Electrical Systems
(Basic Complementary Course)
E1-0-COM
By Engineer: Amr Eissa
Course Outlines
Part I: Electrical Fundamentals.
Duration : 18 Hours
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The electrical properties of the atom are determined by how tightly the
electrons are bound by electrical attraction to the nucleus.
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IONS
A neutral atom contains an equal number of positive
charges (protons) and negative charges (electrons).
It is possible for an atom to gain or loose an electron.
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POSITIVE IONS
An atom (or possibly a group of atoms) which loses an
electron has lost one of its negative charges and is
therefore left with an excess of one positive charge; it is
called a positive ion.
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NEGATIVE IONS
An atom that gains an electron has an excess of negative
charge and is called a negative ion.
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GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY
There are six sources of external energy that are capable
of separating the electrons from their nuclei, these are:
Friction, Static Electricity
Pressure, Piezoelectric emf
Magnetism, Generators
Heat, The Seebeck effect the thermocouple
Light, The Photovoltaic Cell or Solar Cell
Chemical Action, Battery
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STATIC ELECTRICITY
If electrons are removed from one material and placed
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STATIC ELECTRICITY
This type of static charging between two or more
dissimilar materials is known as Triboelectric charging
and is a very important factor in the design of aircraft
and aircraft furnishings and equipment.
The nature and size of the charge produced depends on
the materials, some loose or gain electrons more easily
than others.
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Triboelectric Series
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UNIT OF CHARGE
The charge on an electron is very small, therefore a
more practical unit of charge called a Coulomb, has
been chosen:
One Coulomb = 6.29 x 10^18 electrons
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1.
2.
3.
4.
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Bonding Classifications
Depend on the magnitude of current which is
expected from the electrostatic charges.
Primary Bonding:
used between major components, engines,
external surfaces, e.g. flight control surfaces, and
Static Wicks
They are fitted to reduce static build up on the
airframe .
They allow static electricity to disperse from them
into the atmosphere Corona Discharge
breakdown.
Static Wick is a small wire brush or a straight
metal stick.
They are located on the trailing edge of the
aircraft control surface and on the tips of wings
and stabilizers.
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Safety
It essential to maintain the integrity of bonding when
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ELECTRICAL TERMINOLOGY
VOLTAGE volt
CURRENT ampere
RESISTANCE Ohm
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ELECTRICAL TERMINOLOGY
VOLTAGE volt
If one coulomb of electricity requires one joule of
work to move it between two points, then there is a
potential difference of 1 volt between them.
It is sometimes helpful to
think of potential difference
as a difference of electrical
pressure forcing a current
through a load.
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ELECTRICAL TERMINOLOGY
Electromotive Force (emf) volt
To make use of electricity by provision of an electric
current, the potential different must be maintained.
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ELECTRICAL TERMINOLOGY
Electromotive Force (emf) volt
The potential difference across the terminals of the
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ELECTRICAL TERMINOLOGY
CURRENT ampere
An electric current is a flow of free electrons through a
conductor.
When a current of one ampere is flowing in a
conductor, one coulomb of charge passes any point in
the conductor every second.
Since one coulomb = 6.29 x 10^18 electrons, one
ampere equals a flow rate of 6.29 x 10^18 electrons per
second.
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ELECTRICAL TERMINOLOGY
RESISTANCE Ohm
An electric current is a flow of free electrons through a
conductor.
The size of current flowing through a conductor for a
given applied voltage depends on:
Conductor.
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= Rt-Ro/R0(t-to)
THERMISTORS
thermally sensitive resistor whose resistance alters with
temperature; a negative temperature coefficient (n.t.c.)
thermistor is one whose resistance reduces with increase
in temperature.
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OHMS LAW
The relationship which exists between electric current
(as a movement of free electrons through a conducting
material), voltage (or potential) and potential difference
and the resistance to current flow by any conducting
material quantities
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OHMS LAW
For a fixed metal conductor, with temperature and
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RESISTORS IN DC CIRCUITS
RESISTORS IN SERIES:
RESISTORS IN PARALLEL:
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ELECTRICAL POWER
Electrical power (symbol P) is the rate at which work is
done or the rate of conversion of energy by an electrical
system.
The SI unit of power is the watt which is a rate of work
of 1 joule per second.
P=VI
That is watts = volts amps
By substituting V = IR in the above formula, two other
expressions for electrical power are obtained:
P = VI = I^2R = V^2/R watts
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POWER RATINGS
Current flow through a resistive material causes heat.
An electrical component can be damaged if the
temperature is too high.
Electrical equipment can only stand a certain amount
of heat production without damage and the safe
power which a piece of equipment can consume
without damage is its Power Rating or Wattage
Rating.
Each component is given a wattage rating and if this is
exceeded the component will overheat.
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source of emf.
Although an emf can be produced by any of the six
methods mentioned earlier, large amounts of useable
power can only be produced chemically or by
generation. Generation requires a more in depth study
of magnetism and therefore cells and batteries will be
studied first.
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Batteries usage at
1. Transient conditions.
Battery Construction
An aircraft battery consists of a number of individual
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Cell Strap
+ -
+ -
+ -
+ -
+ -
+ Main Receptacle
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Types of Cells
Primary Cell
Output
Power
Secondary Cell
Charging
Cant Be charged
Active
Material
Is destroyed during
discharging
Life Time
Types of Batteries
Lead Acid Battery.
Nickel Cadmium Battery.
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Capacity Rating
The maximum current, in amperes, which the battery
on ???
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Discharge Rate
It is the time taken to discharge until a permissible
minimum voltage.
The two methods of battery charging are: Constant Voltage.
Constant Current (used).
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Thermal Runaway
It is the condition which causes violent gassing,
boiling of electrolyte and finally melting of plates.
Increase
Charging
Current
Increase
Battery
Temperature
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CAPACITANCE Farad
If we increase the voltage between the plates, the charge
increases, but the ratio of charge to voltage remains the
same. This ratio gives the capacitance (C) of the
capacitor.
Charge/Voltage = A constant called capacitance
The Farad is a huge unit and smaller units are used in
practice.
1 microfarad (F) = 10^-6 farad
1 picofarad (pF) = 10^-12 farad
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CAPACITORS IN DC CIRCUITS
CAPACITORS IN SERIES:
CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL:
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CHARGING A CAPACITOR
It is found that the time taken to charge up the capacitor
depends on the product of capacitance and resistance.
This product is called the time constant of the circuit
and its value is in seconds, providing R is in ohms and C
in farads.
TIME CONSTANT = CR
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CHARGING A CAPACITOR
The time constant is defined as either:
The time which would be taken for the capacitor
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DISCHARGING A CAPACITOR
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A CAPACITOR IN A DC CIRCUIT
It can be seen that although current does flow for a
period of time in a d.c. circuit containing a capacitor
(until the capacitor is fully charged), the current is
eventually reduced to zero.
Thus, a capacitor inserted in a d.c. circuit prevents
current flow and is sometimes called a dc blocking
capacitor.
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Michael Faraday
Faraday discovered that
electricity could be made by
moving a magnet inside a
wire coil, which allowed him
to build the first electric
motor. From this knowledge
he later built the first
generator and transformer.
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Michael Faraday
Faraday's experiments and discovery of electromagnetic
induction paved the way for changing mechanical energy
into electrical energy.
He also introduced words we still use in the electric trade
today:
Ion
Electrode
Electrolytes
Cathode
Anode
The farad, a unit of electricity, was also named in his honor.
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Nikola Tesla
Tesla was responsible for a great many inventions and
devices as well as principles we still use today.
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Nikola Tesla
His work with gas-filled lamps led to the creation of
fluorescent lighting.
His work with electromagnetic waves led to the
invention of the radio, radar and the MRI, a type of x-ray
enabling us to look inside the human body.
Tesla's greatest achievement, the invention of the
alternating current motor, led to the creation of the
electric utility.
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Nikola Tesla
Tesla Noted inventions:
Alternating current induction motor
Polyphase transmission system
Multiphase power system (we use this today)
Wireless transmission of energy
Hydroelectric generator
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Nikola Tesla
Radio
Radar
Fluorescent light
Vacuum tubes
Loud speaker
MRI x-rays
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MAGNETISM
DOMAIN THEORY
it is assumed that magnetic materials are composed of
tiny individual magnets called domains, a single
domain is very small - about 10^12 atoms.
Considering each atom - orbital electrons not only
orbit the nucleus but spin axially on their own axis.
In non magnetic materials the same number of
electrons spin clockwise as anti-clockwise.
In magnetic materials more electrons spin one way
than the other way
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MAGNETISM
The unbalanced spin creates twists called magnetic
moments.
In unmagnetised state the moments of the electrons
are in the same direction in a single domain, but the
domains produce random pockets of magnetism.
As the magnetic material becomes magnetised the
domains become partially aligned.
In fully magnetised material all domains become fully
aligned.
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MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
The region around a magnet in which it exerts a force is
called the magnetic field.
The magnetic field is three-dimensional and it may be
shown visually by drawing imaginary lines called lines
of magnetic flux.
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Electromagnetism
An electromagnetic field is a magnetic field generated
by current flow in a conductor.
Whenever current flows a magnetic field exists around
the conductor.
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MAGNETISING FORCE
is a measure of the intensity of the magnetic effects at
any given point in the magnetic field.
Magnetising Force (H) = Magnetomotive Force
/Length of magnet
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PERMEABILITY
When an mmf produces a magnetizing force H, a certain
flux density B is established.
Ratio B/H is termed the permeability of the
material'.
Permeability is an indication of the ability of the flux to
permeate the material.
If a flux is established in any material other than air or
free space, then the flux density will increase.
The number of times by which the flux density increases
is called the relative permeability of the material
denoted by the symbol r.
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PERMEABILITY
The product of o the permeability of free space, 4
10^-7 H/M and r is called the absolute permeability
and is denoted by the symbol .
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RELUCTANCE
The opposition experienced by a magnetizing force to
the creation of a flux is called reluctance and denoted
by the symbol S.
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HYSTERESIS LOOP
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HYSTERESIS LOOP
The area of the loop represents the energy loss during
each magnetic cycle, or the power dissipated.
Its size is dependent upon the type of material and
frequency at which the magnetizing force is switched.
Materials with large loops are used for permanent
magnets .
Materials with small loops are used for temporary
magnets .
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INDUCTION
Michael Faraday discovered that an electric current was
produced by the relative movement of a magnet and a
coil, a phenomenon which is known as electromagnetic
induction.
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LENZS LAW
A change of flux in a closed circuit induces an emf and
sets up a current.
The direction of this current is such that its magnetic
field tends to oppose the change of flux.
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SELF INDUCTANCE
When current through a coil changes, the changing flux
induces an emf that opposes the current flow.
This emf is the result of self inductance and is called
back emf.
The term self inductance is often replaced merely by
inductance.
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SELF INDUCTANCE
The value of back emf is given by:
Where L is the inductance in henries, and
dI/dt the rate of change of current.
The minus indicates back emf.
N = Number of Turns
o r= Absolute Permeability
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
If the changing flux in a coil links with the turns of a
second coil, the two coils are said to be mutually coupled
and mutual inductance exists .
If the primary current, changing at a rate of 1 amp per
second, induces a secondary voltage of 1v, then the
mutual inductance is 1 henry.
Thus:
Es = M dIprimary/dt between them.
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INDUCTORS IN DC CIRCUITS
INDUCTORS IN SERIES
With no mutual coupling:
LT = L1 + L2 etc
If the coils are positioned so that the mutual induced
emfs in each coil aid the self induced emfs then the
coils are said to be series aiding, and
LT = L1 + L2 + 2M
If the coils are positioned so that mutually induced
LT = L1 + L2 - 2M
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INDUCTORS IN DC CIRCUITS
INDUCTORS IN PARALLEL
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INDUCTORS IN A DC CIRCUIT
Time Constant = LR Seconds
Maximum Current flows after 5L/R
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SAFETY
As the current increases through an inductor, flux builds
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DC MOTORS
If a current carrying conductor is placed at right angles
to a magnetic field, a force will be exerted on it, causing
it to move.
The direction of the force and the resultant movement
depends on two factors,
the :
direction of current flow in the conductor
direction of the magnetic field
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DC MOTORS
The direction of the force and the resultant movement
can be found by using Flemings left hand rule
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DC MOTORS CONSTRUCTION
DC motors are made up of several major components
which include the following:
Main Field Windings (Stator)
Frame
Shaft
Bearings
Armature (Rotor)
Commutator
Brush Assembly
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DC MOTORS CONSTRUCTION
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BACK EMF
When a conductor moves in a field, an emf is induced in
the conductor.
The armature coils of the motor are moving in a
magnetic field and therefore must have an emf
induced in them, this emf acts against the applied
voltage and is called back emf.
The resultant of the two voltages is called the
effective voltage.
The armature current is due to the effective
voltage, not the applied voltage.
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BACK EMF
When running, the back emf is almost equal to the
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TORQUE
The Torque produced by a d.c. motor is directly
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SPEED CONTROL
The speed of a d.c. motor can be varied by controlling
the field current or by controlling the armature current.
Field control
With field control, a decrease in field current causes
an increase in motor speed;
main field decreases
back emf across armature decreases
effective voltage increases
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SPEED CONTROL
armature current increases
motor torque increases over load torque
motor speed increases
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SPEED CONTROL
Armature control
With armature control, an increase in armature
current causes an increase in motor torque over load
torque and an increase in motor speed.
A decrease in armature current causes a decrease in
motor speed.
Armature control is generally used for control of
normal running speed and downwards.
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MOTOR CLASSIFICATIONS
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SERIES MOTOR
A series motor has a low resistance, heavy gauge field
winding in series with the armature winding.
In series motors the field strength depends on the
armature current, so the torque produced is
approximately proportional to the square of the
armature current.
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SERIES MOTOR
As speed increases, the torque decreases, until the
SERIES MOTOR
There is a short period of high current drain on the
supply.
Applications include starter motors, winches and
aircraft actuators.
Some series motors are fitted with two separate
windings. This enables motor rotation to be quickly
reversed.
Applications include fuel valves and landing lights.
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SHUNT MOTOR
Shunt wound motors have a high resistance field
winding connected in parallel with the armature.
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SHUNT MOTOR
Applications - Shunt motors are used where a constant
speed is required and will be found in inverter drives and
windscreen wipers.
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Speed control
The speed of a shunt motor is normally controlled by a
variable resistor placed in series with the field winding.
When the resistance is increased, the field current is
reduced, the back-emf decreases and the effective
voltage increases.
The increase in effective voltage produces an increase
in armature current and an increase in speed.
When required to reduce the speed of the motor, the
field resistance is decreased.
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STARTER GENERATORS
operates as a starter motor to drive the engine during
starting, and after the engine has reached a
selfsustaining speed, operates as a generator to supply
the electrical system power.
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STARTER GENERATORS
The starter-generator unit is basically
a shunt generator with an additional
heavy series winding.
This series winding is electrically
connected to produce a strong field
and a resulting high torque for starting.
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DC GENERATORS
If a conductor is moved at right angles to a magnetic
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DC GENERATORS
The size of the generated emf depends on three factors,
the:
strength of the magnetic field - B
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COMMUTATION
In order to make the current flow in the same direction
through the load, the connections to the external circuit
must be switched every time the loop moves past its
neutral position.
This can be achieved using a commutator.
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COMMUTATION
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DC GENERATOR CONSTRUCTION
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GENERATOR CLASSIFICATIONS
Generators are usually classified by the method of
excitation used.
There are three classifications; permanent magnet,
separately excited and self excited.
A permanent magnet generator has a limited
output power and an output voltage that is directly
proportional to speed.
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GENERATOR CLASSIFICATIONS
A separately excited generator has its field supplied
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GENERATOR CLASSIFICATIONS
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SERIES GENERATOR
The series generator has a field winding consisting of a
few turns of heavy gauge wire connected in series with
the armature.
A series generator therefore has a rising characteristic
and is generally only used as a line booster.
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SHUNT GENERATOR
The shunt generator has a field consisting of many turns
of fine wire connected in parallel with the armature.
The shunt generator has a falling characteristic and is
used for d.c. generation on aircraft.
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residual magnetism.
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AC THEORY
PRODUCTION OF A SINEWAVE
The only practical way of generating an electromotive
force (emf) by mechanical means is to rotate a
conductor in a magnetic field.
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THE SINEWAVE
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ac resistance is
called
reactance
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IN SERIES:
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IMPEDANCE
When inductance, capacitance and resistance appear
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DELTA Connection
VLine = VPhase
ILine = IPhase
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AC MOTORS
the operation of an a.c. motor relies on the production
INDUCTION MOTOR
The rotor of an induction motor consists of a number
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INDUCTION MOTOR
When the rotor is placed in a rotating magnetic field,
the bars are cut by the rotating flux, causing emf's to be
induced in them, because the bars are shorted by the
end rings, currents then flow in the bars.
Current flow in the bars produces a magnetic field
around them, which reacts with the main field of the
machine, causing the rotor to turn.
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INDUCTION MOTOR
It is not possible for the rotor to rotate at synchronous
speed (the speed of the field), because there would be
no emfs induced in the rotor bars, no current flow and
no magnetic field produced.
The difference between synchronous speed and rotor
speed is called Slip Speed and is usually expressed as a
percentage of the synchronous speed.
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SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
The synchronous motor gets its name from the fact
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SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
In order for the magnet to lock-on to the field, it must
HYSTERESIS MOTOR
The motor is so named because the material used for
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TRANSFORMERS
Transformers are electromagnetic devices that transfer
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POWER TRANSFORMERS
A simple transformer consists of two coils, a primary
and a secondary, wound on a high permeability, soft
iron core.
The changing current
in the first coil creates
a changing magnetic
field that induces an
alternating voltage in
the secondary coil.
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POWER TRANSFORMERS
All of the energy transferred from the primary winding
to the secondary must be stored in the magnetic field
created in the core, therefore, sufficient iron must be
provided to store the energy of each half cycle of the a.c.
waveform
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TURNS RATIO
If the number of turns on the secondary is less than
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TURNS RATIO
when writing the transformation ratio, the
secondary voltage is put before the primary.
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AUTOTRANSFORMERS
Auto transformers have only one winding, this serving
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AUTOTRANSFORMERS
Auto transformers are used for:
line boosters to compensate for the voltage drops in
lighting circuits.
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AUTOTRANSFORMERS
The major disadvantage of auto transformers, especially
step down types, is that should the common portion of
the winding go open circuit, the primary voltage is
applied directly to the load on the secondary.
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CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
Current transformers (CT's) are designed to enable
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DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMERS
Linear variable differential transformers (LVDT's), rotary
variable differential transformers (RVDT's) and E and I
bar transducers all use transformer principles to produce
electrical signals from mechanical movement.
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DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMERS
The magnitude of the signals produced is dependent on
the amount of movement, and the phase of the signal on
the direction of movement.
All three devices are used in control systems,
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SERIES RESONANCE
If the frequency applied to L/R/C circuit was altered to
decrease XL and at the same time increase XC, then at
one particular frequency XL would be equal to XC. This
frequency is called the Resonant Frequency and is
denoted by the symbol fo.
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SERIES RESONANCE
At the resonant frequency, the applied voltage and the
circuit current are in phase, and the impedance of the
circuit equals the resistance.
In a Series Circuit at Resonant Frequency (fO):
XL = XC
XL = VC
VL and VC are in antiphase and therefore cancel each
other out.
VR = Applied Voltage V.
Z = R.
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SERIES RESONANCE
The only opposition to the flow of current comes from
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BANDWIDTH
The bandwidth (B) of a circuit is the difference between
two frequencies either side of the resonant frequency at
which the power has fallen to half its value at resonance,
i.e. the half power points.
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other out.
VR = Applied Voltage V.
Z =L/CR and current is a minimum.
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Parallel RESONANCE
if R is very small, the term involving resistance may be
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FILTERS
Filter circuits are four terminal networks designed to
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TR Units
Ground Power Supplies
Typical Aircraft Power Distribution Network.
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Power Distribution
In order for the power available at the appropriate
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GENERATORS PARALLELING
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identical.
The generators must share the load on tie bus within
specified limits.
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Voltage Regulator
The voltage is regulated to maintain a constant
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Multi-Generator Operation
When two or more generators are connected in
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Equalizing Circuit
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INVERTERS
Some of aircraft equipments require a 115 volts
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INVERTERS
There are two types of inverter, which will convert 28
volt d.c. to 115 volts a.c., they are the: rotary inverter,
static inverter.
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Static Inverter
Its a non-rotating inverter which utilizes
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Square Wave
Generator
Pulse Shaper
Power Amp.
And Filter
Voltage &
Frequency
Sensor
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TRANSFORMER-RECTIFIER UNITS
Transformer-rectifier units-(T.RU;'s) are combinations of
static transformers and rectifiers, and are utilized in
some a.c. systems as secondary supply units, and also as
the main conversion units in aircraft having rectified a.c.
power systems.
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TRANSFORMER-RECTIFIER UNITS
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Electric Cables
Wires and cables constitute the framework of power
distribution systems conducting power in its various
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Electric Cables
Two metals are used for conductors:
(Copper and Aluminum)
Wires requirements:
The wire must be able to carry the required
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Thermocouple Cables.
Co-axial Cables.
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Electro-Magnetic Interference
Methods to reduce interference to the minimum:
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1.
Open Loom.
2.
Ducted Loom.
3.
Conduits.
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Earthing Or Grounding
It refers to the return of current to the
conducting mass of the earth or ground.
Since in most aircraft the structure is of metal
and of sufficient mass to remain electrically
neutral, then it can function as an earth or
"negative busbar" and so provide the return path
of current.
power supply and consumer circuits can be
completed by coupling all negative connections
to the structure at various "earth stations.
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