),
where a is the amplitude of the wave, k is the angular
wave number, w is the angular frequency, (kx t + )
is the phase, and is the phase constant or phase
angle.
2. Unit of wavelength is meter (m) and its dimension is [L].
3. The time taken by any element of the medium to move
through one complete oscillation is called the period T
of oscillation of a wave, which is related to the angular
frequency w by
T=
4. Frequency n of a wave is defined as 1/T, which is related to

angular frequency by
.
2
5. Speed of a progressive wave:

v=

= = .
k T
6. Speed of a transverse wave on a stretched string is set

by the properties of the string. The speed on a string with
tension T and linear mass density m is expressed as
v=
T
.
y = ft ( x t ).
t =1
11. When two sinusoidal waves on the same string show interference, adding or canceling according to the principle of
superposition, and if the two are traveling in the same
direction and have the same amplitude and frequency
but differ in phase by a phase constant , the result is a
single wave with the same frequency w :
1
1
y ( x , t ) = 2a cos sin kx t + .
2
2
In this case, if = 0 or an integral multiple of 2p, the waves
are exactly in phase and the interference is constructive
and if = , they are exactly out of phase and the interference is destructive.
12. A traveling wave, at a rigid boundary or a closed end, is
reflected with a phase reversal, but the reflection at an
open boundary takes place without any phase change.
For an incident wave,
y i ( x , t ) = a sin(kx + t)
For the reflected wave at a rigid boundary is
y r ( x , t ) = a sin(kx + t)
For reflection at an open boundary is
y r ( x , t ) = a sin(kx + t)
7. Sound wave is a longitudinal mechanical wave which travels through solids, liquids, or gases. The speed v of a sound
wave in a fluid with bulk modulus (B) and density (r) is
expressed as
13. Standing waves are produced by the interference of two

identical waves moving in opposite directions. For a string
with fixed ends, the standing wave is expressed by
B
v=
.
14. Standing waves are characterized by fixed locations

of zero displacement called nodes and fixed locations of
maximum displacements called antinodes. The distance
between the two consecutive nodes or antinodes is l/2.
A stretched string of length L fixed at both the ends
vibrates with frequencies given by
8. In a metallic bar, the speed of longitudinal waves is

given by
v=
Y
.
9. As B = g P, the speed of sound in gases is expressed as

v=
P
.
10. Principle of superposition of waves: In the same

medium, when two or more waves traverse, the
y ( x , t ) = [2a sin kx ]cos t
nv
, for n = 1, 2, 3,
2L
in which, the set of frequencies are called the normal

modes of oscillation of the system. The oscillation mode
with lowest frequency is called the fundamental mode
or the first harmonic. The second harmonic is the oscillation mode with n = 2, etc. For a pipe of length L with
4/12/2012 1:09:01 PM
14

one end open and other end closed (such as air columns)
vibrates with frequencies given by
1 v
= n + , for n = 0 ,1, 2, 3,
2 2L
in which the set of frequencies are the normal modes of

oscillation of such a system. The lowest frequency given
by v/4L is the fundamental mode or the first harmonic.
15. When two waves, having slightly different frequencies
(n1 and n2) and comparable amplitudes, are superposed, the
outcome is called beats; the beat frequency is given by
beat = 1 2 .
16. A change in the observed frequency of a wave, when the

source and the observer move relative to the medium, is
called Doppler effect. For sound, the observed frequency,
n, is given in terms of the source frequency, n0, by
v + v0
= 0
,
v + v s
where v is the speed of sound through the medium, v0 is
the velocity of observer relative to the medium, and vs
is the source velocity relative to the medium. In using this
formula, velocities in from the direction of observer to
source should be treated as positive and those opposite
to it should be taken to be negative.
4/12/2012 1:09:02 PM

Important Formulas and Units: Chapter 1: Physical World and Measurement

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Important Formulas and Units: Chapter 1: Physical World and Measurement

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Important Formulas

5. Relative error or fractional error

2. In expressing a physical quantity, we choose a unit and

Physical quantity (Q) = Magnitude Unit = n u,

Mean absolute error a

6. Percentage error is expressed as

7. Error in sum of quantities is expressed as

Using powers of 10, we can write the radius of Earth as

9. Error in division of quantities is expressed as

10. Error in quantity raised to some power is expressed as

Chapter 2: Motion in a Straight Line

MTPL0139 Formula 1-14.indd 1

3. The average speed involves the total distance covered

Important Formulas and Units

7. The equations of motion for constant acceleration a are as

4. Instantaneous velocity is given by

5. Average acceleration is given by

6. The instantaneous acceleration can be expressed in terms

Chapter 3: Motion in a Plane

where the magnitude r = r = x 2 + y 2 .

where the magnitude r = r = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 .

8. Unit vectors in the positive directions of the x, y, and

the vector components of a. The quantities ax and ay are

scalars called the scalar components of a.

MTPL0139 Formula 1-14.indd 2

9. A third way to add vectors is to combine their components

A, B, and C and can be represented completely by the

from r1 to r2 during a certain time interval then the

particles displacement r during that time interval is

12. If a particle moves through a displacement r in a time

interval t, its average velocity v avg is expressed as

13. When a particles velocity changes from v1 to v 2 in a time

interval t, its average acceleration aavg during the

14. The velocity is otherwise called as instantaneous velocity,

15. In a circular motion, the distance traveled by a particle in

Important Formulas and Units

The time for a particle to go around a closed path exactly

16. In a circular motion, the total number of revolutions by a

Chapter 4: Laws of Motion

11. When a body presses against a surface, the surface (even a

2. Newtons first law of motion: Every object continues in

12. Friction is the force applied on the surface of an object

3. Momentum is the product of the mass of an object and

an object of mass (m) with a velocity (v) is expressed as

13. Properties of friction:

Momentum is also the inertia of a body in motion.

v to v + v, that is, its initial momentum p = mv changes by

p = mv, according to the Newtons second law of

10. A gravitational force F g on a body is a certain type ofpull

MTPL0139 Formula 1-14.indd 3

Property 2: The magnitude of f s has a maximum value

Since f = mN, tan f = m.

where 2pr is the circumference of the circle.

Important Formulas and Units

19. Magnitude of a centripetal force: The centripetal force

Chapter 5: Work, Energy, and Power

3. The scalar product of two vectors a and b is written as

where a is the magnitude of a, b is the magnitude of b,

and f is the angle between a and b.

MTPL0139 Formula 1-14.indd 4

12. Work done by a spring force is expressed as

14. Gravitational potential energy is the energy stored in an

18. The instantaneous power P is the instantaneous time