6.4.

2 the shape effect

6.4 specimen geometry, loading conditions and environmental effects
2.1 Stages of Mining
Mineral Prospecting (Stage 1). The first stage, prospecting is the search for minerals (e.g.,
coal, metallic or nonmetallic ores) on and near the surface or in boreholes. All prospecting is
based on geology and utilizes two techniques: direct method and indirect one. The direct
method can be used to discover surface deposits by visual examination or geological studies.
The indirect method can search for hidden deposits, using mainly, geophysical methods,
which are suitable for airborne, surface, and subsurface (in logging boreholes) application.
Exploration (Stage 2). The second stage, exploration assesses the size and value of
mineral deposits with techniques similar to those of prospecting. The exploration is conducted
on surface and within subsurface with geology and geophysics. Samples for analyses are
obtained by trenching outcrops and by drilling and excavating below the surface. Then
reserve estimation as well as examination and valuation of the deposit are made. The two
stages should end with a feasibility study to determine the deposit potential to become a
profitable and active mine, thereby to decide whether to abandon the project or not (Hartman,
1992).
Mine Development (Stage 3). The purpose of work conducted in the third stage of mining,
development is to open a mineral deposit for exploitation - This stage starts real mining. It is
necessary to obtain the access to the deposit. In the case of surface mining, near-surface
mineral deposit is exposed by stripping overburden, the earth and/or rock overlying the
mineral. In the case of underground mining, openings are excavated from the surface to more
deeply deposited minerals to make them accessible. Before the actual mining begins, the
following preliminary development work has to be done: elaborating an environmental impact
statement, obtaining mineral rights and financing, and preparing access roads, transportation,
power sources, dams, as well as waste disposal sites. The steps in mine development are
sequential. When the mine is to be a surface one, stripping of the overburden takes place. The
sequence of operations to break up and remove the overburden may be different from or the
same as that used to exploit the mineral. This is primarily governed by the properties of the
waste and the mineral. Fig.2.1 shows development for surface mining, employing the open
cast method. In this case, mining is possible on multiple levels since one or more bench faces
are prepared (Hartman, 1992).

Development for underground mining requires more complex work, hence is more
expensive. Access openings have to be carefully planned and laid out for safety, suitability
and usefulness as well as permanence. A shaft is the main opening to the surface. Shafts may
be of rectangular or circular cross section, and vertical or inclined (termed a slope). Their size
should be big enough to carry people and machines. In areas where the differences in height
are significant, the deposit may be reached with horizontal openings termed adits or tunnels.
Massive or steeply sloping underground deposits (usually of metallic minerals) are mined
from levels (horizons) regularly spaced in a vertical plane. Each level includes the openings
with drifts (major tunnels) and linking crosscuts (secondary). Access between the levels is
achieved by means of vertical openings (raises or winzes) or inclined openings (ramps). All
these development openings are linked with exploitation chambers termed stopes. This
situation is presented in Fig.2.2. Deposits of coal and nonmetallic minerals are often flat-lying
and bedded. In such the case, mining can be conducted using systems of linked horizontal
openings (termed entries or crosscuts) and rooms or longwalls (Hartman, 1992).

Mine Exploitation (Stage 4). Exploitation is the final stage of mining. In this stage,
mineral is actually recovered from the earth. Exploitation focuses on production only.
However, it is accompanied by some exploration and development work, which should last
until the end the life of a mine. The characteristics of the mineral deposit, safety requirements,
technological and economic limits determine the mining method to be chosen for exploitation.

The most important factors influencing the method selection are geological conditions such as
the dip, form and shape of a deposit, and the strength of the wall rock and ore. Generally,
there are surface and underground exploitation methods. In the case of surface mining,
traditional exploitation methods embrace two groups of methods: (1) mechanical extraction
methods including open pit mining, open cast (strip) mining, quarrying, and auger mining; (2)
aqueous extraction methods including placer mining (hydraulicking and dredging) and
solution mining (in situ techniques and surface techniques). In the case of underground
mining, there are three groups of methods identified as follows: supported (cut and fill
stoping, stull stoping, and square set stoping), unsupported (room and pillar mining, stop and
pillar mining, shrinkage stoping, sublevel stoping, and vertical crater retreat mining), and
caving (longwall mining, sublevel caving and block caving). Apart from traditional methods,
there are novel methods such as underground gasification, marine mining, automation, or
rapid excavation in hard rock (Hartman, 1992).

2.2 Unit Operations of Mining

Unit operations involved in both development and exploitation stages should be highly
standardized since they extract natural materials (rock or soil, ore or waste) from the earth.
The unit operations of mining are defined by Hartman (1992) as the basic steps employed to
produce mineral from the deposit, together with the auxiliary steps involved. The steps
connected directly with mineral extraction are called production operations. They constitute
the production cycle of operations. The production cycle is supported by steps termed
auxiliary operations (Hartman, 1992).
The production cycle involves unit operations, which have to break rock and handle
materials. Rock breakage is usually performed using drilling and blasting. In underground
coal mining, coal may be cut prior to drilling and blasting. In quarrying, channelling may be
used instead of blasting and drilling. Materials handling embraces loading or excavation and
haulage (horizontal transport), along with hoisting (vertical or inclined transport), when
necessary. General production cycle consists of the following unit operations: cutting,
drilling, blasting, loading, hauling, and hoisting. In non-coal or surface mines this general
cycle may be shorter, (called then a conventional cycle), and embrace the following unit
operations: drilling, blasting, loading, and hauling. Sometimes it is better to make production
operation continuous. For example, a machine such as bucket wheel excavator that operates
without drilling or blasting may excavate soil. If rocks need to be loosened, this can be done
by ripping, which eliminates explosives. Continuous mechanical excavation and breakage in
coal or soft ores, also eliminates drilling and blasting. The same goal can be achieved in soft
to medium-hard rocks by using boring machines. The production cycle in these cases is called
continuous cycle and includes only: mining and hauling. The cycle of operations in surface
and underground mining are quite similar. The differences result from the size of equipment.
In surface mining the equipment scale is larger than that of underground mining equipment.
In surface mining, when consolidated rock must be excavated, mobile rotary or percussion
drills bore blastholes (tens of millimetres in diameter) for blasting agents or high explosives to
be placed into. The charge is then inserted and detonated to have the ore or waste fragmented.
Next, power excavators such as shovels, draglines, or bucket wheel excavators load the
broken material into haulage units (belt conveyors, trucks, or railroad cars) or cast it on a spoil
(waste) bank. Coal and spoil are excavated in the same way but without blasting, which is not
required. Blasting is avoided in quarrying by using channelling machines or saws to free
blocks of dimension stone. In underground mining, scaled-down equipment is used, however
the cycle is only slightly different. Smaller drillholes are bored for blasting with small drills,
and small loading machines and small-sized trucks, trains, or conveyors are employed to haul
the ore or coal. The final operation may be hoisting by conveyor, skip, or cage (Hartman,
1992).
The productive stages of the actual mining need certain auxiliary unit operations to be
carried out. In underground mining, these auxiliary operations include: roof support,
ventilation and air conditioning, power supply, pumping, maintenance, lighting, noise
abatement, communications, handling of supplies, and providing and maintaining adequate
health and safety. In surface mining, most auxiliary units operations are the same, except for
roof support and ventilation, in place of which slope stability, waste disposal, air pollutant
control, and land reclamation must be performed (Hartman, 1992).

Contents
1 Introduction 1
Part I Fundamental Concepts 2
2 Mining Stages and Operations 3
2.1 Stages of Mining 3
2.2 Unit Operations of Mining 5
3 Production Operations 7
3.1 Rock Breakage: Mechanical 7
3.2 Rock Breakage: Explosives 9
3.3 Materials Handling: Loading and Haulage 15
4 Surface and Underground Mining 18
4.1 Surface Mining Methods 18
4.2 Underground Mining Methods 19
Part II Surface Mining 25
5 Surface Mine Development 25
5.1 Open Pit Planning and Design 25
5.2 Strip Mine Planning and Design 30
5.3 Selection of Excavating Equipment 44
5.4 Design and Layout of Haul Roads 60
5.5 In-Pit Crushing and Conveying 65
6 Surface Mining: Mechanical Extraction Methods 68
6.1 Open Pit Mining 68
6.2 Quarrying 74
6.3 Open Cast (Strip) Mining 78
6.4 Auger Mining 98
7 Surface Mining: Comparison of Methods 100
7.1 Factors and Conditions 100
7.2 Summary 101
Part III Underground Mining 103
8 Underground Mining: Case Study 103
8.1 Exploitation Systems 103
8.2 Room-and-Pillar Methods for Underground Copper Mining 111
8.3 Methods of Rock Breakage 120
8.4 Materials Handling: Loading, Haulage, Hoisting 124
8.5 Ventilation of Workings 128
8.6 Supporting of Workings with Special Attention to Roof Bolting 132
8.7 Dewatering of Underground Workings 137
8.8 Power Supply and Communication 139
8.9 Control Systems-Industrial Safety 139
References 141