Regulation
Timber treatment and its application for building purposes is a
regulated activity in New Zealand. While designers and specifiers
are free to call up preservatives and levels of preservative retained in
wood , these are specified for Building Code acceptability in various
documents and departure from them in "alternative solutions" bring
a need to demonstrate performance. These documents are outlined
later in this chapter.
77
Agriquality
Agriquality operates as an alternative quality assurance scheme for
timber treatment using its own laboratories for testing and assessment.
Certified plants are licensed to use the Agriquality registered
assurance mark.
78
Clause 82 Durability
In the New Zealand Building Code, Clause
B2 Durability sets down as its objective that
"a bui lding wi ll throughout its life
continue to satisfy the objectives of the
Code, and that building elements, with
only nonnal maintenance, will continue
to satisfy the performance requirements
of the Code for the specified intended life
of the building."
The standard times used for element life are
50 years, 15 years and 5 years. According to
Verification Method B2NMI durability may
be verified by proof of performance, using
in-service history,
Laboratory testing, or
Comparable performance of similar
building elements
Such factors as the local environment,
intensity of use, material composition, the
degradation mechanism are evaluated for an
element within a specified system inc luding
fixings, flashings etc.
Acceptable Solution
Arising from Clause B2 the NZBC has as an
Acceptable Solution B2/ AS I for durability
and performance requirements of timber
building elements. In the Acceptable Solution,
ew Zealand standards are approved for a
variety of construction materials. For timber
the main standards are NZS 3604:1999
Timber Framed Buildings, and NZS
3602:2003 Timber and Wood-based Products
for use in Building. NZS 3602 includes
the required level of chemical treatment
for different levels of hazard, and is also is
referenced for E2 External Moisture.
Alternative solutions
Recent history
Following the introduction of perfonnance based regulation in the
early I 990s, poor practice crept in due to concurrent deregulation of
the building industry and introduction of the non-prescriptive code
with poor detailing and poor construction , mostly with mono lithic
sheet claddings. By 1999 there were serious calls for improved
practice. Water penetrated the cladding of balcony structures and
poorly sealed building envelopes of a large number of residential
units, and without adequate wall ventilation this caused decay of the
framing and serious structural risk.
In 1995 an amendment was made to the New Zealand Standard for
timber treatment (referenced in Acceptable Solution B2/ AS I in 1998)
allowing untreated kiln-dried timber in dry conditions. For buildings
with poor weathertightness, this resulted in severe and rapid timber
decay of timber framing where water was trapped against the timber
in a relatively warm environment. Within two years a number of
significant durability failures resulted in a public outcry and repair
estimates of between NZ$120M to NZ$ I .8Billion. While this was
quickly dubbed " leaky buildings" in the news media it was often
incorrectly attributed to the use of untreated radiata pine timber
framing timber.
This problem led to a legal procedure for resolving disputes
(Weathertight Homes Resolution Services Act 2002), changes to the
Building Act in 2004, a major change to the government regulating
79
bodies and a requirement for all carpenters to be certified. Territorial authorities went through a period of adjustment when
the performance based approach was introduced in 1991 and again in 2004 following the leaky buildings problem, so that
they now have greater levels of responsibility and work more closely with the Department of Building and Housing. A new
conservatism in detailing for weathertightness has become the norm for exterior claddings, with a requirement for chemical
treatment of almost all radiata pine framing timber. [t is interesting to note that The Compliance Document for the New
Zealand Building Code- Clause 2 - External Moisture (a prescriptive solution for exterior detailing) was expanded from
28 pages in 2000 to 184 pages in 2005.
Table 9.1
Hazard class
Biological hazard
Typical uses
Untreated
Borers
Borers
H1.1
(Was the H1
class before the
2003 revision)
H1 .2
H3 .1
H3.2
H4
H5
H6
80
treatment in the case of Douglas fir and radiata pine, provided that
storage is not in damp conditions or on the ground.
81
Preservative options
and colour coding
(Notes 1 & 2)
Untreated
Health and
safety issues
Environmental
issues
Site issues
Develops sap stain and
mould when wetted and
staying wet.
Cost effective in dry
situations
Note 4
Nil
H1.1
a) Boron compounds in
water, supplied wet.
Note4
Boron getting
to waterways at
treating sites.
(Was H1 pre
the 2003
revision)
b) Permethrin in solvent,
supplied dry
Solvent
emission
Note4
VOC release at
treatment.
Note4
Boron getting
to waterways at
treating sites.
H1 .2
(Note 3)
b) Boron compounds
with diffusion agent,
aqueous(pink), treated &
supplied dry
c)TBTN or TBTO in
solvent (white spirit),
(blue), supplied dry
H2
Refer AS 1604:2005
(Australia not
NZ) . .
CCA
ACQ
Solvent
allergy.
Tin contact
Note4
Solvent allergy
NIAin NZ
Tin as a
pollutant.
VOC release at
treatment.
Residue disposal.
VOC release at
treatment
NIAin NZ
Little decay
resistance .
Used in the leaky
building period.
Association with leaky
buildings .
No decay resistance .
Moisture content
measurement a problem
with resistance meters
if glycol as the diffusion
agent.
Note4
Disadvantages
Odour.
OSH concerns re
solvents.
Identification of treated
wood difficult.
NIAin NZ
NIAin NZ
IPBC performance.
Permethrin (&variations)
H3.1
See also
preservatives
listed for
H.3.2 (wet
or dry after
treatment)
Note4
Solvent allergy
Tin as pollutant.
Residue disposal.
Tin contact
VOC release at
treatment
Note 4
Compatibility with
adhesives
c) Propiconazole plus
tebuconazole in solvent
(white spirit)(plywood ,
speciality products)
supplied dry
d) Copper Napthenate
(green) in solvent (white
spirit), dry cladding and
exterior trim
82
Solvent
emission
Note 4
VOC release at
treatment
Copper as
pollutant.
VOC release at
treatment.
H3.2
Note --CCA.
ACQ, CuAZ
can be dried
after to order.
Notes 4 & 5
H4
H5
H6
Copper loss
(negligible
compared to
other Cu based
preservatives).
Residue disposal ,
corrosive.
Fear of As component
in personal contact
situations.
Cost vs. CCA.
Notes 4 & 5
Copperas
pollutant.
Residue disposal ,
corrosive.
Notes 4 & 5
Copperas
pollutant.
Residue disposal,
corrosive.
Copper as
pollutant.
N/Ain NZ
N/AinNZ
N/Ain NZ
d) Copper Naphenate in
solvent, supplied dry
(Note 6)
Only if eaten
(normal
precautions)
Solvent allergy
Notes 4 & 5
N/Ain NZ
Depends on
solvent
Normal
precautions
Notes 4 & 5
Slight copper
loss in water.
Residue disposal,
corrosive.
Note4
Copperas
Pollutant.
Restdue disposal ,
corrosive.
Note 4
Copperas
pollutant.
Residue disposal,
corrosive.
Slight copper
loss in water.
Residue disposal ,
corrosive.
High loading of
copper.
Normal
precautions
Notes 4 & 5
Notes 4 & 5
Copper as
pollutant.
Residue disposal,
corrosive.
Notes 4 & 5
Copper as
pollutant.
Residue disposal,
corrosive.
Slight copper
loss in water.
Residue disposal,
corrosive.
Normal
precautions
N ot~s 4 &. S
Notes
1) This column lists preservatives in general use at the time of writing and covered by NZS3640, the liquid carrier, plus whether supplied
wet or dry. Some development possibilities are in italics.
2) Colour codings are for framing for timber framed buildings as specified in NZS3604. For H1 .2 pink or red are optional.
3) The boron based surface applied system that was accredited by BIA (and later endorsed by DBH) as an accredited alternative for
H1 .2 with an orange colour code is excluded from this table.
4) All fine wood dust is a hazardous component and wood processing should involve protection to eyes, respiratory systems and skin .
5) The need for protection as indicated in Note 4 is emphasised with reference to hazard classes H3.2, 4, 5, 6 where there are additional
carcinogenic aspects associated with metallic components.
6) Potentially (as a future development) a dry H3 .2 could become available on the basis of wood being taken from dry stock and treated
through a non-aqueous process with either ACQ or CuAz.
Glossary: ACQ =Alkaline Copper Quarternary, CCA = Copper Chromium Arsenic, CuAZ Copper Azole, TBTN = Tri-butyltin Napthenate,
TBTO= Tri-butyltin Oxide, VOC =Volatile Organic Compound, DBH = Department of Building and Housing, OSH = Occupational Health
and Safety.
83
H3.2 or H4?
A choice between H3 and H4 hazard ratings internally can sometimes
be difficult. For timber in contact with the ground, H4 is the
minimum rating. For timber out of ground contact, H4 treatment
should be used for very wet situations, particularly for important
structural components. In industrial plants where high humidity and
temperatures are expected, the moisture content of the timber will be
such that H3.2 preservation leve ls should be used. Only in the most
exceptional conditions, which will be wet as a result of condensation ,
rather than high EMC as a result of humidity, will H4 be required.
H4 or HS?
Both of these hazards are described "for ground contact" . Both can
app ly to round and to sawn timber. The key question for building
purposes is "how critical is the component?" ln the case of agriculture
or horticulture the question is linked to severity of attack and ease of
replacement. These are discussed separately.
Timber in the grou nd supporting buildings can be very difficult to
replace. Proprietary branded timber building piles (whether round or
square) wi ll be treated to H5 requirements for NZBC comp li ance.
Where non-specifically identified timbers are used as building
foundations they should be specified and ordered with H5 treatment.
In the case ofroundwood this is particularly important because both
treatment levels are in regular use. For short life structures, hoarding ~,
fences, walls etc. , the same considerations are not applicable and H4
treatment will be satisfactory. Poles are typically supplied with H5
treatment but they should be specified as such.
Fence and horticultural support (round or square) posts are almost
always H4 treated. Strainer posts can be H4 or H5 depending on the
producer. In the case of tension structures in vineyards or orchards,
where progressive collapse would be unacceptable H5 anchor posts
are recommended.
H6
This is the highest level of preservative loading to resist what can
be severe attack initiated in short time intervals. The lifespan of
H6 treated timber in marine environments can vary considerab ly
depending on the nature of the marine borers present and there
frequency. The presence or absence of si lts, discoloration or pollutants
will not give any indication of likely severity of attack.
84
Exceptional circumstances
Porches, decks, fences , patios, pergolas
and other weather-exposed items present a
decay hazard that cannot be fully avoided
by construction practices. It is advisable to
use preservative-treated wood or naturally
durable wood for all exterior situations.
Where highly humid conditions are present
inside buildings, as in textile mills, pulp
and paper mills, cold-storage plants and
Inspection
To supplement good design and construction
practices, periodic inspections of a structure
will provide assurance that decay-preventive
measures are being maintained and that
additional decay hazards are not present.
It should be emphasized that damage from
decay sometimes develops slowly. Periodic
inspections are important, therefore, to reveal
early indications of moisture penetration or
condensation, and once they are detected,
corrective measures can be taken in time to
avoid significant damage. Decay and insect
attack create irreversible damage. Prevention
is much easier than repair.
Leaky bu ildings
The 1990s saw the construction of significant
numbers of buildings that admitted moisture,
resulti ng in severe decay to parts of the
building framing. This was particularly
true in multi-residential developments but
not confined to these. The leakiness was a
particu lar problem in some buildings with
monol ithic claddings (insulated stucco
construction) but not confined to these. An
outcome has been a major overhaul of the
building controls system in New Zealand
tarting with the 2004 revision of the Building
Act, the abolition of the Building Industry
Authority, and the resumption of direct
government intervention through the new
Department of Building and Housing. Some
tandards, codes of practice, and acceptable
solutions were rewritten in haste, which
resulted in some errors which are currently
being revisited and amended. This will be an
ongoing process.
Agents causing
deterioration
Timber durability is largely a matter of
design. Permanent timber structures should be
built not only to be structurally safe but also
to be durable, with minimum maintenance.
In common with other structural materials,
uch as steel, concrete, glass or plastic, timber
will deteriorate if subjected to destructive
agencies. An understanding of the variou
destructive agencies is helpful when devising
efficient means of delaying or avoiding
natural deterioration. Fire is a special case
which is dealt with in Chapter 12.
85
Fungi
Fungi are a class of plant-life characterised by an inability to
synthesise starches and sugars from inorganic materials (air and
water) in the presence of light. Hence, fungi require an organic
ubstrate in order to thrive. Timber is a suitable substrate of certain
fungi. Decay or rot in wood is a result of fungal attack.
For practically all timber species, the sapwood is susceptible to fungal
decay and may be seriously affected within a comparatively short
period of exposure under conducive conditions. Hence untreated
sapwood should always be regarded as perishable. Heartwood is
usually much more resistant to decay than sapwood , because of
the presence of toxic extractives and other factors , but heartwood
durability is very variable between species.
Fungal growths will not develop unless there is a source of infection
from which the organisms can grow. Fungi procreate by producing
vast numbers of microscopic spores which may float in the air for
long periods and be blown for considerable distances, so all timber
in service will be exposed to fungal spores from some source. Even
though abundant, they will not germinate and develop unless there is:- An adequate supply of air or oxygen
-A suitable range of temperatures (about 4-400C), and
-A continuing supply of moisture (>20% moisture content)
In practice, the only circumstance where lack of oxygen is likely to
inhibit fungal growth is when timber is fully submerged in water. For
example, in Europe, many major structures are founded on timber
piles driven below the ground water table where they have resisted
decay for centuries due to lack of oxygen. Conversely, the timber in
modern cooling towers is exposed to a high decay hazard because the
water passing over it is highly aerated . Normal ambient temperatures
seldom limit fungal development, but all fungi have an optimum
temperature at which the fastest growth occurs; above or below
this optimum their rate of growth declines. In cool climates, fungal
pores may take several days to germinate, but in humid tropical
climates germination will be much quicker. Provided that the change
in temperature is not too rapid , fungi are usually more tolerant of low
temperatures than of high ones. All stages of fungal growth can be
killed by prolonged exposure to high temperatures.
Timber that is dry and can be kept dry will not rot or decay. For
architects and structural engineers, this is the key to the prevention of
decay in timber. If untreated timber becomes damp and is allowed to
remain damp it is likely to decay. Once wood has started to rot, the
decayed wood will absorb water more quickly, hold more water and
retain it longer than undecayed wood . As the cycle of wetting and
drying is repeated, the damp period will extend until it is continuous.
86
Moisture fluctuations
Unprotected timber exposed to the weather
typically develops surface checks due to
rapid wetting and drying by rain and sun.
Where dimensional changes due to moisture
content fluctuations are expected , appropriate
allowances should be made for the anticipated
movement. Timbers with a large width or
depth are more likely to be affected than
timbers of smaller section. Splitting often
occurs if shrinkage is prevented, as described
in Chapter I 0. Paint systems are designed
to prevent rapid wetting and drying, and
oily preservatives such as creosote are also
effective. The use of dark pigmented stains
can increase the problem because the dark
surface heats quickly on exposure to the sun.
Moisture related cracks are commonly
observed in poles, installed in the wet
condition and drying out in service. It is
almost impossible to prevent cracking in
exposed poles or large sawn timber member
containing the pith of the tree because of
the difference between radial and tangential
shrinkage described in Chapter I 0. Surface
coatings which inhibit drying will reduce
cracking because shrinkage stresses have
time to relax, as seen with some coated pole
in pole frame houses. Another approach is to
kerfthe poles, before treatment, with a radia l
saw cut up to half the diameter deep along
the length of the pole, which predetermines
the position of any split and improves the
penetration of preservatives.
Ultraviolet light
UV light oxidises the surface of wood,
changing its colour to the soft grey often
seen on buildings sheathed with natural
unprotected wood such as cedar shingles or
planks. The silvering discolouration is due
to the effect of ultraviolet light on the lign in
and extractives in the wood . This oxidation,
combined with the effect of rain on the
surface, produces a perceptible erosion.
Canadian sources report a rate of erosion
of about I mm in 16 years (presumably on
western red cedar). The discolouration is of
no structural concern . Paints and stains can
prevent this damage, and advice on suitable
systems is given in Chapter 11.
Bacteria
Attack by bacteria is rare but has been
observed where timber is in contact with
heavily fertilised soils such as found in
some horticultural sites. Other instances
Chemicals
Iron oxides interact w ith wood causing a
breakdown known as "iron sickness" which
will accompany the corrosion of steel in
contact with timber. Wood is generally
resistant to most other chemicals, making it
a desirable structural material in corrosive
environments.
Resistance to decay
Testing of timber durability, including treated timber, is done by
embedding stakes in selected plots of ground (called graveyards)
and eva luating the progress of decay over many years. Table 9.3
lists the durability of the heartwood of some New Zea land-grown
timbers in ground contact. This is not a full list of commercially
available species, or complete for native species, and a more
comp lete list is given by Hughes (see Further Reading). Of those
classed as moderately durable, macrocarpa and some euca lypts are
commercially available in New Zea land. Hardwoods imported from
Australia and Asia may be obtained to meet requirements for high
natural durability.
Natural durability
Timbers vary enormously in their natural
resistance to insect or funga l attack. Some
peci es, like ironbark, teak and redwood
(Sequoia) are very resistant to both fungi and
insects, and are known as durable species.
Others such as radiata pine have very little
natural resista nce to fungal attack and are
regarded as being non-durable or even
perishable. Sapwood of most species has very
little natural resistance to fungal attack, so
all sapwood should be regarded as perishable
unless it is properly treated with a wood
Hardwoods
Perishable
Non-durable
Moderately durable
Durable
Very durable
(<5 years)
(5-1 0 years)
(10-15 years)
(15-20 years)
(>25 years)
Robinia
Alder
E.regnans 5
E.globulus 5
E.muellerana 5
Hinau
E.sieberi
E.saligna 2
Kamah i'
Oak'
Osier Willow'
Black beech 2 3
Hard beech 2
Kanuka
Silver birch
Pukatea
Silver beech 2
Cosican pine
Ponderosa pine
'
Mountain beech 2
Red beech 2
Tawa
Softwood s
Southern rata
Radiata pine
Douglas fir
European larch 2
Macrocarpa 2
Silver pine
Californian redwood
Rimu
Kauri
Kaikawaka
Lawson's cypress
Tanekaha
Notes:
1. Represented by posts only, durability of heartwood alone may be higher.
2. Species exhibiting a range of durability have been assigned to the class representing their average range .
3. Unusually variable (perishable- durable).
4. Robinia specimens have not been installed long enough for an accurate assessment of their durability, but they are at least in the
"Durable" class and more probably in the "very durable" class.
5. E. means Eucalyptus.
87
Radiata pine
Douglas fir
Rimu
Macrocarpa
Redwood
Kahikatea
Taw
a
Notes:
Borer species
Anobium
(common
house borer)
1**
Ambeodontus
(two-tooth
borer)
Leanobium
(silverspot
borer)
Lyctus
(powderpost
borer)
2
1
1
1
1
3
1
1
1
1 =average susceptibility
2
Native species
Native species will be found in older buildings and in recycled
timber. As shown in Table 9.3 some are moderately durable to durable
including the heartwood ofkauri , matai and rimu and totara and these
will be found in exterior joinery sashes. Similarly kauri , matai and
rimu will be found in floor joists, subfloor and general framing . They
are not available commercially as new timber.
Pinus species
Pinus species are the most frequently grown plantation timber in
New Zealand and all have perishable sapwood. All the preservative
options listed in Table 9.2 can be used in conjunction with some of the
pinus species. Thus Corsican pine and Radiata pine can be converted
from perishable or non-durable to being very durable with chemica l
treatment, i.e. up to H5 and H6. Radiata pine is subject to insect attack
when damp or wet and also as growing trees in the forest. However
Radiata and other pinus species that are kiln dried and used dry are
virtually never attacked by borer (anobium) in either sapwood or
heartwood .
Imported species
Imported species will be found in older buildings and in recycled
timber. Some of this in older industrial buildings from Australian
hardwoods can be very durable but identification can be difficult.
Douglas fir from North America can be found in older commercial
or industrial buildings and houses and can be of high quality. Jn new
construction, imported timber includes:
Hardwood decking. It can be difficult to identify species and
durability. Some is in the durable class and some is not. Suppliers
should be required to identify the species and origin.
88
Boron compounds
Copper based systems
Tin based systems
Other metallic compounds
Non-metallic organics
Boron compounds
Mixtures of borate or boric acid formulati ons
have a long history of use as wood
preservatives and are significant because of
their relative low cost and low level of human
toxicity. They are effective against both fu ngi
and insects. Their insecticidal property results
from the effect they have on the enzymes in
the gut of wood eating larvae. The borates
and boric acid are water soluble and do not
become fixed in the wood structure, so they
will leach out in the presence of free water. At
the retention levels now in place for Hl.2 they
are a robust preservative at constant elevated
moisture contents and temperatures.
Historically boron was associated with wet
framing. lt diffused readily into wet wood,
both radiata pine and Douglas fir. With the
demand changing to dry framing there are
now techniques for getting the H 1.2 retention
and penetration with dry wood. This is
facilitated by the addition of a diffusing agent
to an aqueous system . The resulting product
has a modest moisture content increase wh ich
can be tolerated through the framing process.
Typically the diffusing agents are inert to
Tin compounds
T r i-bu tyltin O xide (TBT O )
Tri-butyltin Oxide is approved for use in H 1.2 and H3.1 . This is an
organic tin compound in a light organic solvent, usually white spirit.
In addition to the solvent odour there is a separate odour from the tin
compound. It is colourless and not compatible with perrnethrin type
insecticides.
T r i-bu tyltin Na p thenate (T BTN)
Tri-butyltin Napthenate is approved for use in H 1.2 and H3 . 1, in
a light organic solvent carrier, usually white spirit. lt has similar
properties to TBTO but is used because it is compatible with the
insecticide perrnethrin. This other component is a requirement in H3
in Australia and plants ex porting to Australia will hold the TBTN in
preference to TBTO. lt is odourless. Its use resu lts in a dry timber
product. (see The Tin Debate below).
Creosote
Creosote is a mixture of chemicals, mostly phenols, resulting from
the coking of coal. These are effective preservatives that were once
widely used but there are now no commercial plants in New Zealand.
89
Insect resistance
Decay resistance
Permanence rating
rating
rating (Note 2)
(Note 3)
0.5
Active preservative
Carrier
(note 1)
Permethrin
LOS
Boron (Note 4)
Water
IPBC + Permethrin
1.5
Boron (Note 4)
LOS
Water
1+
TBTN
LOS
Azoles
LOS
2
2
CuN
LOS
CCAJACQ/CuAz
CCAJACQ/CuAz
0.5
Water
2
2
Water
NOTES
Summary of preservatives
Table 9.5 compares and assigns a rating to various hazard levels and
preservatives that are used for timber framed buildings. The purpose
of this table is to describe the progression of performance, in relative
terms, in relation to the cause of deterioration and resistance to
leaching. A higher number indicates a better rating, but these are only
relative, so that performance of rating 2 is not twice the performance
of rating I. This tab le is included for comparative purposes, largely
based on unpublished information using judgement of the author.
Unfortunately there is no correlation that can be quoted between
the durability ratings of Table 9.3 and the hazard and preservative
classifications ofTable 9.5.
Preservation processes
Diffusion
This was the historical process for producing wet boric treated
H 1.2 timber. Fresh sawn wet wood was dipped in a borate or borax
solution which was stacked , and diffusion in the wet wood took place
over some weeks, depending on temperature. lt appears that it can
now be done with dry wood , in association with diffusion agents, to
achieve H 1.2.
90
Pressure Processes
There are several pressure processes
incorporating combinations of pressure and
vacuum cycles in a pressure vessel. These
are typically required for the copper based
aqueous preservatives. For large section
timbers and poles they may be accompan ied
by steaming to partially dry the timber before
treating. Pulling a strong vacuum at the end
of the cycle will result in less drip and a dry
surface.
Vacuum Processes
The preservatives borne by light organic
solvent do not need the high pressures of the
aqueous systems. There is not the need for
pressure vessels and hence the plants have
lighter engineering. They work on the basis
of pulling a vacuum , flooding, drawing and
pulling another vacuum. The same system
can be applied to dry wood, using an aqueous
preservative with a diffusion agent.
Carriers
Water
Water is the traditional carrier for aqueous
preservative systems.
Light Organic Solvent (LOSP)
White Spirit is the standard light organi c
solvent (LOSP) in general use. It is a
combination of petroleum fractions with
boiling points from about 160 degrees C
to 240 degrees C. They have a distincti ve
from natural sources such as food is much greater than any contact
with treated wood.
In Australia the APVMA has adopted a cautious approach. In
Australia CCA treated timber is not permitted for handrails, picnic
tables children 's play equipment, domestic decking on the basis that
any risk from such sources is easier to eliminate than to quantify.
In New Zealand ERMA has adopted the position that, used correctly,
CCA treated wood is safe. There is concern that end-of-life disposal
of treated wood is unresolved and may be the subject of future
regulation with a focus on recycling.
Conclusions
Good durability with timber can be obtained by designing to avoid
destructive agencies.
A few naturally durable timbers exist. Preservative treatment can give
adequate durability to naturally non-durable species.
Radiata pine is very easy to treat for a wide range of hazard classes.
Methods of timber treatment and regulations regarding their use are
constantly evolving.
91
Further reading
I. Service Tests of Wood Preservatives. M.E. Hedley, What's New
in Forest Research, No. 34, Forest Research Institute, 1976.
2.
4.
5. The Compliance Document for the New Zealand Building CodeClause E2- External Moisture. Department of Building and Housing.
www.dbh .govt.n:zJUserFiles/File/Publications/ Building/Compliancedocuments/clause-e2.pdf
6. Timber Treatment Requirements: Notes for Builders. Department
of Building and Housing. www.dbh .govt.n:zJUserFiles/File/
Publications/WHRS/pdf/timber-treatment-reguirements.pdf
7.
92
Further reading
1.
in Forest Research,
2.
ew
3.
4.
Z Journal of
5. The Compliance Document for the New Zealand Building CodeClau e E2- External Moisture. Department of Building and Housing.
www.dbh.govt.nzJUserFiles/Fi le/Publications/ Building/Compliancedocuments/clau e-e2.pdf
6. Timber Treatment Requirement : otes for Builders. Department
of Building and Housing. www.dbh.govt.nzJUserFi les/Fi le/
Publications/WHRS/pdf/timber-treatment-requirements.pdf
7.
A list of timber-related
92